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A THESIS
Submitted by
JEEVAJOTHI R
(Register No.200709201)
ABSTRACT
Power systems are complex systems that have evolved over years in
future, wind power penetration in electrical power systems will increase and
(CSGs). As a result, it may also begin to influence the overall power system
behavior. Hence, the impact of wind power on the dynamics of power systems
the power system in a way that might be different from CSGs. The major
generators (PMSGs). SCIGs are used along with capacitor bank. In DFIGs, the
rotor. In PMSGs, the requirement of a larger pole number can be met with
permanent magnets which allow small pole pitch. Also the absence of field
In this thesis, the model of variable speed direct drive WTGs with
speed SCIGs with capacitor banks, variable speed DFIGs with standard
control and modeled variable speed direct drive EESGs and PMSGs with
speed wind turbines (FSWTs) which are equipped with simple SCIGs, the
voltage stability issue is a key problem. SCIGs consume reactive power during
DFIGs make use of power electronic converters and are thus able to
regulate their own reactive power to operate at a given power factor as well as
able to control grid voltage. Because of the limited capacity of the pulse-width
the capability of the DFIG, the voltage stability of the grid is also affected.
v
DFIG to recover post-fault voltage. EESG and PMSG are coming under this
EESGs are salient pole machines and are excited from power grid. For
unity power factor is utilized to reduce machine side inverter to the real power
value.The direct drive EESG has been modeled with d-q current controlled
converter and a direct drive PMSG has been modeled with maximum power
Simulation has been performed on IEEE 14-bus test system to study the
delivered by the various WTGs. Further simulation was carried out on IEEE 9-
bus test system to study the rotor angle swing, rotor speed deviation and
and PMSGs with modified controllers in improving the voltage stability and
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost I thank God for providing His grace and strength
the privilege to work under him and learn from his expertise.
R.S.Wind Tech. Pvt. Ltd. for the valuable discussions and technical support
want to dedicate the effort done in this project to them who always believed in
work.
R.JEEVAJOTHI
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
TITLE
NO. NO.
ABSTRACT iii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
3.4.1 Modeling of EESG 43
3.4.2 Modeling of PMSG 44
3.5 MODELING AND CONTROL OF POWER 46
ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS
3.5.1 Full-wave Diode Bridge Rectifier 46
3.5.2 DC-DC Boost Converter 46
3.5.3 Control of DC-DC Boost Converter 49
3.5.4 Modeling of Voltage Source Converter 51
3.5.5 Control of Voltage Source Converter 53
3.5.5.1 d-q Current Control 53
3.5.5.2 Adaptive Hysteresis Band 56
Current Control
3.6 SIMULATION RESULTS 59
3.6 .1 Direct Drive EESG 59
3.6.2 Direct Drive PMSG 67
3.6.2.1 Effect of Pitch control 71
3.6.2.2 Results of constant DC link 73
voltage control with MPPT at wind
speeds of 12 m/ sec. and at 14 m/sec
3.6.2.3 Results of constant DC link 76
voltage control with adaptive hysteresis
band current controller at load currents
of 50A and 130A
3.7 SUMMARY 80
4 IMPACT OF WIND TURBINE GENERATORS 82
ON POWER SYSTEM VOLTAGE STABILITY
4.1 INTRODUCTION 82
4.2 VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS 82
x
4.2.1 PV curve 83
4.2.2 Loading margin 84
4.3 POWER SYSTEM VOLTAGE STABILITY IN 85
THE PRESENCE OF WIND TURBINE
GENERATORS
4.3.1 Fixed Speed Wind Turbine with Squirrel 86
cage Induction Generator
4.3.2 Variable Speed Wind Turbine with Geared 87
drive Doubly fed Induction Generators
4.3.3 Variable Speed Wind Turbine with Direct 88
drive Synchronous Generator
4.3.3.1 Electrically Excited Synchronous 88
Generator
4.3.3.2 Permanent Magnet Synchronous 89
Generator
4.4 VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS IN WIND 90
TURBINE GENERATORS
4.5 SIMULATION RESULTS 91
4.5.1 Voltage Stability with Conventional 92
Synchronous Generators
4.5.1.1 Computation of Loading 93
margin
4.5.1.2 Voltage Vs time curve after 94
the contingency
4. 5.1.3 Voltage profile 94
4.5.2 Voltage Stability with Wind Turbine 97
Generators
4.5.2.1 Computation of Loading 99
margin
xi
LIST OF TABLES
NO. NO.
LIST OF FIGURES
xiv
drive EESG
3.25 Vdc link of VSWT with direct drive EESG 65
3.26 Phase voltage in p.u in grid side of VSWT with direct 66
drive EESG
3.27 Injected real power in grid side of VSWT with direct 66
drive EESG
3.28 Injected reactive power in grid side of VSWT with EESG 66
3.29 Simulation diagram of direct drive PMSG 69
3.30 Simulation diagram of MPPT control of DC-DC boost 69
converter
3.31 Simulation diagram of reference current generator of 69
Adaptive hysteresis band current controlled VSC
3.32 Simulation diagram of Adaptive hysteresis bandwidth 69
calculation
3.33 Simulation diagram of switching pulses of VSC 71
3.34 Wind speed profile 71
3.35 Coefficient of Performance 72
3.36 Tip speed ratio 72
3.37 (a) Generator phase Voltage at 12m/sec. 73
3.37 (b) Generator phase Current at 12m/sec. 73
3.38 (a) Generator phase Voltage at 14m/sec. 72
3.38 (b) Generator phase Current at 14m/sec. 72
3.39 (a) DC link Voltage at 12m/sec. 73
3.39 (b) DC link Voltage at 12m/sec. (with zooming) 73
3.39 (c) DC link Voltage at 14 m/sec. 75
3.39 (d) DC link Voltage at 14 m/sec. (with zooming) 76
3.40 Grid Voltage 76
3.41 (a) Grid Current 77
3.41 (b) Inverter output phase Current 77
xvii
4.8 (a) BUS-6 voltage with SCIGs after the disconnection of line 100
6-11
4.8 (b) BUS-6 voltage with DFIGs after the disconnection of line 101
6-11
xviii
4.8 (c) BUS-6 voltage with EESGs after the disconnection of 101
line 6-11
4.8 (d) BUS-6 voltage with PMSGs after the disconnection of 101
line 6-11
4.9(a) Voltage profile of bus-2 under Base case and 103
Contingency states in p.u.
4.9(b) Voltage profile of bus-5 under Base case and 103
Contingency states in p.u.
