Highvoltagedirectcurrent

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Ahighvoltage,directcurrent(HVDC)electricpower
transmissionsystem(alsocalledapowersuperhighwayoran
electricalsuperhighway)[1][2][3][4]usesdirectcurrentforthe
bulktransmissionofelectricalpower,incontrastwiththemore
commonalternatingcurrent(AC)systems.[5]Forlongdistance
transmission,HVDCsystemsmaybelessexpensiveandsuffer
lowerelectricallosses.Forunderwaterpowercables,HVDC
avoidstheheavycurrentsrequiredtochargeanddischargethe
cablecapacitanceeachcycle.Forshorterdistances,thehigher
costofDCconversionequipmentcomparedtoanACsystem
maystillbejustified,duetootherbenefitsofdirectcurrent
links.
LongdistanceHVDClinescarryinghydroelectricity
HVDCallowspowertransmissionbetweenunsynchronized
fromCanada'sNelsonRivertothisconverterstation
ACtransmissionsystems.Sincethepowerflowthroughan
whereitisconvertedtoACforuseinsouthern
HVDClinkcanbecontrolledindependentlyofthephaseangle
Manitoba'sgrid
betweensourceandload,itcanstabilizeanetworkagainst
disturbancesduetorapidchangesinpower.HVDCalsoallows
transferofpowerbetweengridsystemsrunningatdifferentfrequencies,suchas50Hzand60Hz.Thisimproves
thestabilityandeconomyofeachgrid,byallowingexchangeofpowerbetweenincompatiblenetworks.

ThemodernformofHVDCtransmissionusestechnologydevelopedextensivelyinthe1930sinSweden(ASEA)
andinGermany.EarlycommercialinstallationsincludedoneintheSovietUnionin1951betweenMoscowand
Kashira,anda100kV,20MWsystembetweenGotlandandmainlandSwedenin1954.[6]ThelongestHVDClink
intheworldistheRioMadeiralinkinBrazil,whichconsistsoftwobipolesof600kV,3150MWeach,
connectingPortoVelhointhestateofRondniatotheSoPauloarea.ThelengthoftheDClineis2,375km
(1,476mi).[7]

InJuly2016,ABBGroupreceivedacontractinChinatobuildanultrahighvoltagedirectcurrent(UHVDC)land
cablewitha1100kVvoltage,a3,000km(1,900mi)lengthand12GWofpower,settingworldrecordsforhighest
voltage,longestdistanceandlargesttransmissioncapacity.[8]

Contents
1 Highvoltagetransmission
2 HistoryofHVDCtechnology
2.1 Electromechanical(Thury)systems
2.2 Mercuryarcvalves
2.3 Thyristorvalves
2.4 Capacitorcommutatedconverters(CCC)
2.5 Voltagesourceconverters(VSC)
3 AdvantagesofHVDCoverACtransmission
3.1 Cablesystems
3.2 Overheadlinesystems
3.3 Asynchronousconnections
 4 Disadvantages
4.1 HighvoltageDCcircuitbreaker
5 CostsofhighvoltageDCtransmission
6 Theconversionprocess
6.1 Converter
6.1.1 Linecommutatedconverters
6.1.2 Voltagesourcedconverters
6.2 Convertertransformers
6.3 Reactivepower
6.4 Harmonicsandfiltering
6.4.1 Filtersforlinecommutatedconverters
6.4.2 Filtersforvoltagesourcedconverters
7 Configurations
7.1 Monopole
7.1.1 Monopoleandearthreturn
7.1.2 Monopoleandmetallicreturn
7.1.3 Symmetricalmonopole
7.2 Bipolar
7.3 Backtoback
7.4 Multiterminalsystems
7.5 Tripole
7.6 Otherarrangements
8 Coronadischarge
9 Applications
9.1 Overview
9.2 ACnetworkinterconnections Existinglinks
9.3 Renewableelectricitysuperhighways Underconstruction
10 Seealso
11 References Proposed
12 Furtherreading ManyoftheseHVDClinesin2008transferpowerfrom
13 Externallinks renewablesourcessuchashydroandwind.Fornames,see
alsotheannotatedversion.

Highvoltagetransmission
Highvoltageisusedforelectricpowertransmissiontoreducetheenergylostintheresistanceofthewires.Fora
givenquantityofpowertransmitted,doublingthevoltagewilldeliverthesamepoweratonlyhalfthecurrent.
Sincethepowerlostasheatinthewiresisproportionaltothewires'resistanceasashareofthetotalresistance,
anddoublingvoltageallowsforthequadruplingofnontransmissionresistancewithoutlosingpower,doublingthe
voltagereducesthelinelossesperunitofelectricalpowerdeliveredbyapproximatelyafactorof4.Whilepower
lostintransmissioncanalsobereducedbyincreasingtheconductorsize,largerconductorsareheavierandmore
expensive.

