Art

This article is about the general concept of art. For the the decorative or applied arts.
group of creative disciplines, see The arts. For other Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis (its repre-
uses, see Art (disambiguation).
sentation of reality), expression, communication of emo-
tion, or other qualities. During the Romantic period, art
came to be seen as a special faculty of the human mind
to be classied with religion and science.[5] Though the
denition of what constitutes art is disputed[6][7][8] and
has changed over time, general descriptions mention an
idea of imaginative or technical skill stemming from
human agency[9] and creation.[10]
The nature of art and related concepts, such as creativity
and interpretation, are explored in a branch of philosophy
known as aesthetics.[11]

1 Creative art and ne art

Clockwise from upper left: a self-portrait by Vincent van Gogh; a

female ancestor gure by a Chokwe artist; detail from The Birth
of Venus by Sandro Botticelli; and an Okinawan Shisa lion.

Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating vi-

sual, auditory or performing artifacts (artworks), express-
ing the authors imaginative or technical skill, intended to
be appreciated for their beauty or emotional power.[1][2]
In their most general form these activities include the pro-
duction of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of
the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art.
The oldest documented forms of art are visual arts, which
include creation of images or objects in elds includ-
ing painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, and
other visual media. Architecture is often included as one
of the visual arts; however, like the decorative arts, or
advertising,[3] it involves the creation of objects where
the practical considerations of use are essentialin a way
that they usually are not in a painting, for example. Mu-
sic, theatre, lm, dance, and other performing arts, as well
as literature and other media such as interactive media,
are included in a broader denition of art or the arts.[1][4]
Until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mas-
tery and was not dierentiated from crafts or sciences.
In modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic
considerations are paramount, the ne arts are separated
and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as
of art can tell stories or simply express an aesthetic truth
or feeling. Panorama of a section of A Thousand Li of
Mountains and Rivers, a 12th-century painting by Song
dynasty artist Wang Ximeng.
In the perspective of the history of art,[10] artistic works
have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early
pre-historic art to contemporary art; however, some the-
ories restrict the concept of artistic works to modern
Western societies.[12] One early sense of the denition of
art is closely related to the older Latin meaning, which
roughly translates to skill or craft, as associated with
words such as artisan. English words derived from this
meaning include artifact, articial, artice, medical arts,
and military arts. However, there are many other col-

1
2 1 CREATIVE ART AND FINE ART

loquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men
etymology. slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms dier in
their manner of imitationthrough narrative or charac-
ter, through change or no change, and through drama or
no drama.[14] Aristotle believed that imitation is natural
to mankind and constitutes one of mankinds advantages
over animals.[15]
The second, and more recent, sense of the word art as
an abbreviation for creative art or ne art emerged in the
early 17th century.[16] Fine art refers to a skill used to
express the artists creativity, or to engage the audiences
aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards
consideration of more rened or ner work of art.
Within this latter sense, the word art may refer to several
things: (i) a study of a creative skill, (ii) a process of us-
ing the creative skill, (iii) a product of the creative skill, or
(iv) the audiences experience with the creative skill. The
creative arts (art as discipline) are a collection of disci-
plines which produce artworks (art as objects) that are
compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and con-
vey a message, mood, or symbolism for the perceiver to
interpret (art as experience). Art is something that stim-
ulates an individuals thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas
through the senses. Works of art can be explicitly made
for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or
objects. For some scholars, such as Kant, the sciences
and the arts could be distinguished by taking science as
representing the domain of knowledge and the arts as rep-
resenting the domain of the freedom of artistic expres-
sion.
20th-century Rwandan bottle. Artistic works may serve practical
functions, in addition to their decorative value. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical
way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Like-
Few modern scholars have been more divided than Plato wise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or indus-
and Aristotle on the question concerning the importance trial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of
of art, with Aristotle strongly supporting art in general ne art. On the other hand, crafts and design are some-
and Plato generally being opposed to its relative impor- times considered applied art. Some art followers have ar-
tance. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about gued that the dierence between ne art and applied art
art: Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, has more to do with value judgments made about the art
and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and than any clear denitional dierence.[17] However, even
other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, ne art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-
and dreaming) in the Phaedrus (265ac), and yet in the expression. The purpose of works of art may be to com-
Republic wants to outlaw Homers great poetic art, and municate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philo-
laughter as well. In Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the sophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see
disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Repub- aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for plea-
lic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad func- sure; or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may
tioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does to- also be seemingly nonexistent.
day in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired The nature of art has been described by philosopher
literary art that can provide moral guidance, if only it Richard Wollheim as one of the most elusive of the tra-
can be properly interpreted. With regards to the liter- ditional problems of human culture.[18] Art has been de-
ary art and the musical arts, Aristotle considered epic po- ned as a vehicle for the expression or communication of
etry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry and music to emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreci-
be mimetic or imitative art, each varying in imitation by ating formal elements for their own sake, and as mimesis
medium, object, and manner.[13] For example, music im- or representation. Art as mimesis has deep roots in the
itates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas philosophy of Aristotle.[19] Leo Tolstoy identied art as
dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with lan- a use of indirect means to communicate from one person
guage. The forms also dier in their object of imita- to another.[19] Benedetto Croce and R.G. Collingwood
tion. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of

advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions,
and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in
the mind of the creator.[20][21] The theory of art as form
has its roots in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and
was developed in the early twentieth century by Roger
Fry and Clive Bell. More recently, thinkers inuenced
by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art as the means
by which a community develops for itself a medium for
self-expression and interpretation.[22] George Dickie has
oered an institutional theory of art that denes a work
of art as any artifact upon which a qualied person or per-
sons acting on behalf of the social institution commonly
referred to as the art world" has conferred the status
of candidate for appreciation.[23] Larry Shiner has de-
scribed ne art as not an essence or a fate but something
we have made. Art as we have generally understood it is
a European invention barely two hundred years old.[24]
2 History
Main article: History of art
Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings and
Venus of Willendorf, circa 24,00022,000 BP
petroglyphs from the Upper Paleolithic dating to
roughly 40,000 years ago have been found,[25] but the In the east, Islamic art's rejection of iconography led
3
precise meaning of such art is often disputed because
so little is known about the cultures that produced
them. The oldest art objects in the worlda series of
tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years oldwere
discovered in a South African cave.[26] Containers that
may have been used to hold paints have been found
dating as far back as 100,000 years.[27] Etched shells by
Homo erectus from 430,000 and 540,000 years ago were
discovered in 2014.[28]
Cave painting of a horse from the Lascaux caves, circa 16,000
BP
Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art
of one of the great ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt,
Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, Ancient Greece,
Rome, as well as Inca, Maya, and Olmec. Each of these
centers of early civilization developed a unique and char-
acteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration
of these civilizations, more of their art works have sur-
vived and more of their inuence has been transmitted to
other cultures and later times. Some also have provided
the rst records of how artists worked. For example, this
period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physi-
cal form and the development of equivalent skills to show
musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct pro-
portions.
In Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle
Ages, much art focused on the expression of subjects
about Biblical and religious culture, and used styles that
showed the higher glory of a heavenly world, such as the
use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in
mosaics or windows, which also presented gures in ide-
alized, patterned (at) forms. Nevertheless, a classical
realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and
realism steadily grew in the art of Catholic Europe.
Renaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the
realistic depiction of the material world, and the place
of humans in it, reected in the corporeality of the hu-
man body, and development of a systematic method
of graphical perspective to depict recession in a three-
dimensional picture space.
4 2 HISTORY

The stylized signature of Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Em-

pire was written in Islamic calligraphy. It reads Mahmud Khan
son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious.