4.10(a) Reactive power flow from bus-1 to bus-2 104
4.10(b) Reactive power from bus-1 to bus-5 104
5.1 Typical allowable maximum rotor speed deviation and 111
oscillation duration
5.2 One-line diagram of IEEE 9- bus system 115
5.3(a) Voltage at generator buses with CCT with only CSGs 116
5.3(b) Rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 116
only CSGs
5.3(c)(i) Rotor speed oscillation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 117
only CSGs
5.3(c) (ii) Rotor speed oscillation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 117
only CSGs
5.3(d) (i) Real power at generator buses with only CSGs 118
5.3(d) (ii) Real power at generator buses with only CSGs 118
5.3(e) Reactive power at generator buses with only CSGs 118
5.4(a) Voltage at generator buses with CCT with SCIGs 119
5.4(b) Rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 120
SCIGs
5.4(c)(i) Rotor speed oscillation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 121
SCIGs
5.4(c) (ii) Rotor speed oscillation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 122
xix
SCIGs
5.4(d) (i) Real power at generator buses with SCIGs 122
5.4(d) (ii) Real power at generator buses with SCIGs 122
5.4(e) Reactive power at generator buses with SCIGs 123
5.5(a) Voltage at generator buses with CCT with DFIGs 123
5.5(b) Rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 123
DFIGs
5.5(c) (i) Rotor speed oscillation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 124
DFIGs
5.5(c) (ii) Rotor speed oscillation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 124
DFIGs
5.5(d) (i) Real power at generator buses with DFIGs 125
5.5(d) (ii) Real power at generator buses with DFIGs 125
5.5(e) Reactive power at generator buses with DFIGs 126
5.6(a) Voltage at generator buses with CCT with EESGs 126
5.6(b) Rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 127
EESGs
5.6(c)(i) Rotor speed oscillation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 127
EESGs
5.6(c)(ii) Rotor speed oscillation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 128
EESGs
5.6(d) (i) Real power at generator buses with EESGs 128
5.6(d) (ii) Real power at generator buses with EESGs 128
5.6(e) Reactive power at generator buses with EESGs 129
5.7(a) Voltage at generator buses with CCT with PMSGs 130
5.7(b) Rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 131
PMSGs
5.7(c)(i) Rotor speed oscillation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 131
PMSGs
xx
5.7(c) (ii) Rotor speed oscillation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with 132
PMSGs
5.7(d) (i) Real power at generator buses with PMSGs 133
5.7(d) (ii) Real power at generator buses with PMSGs 133
5.7(e) Reactive power at generator buses with PMSGs 134
A1.1 Illustration of prediction-correction steps 141
A1.2 Flow chart for Continuation power flow 143
xxi
SYMBOLS
- Coefficient of performance
- Tip speed ratio
- Radius of the wind turbine rotor in m
- Angular velocity of the rotor in rad/sec.
V - Wind speed in m/sec.
A - Swept area of wind turbine rotor in m2
- Air density in kg/m3
Pt - Power obtained from wind turbine
- Torque developed by the wind turbine
- Stator voltage
- Rotor voltage
- Stator resistance
- Rotor resistance
- Stator current
- Rotor current
- Magnetizing resistance
- Magnetizing inductance
- Magnetizing resistance current
- Stator leakage inductance
- Rotor leakage inductance
- Stator frequency
- Slip frequency
- Rotor speed
- Slip
- d-axis voltage
xxii
- q-axis voltage
- d-axis current
- q-axis current
- d-axis flux linkage
- q-axis flux linkage
- Angular frequency of rotor
- Amplitude of the flux induced by the permanent magnets of
the rotor in the stator phases
-- Number of pole pairs
- Electromagnetic Torque
, , - Phase voltages
- Amplitude of the phase voltage
- Root-mean-square (RMS) value of the phase Voltage
- DC component of the output voltage
- DC component of the output current
- RMS value of input current
- Output power of the rectifier
- Input power of the rectifier
- Input voltage of the boost converter
- Output voltage of the boost converter
- Duty cycle
- Minimum value for inductance
- Minimum value for capacitance
- Output resistance
- Ripple voltage
- Switching frequency
L - Inductance
C - Capacitance
xxiii
- Acceleration power
- Rotor angle
- Input mechanical power
- Output electrical power
xxvi
ABBREVATIONS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The size of wind turbines and wind farms are increasing quickly; a
large amount of wind power is integrated into the power system. A huge
penetration of wind energy in a power system may cause important problems
due to the random nature of the wind and the characteristics of the wind
generators. In large wind farms connected to the transmission network
(110 kV 220 kV) the main technical constraint to take into account is the
power system transient stability that could be lost. Another major technical
issue to be considered is the voltage instability and voltage collapse problem.
The aim of this research is to evaluate the impact of strategically placed
2
WTGs on power system stability with respect to the variation in load and
occurrence of contingencies.
The wind turbines can be classified into horizontal axis and vertical axis wind
turbines. A horizontal axis wind turbine has its blades rotating on an axis
parallel to the ground. A vertical axis wind turbine has its blades rotating on
an axis perpendicular to the ground. The output power of the wind turbine
is given by,
(1.1)
where A is the swept area of wind turbine rotor.
The performance of wind turbine is characterized by the non-
dimensional curve of coefficient of performance , as a function of tip-speed
ratio . as a function of is expressed by equation (1.2) and it is shown in
Figure 1.2.
(1.2)
The tip-speed ratio is given by the expression,
(1.3)
general,
(1.4)
(1.5)
The power extracted from the wind is maximum when the power
coefficient is at its maximum. This occurs at a defined value of the tip
speed ratio (TSR). Hence, for each wind speed; there is an optimum rotor
speed where maximum power is extracted from the wind. Therefore, if the
wind speed is assumed to be constant, the value of depends on the wind
turbine rotor speed. Thus, by controlling the rotor speed, the power output of
the turbine is controlled.
Figure 1.3 Typical wind turbine power output with steady wind speed
5
Pitch angle control is the most common means for adjusting the
aerodynamic torque of the wind turbine when wind speed is above rated
speed. Pitch control is to work at the most efficient operating level or
maximum power output level. This allows a good level of control over the
angle of attack, thus control over the torque. The purpose of this control is to
extend the range of operation of the wind turbine beyond the rated wind speed
upto the cut-off speed. But for this pitch control, the machine should be
stopped as soon as the wind speed reaches the rated wind speed. If the wind
7
turbine is operated beyond the rated wind speed without stall or pitch control,
the turbine will absorb more power from the wind than its capability to
withstand. So, the control limits the power absorbed by the turbine from the
wind to its capacity, even though much higher amount of power is available in
the wind. Since the absorbed power is much less than the available power,
naturally, the efficiency will be less, which means that the will be less or
TSR is either more or less than the optimum. Figure 1.5 shows the
performance characteristics of wind turbine under pitch control (Sachin
Khajuria et al 2012).
slightly varies with the amount of generated power and is therefore not
entirely constant. However, because these speed variations are in the order of
1 %, this wind turbine type is normally referred to as constant-speed or fixed-
speed.