Highvoltagecannotreadilybeusedforlightingormotors,sotransmissionlevelvoltagesmustbereducedforend
useequipment.Transformersareusedtochangethevoltagelevelsinalternatingcurrent(AC)transmission
circuits.Becausetransformersmadevoltagechangespractical,andACgeneratorsweremoreefficientthanthose
usingDC,ACbecamedominantaftertheintroductionofpracticalsystemsofdistributioninEuropein1891[9]and
theconclusionin1892oftheWarofCurrents,acompetitionbeingfoughtonmanyfrontsintheUSbetweenthe
DCsystemofThomasEdisonandtheACsystemofGeorgeWestinghouse.[10]
PracticalconversionofpowerbetweenACandDCbecamepossiblewiththedevelopmentofpowerelectronics
devicessuchasmercuryarcvalvesand,startinginthe1970s,semiconductordevicesasthyristors,integratedgate
commutatedthyristors(IGCTs),MOScontrolledthyristors(MCTs)andinsulatedgatebipolartransistors
(IGBT).[11]

HistoryofHVDCtechnology
Electromechanical(Thury)systems

Thefirstlongdistancetransmissionofelectricpowerwasdemonstrated
usingdirectcurrentin1882atMiesbachMunichPowerTransmission,but
only1.5kWwastransmitted.[12]AnearlymethodofhighvoltageDC
transmissionwasdevelopedbytheSwissengineerRenThury[13]andhis
methodwasputintopracticeby1889inItalybytheAcquedottoDe
FerrariGallieracompany.Thissystemusedseriesconnectedmotor
generatorsetstoincreasethevoltage.Eachsetwasinsulatedfrom
electricalgroundanddrivenbyinsulatedshaftsfromaprimemover.The
transmissionlinewasoperatedina'constantcurrent'mode,withupto
5,000voltsacrosseachmachine,somemachineshavingdouble
commutatorstoreducethevoltageoneachcommutator.Thissystem
transmitted630kWat14kVDCoveradistanceof120km.[14][15]The
MoutiersLyonsystemtransmitted8,600kWofhydroelectricpowera
distanceof200km,including10kmofundergroundcable.Thissystem
usedeightseriesconnectedgeneratorswithdualcommutatorsforatotal
voltageof150,000voltsbetweenthepositiveandnegativepoles,and
operatedfromc.1906until1936.FifteenThurysystemswereinoperation
by1913.[16]OtherThurysystemsoperatingatupto100kVDCworked
intothe1930s,buttherotatingmachineryrequiredhighmaintenanceand
hadhighenergyloss.Variousotherelectromechanicaldevicesweretested SchematicdiagramofaThuryHVDC
transmissionsystem
duringthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturywithlittlecommercialsuccess.[17]

Onetechniqueattemptedforconversionofdirectcurrentfromahightransmissionvoltagetolowerutilization
voltagewastochargeseriesconnectedbatteries,thenreconnectthebatteriesinparalleltoservedistribution
loads.[18]Whileatleasttwocommercialinstallationsweretriedaroundtheturnofthe20thcentury,thetechnique
wasnotgenerallyusefulowingtothelimitedcapacityofbatteries,difficultiesinswitchingbetweenseriesand
parallelconnections,andtheinherentenergyinefficiencyofabatterycharge/dischargecycle.

Mercuryarcvalves

Firstproposedin1914,[19]thegridcontrolledmercuryarcvalvebecameavailableforpowertransmissionduring
theperiod1920to1940.Startingin1932,GeneralElectrictestedmercuryvaporvalvesanda12kVDC
transmissionline,whichalsoservedtoconvert40Hzgenerationtoserve60Hzloads,atMechanicville,New
York.In1941,a60MW,200kV,115kmburiedcablelinkwasdesignedforthecityofBerlinusingmercuryarc
valves(ElbeProject),butowingtothecollapseoftheGermangovernmentin1945theprojectwasnever
completed.[20]Thenominaljustificationfortheprojectwasthat,duringwartime,aburiedcablewouldbeless
conspicuousasabombingtarget.TheequipmentwasmovedtotheSovietUnionandwasputintoservicethereas
theMoscowKashiraHVDCsystem.[21]TheMoscowKashirasystemandthe
1954connectionbyUnoLamm'sgroupatASEAbetweenthemainlandof
SwedenandtheislandofGotlandmarkedthebeginningofthemoderneraof
HVDCtransmission.[12]