Painting by Song dynasty artist Ma Lin, circa 1250. 24.8 25.2

cm

saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certain-

ties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically rev-
olutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as
Blake's portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer, or
David's propagandistic paintings. This led to Romantic
rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional
side and individuality of humans, exemplied in the nov-
els of Goethe. The late 19th century then saw a host
of artistic movements, such as academic art, Symbolism,
The Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, also called the impressionism and fauvism among others.
Mosque of Uqba, is one of the nest, most signicant and The history of twentieth-century art is a narrative of end-
best preserved artistic and architectural examples of early great less possibilities and the search for new standards, each
mosques. Dated in its present state from the 9th century, it is being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the
the ancestor and model of all the mosques in the western Islamic
parameters of impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism,
lands.[29]
Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, etc. cannot be main-
tained very much beyond the time of their invention.
to emphasis on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and Increasing global interaction during this time saw an
architecture. Further east, religion dominated artis- equivalent inuence of other cultures into Western art.
tic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw em- Thus, Japanese woodblock prints (themselves inuenced
phasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense
painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and inuence on impressionism and subsequent development.
tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on out- Later, African sculptures were taken up by Picasso and to
lines. China saw the ourishing of many art forms: some extent by Matisse. Similarly, in the 19th and 20th
jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stun- centuries the West has had huge impacts on Eastern art
ning terracotta army of Emperor Qin), poetry, calligra- with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-
phy, music, painting, drama, ction, etc. Chinese styles Modernism exerting a powerful inuence.
vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally
Modernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in
named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang dy-
the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its
nasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasiz-
unattainability. Theodor W. Adorno said in 1970, It is
ing idealized landscapes, but Ming Dynasty paintings are
now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art
busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting
can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor
and composition. Japan names its styles after imperial
art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art
dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the
to exist.[30] Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable
styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock printing
truth, which led to the period of contemporary art and
became important in Japan after the 17th century. postmodern criticism, where cultures of the world and of
The western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century history are seen as changing forms, which can be appre-
3.1 Skill and craft 5

ciated and drawn from only with skepticism and irony.
Furthermore, the separation of cultures is increasingly
blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to
think in terms of a global culture, rather than of regional
ones.
3 Forms, genres, media, and styles
garding art, focusing respectively on form, content, and
context.[33] Extreme Formalism is the view that all aes-
thetic properties of art are formal (that is, part of the
art form). Philosophers almost universally reject this
view and hold that the properties and aesthetics of art ex-
tend beyond materials, techniques, and form.[34] Unfor-
tunately, there is little consensus on terminology for these
informal properties. Some authors refer to subject matter
and content i.e., denotations and connotations while
others prefer terms like meaning and signicance.[33]
Extreme Intentionalism holds that authorial intent plays
a decisive role in the meaning of a work of art, convey-
ing the content or essential main idea, while all other in-
terpretations can be discarded.[35] It denes the subject
as the persons or idea represented,[36] and the content as
the artists experience of that subject.[37] For example,
the composition of Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne
is partly borrowed from the Statue of Zeus at Olympia.
As evidenced by the title, the subject is Napoleon, and
the content is Ingres's representation of Napoleon as
Emperor-God beyond time and space.[33] Similarly to
extreme formalism, philosophers typically reject extreme
intentionalism, because art may have multiple ambigu-
ous meanings and authorial intent may be unknowable
and thus irrelevant. Its restrictive interpretation is so-
cially unhealthy, philosophically unreal, and politically
unwise.[33]
Finally, the developing theory of post-structuralism stud-
ies arts signicance in a cultural context, such as the
ideas, emotions, and reactions prompted by a work.[38]
The cultural context often reduces to the artists tech-
niques and intentions, in which case analysis proceeds
along lines similar to formalism and intentionalism. How-
ever, in other cases historical and material conditions may
predominate, such as religious and philosophical convic-
tions, sociopolitical and economic structures, or even cli-
mate and geography. Art criticism continues to grow and
develop alongside art.[33]

Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne by Ingres (French, 1806), oil

on canvas 3.1 Skill and craft
Main article: The arts
See also: Conceptual Art and Artistic Skill

The creative arts are often divided into more specic cat-
Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a
egories, typically along perceptually distinguishable cat-
medium. Art can also simply refer to the developed and
egories such as media, genre, styles, and form.[31] Art
ecient use of a language to convey meaning with im-
form refers to the elements of art that are independent of
mediacy and or depth. Art can be dened as an act of
its interpretation or signicance. It covers the methods
expressing feelings, thoughts, and observations.[39] There
adopted by the artist and the physical composition of the
is an understanding that is reached with the material as a
artwork, primarily non-semantic aspects of the work (i.e.,
result of handling it, which facilitates ones thought pro-
gurae),[32] such as color, contour, dimension, medium,
cesses. A common view is that the epithet art, particu-
melody, space, texture, and value. Form may also include
lar in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative
visual design principles, such as arrangement, balance,
expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration
contrast, emphasis, harmony, proportion, proximity, and
of technical ability, an originality in stylistic approach, or
rhythm.[33] a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execu-
In general there are three schools of philosophy re- tion was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus
6 4 PURPOSE

is among the rst examples of pieces wherein the artist

used found objects (ready-made) and exercised no tra-
ditionally recognised set of skills. Tracey Emin's My Bed,
or Damien Hirst's The Physical Impossibility of Death in
the Mind of Someone Living follow this example and also
manipulate the mass media. Emin slept (and engaged in
other activities) in her bed before placing the result in
a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the con-
ceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the
eventual creation of many works to employed artisans.
Hirsts celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to pro-
duce shocking concepts. The actual production in many
conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter
of assembly of found objects. However, there are many
modernist and contemporary artists who continue to ex-
Adam. Detail from Michelangelo's fresco in the Sistine Chapel cel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating
(1511) hands-on works of art.