Figure 1.7 Schematic representation of the fixed speed wind turbine with
squirrel cage induction generator
Variable speed wind turbines are connected to the grid through power
electronic converters and maximize effective turbine speed control.
In direct drive systems, the gear ratio is equal to one, which means
the rotor of the wind turbine is directly coupled with the generator. A low
speed multi pole synchronous generator with the same rotational speed as the
wind turbine rotor converts the mechanical energy into electricity. The
generator can have a wound rotor or a rotor with permanent magnets. The
stator is not coupled directly to the grid but to a power electronic converter.
This may consist of a back-to-back voltage source converter or a diode
rectifier with a single VSC. The power electronic converter makes it possible
to operate the wind turbine at variable speed.
EESGs are salient pole machines excited from power grid. For low
speed operation, high pole count synchronous generators are recommended.
With EESGs, over excitation is easily possible. So, operation at unity power
factor is utilized to reduce machine side inverter to the real power value. High
pole count increases the field ampere turns which leads to increase in
excitation losses.
.
Figure 1.10 Schematic representation of the variable speed wind turbine
with direct drive permanent magnet synchronous generator
For direct drive PMSG, diode rectifier, DC-DC boost converter and
VSC circuit are used.
The faults occurring on the power system faults are cleared by the
relay action of the transmission system either by disconnection or by
disconnection and fast reclosures. In all these situations, the result is a short
period with low or no voltage followed by a period when the voltage returns.
The wind farm nearby will see this event.
turbine or even a wind farm from the grid did not cause a significant impact on
the stability of the power system.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
converters are used to regulate the real and reactive power output of the
turbine.
A wind farm typically consists of a large number of individual
WTGs connected by an internal electrical network. In the near future, wind
turbines may start to influence the behavior of electric power systems by
interacting with conventional synchronous generators (CSGs) and loads. To
study the impact of wind farms on the dynamics of the power system, an
important requirement is to develop appropriate wind farm models to represent
the dynamics of many individual WTGs.
Variable speed DFIGs are generally more complex and expensive than
fixed speed SCIGs. DFIGs have independent active real and reactive power
control. DFIGs have some advantages over full converter machines as well.
DFIGs are to be rated for 30% output power of the generator, thus decreasing
the cost relative to DDSGs.
controlled voltage source, regulating the rotor current to meet the requirement
of real and reactive power production.
current is used to control the rotational speed of the generator according to the
variation of wind speed.
to back converter can be used for PMSG and SCIG based wind power
generation systems.
mechanical power equation of the wind turbine where wind speed or the rotor
speed is used as the input.
The VSC control ensures that the strict power quality standards
(frequency, power factor, harmonics, flicker, etc) are met. In the case of a grid
fault, the WECS should remain connected; thus they should cope with sudden
and important loads, and even assist the grid in voltage or frequency control.
The increasing requirements for WECS to remain connected and to provide
active grid support have added stringent control objectives for the power
converters.
SYSTEM STABILITY
that the wind power generators without wind speed measurement can perform
active power control tasks below the nominal wind speed while the auxiliary
stability control loop restraining the wind power system oscillations by
eliminating the system unbalancing energy during system disturbances. The
control strategy adjusted the power of the DFIG WECS accurately under wind
speed fluctuation and when a disturbance occurs in the system, the strategy is
effective in improving the power system transient stability in different
operating conditions without deteriorating the system voltage stability.
Recent grid codes require the wind farms not only to ride through
the fault disturbances but also support the stability of nearby grid during
severe network disturbances. (Mokui H T et al 2012) proposed various
operational strategies i.e. without reactive power support, considering reactive
power support complying with the Danish grid codes (with and without
considering overloading of the converter currents). Control strategies enabled
the DDSGs to inject the required reactive power in order to help stabilize the
nearby fixed speed SCIGs during faults.
33
Identified that the positive point behind using IGs in WECS is that
it has no synchronization problem with grid. While integrating with grid, it
works as an induction motor with positive slip and draws electrical energy
from grid and after it captures the wind speed and starts rotating more than the
rotating magnetic field of stator ie under negative slip, instead of consuming
electrical energy, it starts delivering the electrical energy to grid. Therefore the
synchronization difficulty of interconnecting direct drive synchronous
generators with grid is completely avoided with IGs.
diode rectifier is a widely used and accepted option. Both direct drive EESG
and PMSG can utilized this diode rectifier.
The use of MPPT techniques would cost more than a simple lookup
table method. However, higher order control and converter designs increase
efficiency of the overall system. The inclusion of a DC-boost stage helps
reduce the control complexity of the grid inverter with a small increase in cost.
In order to maximize the benefits of the WECS, a compromise between
efficiency and cost must be made. Thus direct drive PMSG model with MPPT
and DC-DC boost converter can be developed.
Direct drive WTGs such as EESGs and PMSGs which are less
common in the WT market are focused in the thesis. Both these WTGs are
modeled in detail in this thesis.The objectives of the thesis are:
1. To model and simulate a direct drive EESG with d-q current
controlled VSC.
36
2.7 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
(3.1)
(3.2)
(3.3)
(3.4)
- rotor resistance
- stator current
- rotor current
- magnetizing resistance,
- magnetizing inductance
- magnetizing resistance current
- stator leakage inductance
- rotor leakage inductance
-stator frequency
- slip frequency
-rotor speed and
- slip
Taking admissible current loading and air gap flux density of the
machine, the main dimensions of bore diameter and axial stack length are
determined by torque which at low speed is high. As winding temperature rise
at low speed is determined by copper losses, and may be expressed with
current loading and winding current density, for a given torque, the flux
density in air gap is fixed. So exciting ampere turns yield an increase of
excitation losses.
The high field ampere turns, with more number of poles in EESGs
explains the need to utilize permanent magnets. With increased pole count in
PMSGs, due to lower flux per pole, the danger of demagnetization decreases;
hence smaller magnets and hence reduced costs are possible for high pole
count machines. In a PMSG,
Total magnetic loading = (no. of poles)* (flux/pole)
PMSG is a salient pole type machine which has larger air gap. High
pole count in PMSG reduces the armature reaction which reduces the
demagnetizing effect.PMSGs have several advantages over EESGs. They are:
Higher power to weight ratio
Improvement in efficiency
High energy and light weight
No additional power supply for the field excitation
Higher reliability without slip rings.