Mercuryarcvalvesrequireanexternalcircuittoforcethecurrenttozeroand
thusturnoffthevalve.InHVDCapplications,theACpowersystemitself
providesthemeansofcommutatingthecurrenttoanothervalveinthe
converter.Consequently,convertersbuiltwithmercuryarcvalvesareknown
aslinecommutatedconverters(LCC).LCCsrequirerotatingsynchronous
machinesintheACsystemstowhichtheyareconnected,makingpower
transmissionintoapassiveloadimpossible.

Mercuryarcvalveswerecommoninsystemsdesignedupto1972,thelast
mercuryarcHVDCsystem(theNelsonRiverBipole1systeminManitoba,
Canada)havingbeenputintoserviceinstagesbetween1972and1977.[22] HVDCin1971:this150kV
Sincethen,allmercuryarcsystemshavebeeneithershutdownorconverted mercuryarcvalveconvertedAC
tousesolidstatedevices.ThelastHVDCsystemtousemercuryarcvalves hydropowervoltagefor
wastheInterIslandHVDClinkbetweentheNorthandSouthIslandsofNew transmissiontodistantcitiesfrom
Zealand,whichusedthemononeofitstwopoles.Themercuryarcvalves ManitobaHydrogenerators.
weredecommissionedon1August2012,aheadofcommissioningof
replacementthyristorconverters.

Thyristorvalves

Since1977,newHVDCsystemshaveusedonlysolidstatedevices,in
mostcasesthyristorvalves.Likemercuryarcvalves,thyristorsrequire
connectiontoanexternalACcircuitinHVDCapplicationstoturn
themonandoff.HVDCusingthyristorvalvesisalsoknownasline
commutatedconverter(LCC)HVDC.

DevelopmentofthyristorvalvesforHVDCbeganinthelate1960s. BipolarsystempylonsoftheBalticCable
ThefirstcompleteHVDCschemebasedonthyristorvalveswasthe HVDCinSweden
EelRiverschemeinCanada,whichwasbuiltbyGeneralElectricand
wentintoservicein1972.

OnMarch15,1979,a1920MWthyristorbaseddirectcurrentconnectionbetweenCaboraBassaand
Johannesburg(1,410km)wasenergised.Theconversionequipmentwasbuiltin1974byAllgemeineElektricitts
GesellschaftAG(AEG),andBrown,Boveri&Cie(BBC)andSiemenswerepartnersintheproject,thelate
completiondatearesultofthecivilwar.Thetransmissionvoltageof533kVwasthehighestintheworldatthe
time.[12]

Capacitorcommutatedconverters(CCC)

LinecommutatedconvertershavesomelimitationsintheiruseforHVDCsystems.Thisresultsfromrequiringthe
ACcircuittoturnoffthethyristorcurrentandtheneedforashortperiodof'reverse'voltagetoeffecttheturnoff
(turnofftime).AnattempttoaddresstheselimitationsistheCapacitorCommutatedConverter(CCC)whichhas
beenusedinasmallnumberofHVDCsystems.TheCCCdiffersfromaconventionalHVDCsysteminthatithas
seriescapacitorsinsertedintotheAClineconnections,eitherontheprimaryorsecondarysideoftheconverter
transformer.Theseriescapacitorspartiallyoffsetthecommutatinginductanceoftheconverterandhelptoreduce
faultcurrents.Thisalsoallowsasmallerextinctionangletobeusedwithaconverter/inverter,reducingtheneed
forreactivepowersupport.However,CCChasremainedonlyanicheapplicationbecauseoftheadventofvoltage
sourceconverters(VSC)whichcompletelyeliminatetheneedforanextinction(turnoff)time.

Voltagesourceconverters(VSC)

Widelyusedinmotordrivessincethe1980s,voltagesourceconvertersstartedtoappearinHVDCin1997with
theexperimentalHellsjnGrngesbergprojectinSweden.Bytheendof2011,thistechnologyhadcaptureda
significantproportionoftheHVDCmarket.