4 Purpose

Detail of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, showing the painting

technique of sfumato

necessary for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, nei-

ther more nor less than his other endeavors, was a mani-
festation of skill. Rembrandt's work, now praised for its
ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contempo-
raries for its virtuosity. At the turn of the 20th century,
A Navajo rug made circa 1880
the adroit performances of John Singer Sargent were al-
ternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their Art has had a great number of dierent functions
manual uency, yet at nearly the same time the artist who throughout its history, making its purpose dicult to ab-
would become the eras most recognized and peripatetic stract or quantify to any single concept. This does not im-
iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was completing a traditional ply that the purpose of Art is vague, but that it has had
academic training at which he excelled. many unique, dierent reasons for being created. Some
A common contemporary criticism of some modern art of these functions of Art are provided in the following
occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack outline. The dierent purposes of art may be grouped
of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic according to those that are non-motivated, and those that
object. In conceptual art, Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain" are motivated (Lvi-Strauss).
4.2 Motivated functions
Mozarabic Beatus miniature. Spain, late 10th century
4.1 Non-motivated functions
The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are inte-
gral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not
fulll a specic external purpose. In this sense, Art, as
creativity, is something humans must do by their very na-
ture (i.e., no other species creates art), and is therefore
beyond utility.
1. Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm.
Art at this level is not an action or an object, but
an internal appreciation of balance and harmony
(beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human
beyond utility.
Imitation, then, is one instinct of
our nature. Next, there is the instinct
for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters being
manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons,
therefore, starting with this natural gift
developed by degrees their special apti-
tudes, till their rude improvisations gave
birth to Poetry. -Aristotle[40]
2. Experience of the mysterious. Art provides a way to
experience ones self in relation to the universe. This
experience may often come unmotivated, as one ap-
preciates art, music or poetry.
The most beautiful thing we can
experience is the mysterious. It is the
source of all true art and science. -
Albert Einstein[41]
7
3. Expression of the imagination. Art provides a means
to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways
that are not tied to the formality of spoken or writ-
ten language. Unlike words, which come in se-
quences and each of which have a denite mean-
ing, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas
with meanings that are malleable.
Jupiters eagle [as an example of
art] is not, like logical (aesthetic) at-
tributes of an object, the concept of
the sublimity and majesty of creation,
but rather something elsesomething
that gives the imagination an incentive
to spread its ight over a whole host
of kindred representations that provoke
more thought than admits of expression
in a concept determined by words. They
furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves
the above rational idea as a substitute
for logical presentation, but with the
proper function, however, of animating
the mind by opening out for it a prospect
into a eld of kindred representations
stretching beyond its ken. -Immanuel
Kant[42]
4. Ritualistic and symbolic functions. In many cultures,
art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a
decoration or symbol. While these often have no
specic utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropol-
ogists know that they often serve a purpose at the
level of meaning within a particular culture. This
meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but
is often the result of many generations of change,
and of a cosmological relationship within the cul-
ture.
Most scholars who deal with rock
paintings or objects recovered from pre-
historic contexts that cannot be ex-
plained in utilitarian terms and are thus
categorized as decorative, ritual or sym-
bolic, are aware of the trap posed by the
term 'art'. -Silva Tomaskova[43]
4.2 Motivated functions
Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious
actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may
be to bring about political change, to comment on an as-
pect of society, to convey a specic emotion or mood, to
address personal psychology, to illustrate another disci-
pline, to (with commercial arts) sell a product, or simply
as a form of communication.
1. Communication. Art, at its simplest, is a form of
communication. As most forms of communication
8 4
have an intent or goal directed toward another indi-
vidual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts,
such as scientic illustration, are a form of art as
communication. Maps are another example. How-
ever, the content need not be scientic. Emotions, Spray-paint grati on a wall in Rome
moods and feelings are also communicated through
art.
"[Art is a set of] artefacts or images
with symbolic meanings as a means of
communication. -Steve Mithen[44]
2. Art as entertainment. Art may seek to bring about a
particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of re-
laxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the
function of the art industries of Motion Pictures and
Video Games.
3. The Avante-Garde. Art for political change. One
of the dening functions of early twentieth-century
art has been to use visual images to bring about po-
litical change. Art movements that had this goal
Dadaism, Surrealism, Russian constructivism, and
Abstract Expressionism, among othersare collec-
tively referred to as the avante-garde arts.
By contrast, the realistic attitude,
inspired by positivism, from Saint
Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France,
clearly seems to me to be hostile to any
intellectual or moral advancement. I
loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity,
hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude
which today gives birth to these ridicu-
lous books, these insulting plays. It
constantly feeds on and derives strength
from the newspapers and stulties both
science and art by assiduously attering
the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on
stupidity, a dogs life. -Andr Breton
(Surrealism) [45]
4. Art as a free zone, removed from the action of the
social censure. Unlike the avant-garde movements,
which wanted to erase cultural dierences in order
to produce new universal values, contemporary art
has enhanced its tolerance towards cultural dier-
ences as well as its critical and liberating functions
(social inquiry, activism, subversion, deconstruction
...), becoming a more open place for research and
experimentation. [46]
5. Art for social inquiry, subversion and/or anarchy.
While similar to art for political change, subver-
sive or deconstructivist art may seek to question as-
pects of society without any specic political goal.
In this case, the function of art may be simply to
criticize some aspect of society. Grati art and
other types of street art are graphics and images that The functions of art described above are not mutually ex-
are spray-painted or stencilled on publicly viewable clusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art
PURPOSE
walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually
without permission. Certain art forms, such as graf-
ti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this
case vandalism).
6. Art for social causes. Art can be used to raise aware-
ness for a large variety of causes. A number of
art activities were aimed at raising awareness of
autism,[47][48][49] cancer,[50][51][52] human track-
ing,[53][54] and a variety of other topics, such as
ocean conservation,[55] human rights in Darfur,[56]
murdered and missing Aboriginal women,[57] elder
abuse,[58] and pollution.[59] Trashion, using trash to
make fashion, practiced by artists such as Marina
DeBris is one example of using art to raise aware-
ness about pollution.
7. Art for psychological and healing purposes. Art
is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and
clinical psychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic
Drawing Series, for example, is used to determine
the personality and emotional functioning of a pa-
tient. The end product is not the principal goal in
this case, but rather a process of healing, through
creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of art-
work may also oer insight into the troubles expe-
rienced by the subject and may suggest suitable ap-
proaches to be used in more conventional forms of
psychiatric therapy.
8. Art for propaganda, or commercialism. Art is of-
ten utilized as a form of propaganda, and thus can
be used to subtly inuence popular conceptions or
mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a prod-
uct also inuences mood and emotion. In both cases,
the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the
viewer into a particular emotional or psychological
response toward a particular idea or object.[60]
9. Art as a tness indicator. It has been argued that
the ability of the human brain by far exceeds what
was needed for survival in the ancestral environ-
ment. One evolutionary psychology explanation for
this is that the human brain and associated traits
(such as artistic ability and creativity) are the human
equivalent of the peacock's tail. The purpose of the
male peacocks extravagant tail has been argued to
be to attract females (see also Fisherian runaway and
handicap principle). According to this theory supe-
rior execution of art was evolutionary important be-
cause it attracted mates.[61]
 9