43
The EESG model takes into account the dynamics of the stator,
field, and damper windings. The equivalent circuit of the model is represented
in the rotor reference frame (q-d frame). All rotor parameters and electrical
quantities are viewed from the stator. They are identified by primed variables.
The subscripts used in model are defined as follows:
d,q: d and q axis quantity
R,s: Rotor and stator quantity
l,m: Leakage and magnetizing inductance
f,k: Field and damper winding quantity
The electrical model of the EESG is shown in Figure 3.6(i) and the
related equations are given below:
44
(3.5)
(3.6)
where, and are the d and q axis voltages, is the stator resistance,
and are the d and q axis currents, and are the d and q axis flux
linkages and is the angular frequency of rotor. This model assumes
currents flowing into the stator windings.
(3.7)
(3.8)
(3.9)
(3.11)
(3.12)
will be very small. The most common strategy for controlling the power
transmitted to the load is the PWM. A control voltage is compared to a
triangular voltage. The triangular voltage determines the switching frequency.
The switch T is controlled according to the difference of the voltage. The
variation of the voltage across the inductance L and the current through the
capacity depend on the operating mode. The two operating modes are:
During this period, the output voltage and the current through
the inductor satisfies the following equations:
(3.13)
During this period, the output voltage and the current through
the inductor satisfy the following equations:
(3.14)
(3.17)
where, is the induced voltage in the armature and is the stator resistance.
(3.18)
where, is the field current, is the electrical angular speed and is the
generator voltage.
(3.19)
50
The step and search control strategy makes use of the fact that the
generated voltage and VDC depend upon the speed of the turbine. Therefore,
instead of sensing the turbine speed, it senses the VDC and tries to control the
same. The set point for this voltage is not constant. That is because the wind
speed is varying every now and then which causes the optimum turbine speed
to vary frequently. The set point is floating and has to be decided by trial and
error method. The method is called Peak seeking. Figure 3.10 shows the step
and search control strategy to track maximum power.
Figure 3.10 Step and search control strategy to track maximum power
The strategy is to start with any arbitrary set point (A) i.e. reference
dc voltage and check the output dc power. Then give a small increment to the
set point. Again check the output at point B. If the output has increased, give
an additional increment and check the output once again. Incrementing the set
point by small steps should be continued till the stage (H) when the increment
does not yield favorable result. At this stage, a small decrement to the set point
51
should be given. The set point will be moving back and forth around the
optimum value. Thus the power output could be maximized. In this method,
after giving increment to the set point, both the power output as well as the
voltage level has to be checked. Four possibilities arise.
Power increased voltage increased
Power increased voltage decreased
Power decreased voltage increased
Power decreased voltage decreased
Only when power output and the voltage are increased (case 1) the
set point has to be incremented. If the wind speed changes from one value to
another, the turbine is not being operated at the maximum power point at the
new value. The MPPT controller has to search for the new maximum power
point for the new wind speed.
Figure 3.11 Circuit diagram of a IGBT based DC- AC Single phase Full
bridge Converter
(3.20)
(3.21)
Main control targets are the desired real and reactive power,
and to be followed by actual real and reactive power, and .
and can be calculated by using the following equations (3.22), (3.23) &
(3.24).
(3.22)
(3.23)
(3.24)
Below the rated wind speed, the real power of the VSWT is
regulated to capture the maximum wind energy from varying wind speed. The
maximum power available can be described by (3.23). This simply means that
the maximum power is obtained by varying the turbine speed with wind speed
such that it is on the track of the maximum power curve (Patel M R
1999) and (Muljadi E et al 2001) at all times.
54
By using equations (3.22), (3.23) and (3.24), once the target values
are determined, dq transformation control is applied to enable real and
reactive component of ac output power to be separately controlled. The basic
concept of dq control is as follows: variables in the abc coordinate may be
transformed into those in the dq coordinate rotating at synchronous speed by
the rotational dq transformation matrix (Machowski J 1997).
(3.25)
where,
(3.28)
(3.29)
The d-q current control strategy is utilized to control the VSC used
in EESG.
The VSC can act both as an inverter and as a rectifier. The VSC
requires a minimum dc link voltage in order to operate, and here a DC-DC
boost converter is introduced to increase the voltage level for the VSC.
Variable voltage and frequency supply is invariably obtained from the three-
phase VSC. Adaptive hysteresis type modulation is used to obtain variable
voltage and constant frequency supply. Adaptive hysteresis current control in
VSC forces the IGBTs to switch only when it is necessary to keep on tracking
the reference of the current.
grid connected VSC and its working as explained in (Murat Kale et al 2005) is
considered here.
(3.32)
where, L is the line inductance, is the grid voltage per phase and be the
DC link voltage. From Figure 3.8 we obtain,
(3.33)
(3.34)
(3.35)
(3.36)
59
[Pmeas] Pmeas
[Vabc] Vabc_B1 signal magnitude
Continuous Pmes [Pmeas] [Qmeas] Qmeas
[wr] Generator speed (pu)
powergui [Iabc]
[Iabc] Iabc pu Fourier
Iabc_B1
Qmes -T-
[Vabc] Vabc pu In
0 Pitch angle (deg) Tm (pu) [Tm] Mean
[wr] 0 Init
wr [wr] wind gen speed
Mean Value
Cp [cp] [pitch] pitch angel
Signal 1 Wind speed (m/s) [Tm] Tm
[cp] cp [Vabcs]
Signal Builder1 [TSR]
[wind] WIND TURBINE MODEL [pitch] TSR [Vdc]
Pitch_angle (deg) Vdc
[Pinv]
[Tm] Tm
[Vf] Vf [Vabcp] V
SCOPES PQ
[Vabcp] Vabc (pu) I
gc
wt
series converter controller gc'
[Tm] +
1
-
[wind]
a
b
m
Pm aA
A c
A a A + + [Vdc]
v
B bB b B -
1.0 v ref
Vf _
B
c C -
Subsystem4
C grid
cC C n2
vd Universal Bridge
Vf Three-phase Aa A a A
vq Aa A a
[Vf] Transformer1
v stab b Bb B b B
66ohms Bb B
c
Excitation Cc C c C
System Cc C n2
Three-phase load
Transformer
C
A
B
+
v
-
+
v
-
+
v
-
9 m/sec
wind_speed_pu Pwind*Pnormal/pelctrical
3 1/9
u(1)^3
Pwind_pu -K-
Wind speed Pm_pu
(m/s) 1/wind_base wind_speed^3 Product pu->pu
Avoid division
by zero Iabc (pu)2
45 lambda [cp]
1 1/1 lambda_pu cp 1/2
Generator speed (pu) Product beta
pu->pu
2 1/cp_nom
cp(lambda,beta)
1/normal speed Pitch angle (deg)
Iabc (pu)1
Demux hypot
1 modulation index
Terminator2
Vabc (pu) abc Vd Vq inv erter
7 dq0
Product dq0
sin_cos PI
wt abc Demux
abc_to_dq0 Selector sin_cos
Freq Transformation Vd Vq 1
Uref Pulses
.1 dq0_to_abc pulses
Sin_Cos Transformation
2 V0
Discrete
wt qref
5 PWM Generator
Vr
Discrete
q
Virtual PLL Demux
50 Hz 6 Demux
Iabc (pu)
3 PI
Pref
4
Pmeas
Rating 1.5MW
Blade radius 38m
No. of Blades 3
Air density 0.55kg/m3
Rated wind speed 12 m/sec.