Thedevelopmentofhigherratedinsulatedgatebipolartransistors(IGBTs),gateturnoffthyristors(GTOs)and
integratedgatecommutatedthyristors(IGCTs),hasmadesmallerHVDCsystemseconomical.Themanufacturer
ABBGroupcallsthisconceptHVDCLight,whileSiemenscallsasimilarconceptHVDCPLUS(PowerLink
UniversalSystem)andAlstomcalltheirproductbaseduponthistechnologyHVDCMaxSine.Theyhaveextended
theuseofHVDCdowntoblocksassmallasafewtensofmegawattsandlinesasshortasafewscorekilometres
ofoverheadline.ThereareseveraldifferentvariantsofVSCtechnology:mostinstallationsbuiltuntil2012use
pulsewidthmodulationinacircuitthatiseffectivelyanultrahighvoltagemotordrive.Currentinstallations,
includingHVDCPLUSandHVDCMaxSine,arebasedonvariantsofaconvertercalledaModularMultiLevel
Converter(MMC).

Multilevelconvertershavetheadvantagethattheyallowharmonicfilteringequipmenttobereducedoreliminated
altogether.Bywayofcomparison,ACharmonicfiltersoftypicallinecommutatedconverterstationscovernearly
halfoftheconverterstationarea.

Withtime,voltagesourceconvertersystemswillprobablyreplaceallinstalledsimplethyristorbasedsystems,
includingthehighestDCpowertransmissionapplications.[11]

AdvantagesofHVDCoverACtransmission
AlongdistancepointtopointHVDCtransmissionschemegenerallyhasloweroverallinvestmentcostandlower
lossesthananequivalentACtransmissionscheme.HVDCconversionequipmentattheterminalstationsiscostly,
butthetotalDCtransmissionlinecostsoverlongdistancesarelowerthanAClineofthesamedistance.HVDC
requireslessconductorperunitdistancethananACline,asthereisnoneedtosupportthreephasesandthereisno
skineffect.

Dependingonvoltagelevelandconstructiondetails,HVDCtransmissionlossesarequotedasabout3.5%per
1,000km,whichare3040%lessthanwithAClines,atthesamevoltagelevels.[23]Thisisbecausedirectcurrent
transfersonlyactivepowerandthuscauseslowerlossesthanalternatingcurrent,whichtransfersbothactiveand
reactivepower.

HVDCtransmissionmayalsobeselectedforothertechnicalbenefits.HVDCcantransferpowerbetweenseparate
ACnetworks.HVDCpowerflowbetweenseparateACsystemscanbeautomaticallycontrolledtosupporteither
networkduringtransientconditions,butwithouttheriskthatamajorpowersystemcollapseinonenetworkwill
leadtoacollapseinthesecond.HVDCimprovesonsystemcontrollability,withatleastoneHVDClinkembedded
inanACgridinthederegulatedenvironment,thecontrollabilityfeatureisparticularlyusefulwherecontrolof
energytradingisneeded.

ThecombinedeconomicandtechnicalbenefitsofHVDCtransmissioncanmakeitasuitablechoiceforconnecting
electricitysourcesthatarelocatedfarawayfromthemainusers.

SpecificapplicationswhereHVDCtransmissiontechnologyprovidesbenefitsinclude:
 Underseacablestransmissionschemes(e.g.,the580kmNorNedcablebetweenNorwayandthe
Netherlands,[24]Italy's420kmSAPEIcablebetweenSardiniaandthemainland,[25]the290kmBasslink
betweentheAustralianmainlandandTasmania,[26]andthe250kmBalticCablebetweenSwedenand
Germany[27]).
Endpointtoendpointlonghaulbulkpowertransmissionwithoutintermediate'taps',usuallytoconnecta
remotegeneratingplanttothemaingrid,forexampletheNelsonRiverDCTransmissionSysteminCanada.
Increasingthecapacityofanexistingpowergridinsituationswhereadditionalwiresaredifficultor
expensivetoinstall.
PowertransmissionandstabilizationbetweenunsynchronisedACnetworks,withtheextremeexamplebeing
anabilitytotransferpowerbetweencountriesthatuseACatdifferentfrequencies.Sincesuchtransfercan
occurineitherdirection,itincreasesthestabilityofbothnetworksbyallowingthemtodrawoneachother
inemergenciesandfailures.
StabilizingapredominantlyACpowergrid,withoutincreasingfaultlevels(prospectiveshortcircuit
current).
Integrationofrenewableresourcessuchaswindintothemaintransmissiongrid.HVDCoverheadlinesfor
onshorewindintegrationprojectsandHVDCcablesforoffshoreprojectshavebeenproposedinNorth
AmericaandEuropeforbothtechnicalandeconomicreasons.DCgridswithmultiplevoltagesource
converters(VSCs)areoneofthetechnicalsolutionsforpoolingoffshorewindenergyandtransmittingitto
loadcenterslocatedfarawayonshore.[28]