for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a and large parts of the art collections of such people could
product, i.e. the movie or video game. often be seen, either by anybody, or by those able to pay a
small price, or those wearing the correct clothes, regard-
less of who they were, as at the Palace of Versailles, where
5 Public access the appropriate extra accessories (silver shoe buckles and
a sword) could be hired from shops outside.
Special arrangements were made to allow the public to
see many royal or private collections placed in galleries,
as with the Orleans Collection mostly housed in a wing
of the Palais Royal in Paris, which could be visited for
most of the 18th century. In Italy the art tourism of the
Grand Tour became a major industry from the Renais-
sance onwards, and governments and cities made eorts
to make their key works accessible. The British Royal
Collection remains distinct, but large donations such as
Versailles: Louis Le Vau opened up the interior court to create the the Old Royal Library were made from it to the British
expansive entrance cour d'honneur, later copied all over Europe. Museum, established in 1753. The Uzi in Florence
opened entirely as a gallery in 1765, though this func-
Since ancient times, much of the nest art has represented tion had been gradually taking the building over from the
a deliberate display of wealth or power, often achieved by original civil servants oces for a long time before. The
using massive scale and expensive materials. Much art building now occupied by the Prado in Madrid was built
has been commissioned by rulers or religious establish- before the French Revolution for the public display of
ments, with more modest versions only available to the parts of the royal art collection, and similar royal gal-
most wealthy in society. Nevertheless, there have been leries open to the public existed in Vienna, Munich and
many periods where art of very high quality was avail- other capitals. The opening of the Muse du Louvre dur-
able, in terms of ownership, across large parts of soci- ing the French Revolution (in 1793) as a public museum
ety, above all in cheap media such as pottery, which per- for much of the former French royal collection certainly
sists in the ground, and perishable media such as textiles marked an important stage in the development of public
and wood. In many dierent cultures, the ceramics of access to art, transferring ownership to a republican state,
indigenous peoples of the Americas are found in such a but was a continuation of trends already well established.
wide range of graves that they were clearly not restricted
to a social elite, though other forms of art may have Most modern public museums and art education pro-
been. Reproductive methods such as moulds made mass- grams for children in schools can be traced back to this
production easier, and were used to bring high-quality impulse to have art available to everyone. Museums in
Ancient Roman pottery and Greek Tanagra gurines to the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the
a very wide market. Cylinder seals were both artistic and masses. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York
practical, and very widely used by what can be loosely City, for example, was created by John Taylor Johnston,
called the middle class in the Ancient Near East. Once a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded
coins were widely used these also became an art form the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the im-
that reached the widest range of society. Another im- portant functions of art in the 21st century remains as a
portant innovation came in the 15th century in Europe, marker of wealth and social status.
when printmaking began with small woodcuts, mostly re-
ligious, that were often very small and hand-colored, and
aordable even by peasants who glued them to the walls
of their homes. Printed books were initially very expen-
sive, but fell steadily in price until by the 19th century
even the poorest could aord some with printed illustra-
tions. Popular prints of many dierent sorts have deco-
rated homes and other places for centuries.
Public buildings and monuments, secular and religious,
by their nature normally address the whole of society, and
visitors as viewers, and display to the general public has
long been an important factor in their design. Egyptian
temples are typical in that the most largest and most lav-
ish decoration was placed on the parts that could be seen Performance by Joseph Beuys, 1978: Everyone an artist On
by the general public, rather than the areas seen only by the way to the libertarian form of the social organism
the priests. Many areas of royal palaces, castles and the
houses of the social elite were often generally accessible, There have been attempts by artists to create art that can
10
not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of
the prime original motivators of much of the art of the
late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be
bought and sold. It is necessary to present something
more than mere objects[62] said the major post war Ger-
man artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of
such things as performance art, video art, and conceptual
art. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance
that would leave nothing behind, or was simply an idea, it
could not be bought and sold. Democratic precepts re-
volving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity
impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the
mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists
broadly identied under the heading of Conceptual art
... substituting performance and publishing activities for
engagement with both the material and materialistic con-
cerns of painted or sculptural form ... [have] endeavored
to undermine the art object qua object.[63]
In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat
lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition
DVDs of video works,[64] invitations to exclusive perfor-
mance art pieces, and the objects left over from concep-
tual pieces. Many of these performances create works
that are only understood by the elite who have been ed-
ucated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent
garbage may be considered art. The marker of status
becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily
owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activ-
ity. With the widespread use of DVD recording tech-
nology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system
that derives its prots from the sale of artworks, gained
an important means of controlling the sale of video and
computer artworks in limited editions to collectors.[65]
6 Controversies
Thodore Gricault's Raft of the Medusa, circa 1820
Art has long been controversial, that is to say disliked by
some viewers, for a wide variety of reasons, though most
pre-modern controversies are dimly recorded, or com-
pletely lost to a modern view. Iconoclasm is the destruc-
tion of art that is disliked for a variety of reasons, includ-
6 CONTROVERSIES
ing religious ones. Aniconism is a general dislike of either
all gurative images, or often just religious ones, and has
been a thread in many major religions. It has been a cru-
cial factor in the history of Islamic art, where depictions
of Muhammad remain especially controversial. Much art
has been disliked purely because it depicted or otherwise
stood for unpopular rulers, parties or other groups. Artis-
tic conventions have often been conservative and taken
very seriously by art critics, though often much less so
by a wider public. The iconographic content of art could
cause controversy, as with late medieval depictions of the
new motif of the Swoon of the Virgin in scenes of the
Crucixion of Jesus. The Last Judgment by Michelangelo
was controversial for various reasons, including breaches
of decorum through nudity and the Apollo-like pose of
Christ.
The content of much formal art through history was dic-
tated by the patron or commissioner rather than just the
artist, but with the advent of Romanticism, and economic
changes in the production of art, the artists vision be-
came the usual determinant of the content of his art, in-
creasing the incidence of controversies, though often re-
ducing their signicance. Strong incentives for perceived
originality and publicity also encouraged artists to court
controversy. Thodore Gricault's Raft of the Medusa
(c. 1820), was in part a political commentary on a re-
cent event. douard Manet's Le Djeuner sur l'Herbe
(1863), was considered scandalous not because of the
nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully
dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes
of the antique world. John Singer Sargent's Madame
Pierre Gautreau (Madam X) (1884), caused a controversy
over the reddish pink used to color the womans ear lobe,
considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the
high-society models reputation.
The gradual abandonment of naturalism and the depic-
tion of realistic representations of the visual appearance
of subjects in the 19th and 20th centuries led to a rolling
controversy lasting for over a century. In the twentieth
century, Pablo Picasso's Guernica (1937) used arresting
cubist techniques and stark monochromatic oils, to depict
the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing
of a small, ancient Basque town. Leon Golub's Interro-
gation III (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee
strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual or-
gans, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday
clothing. Andres Serrano's Piss Christ (1989) is a photo-
graph of a crucix, sacred to the Christian religion and
representing Christ's sacrice and nal suering, sub-
merged in a glass of the artists own urine. The resulting
uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about
public funding of the arts.
7.2 New Criticism and the intentional fallacy
7 Theory
Main article: Aesthetics
Before Modernism, aesthetics in Western art was greatly
concerned with achieving the appropriate balance be-
tween dierent aspects of realism or truth to nature and
the ideal; ideas as to what the appropriate balance is have
shifted to and fro over the centuries. This concern is
largely absent in other traditions of art. The aesthetic the-
orist John Ruskin, who championed what he saw as the
naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw arts role as the com-
munication by artice of an essential truth that could only
be found in nature.[66]
The denition and evaluation of art has become espe-
cially problematic since the 20th century. Richard Woll-
heim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aes-
thetic value of art: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality
is an absolute value independent of any human view; the
Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is de-
pendent on general human experience; and the Relativist
position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends
on, and varies with, the human experience of dierent
humans.[67]
7.1 Arrival of Modernism
Composition II in Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) by Piet Mon-
drian (Dutch, 18721944)
The arrival of Modernism in the late nineteenth century
lead to a radical break in the conception of the function
of art,[68] and then again in the late twentieth century with
the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg's 1960
article Modernist Painting denes modern art as the took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory be-
use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize
the discipline itself.[69] Greenberg originally applied this
11
idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it
as a way to understand and justify at (non-illusionistic)
abstract painting:
Realistic, naturalistic art had dissembled
the medium, using art to conceal art; mod-
ernism used art to call attention to art. The
limitations that constitute the medium of
paintingthe at surface, the shape of the
support, the properties of the pigmentwere
treated by the Old Masters as negative factors
that could be acknowledged only implicitly or
indirectly. Under Modernism these same limi-
tations came to be regarded as positive factors,
and were acknowledged openly.[69]
After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged,
such as Michael Fried, T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss,
Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others.
Though only originally intended as a way of understand-
ing a specic set of artists, Greenbergs denition of mod-
ern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the
various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st
century.
Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy
and inuential through work including and possibly cri-
tiquing popular culture, as well as the art world. Artists
of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique
of self-criticism beyond high art to all cultural image-
making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and
pornography.
Duchamp once proposed that art is any activity of any
kind- everything. However, the way that only cer-
tain activities are classied today as art is a social
construction.[70] There is evidence that there may be an
element of truth to this. The Invention of Art: A Cultural
History is an art history book which examines the con-
struction of the modern system of the arts i.e. Fine Art.
Shiner nds evidence that the older system of the arts be-
fore our modern system (ne art) held art to be any skilled
human activity i.e. Ancient Greek society did not possess
the term art but techne. Techne can be understood nei-
ther as art or craft, the reason being that the distinctions
of art and craft are historical products that came later on
in human history. Techne included painting, sculpting
and music but also; cooking, medicine, horsemanship,
geometry, carpentry, prophecy, and farming etc.
7.2 New Criticism and the intentional fal-
lacy
Following Duchamp during the rst half of the twenti-
eth century, a signicant shift to general aesthetic theory
tween various forms of art, including the literary arts and
the visual arts, to each other. This resulted in the rise of
12 8 CLASSIFICATION DISPUTES