Rated speed 2.808 rad/sec.
Cut-in speed 4m/sec.
Cut-out speed 25 m/sec.
Blade pitch angle 00
Stator resistance 0.003
Stator inductances 0.02H
Rating 1.75MVA
Rated RMS line to neutral voltage 1.269kV
Rated RMS line current 0.433kA
Number of poles 84
Base angular frequency 171.98rad/sec.
Inertia constant of generator 0.588 sec.
The rating of the inverter is 1.2 MVA and its PWM switching
frequency is 20 kHz. The capacitor value of grid interface rectifier is 6900 F
and dc link voltage is 3.35 kV. The transformer rating of grid connected side is
2.2 kV/132 kV. The p.u. voltage magnitude of primary of the transformer is
0.99 p.u. The grid voltage is 132 kV.
63
Figure 3.22 Real power output of VSWT with direct drive EESG
65
Figure 3.23 Reactive power generated by VSWT with direct drive EESG
Figure 3.22 &3.23 present the real and reactive power of the
VSWT. The real and reactive power has varied smoothly. This is possible due
to the inertia smoothing effect and VSC interface control.
Figure 3.24 Generated phase voltage in p.u. of VSWT with direct drive
EESG
Figure 3.26 Phase voltage in p.u in grid side of VSWT with direct drive
EESG
Figure 3.27 Injected real power in grid side of VSWT with direct drive
EESG
Figure 3.28 Injected reactive power in grid side of VSWT with EESG
67
Gain PI C ontroller
Continuous
-1 PI
Rate Limiter
powergui [pitch]
c
Wind Turbine1
[Vabc] p ref
[wr]
Vabc_B1
Generator speed (pu)
Tm (pu) [Tm] [Iabc]
Pmes [Pmeas]
[pitchangle] Pitch angle (deg) Iabc_B1
Scope8
[Tm] Tm
Qmes [Qmeas]
Signal 1
[Tm] [pitch] Pitch_angle (deg)
Signal Builder1
c
2 ica ica
[wind]
3 Va Va HB1
[Vs]<Stator v oltage v q (pu)> Pulse Out1
Vdc I abc
PMSG [A2] [A]
Out1 4 Iabc* 1
[Vs]<Stator v oltage v d (pu)> Tm Vabc V1 I2
Idc
Vdc1 hys band cal
A Vabc 1 Vdc Iabc*
Iabc1 Out3
A HB
[wr] <Rotor speed wm (pu)> m
Iabc
MPPT Vdc ref cur gen
B B a A
+
Vdc2 +
i [Vdc] Iabc*
pulses To Workspace3 VIM1
<Stator current is_q (A)> - 5 Iabc*1
b
C B
+
v Ia1
Iabc invvol Vabc
[Iq]<Stator current is_d (A)> C c - L1 A
- Va2 Diode2 6 Iabcinverter switching pulses Iabc
A
Three-Phase C Universal Bridge2
[Id] V-I Measurement g B
Universal Bridge a B
+ a Aa
R + g A
+ A
v C
- b Bb b
C B B
- A C
- c Cc
c
C
dc dc converter C
n2
Three-phase load
Transformer
1.75 MVA 2 .2 kV / 130 kV
Since 12.4 m/sec. is the rated wind speed, at 12m/sec., pitch angle
need not be activated. During this period, is obtained as 0.44. At
t=10 sec., as the wind speed is 14m /sec., which is above rated wind speed of
12.4 m/sec. , pitch control is activated. As the wind speed increases, the power
generated by the wind turbine also increases. Once the maximum rating of the
power converter is reached, the pitch angle is increased (directed to feather) to
shed the aerodynamic power.
72
Here the pitch rate is chosen to be 4/0.7 degrees. That is, the pitch
angle can be ramped up at 4 degrees per second and it can be ramped down at
0.7 degrees per second.
Figure 3.36 shows the variation of tip speed ratio with time. From
figure 3.36, it is observed that the turbine speed is well controlled to maintain
an optimum tip speed ratio of 7 from 0 to 10 sec. at wind speed of 12m/sec.
When wind speed is increased to 14m/sec., the optimum TSR is normally
higher than the value at 12m/sec., but due to pitch control, it is kept at 7 itself.
In general, three bladed wind turbines operate at a TSR of between 6 and 8,
with 7 being the most widely reported value (Muljadi E et al 2001).
The Figure 3.38 (a) & Figure 3.38 (b) show the generator phase
voltage and generator phase current at 14 m/sec.
74
Figure 3.39(a) and Figure 3.39(c) show the DC link voltage from t=
0 to 1 sec. at 12 m/sec. and 14 m/sec. respectively. Simulation result of DC
link voltage with zooming effect between 0.2 to 0.4 sec. is shown in Figure.
3.39(b) and Figure 3.39(d). In the WECS with MPPT control proposed in this
75
Figures 3.41 (a-d) show the grid rms current of 50A and inverter
output rms phase current, corresponding hysteresis band and DC link voltage
at 50A of grid current.
77
Figures 3.42 (a-d) show the grid current of 130 A and inverter
output rms phase current, corresponding hysteresis band and DC link voltage
at 130 A of grid current.
As indicated in Figure 3.41 (c) and Figure 3.42 (c), the adaptive
hysteresis band is varied according to the variation in load in order to maintain
the constant switching frequency of operation.
3.7 SUMMARY
This chapter presents models of two direct drive WTGs. First is the
VSWT with EESG and d-q current controlled VSC. Second is the VSWT with
PMSG, MPPT controlled DC-DC converter and adaptive hysteresis band
current controlled VSC. They have been simulated in MATLAB/ Simulink.