Cablesystems

Longundersea/undergroundhighvoltagecableshaveahighelectricalcapacitancecomparedwithoverhead
transmissionlines,sincetheliveconductorswithinthecablearesurroundedbyarelativelythinlayerofinsulation
(thedielectric),andametalsheath.Thegeometryisthatofalongcoaxialcapacitor.Thetotalcapacitance
increaseswiththelengthofthecable.Thiscapacitanceisinaparallelcircuitwiththeload.Wherealternating
currentisusedforcabletransmission,additionalcurrentmustflowinthecabletochargethiscablecapacitance.
Thisextracurrentflowcausesaddedenergylossviadissipationofheatintheconductorsofthecable,raisingits
temperature.Additionalenergylossesalsooccurasaresultofdielectriclossesinthecableinsulation.

However,ifdirectcurrentisused,thecablecapacitanceischargedonlywhenthecableisfirstenergizedorifthe
voltagelevelchangesthereisnoadditionalcurrentrequired.ForasufficientlylongACcable,theentirecurrent
carryingabilityoftheconductorwouldbeneededtosupplythechargingcurrentalone.Thiscablecapacitance
issuelimitsthelengthandpowercarryingabilityofACpoweredcables.DCpoweredcablesarelimitedonlyby
theirtemperatureriseandOhm'sLaw.Althoughsomeleakagecurrentflowsthroughthedielectricinsulator,thisis
smallcomparedtothecable'sratedcurrent.

Overheadlinesystems

ThecapacitiveeffectoflongundergroundorunderseacablesinACtransmissionapplicationsalsoappliestoAC
overheadlines,althoughtoamuchlesserextent.Nevertheless,foralongACoverheadtransmissionline,the
currentflowingjusttochargethelinecapacitancecanbesignificant,andthisreducesthecapabilityofthelineto
carryusefulcurrenttotheloadattheremoteend.Anotherfactorthatreducestheusefulcurrentcarryingabilityof
AClinesistheskineffect,whichcausesanonuniformdistributionofcurrentoverthecrosssectionalareaofthe
conductor.Transmissionlineconductorsoperatingwithdirectcurrentdonotsufferfromeitheroftheseconstraints.
Therefore,forthesameconductorlosses(orheatingeffect),agivenconductorcancarrymorecurrenttotheload
whenoperatingwithHVDCthanAC.

Finally,dependingupontheenvironmentalconditionsandtheperformanceofoverheadlineinsulationoperating
withHVDC,itmaybepossibleforagiventransmissionlinetooperatewithaconstantHVDCvoltagethatis
approximatelythesameasthepeakACvoltageforwhichitisdesignedandinsulated.Thepowerdeliveredinan
ACsystemisdefinedbytherootmeansquare(RMS)ofanACvoltage,butRMSisonlyabout71%ofthepeak
voltage.Therefore,iftheHVDClinecanoperatecontinuouslywithanHVDCvoltagethatisthesameasthepeak
voltageoftheACequivalentline,thenforagivencurrent(whereHVDCcurrentisthesameastheRMScurrentin
theACline),thepowertransmissioncapabilitywhenoperatingwithHVDCisapproximately40%higherthanthe
capabilitywhenoperatingwithAC.

Asynchronousconnections

BecauseHVDCallowspowertransmissionbetweenunsynchronizedACdistributionsystems,itcanhelpincrease
systemstability,bypreventingcascadingfailuresfrompropagatingfromonepartofawiderpowertransmission
gridtoanother.ChangesinloadthatwouldcauseportionsofanACnetworktobecomeunsynchronizedandto
separate,wouldnotsimilarlyaffectaDClink,andthepowerflowthroughtheDClinkwouldtendtostabilizethe
ACnetwork.ThemagnitudeanddirectionofpowerflowthroughaDClinkcanbedirectlycontrolled,and
changedasneededtosupporttheACnetworksateitherendoftheDClink.Thishascausedmanypowersystem
operatorstocontemplatewideruseofHVDCtechnologyforitsstabilitybenefitsalone.

Disadvantages
ThedisadvantagesofHVDCareinconversion,switching,control,availabilityandmaintenance.