the New Criticism school and debate concerning the in- of art. This debate discussed the encounter of the work of
tentional fallacy. At issue was the question of whether art as being determined by the relative extent to which the
the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work conceptual encounter with the work of art dominates over
of art, whatever its specic form, should be associated the perceptual encounter with the work of art.[74] Deci-
with the criticism and evaluation of the nal product of sive for the linguistic turn debate in art history and the hu-
the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evalu- manities were the works of yet another tradition, namely
ated on its own merits independent of the intentions of the structuralism of Ferdinand de Saussure and the en-
the artist. suing movement of poststructuralism. In 1981, the artist
Mark Tansey created a work of art titled The Innocent
In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley pub-
lished a classic and controversial New Critical essay en- Eye as a criticism of the prevailing climate of disagree-
ment in the philosophy of art during the closing decades
titled "The Intentional Fallacy", in which they argued
strongly against the relevance of an authors intention, or of the 20th century. Inuential theorists include Judith
Butler, Luce Irigaray, Julia Kristeva, Michel Foucault and
intended meaning in the analysis of a literary work. For
Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all Jacques Derrida. The power of language, more speci-
that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the cally of certain rhetorical tropes, in art history and histor-
text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting. ical discourse was explored by Hayden White. The fact
that language is not a transparent medium of thought had
In another essay, "The Aective Fallacy, which served been stressed by a very dierent form of philosophy of
as a kind of sister essay to The Intentional Fallacy language which originated in the works of Johann Georg
Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the readers per- Hamann and Wilhelm von Humboldt.[75] Ernst Gombrich
sonal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid and Nelson Goodman in his book Languages of Art: An
means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be Approach to a Theory of Symbols came to hold that the
repudiated by theorists from the reader-response school conceptual encounter with the work of art predominated
of literary theory. Ironically, one of the leading theo- exclusively over the perceptual and visual encounter with
rists from this school, Stanley Fish, was himself trained the work of art during the 1960s and 1970s.[76] He was
by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in challenged on the basis of research done by the Nobel
his essay Literature in the Reader (1970).[71] prize winning psychologist Roger Sperry who maintained
As summarized by Gaut and Livingston in their es- that the human visual encounter was not limited to con-
say The Creation of Art": Structuralist and post- cepts represented in language alone (the linguistic turn)
structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of and that other forms of psychological representations of
many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the em- the work of art were equally defensible and demonstrable.
phasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called auton- Sperrys view eventually prevailed by the end of the 20th
omy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographi- century with aesthetic philosophers such as Nick Zang-
cal criticismss assumption that the artists activities and will strongly defending a return to moderate aesthetic for-
experience were a privileged critical topic.[72] These au- malism among other alternatives.[77]
thors contend that: Anti-intentionalists, such as formal-
ists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art
are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. 8 Classication disputes
So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly
of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct Main article: Classicatory disputes about art
interpretation of the work.[73] Disputes as to whether or not to classify something
Gaut and Livingston dene the intentionalists as distinct as a work of art are referred to as classicatory dis-
from formalists stating that: Intentionalists, unlike for- putes about art. Classicatory disputes in the 20th
malists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in century have included cubist and impressionist paint-
xing the correct interpretation of works. They quote ings, Duchamp's Fountain, the movies, superlative imita-
[79]
Richard Wollheim as stating that, The task of criticism tions of banknotes, conceptual art, and video games.
is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement
creative process must in turn be thought of as something about the denition of art are rarely the heart of the prob-
not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art lem. Rather, the passionate concerns and interests that
itself.[73] humans vest in their social life are so much a part of
all classicatory disputes about art (Novitz, 1996). Ac-
cording to Novitz, classicatory disputes are more often
7.3 Linguistic turn and its debate disputes about societal values and where society is trying
to go than they are about theory proper. For example,
The end of the 20th century fostered an extensive de- when the Daily Mail criticized Hirst's and Emin's work
bate known as the linguistic turn controversy, or the by arguing For 1,000 years art has been one of our great
innocent eye debate, and generally referred to as the civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds
structuralism-poststructuralism debate in the philosophy threaten to make barbarians of us all they are not ad-
8.1 Value judgment
The original Fountain by Marcel Duchamp, 1917, photographed
by Alfred Stieglitz at the 291 after the 1917 Society of Indepen-
dent Artists exhibit. Stieglitz used a backdrop of The Warriors by
Marsden Hartley to photograph the urinal. The exhibition entry
tag can be clearly seen.[78]
vancing a denition or theory about art, but questioning
the value of Hirsts and Emins work.[80] In 1998, Arthur
Danto, suggested a thought experiment showing that the
status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas
a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or
perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art the-
ory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an objects
arthood.[81][82]
Anti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges
the established parameters and values of art;[83] it is
term associated with Dadaism and attributed to Marcel
Duchamp just before World War I,[83] when he was mak-
ing art from found objects.[83] One of these, Fountain
(1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable
prominence and inuence on art.[83] Anti-art is a feature
of work by Situationist International,[84] the lo- Mail art
movement, and the Young British Artists,[83] though it
is a form still rejected by the Stuckists,[83] who describe
themselves as anti-anti-art.[85][86]
8.1 Value judgment
Somewhat in relation to the above, the word art is also
used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions
as that meal was a work of art (the cook is an artist), or
the art of deception, (the highly attained level of skill
of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a
measure of high quality and high value that gives the term
its avor of subjectivity. Making judgments of value re-
quires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to
determine whether the impact of the object on the senses
13
Aboriginal hollow log tombs. National Gallery, Canberra, Aus-
tralia
meets the criteria to be considered art is whether it is per-
ceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is
always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjec-
tive, it is commonly understood that what is not somehow
aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, good
art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing
to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artists prime
motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also,
art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral,
or thought-provoking reasons. For example, Francisco
Goya's painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3rd of
May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a ring squad execut-
ing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the
horric imagery demonstrates Goyas keen artistic ability
in composition and execution and produces tting social
and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to
what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to
dene 'art'.
The assumption of new values or the rebellion against ac-
cepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not
occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the
pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the re-
verse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly
conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a
re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appre-
ciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools
have proposed their own ways to dene quality, yet they
14
all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic
choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is deter-
mined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen
medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of
the skill of the artist or in its accurate reection in what is
termed the zeitgeist. Art is often intended to appeal to and
connect with human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or
moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of com-
municating these feelings. Artists express something so
that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do
not have to do so consciously. Art may be considered an
exploration of the human condition; that is, what it is to
be human.[87]
9 See also
Art movement
Artist in residence
Formal analysis
List of artistic media
Mathematics and art
Outline of the visual arts, a guide to the subject of
art presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics.
10 Notes
[1] Art: denition. Oxford Dictionaries.
[2] art. Merriam-Websters Dictionary.
[3] Is advertising art?
[4] Art, n. 1. OED Online. December 2011. Oxford Uni-
versity Press. http://www.oed.com. (Accessed 26 Febru-
ary 2012.)
[5] Gombrich, Ernst. (2005). Press statement on The Story
of Art. The Gombrich Archive. Archived from the origi-
nal on 6 October 2008. Retrieved 18 November 2008.
[6] Stephen Davies (1991). Denition of Art. Cornell Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9794-0.
[7] Robert Stecker (1997). Artworks: Denition, Meaning,
Value. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-
271-01596-5.
[8] Nol Carroll, ed. (2000). Theories of Art Today. Univer-
sity of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-16354-9.
[9] Dr. Robert J. Belton. What Is Art?". Archived from the
original on 27 April 2012.
[10] art. Encyclopdia Britannica.
[11] Kennick, William ed, and W. E. Kennick, Art and philos-
ophy: readings in aesthetics New York: St. Martins Press,
1979, pp. xixiii. ISBN 0-312-05391-6.
10 NOTES
[12] Elkins, James Art History and Images That Are Not Art,
The Art Bulletin, Vol. 47, No. 4 (December 1995), with
previous bibliography. Non-Western images are not well
described in terms of art, and neither are medieval paint-
ings that were made in the absence of humanist ideas of
artistic value. 553
[13] Aristotle, Poetics I 1447a
[14] Aristotle, Poetics III
[15] Aristotle, Poetics IV
[16] The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford Uni-
versity Press, Oxford 1993, p. 120
[17] David Novitz, The Boundaries of Art, 1992
[18] Richard Wollheim, Art and its objects, p. 1, 2nd ed., 1980,
Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29706-0
[19] Jerrold Levinson, The Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics,
Oxford University Press, 2003, p5. ISBN 0-19-927945-4
[20] Jerrold Levinson, The Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics,
Oxford University Press, 2003, p16. ISBN 0-19-927945-
4
[21] R.G. Collingwoods view, expressed in The Principles of
Art, is considered in Wollheim, op. cit. 1980 pp 3643
[22] Martin Heidegger, The Origin of the Work of Art, in
Poetry, Language, Thought, (Harper Perennial, 2001).
See also Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Czannes Doubt in
The Merleau-Ponty Aesthetics Reader, Galen Johnson and
Michael Smith (eds), (Northwestern University Press,
1994) and John Russon, Bearing Witness to Epiphany,
(State University of New York Press, 2009).
[23] Kennick, William ed, and W. E. Kennick, Art and philos-
ophy: readings in aesthetics New York: St. Martins Press,
1979, p. 89. ISBN 0-312-05391-6
[24] Shiner 2003. The Invention of Art: A Cultural His-
toryChicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 3. ISBN
978-0-226-75342-3
[25] Worlds oldest art found in Indonesian cave. nature.com.
8 October 2014. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
[26] Radford, Tim. Worlds Oldest Jewellery Found in Cave.
Guardian Unlimited, 16 April 2004. Retrieved on 18 Jan-
uary 2008.
[27] African Cave Yields Evidence of a Prehistoric Paint Fac-
tory. The New York Times. 13 October 2011.
[28] Shell 'Art' Made 300,000 Years Before Humans
Evolved. New Scientist. Reed Business Information Ltd.
3 December 2014.
[29] John Stotho Badeau and John Richard Hayes, The Ge-
nius of Arab civilization: source of Renaissance. Taylor &
Francis. 1983. p. 104
[30] Adorno, Theodor W., Aesthetic Theory, (1970 in German)
[31] Walton, Kendall L. (1 January 1970). Categories of
Art. The Philosophical Review. 79 (3): 334367.
doi:10.2307/2183933. JSTOR 2183933.