By using function and control blocks provided in the MATLAB software,
VSWT is built. Dynamic responses were simulated and analyzed based on the
modeled system.
With d-q current controlled VSC, desired real power and reactive
power are maintained in the EESG. It supplied the necessary reactive demand
during additional load and maintained the terminal voltage magnitude at a
specified level.
The VSWT with PMSG has been simulated with MPPT algorithm.
Simulation results have shown that the proposed set up is effective in tracking
the maximum power. Adaptive hysteresis band current control in VSC is
tested under transient grid currents. Fast dynamic response and constant
switching frequency characteristics of the adaptive hysteresis band current
control maintained the DC link voltage constant.
81
The work illustrated in this chapter may provide a reliable tool for
evaluating the performance of a direct drive variable speed WTGs and to
analyse its impacts on power networks in terms of dynamic behaviors.
82
CHAPTER 4
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2.1 PV curve
The relationship between transferred power (P) and the voltage (V)
can be illustrated by the PV curve.
4.3.2 Variable Speed Wind Turbine with Geared drive Doubly fed
Induction Generator
In WTGs with DDSGs, the reactive power exchange with the grid
is not determined by the properties of the generator but by the characteristics
of the GSC. The generator is fully decoupled from the grid. Therefore, the
reactive power exchange between the generator and the generator side of the
converter as well as between the grid side of the converter and the grid are
decoupled. This means that the power factor of the generator and the power
factor of the grid side of the converter can be controlled independently. As the
generator and the grid are decoupled, the rotor speed hardly affects the grid
interaction. The reactive power is changed by controlling the GSC.
With the ability to supply and regulate reactive and active power to
the grid when it is needed, direct drive EESG is becoming a standard feature
in large wind farms. It provides smooth fast voltage regulation by delivering
controlled reactive power through all operating conditions. WECS with
controlling capability ensures that the reactive power performance of a wind
power plant can meetand often exceedthe performance of a conventional
(non-wind) power plant. Even when wind turbines are not generating rated
active power, the reactive power control feature can provide reactive power.
pole count machines. Further no brushes and slip rings are necessary, which
reduces maintenance costs.
The main advantages of direct drive PMSG are the full decoupling
between the RSC and GSC. In fact, in case of grid disturbances, the GSC is
controlled so that it can support the voltage recovery by supplying reactive
power and at the same time it ensures the grid stability. No significant
mechanical stress (torque or speed) occurs due to their high dynamic
compared to electrical dynamics (O B K Hasnaoui et al 2006).
The direct drive PMSG is able to ride through the balanced voltage
grid fault by reducing active power and supplying the maximum possible
reactive power to maintain the current constant until clearance of the voltage
fault. Due to decoupling between RSC and GSC, the dynamic behavior of the
generator is slightly affected in presence of grid fault, this disturbance creates
a slight increase in speed of the generator.
and thus more expensive than in a DFIG based wind turbine. This means that,
although the relative increase in converter cost will be smaller in the case of
the direct-drive wind turbine, the absolute cost increase may be substantially
higher.
This section presents the details of the simulation study carried out
on IEEE 14- bus system for analysis of voltage stability using the WTGs.
Figure 4.2 shows the one line diagram of IEEE 14- bus system.
system are given in Appendix 3. For this test system, based on the contingency
analysis conducted at different loading conditions, 3 single line outages 2-3,
5-6, 7-9 were identified as most severe cases.
CSG has inbuilt AVR which could maintain the voltage level
within limit.
Table 4.2 Loading Margin under Base case and Contingency states in p.u.
2
1.5
1
Loading margin with
0.5 CSGs
0
Base Line Line Line
case outage outage outage
2-3 5-6 7-9
From figure 4.3, it is found that, under the contingency states, the
loading margin has reduced much from the base case value.
Figure 4.4 Bus-6 voltage variation after the disconnection of line 6-11
After the line disconnection, the bus-6 voltage drops due to the
increasing reactive losses in the line, and due to the reduced line charging.
But, the voltage magnitude at bus 6 is within the acceptable limit
(Vbus 6 < 0.95 p.u.).
Bus-2 Bus-5
Condition Voltage Voltage
Q from bus-1 Q from bus-
magnitude magnitude
to bus-2 1 to bus-5
with CSGs with CSGs
Base case 1.045 1.0598 1.0029 1.0721
Line outage 2-3 1.01 -0.38062 1.0029 0.09865
Line outage 5-6 1.02 -0.3996 1.0051 0.08885
Line outage 7-9 1.03 -0.38065 0.99916 0.1158
Figure 4.5 (a) shows the voltage profile of bus-2 under base case
and contingency states in p.u. Figure 4.5(b) shows the voltage profile of bus-5
under base case and contingency states in p.u.
1.05
1.04
1.03
1.02
1.01 V magnitude with
1 CSGs
0.99
Base Line Line Line
case outage outage outage
2-3 5-6 7-9
Figure 4.5(a) Voltage profile of bus-2 under Base case and Contingency
states in p.u.
96
Figure 4.5(b) Voltage profile of bus-5 under Base case and Contingency
states in p.u.
Figure 4.6(a) shows the reactive power flow from bus-1 to bus-2
and Figure 4.6(b) shows the reactive power from bus-1 to bus-5.
Figure 4.6(a) Reactive power flow from bus-1 to bus-2 under Base case
and Contingency states in p.u.
Figure 4.6(b) Reactive power flow from bus-1 to bus-5under base case
and contingency states in p.u.
97
The 360 numbers of fixed speed SCIG, VSWT with DFIG, VSWT with direct
drive EESGs and PMSGs of 1.5 MW are connected at bus-1. The parameter
values of SCIG and DFIG used in the analysis are given in Table 4.4 and
Table 4.5 respectively. The parameters of variable speed EESG and PMSG
presented in Table (3.1 -3.5) of chapter 3 are considered here also.
Table 4.4 Parameters of Fixed Speed SCIG
Parameters Values
Power, voltage and frequency ratings 1.75 MVA, 2.2kV, 50Hz
Stator resistance Rs and Reactance Xs 0.01 p.u., 0.101 p.u.
Rotor resistance Rr and Reactance Xr 0.01 p.u., 0.08 p.u.
Magnetization Reactance Xm 3 p.u.
Inertia constants Hwr Hm and Ks 2.5KWs/KVA, 0.588 KWs/KVA,
0.3 p.u.