HVDCislessreliableandhasloweravailabilitythanalternatingcurrent(AC)systems,mainlyduetotheextra
conversionequipment.Singlepolesystemshaveavailabilityofabout98.5%,withaboutathirdofthedowntime
unscheduledduetofaults.Faulttolerantbipolesystemsprovidehighavailabilityfor50%ofthelinkcapacity,but
availabilityofthefullcapacityisabout97%to98%.[29]

Therequiredconverterstationsareexpensiveandhavelimitedoverloadcapacity.Atsmallertransmission
distances,thelossesintheconverterstationsmaybebiggerthaninanACtransmissionlineforthesame
distance.[30]Thecostoftheconvertersmaynotbeoffsetbyreductionsinlineconstructioncostandlowerlineloss.

OperatingaHVDCschemerequiresmanysparepartstobekept,oftenexclusivelyforonesystem,asHVDC
systemsarelessstandardizedthanACsystemsandtechnologychangesfaster.

IncontrasttoACsystems,realizingmultiterminalsystemsiscomplex(especiallywithlinecommutated
converters),asisexpandingexistingschemestomultiterminalsystems.Controllingpowerflowinamultiterminal
DCsystemrequiresgoodcommunicationbetweenalltheterminalspowerflowmustbeactivelyregulatedbythe
convertercontrolsysteminsteadofrelyingontheinherentimpedanceandphaseanglepropertiesofanAC
transmissionline.[31]Multiterminalsystemsarerare.Asof2012onlytwoareinservice:theHydroQubecNew
EnglandtransmissionbetweenRadisson,SandyPondandNicolet[32]andtheSardiniamainlandItalylinkwhich
wasmodifiedin1989toalsoprovidepowertotheislandofCorsica.[33]

HighvoltageDCcircuitbreaker

HVDCcircuitbreakersaredifficulttobuildbecausesomemechanismmustbeincludedinthecircuitbreakerto
forcecurrenttozero,otherwisearcingandcontactwearwouldbetoogreattoallowreliableswitching.In
November2012,ABBannounceddevelopmentoftheworld'sfirstHVDCcircuitbreaker.[34][35]

TheABBbreakercontainsfourswitchingelements,twomechanical(onehighspeedandonelowspeed)andtwo
semiconductor(onehighvoltageandonelowvoltage).Normally,powerflowsthroughthelowspeedmechanical
switch,thehighspeedmechanicalswitchandthelowvoltagesemiconductorswitch.Thelasttwoswitchesare
paralleledbythehighvoltagesemiconductorswitch.
Initially,allswitchesareclosed(on).Becausethehighvoltagesemiconductorswitchhasmuchgreaterresistance
thanthemechanicalswitchplusthelowvoltagesemiconductorswitch,currentflowthroughitislow.To
disconnect,firstthelowvoltagesemiconductorswitchopens.Thisdivertsthecurrentthroughthehighvoltage
semiconductorswitch.Becauseofitsrelativelyhighresistance,itbeginsheatingveryrapidly.Thenthehighspeed
mechanicalswitchisopened.Unlikethelowvoltagesemiconductorswitch,whichiscapableofstandingoffonly
thevoltagedropoftheclosedhighvoltagesemiconductorswitch,thisoneiscapableofstandingoffthefull
voltage.Becausenocurrentisflowingthroughthisswitchwhenitopens,itisnotdamagedbyarcing.Then,the
highvoltagesemiconductorswitchisopened.Thisactuallycutsthepower.However,itisnotquite100%off.A
finallowspeedmechanicalswitchdisconnectstheresidualcurrent.[35]

CostsofhighvoltageDCtransmission
Generally,providersofHVDCsystems,suchasAlstom,SiemensandABB,donotspecifycostdetailsof
particularprojects.Itmaybeconsideredacommercialmatterbetweentheproviderandtheclient.

Costsvarywidelydependingonthespecificsoftheproject(suchaspowerrating,circuitlength,overheadvs.
cabledroute,landcosts,andACnetworkimprovementsrequiredateitherterminal).AdetailedcomparisonofDC
vs.ACtransmissioncostsmayberequiredinsituationswherethereisnocleartechnicaladvantagetoDC,and
economicalreasoningalonedrivestheselection.

However,somepractitionershaveprovidedsomeinformation:

Foran8GW40kmlinklaidundertheEnglishChannel,thefollowingareapproximateprimary
equipmentcostsfora2000MW500kVbipolarconventionalHVDClink(excludewayleaving,on
shorereinforcementworks,consenting,engineering,insurance,etc.)