[32] Monelle, Raymond (3 January 1992). Linguistics and
Semiotics in Music. Routledge. p. 202. ISBN 978-
3718652099. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
[33] Belton, Dr. Robert J. (1996). The Elements of Art. Art
History: A Preliminary Handbook.
[34] Xu, Min; Deng, Guifang (2 December 2014). Against
Zangwills Extreme Formalism About Inorganic
Nature (PDF). Philosophia. 43 (1): 249257.
doi:10.1007/s11406-014-9575-1. Retrieved 26 February
2017.
[35] Livingston, Paisley (1998). Intentionalism in Aes-
thetics.. New Literary History. 29 (4): 831846.
doi:10.1353/nlh.1998.0042.
[36] Munk, Eduard; Beck, Charles; Felton, Cornelius Conway
(1844). The Metres of the Greeks and Romans. p. 1. Re-
trieved 26 February 2017.
[37] Tolstoy, Leo (1899). What is Art?. Crowell. p. 24. Re-
trieved 26 February 2017.
[38] Emirolu, Melahat Kkarslan; Ko, Fitnat Cimit
(1620 September 2014). Design Semiotics and Post-
Structuralism. 12th World Congress of Semiotics. New
Bulgarian University. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
[39] Breskin, Vladimir, Triad: Method for studying the core
of the semiotic parity of language and art, Signs In-
ternational Journal of Semiotics 3, pp.128, 2010. ISSN
1902-8822
[40] Aristotle. "[Book 10:] The Poetics. Republic. www.
authorama.com. Note: Although speaking mostly of po-
etry here, the Ancient Greeks often speak of the arts col-
lectively.
[41] Einstein, Albert. The World as I See It. http://www.aip.
org/history/einstein/essay.htm
[42] Immanuel Kant, Critique of Aesthetic Judgement (1790).
[43] Silvia Tomaskova, Places of Art: Art and Archaeology
in Context": (1997)
[44] Steve Mithen. The Prehistory of the Mind: The Cognitive
Origins of Art, Religion and Science. 1999
[45] Andr Breton, Surrealist Manifesto (1924)
[46] According to Maurizio Bolognini this is not only associ-
ated with the postmodern rejection of all canons but with
a process of secularization of art, which is nally consid-
ered as a mere (albeit essential) convention, sustained
and reproduced by the art system (artists, galleries, crit-
ics, collectors), providing a free zone, that is, a more open
place for experimentation, removed from the constraints
of the practical sphere.": see Maurizio Bolognini (2008).
Postdigitale. Rome: Carocci. ISBN 978-88-430-4739-0.,
chap. 3.
[47] Trotter, Jeramia (15 February 2011). RiverKings rais-
ing autism awareness with art. WMC tv. Archived from
the original on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 21 February
2013.
15
[48] Art exhibit aims to raise awareness of autism. Daily
News-Miner. 4 April 2012. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
[49] Anchorage art exhibit to raise awareness about autism
(PDF). Alaska Department of Health and Social Services.
Retrieved 21 February 2013.
[50] Ruhl, Ashleigh (18 February 2013). Photographer Seeks
Subjects To Help Raise Cancer Awareness. Gazettes.
Retrieved 21 February 2013.
[51] Bra art raising awareness for breast cancer. The Palm
Beach Post. n.d. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
[52] Flynn, Marella (10 January 2007). October art walk aims
to raise money, awareness for breast cancer. Flagler Col-
lege Gargoyle. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
[53] Students get creative in the ght against human track-
ing. WDTN Channel 2 News. 26 November 2012. Re-
trieved 21 February 2013.
[54] Looking to raise awareness at ArtPrize. WWMT,
Newschannel 3. 10 January 2012. Archived from the orig-
inal on 6 October 2012. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
[55] SciCafe Art/Sci Collision: Raising Ocean Conserva-
tion Awareness. American Museum of Natural History.
Retrieved 21 February 2013.
[56] SMU students raise awareness with 'Art for Darfur'".
SMU News Release. 4 March 2008. Retrieved 21 Febru-
ary 2003.
[57] Donnelly, Greg (3 May 2012). Red dress art project
to raise awareness of murdered and missing Aboriginal
women. Global Edmonton. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
[58] Raising elder abuse awareness through intergenerational
art. Human Resources and Skills Development Canada.
Archived from the original on 22 January 2013. Retrieved
21 February 2013.
[59] Mathema, Paavan (16 January 2013). Trash to treasure:
Turning Mt. Everest waste into art. CNN. Retrieved 21
February 2013.
[60] Roland Barthes, Mythologies
[61] Dutton, Denis. 2003. Aesthetics and Evolutionary Psy-
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[62] Sharp, Willoughby (December 1969). An Interview with
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[64] Fineman, Mia (21 March 2007). YouTube for Artists
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[65] Robertson, Jean and Craig McDaniel: Themes of Contem-
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16
[66] go to nature in all singleness of heart, rejecting noth-
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[79] Deborah Solomon (14 December 2003). 2003: the 3rd
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12 FURTHER READING
11 Bibliography
Shiner, Larry. "The Invention of Art: A Cultural
History". Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
2003. ISBN 978-0-226-75342-3
Arthur Danto, The Abuse of Beauty: Aesthetics and
the Concept of Art. 2003
Dana Arnold and Margaret Iverson (eds.) Art and
Thought. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2003
Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds.) Art His-
tory Aesthetics Visual Studies. New Haven: Yale
University Press, 2002. ISBN 0300097891
John Whitehead. Grasping for the Wind, 2001
Noel Carroll, Theories of Art Today, 2000
Evelyn Hatcher, ed. Art as Culture: An Introduction
to the Anthropology of Art, 1999
Catherine de Zegher (ed.). Inside the Visible. MIT
Press, 1996
Nina Felshin, ed. But is it Art?, 1995
Stephen Davies, Denitions of Art, 1991
Oscar Wilde, Intentions, 1891.
Jean Robertson and Craig McDaniel, Themes of
Contemporary Art, Visual Art after 1980, 2005
12 Further reading
Shiner, Larry. The Invention of Art: A Cultural His-
tory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.
ISBN 978-0-226-75342-3
Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N. The New
Story of Science: mind and the universe, Lake Blu,
Ill.: Regnery Gateway, 1984. ISBN 0-89526-833-7
(this book has signicant material on art and sci-
ence)
Richard Wollheim, Art and its Objects: An introduc-
tion to aesthetics. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.
OCLC 1077405
Carl Jung, Man and His Symbols. London: Pan
Books, 1978. ISBN 0330253212
Benedetto Croce. Aesthetic as Science of Expression
and General Linguistic, 2002
Wadysaw Tatarkiewicz, A History of Six Ideas: an
Essay in Aesthetics, translated from the Polish by
Christopher Kasparek, The Hague, Martinus Ni-
jho, 1980
 17