Number of poles and gearbox ratio 4 , 1/89
Blade length and number 75m, 3
Parameters Values
Power, voltage and frequency ratings 1.75 MVA, 2.2kV, 50Hz
Stator resistance Rs and Reactance Xs 0.01 p.u., 0.101p.u.
Rotor resistance Rr and Reactance Xr 0.01 p.u., 0.08p.u.
Magnetization Reactance Xm 3 p.u.
Inertia constants Hm 0.588 KWs/KVA
Pitch control gain and time constant Kp, Tp 10p.u, 3 sec
Voltage control gain Kv 10p.u
Power control time constant Te 0.01 sec.
Number of poles and gearbox ratio 4 , 1/89
Blade length and number 75 m, 3
99
Table 4.6 Values of Loading Margin under Base case and Contingency
states in p.u.
voltage stability margin has been increased by reactive power injection from
variable speed WTGs.
Figure 4.8 (a) BUS-6 voltage with SCIGs after the disconnection of line 6-11
101
Figure 4.8 (b) BUS-6 voltage with DFIGs after the disconnection of line 6-11
Figure 4.8 (c) BUS-6 voltage with EESGs after the disconnection of line 6-11
Figure 4.8 (d) BUS-6 voltage with PMSGs after the disconnection of line 6-11
PMSGs at bus-1 are given in Table 4.9. Figure 4.9(a) shows the voltage
profile of bus-2 under base case and contingency states in p.u., Figure 4.9(b)
shows the voltage profile of bus-5 under base case and contingency states in
p.u., Figure 4.10(a) shows the reactive power flow from bus-1 to bus-2 and
Figure 4.10(b) shows the reactive power flow from bus-1 to bus-5.
Figure 4.9(a) Voltage profile of bus-2 under Base case and Contingency
states in p.u.
Figure 4.9(b) Voltage profile of bus-5 under Base case and Contingency
states in p.u.
104
4.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5
5.1 INTRODUCTION
(5.1)
power and generated electrical power, the generator speeds up. Once the
fault is cleared, the SCIG draws large amount of reactive power from the
grid because of its high rotational speed. Because of this reactive power
consumption, it can happen that terminal voltage recovers quickly.
generation to control voltage and reactive power in the system can ease the
reactive power burden on synchronous generators, and minimize angular
separation in the system following a contingency event and can provide a
significant level of support which will become increasingly important in
future power systems.
stability analysis also. The stability analysis is done with line fault near bus
7 initiated at t=1 sec. in IEEE 9-bus test system.
value. The CCT in this case is calculated as 0.250 sec. (12.5 cycles). With
AVR in CSGs, the magnitude of the rotor oscillations, subsequent to the
first swing after the fault, was reduced. Furthermore, the AVR helped to
return the terminal voltage of the CSG to its pre-fault level after the grid
fault.
Figure 5.3 (a) Voltage at generator buses with CCT with only CSGs
Figure 5.3(b) shows the rotor angle deviation at bus-2 and bus-3.
Figure 5.3(b) Rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with
only CSGs
Figure 5.3(c) shows the rotor speed oscillations at bus-2 and bus-
3 with only CSGs.
Figure 5.3(c) (ii) Rotor speed oscillation at generator bus-2 and bus-3
with only CSGs
Figures 5.3(d) (i) & (ii) show the real power generation from all
the three generators.
118
Since the real power of generators get not settled down upto 10
sec. time period, to note down the settling of real power, simulation is done
upto 30 sec. time period and the response is shown in Figure 5.3(d)(ii).
Figure 5.3(d) (ii) Real power at generator buses with only CSGs
From Figures 5.3(d)(i) & (ii), it is observed that real power from
one generator bus before disturbance is at 1.2p.u. and after fault clearance
real power settled at 1.2 p.u. Real power from other two generators is 0.69
p.u. and after fault clearance real power settled at 0.69 p.u.
The rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 are also
analyzed. with SCIGs connected at generator bus-1. Figure 5.4(b) shows the
rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 in the presence of SCIGs.
Figure 5.4(b) Rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with
SCIGs
Figures 5.4(c) (i) & (ii) show the rotor speed oscillation at
generator bus-2 and bus-3 with SCIGs.
Figure 5.4(c) (ii) Rotor speed oscillation at generator bus-2 and bus
with SCIGs
The real power at generator buses with SCIGs was also analysed.
Figure 5.4(d) (i) & (ii) show the real power at generator buses with SCIGs.
The rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 are also
analyzed with DFIGs connected at generator bus-1. Figure 5.5(b) shows the
rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 in the presence of
DFIGs.
124
Figure 5.5(b) Rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with
DFIGs
Figures 5.5(c) (i) & (ii) show the rotor speed oscillation at
generator bus-2 and bus-3 with DFIGs.
Figure 5.5(c) (ii) Rotor speed oscillation at generator bus-2 and bus-3
with DFIGs
125
reactive power and two generators are with negative reactive power which
shows they consumed reactive power from the other generators.
Figure 5.6(a) shows the voltage at generator buses along with CCT
values in the presence of EESGs.
connected at bus-1. It can also be noted that, with EESGs, the voltage has
dropped during disturbance and after fault clearance it has reached a value
of 1.01 p.u.
The rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 are also
analyzed. with EESGs connected at generator bus-1. Figure 5.6(b) shows
the rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 in the presence of
EESGs.
Figure 5.6(b) Rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with
EESGs
Figures 5.6(c) (i) & (ii) show the rotor speed oscillation at
generator bus-2 and bus-3 with EESGs.
Figure 5.6(e) shows the reactive power at generator buses with EESGs
The value of CCT in this case is 0.260 sec. (13 cycles). When
compared with the system with only CSGs, CCT has increased when
PMSGs are connected at bus-1. It can also be noted that, with PMSGs, the
voltage has dropped during the disturbance and after fault clearance it has
improved to1.01 p.u. similar to EESGs.
The rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 are also
analyzed with PMSGs connected at generator bus-1. Figure 5.7(b) shows
the rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 in the presence of
PMSGs.
131
Figure 5.7(b) Rotor angle deviation at generator bus-2 and bus-3 with
PMSGs
Figures 5.7(c) (i) & (ii) show the rotor speed oscillation at
generator bus-2 and bus-3 with PMSGs.
Figure 5.7(c) (ii) Rotor speed oscillation at generator bus-2 and bus-3
with PMSGs
From Figure 5.7(c) (i), it is found that, with PMSGs, rotor speed
oscillation varies from 0.995 p.u. to 1.01 p.u. and its bandwidth is 0.015
p.u. Also from figure 5.7(c) (ii), it is found that, rotor speed oscillation
duration is 20 sec. Compared to CSGs, oscillation deviation is lesser in,
direct drive PMSGs.