Converterstations~110M(~120Mor$173.7M)
Subseacable+installation~1M/km(~1.2Mor~$1.6M/km)

Soforan8GWcapacitybetweenEnglandandFranceinfourlinks,littleisleftoverfrom750Mfor
theinstalledworks.Addanother200300Mfortheotherworksdependingonadditionalonshore
worksrequired.[36]

AnApril2010announcementfora2,000MW,64kmlinebetweenSpainandFranceisestimatedat700million.
ThisincludesthecostofatunnelthroughthePyrenees.[37]

Theconversionprocess
Converter

AttheheartofanHVDCconverterstation,theequipmentwhichperformstheconversionbetweenACandDCis
referredtoastheconverter.AlmostallHVDCconvertersareinherentlycapableofconvertingfromACtoDC
(rectification)andfromDCtoAC(inversion),althoughinmanyHVDCsystems,thesystemasawholeis
optimisedforpowerflowinonlyonedirection.Irrespectiveofhowtheconverteritselfisdesigned,thestation
whichisoperating(atagiventime)withpowerflowfromACtoDCisreferredtoastherectifierandthestation
whichisoperatingwithpowerflowfromDCtoACisreferredtoastheinverter.
EarlyHVDCsystemsusedelectromechanicalconversion(theThurysystem)butallHVDCsystemsbuiltsincethe
1940shaveusedelectronic(static)converters.ElectronicconvertersforHVDCaredividedintotwomain
categories:

Linecommutatedconverters(LCC)
Voltagesourcedconverters,orcurrentsourceconverters.

Linecommutatedconverters

MostoftheHVDCsystemsinoperationtodayarebasedonlinecommutatedconverters.

ThebasicLCCconfigurationusesathreephasebridgerectifierorsixpulsebridge,containingsixelectronic
switches,eachconnectingoneofthethreephasestooneofthetwoDCrails.Acompleteswitchingelementis
usuallyreferredtoasavalve,irrespectiveofitsconstruction.However,withaphasechangeonlyevery60,
considerableharmonicdistortionisproducedatboththeDCandACterminalswhenthisarrangementisused.

Anenhancementofthisarrangementuses12valvesinatwelvepulse
bridge.TheACissplitintotwoseparatethreephasesuppliesbefore
transformation.Oneofthesetsofsuppliesisthenconfiguredtohaveastar
(wye)secondary,theotheradeltasecondary,establishinga30phase
differencebetweenthetwosetsofthreephases.Withtwelvevalves
connectingeachofthetwosetsofthreephasestothetwoDCrails,thereis
aphasechangeevery30,andharmonicsareconsiderablyreduced.Forthis
reasonthetwelvepulsesystemhasbecomestandardonmostline
commutatedconverterHVDCsystemsbuiltsincethe1970s. Atwelvepulsebridgerectifier

Withlinecommutatedconverters,theconverterhasonlyonedegreeof
freedomthefiringangle,whichrepresentsthetimedelaybetweenthevoltageacrossavalvebecomingpositive
(atwhichpointthevalvewouldstarttoconductifitweremadefromdiodes)andthethyristorsbeingturnedon.
TheDCoutputvoltageoftheconvertersteadilybecomeslesspositiveasthefiringangleisincreased:firingangles
ofupto90correspondtorectificationandresultinpositiveDCvoltages,whilefiringanglesabove90
correspondtoinversionandresultinnegativeDCvoltages.Thepracticalupperlimitforthefiringangleisabout
150160becauseabovethis,thevalvewouldhaveinsufficientturnofftime.

EarlyLCCsystemsusedmercuryarcvalves,whichwereruggedbutrequiredhighmaintenance.Becauseofthis,
manymercuryarcHVDCsystemswerebuiltwithbypassswitchgearacrosseachsixpulsebridgesothatthe
HVDCschemecouldbeoperatedinsixpulsemodeforshortperiodsofmaintenance.Thelastmercuryarcsystem
wasshutdownin2012.

ThethyristorvalvewasfirstusedinHVDCsystemsin1972.Thethyristorisasolidstatesemiconductordevice
similartothediode,butwithanextracontrolterminalthatisusedtoswitchthedeviceonataparticularinstant
duringtheACcycle.BecausethevoltagesinHVDCsystems,upto800kVinsomecases,farexceedthe
breakdownvoltagesofthethyristorsused,HVDCthyristorvalvesarebuiltusinglargenumbersofthyristorsin
series.Additionalpassivecomponentssuchasgradingcapacitorsandresistorsneedtobeconnectedinparallel
witheachthyristorinordertoensurethatthevoltageacrossthevalveisevenlysharedbetweenthethyristors.The
thyristorplusitsgradingcircuitsandotherauxiliaryequipmentisknownasathyristorlevel.