Kleiner, Gardner, Mamiya and Tansey. Art Through

the Ages, Twelfth Edition (2 volumes) Wadsworth,
2004. ISBN 0-534-64095-8 (vol 1) and ISBN 0-
534-64091-5 (vol 2)
Kristine Stiles and Peter Selz, eds. Theories and
Documents of Contemporary Art. Berkeley: Univer-
sity of California Press, 1986

Florian Dombois, Ute Meta Bauer, Claudia Mareis

and Michael Schwab, eds. Intellectual Birdhouse.
Artistic Practice as Research. London: Koening
Books, 2012. ISBN 978-3863351182

Dana Arnold and Margaret Iverson, eds. Art

and Thought. London: Blackwell, 2003. ISBN
0631227156

Antony Briant and Griselda Pollock, eds. Digi-

tal and Other Virtualities: Renegotiating the image.
London and NY: I.B.Tauris, 2010. ISBN 978-
1441676313

Carol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher, eds.

Women Artists at the Millennium. Massachusetts:
October Books/The MIT Press, 2006. ISBN
026201226X

13 External links
Art and Play from the Dictionary of the History of
ideas

In-depth directory of art

Art and Artist Files in the Smithsonian Libraries Col-
lection (2005) Smithsonian Digital Libraries
Visual Arts Data Service (VADS) online collec-
tions from UK museums, galleries, universities

RevolutionArt Art magazines with worldwide ex-

hibitions, callings and competitions

Adajian, Thomas. The Denition of Art. Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
18 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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14.2 Images 19

Steven Weston, Asapkid10, Ikariam3944, Vodak, Artypants, SkyViewOrphanage, Sanchezdot, EJF, Artincontext, Bfpage, SieBot, Hypno-
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boy5000, SillyPants11, Elperro2, Oxymoron83, Artoasis, Nuttycoconut, Lightmouse, RW Marloe, Schubert2, Mr mimises, Justincan-
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theworld, Wimdit, Nnemo, Ukabia, Moeali2004, Badwy, Sevilledade, Mild Bill Hiccup, Hafspajen, Shawreck, CounterVandalismBot,
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sign, Updatedinformation, Winston365, Jdpaulsen, H.M.Fanna, Mindstalk, Willeglinton, ImBobTheFish, Jotterbot, Alexreid2, Riccardo
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Smazian, Apalton, Sara USA, LaaknorBot, CarsracBot, Addyfe, Isabel100, AugustWind, Ricky347, LinkFA-Bot, Bruce wasserman,
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Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original
artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Lascaux2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Lascaux2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
own Original artist: ?
20 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Ma_Lin_Guests.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Ma_Lin_Guests.jpg License: Public domain

Contributors: http://hi.baidu.com/lpwxu6012/blog/item/bc2ab8ac197b04034a36d61b.html Original artist: Ma Lin
File:Michelangelo,_Creation_of_Adam_03.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Michelangelo%
2C_Creation_of_Adam_03.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/m/
michelan/3sistina/1genesis/6adam/06_3ce6b.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http:
//www.wga.hu/html/m/michelan/3sistina/1genesis/6adam/06_3ce6b.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Michelangelo
File:MonaLisa_sfumato.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/MonaLisa_sfumato.jpeg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Nuvola_apps_package_graphics.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Nuvola_apps_package_
graphics.png License: LGPL Contributors: http://icon-king.com Original artist: David Vignoni / ICON KING
File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
File:Piet_Mondriaan,_1930_-_Mondrian_Composition_II_in_Red,_Blue,_and_Yellow.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Piet_Mondriaan%2C_1930_-_Mondrian_Composition_II_in_Red%2C_Blue%2C_and_Yellow.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Piet Mondrian
File:Teke_bottle.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Teke_bottle.JPG License: CC BY 2.0 Contribu-
tors: Bottle, Tswa peoples, Rwanda, Early-mid 20th century, Ceramic, resin, commercial paint, wax Original artist: Cli from I now live in
Arlington, VA (Outside Washington DC), USA
File:Transition_1880.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Transition_1880.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://www.statemuseum.arizona.edu/exhibits/navajoweave/historic/blankets/8369_dtl.shtml Original artist: Unknown
Navajo weaver, pre-1889
File:Tugra_Mahmuds_II.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Tugra_Mahmuds_II.gif License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Baba66
File:Venus_of_Willendorf_frontview_retouched_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Venus_of_
Willendorf_frontview_retouched_2.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:MatthiasKabel
File:WPVA-khamsa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/WPVA-khamsa.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Con-
tributors: Vectorized version of Image:WPVA-khamsa.png by User:Sparkit Original artist:
rst version Flu
File:Wang_Ximeng_-_A_Thousand_Li_of_River_(Bridge).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/
Wang_Ximeng_-_A_Thousand_Li_of_River_%28Bridge%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://guoxue.zynews.com/
XianFeng/2008/2202.html Original artist: Wang Ximeng ( )
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BY-
SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally
created by Smurrayinchester

14.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0