CSGs, direct drive EESGs and PMSGs are provided with damper
windings. The damper winding consists of short circuited copper bars
embedded in the face of the rotor poles. By this, hunting can be suppressed.
Since , rotors of IGs are of slot and tooth arrangement, damper windings
cannot be provided.
From Figures 5.7(d) (i) & (ii), with PMSGs, it is observed that,
before disturbance real power is 1.35p.u. and after fault clearance also it
remained at 1.35 p.u. at one generator and from other two generators, active
power production increased to 0.8 p.u. Active power production from all
turbines has increased due to the increase of their corresponding bus
voltages.
generators is around 0.25 p.u. and from one generator it is -0.1p.u. which
shows it consumes reactive power from other generators.
Table 5.1 Transient stability assessment with CSGs and fixed and
variable speed WTGs
From the table it is observed that, the variable speed direct drive
EESG and PMSG with modified controllers could increase the CCT,
decrease rotor angle deviation, suppress rotor speed oscillations, maintain
the voltage magnitude, provide real and reactive power support during fault
condition and thus improve the transient stability of the system.
135
5.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Tests were carried out on IEEE 14-bus test system to study the
effect of WTGs on voltage stability by computing loading margin, bus voltage
magnitude and reactive power delivered by the WTGs. It is found that, SCIGs
cannot delay or prevent a voltage collapse event, also is incapable of
supplying reactive power and thus unable to maintain the voltage magnitude.
DFIGs, EESGs and PMSGs increased the loading margin, assisted the grid to
delay or prevent a voltage collapse event, maintained the voltage magnitude
due to the capability to supply reactive power. EESGs and PMSGs with
modified controllers could perform even better than DFIGs with standard
control and CSGs.
magnitude is maintained within limit and full active power is supplied because
of reactive power injection capability. Compared to DFIGs with standard
control, EESGs and PMSGs with modified controllers performed better. It is
found that DDSGs with modified controllers could bring an additional value to
the installation.
Further the effect of fixed speed SCIG, variable speed DFIG with
standard control, variable speed direct drive EESG and PMSG with modified
controllers on voltage stability has been evaluated on IEEE 14- bus test
system.
The variable speed direct drive EESG has been modeled with d-q
current controlled VSC. The variable speed direct drive PMSG has been
modeled with MPPT controlled DC-DC boost converter and adaptive
hysteresis band current controlled VSC.
modified control could increase the CCT, maintain the voltage, produce real
and reactive power, decrease rotor angle deviation during fault condition and
thus leads to improvement in transient stability.
APPENDIX 1
Injected powers can be written for the ith bus of an n-bus system as
follows:
(A1.2)
(A1.3)
where, the subscripts G and D denote generation and load demand respectively
on the related bus. In order to simulate a load change, a load parameter is
inserted into demand powers and .
(A1.4)
(A1.5)
where, denotes the vector of bus voltage angles and V denotes the vector of
bus voltage magnitudes. The base solution for is found via a power
flow. Then, the continuation and parameterization processes are applied.
(A1.7)
=0 (A1.8)
(A1.9)
where is the appropriate row vector with all elements equal to zero except
where, the subscript denotes the next predicted solution. The step size
is chosen so that the predicted solution is within the radius of convergence
of the corrector. If it is not satisfied, a smaller step size is chosen.
143
1.4 PARAMETERIZATION
APPENDIX 2
.
x =f(x,V) (5.1)
Let x be the state variables and V be the network variables With x=xn and
V=Vn at t=tn, the solution of x at t= tn+1= tn+t is given by
(5.2)
(5.5)
And
(5.6)
At solution ,
(5.7)
(5.8)
146
(5.9)
(5.10)
(5.11)
Treatment of discontinuities:
Equations (5.12) and (5.13) are valid only when the functions given
by equations (5.5) and (5.6) are continuous and differentiable. At points of
discontinuity, such as network switching or limits on state variables, the exact
formulation by the Newton method or any method requiring derivatives would
be complicated. This problem is dealt as follows:
For large network discontinuities, such as a network fault or switching
operations, the integration method is temporarily changed to the fourth
order Runge-Kutta method for one step at the point of discontinuity.
This time step has a zero step size and is used only for the calculation
of the post-fault network conditions (the state vector is not updated).
After this, the normal trapezoidal integration is resumed.
For local non- differentiable functions, such as limits associated with
controllers, the device Jacobians are computed by neglecting their
effect. This is acceptable since they have only local impact and the
overall convergence will not be significantly affected.
148
APPENDIX 3
TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS OF
IEEE 14 BUS TEST SYSTEM
Half
Sending Receiving Resistan Reactance Tranformer
Susceptance
end Bus end Bus ce p.u. p.u. tap
p.u.
1 2 0.01938 0.05917 0.0264 1
2 3 0.04699 0.19797 0.0219 1
2 4 0.05811 0.17632 0.0187 1
1 5 0.05403 0.22304 0.0246 1
2 5 0.05695 0.17388 0.017 1
3 4 0.06701 0.17103 0.0173 1
4 5 0.01335 0.04211 0.0064 1
5 6 0 0.25202 0 0.932
4 7 0 0.20912 0 0.978
7 8 0 0.17615 0 1
4 9 0 0.55618 0 0.969
7 9 0 0.11001 0 1
9 10 0.03181 0.0845 0 1
6 11 0.09498 0.1989 0 1
6 12 0.12291 0.25581 0 1
6 13 0.06615 0.13027 0 1
9 14 0.12711 0.27038 0 1
10 11 0.08205 0.19207 0 1
12 13 0.22092 0.19988 0 1
13 14 0.17093 0.34802 0 1
149
APPENDIX 4
THREE-PHASE DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
(A4.1)
(A4.2)
(A4.3)
(A4.4)
150
and it is the same as the input power , since losses in the rectifier diodes
are neglected in the analysis.
150
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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Journals
International Conferences
1. Jeevajothi R, D.Devaraj, MATLAB/ Simulink based Modeling and Simulation
of Variable Speed Wind Turbine driven Synchronous Generator, International
Conference on Power, Control, Signals and Computation-EPSCICON2010,
Vidya Academy of Science & Technology, 4th to 6th, January 2010.
CURRICULAM VITAE
in the Southern part of Tamilnadu, India on 25th June, 1970. She obtained her
B.E. Degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the year 1990 from
workshops. Her research interests include wind energy conversion systems, modeling
of wind turbine generators, analyzing the impact of wind energy conversion systems
on voltage stability and transient stability. She is a life member of Indian Society for