Eachthyristorvalvewilltypicallycontaintensorhundredsofthyristorlevels,eachoperatingatadifferent(high)
potentialwithrespecttoearth.Thecommandinformationtoturnonthethyristorsthereforecannotsimplybesent
usingawireconnectionitneedstobeisolated.Theisolationmethodcanbemagneticbutisusuallyoptical.Two
opticalmethodsareused:indirectanddirectopticaltriggering.Intheindirectopticaltriggeringmethod,low
voltagecontrolelectronicssendlightpulsesalongopticalfibrestothehighsidecontrolelectronics,whichderives
itspowerfromthevoltageacrosseachthyristor.The
alternativedirectopticaltriggeringmethoddispenseswith
mostofthehighsideelectronics,insteadusinglightpulses
fromthecontrolelectronicstoswitchlighttriggeredthyristors
(LTTs),althoughasmallmonitoringelectronicsunitmaystill
berequiredforprotectionofthevalve.

Inalinecommutatedconverter,theDCcurrent(usually)
cannotchangedirectionitflowsthroughalargeinductance
andcanbeconsideredalmostconstant.OntheACside,the
converterbehavesapproximatelyasacurrentsource,injecting
bothgridfrequencyandharmoniccurrentsintotheAC
ThyristorvalvestacksforPole2oftheHVDC
network.Forthisreason,alinecommutatedconverterfor
InterIslandbetweentheNorthandSouthIslandsof
HVDCisalsoconsideredasacurrentsourceinverter.
NewZealand.Themanatthebottomgivesscaleto
thesizeofthevalves.
Voltagesourcedconverters

Becausethyristorscanonlybeturnedon(notoff)bycontrolaction,thecontrolsystemhasonlyonedegreeof
freedomwhentoturnonthethyristor.Thisisanimportantlimitationinsomecircumstances.

Withsomeothertypesofsemiconductordevicesuchastheinsulatedgatebipolartransistor(IGBT),bothturnon
andturnoffcanbecontrolled,givingaseconddegreeoffreedom.Asaresult,theycanbeusedtomakeself
commutatedconverters.Insuchconverters,thepolarityofDCvoltageisusuallyfixedandtheDCvoltage,being
smoothedbyalargecapacitance,canbeconsideredconstant.Forthisreason,anHVDCconverterusingIGBTsis
usuallyreferredtoasavoltagesourcedconverter.Theadditionalcontrollabilitygivesmanyadvantages,notably
theabilitytoswitchtheIGBTsonandoffmanytimespercycleinordertoimprovetheharmonicperformance.
Beingselfcommutated,theconverternolongerreliesonsynchronousmachinesintheACsystemforits
operation.AvoltagesourcedconvertercanthereforefeedpowertoanACnetworkconsistingonlyofpassive
loads,somethingwhichisimpossiblewithLCCHVDC.

HVDCsystemsbasedonvoltagesourcedconvertersnormallyusethesixpulseconnectionbecausetheconverter
producesmuchlessharmonicdistortionthanacomparableLCCandthetwelvepulseconnectionisunnecessary.

MostoftheVSCHVDCsystemsbuiltuntil2012werebasedonthetwolevelconverter,whichcanbethoughtof
asasixpulsebridgeinwhichthethyristorshavebeenreplacedbyIGBTswithinverseparalleldiodes,andtheDC
smoothingreactorshavebeenreplacedbyDCsmoothingcapacitors.Suchconvertersderivetheirnamefromthe
discrete,twovoltagelevelsattheACoutputofeachphasethatcorrespondtotheelectricalpotentialsofthe
positiveandnegativeDCterminals.Pulsewidthmodulation(PWM)isusuallyusedtoimprovetheharmonic
distortionoftheconverter.

SomeHVDCsystemshavebeenbuiltwiththreelevelconverters,buttodaymostnewVSCHVDCsystemsare
beingbuiltwithsomeformofmultilevelconverter,mostcommonlytheModularMultiLevelConverter(MMC),
inwhicheachvalveconsistsofanumberofindependentconvertersubmodules,eachcontainingitsownstorage
capacitor.TheIGBTsineachsubmoduleeitherbypassthecapacitororconnectitintothecircuit,allowingthe
valvetosynthesizeasteppedvoltagewithverylowlevelsofharmonicdistortion.

Convertertransformers

AttheACsideofeachconverter,abankoftransformers,oftenthreephysicallyseparatedsinglephase
transformers,isolatethestationfromtheACsupply,toprovidealocalearth,andtoensurethecorrecteventualDC
voltage.Theoutputofthesetransformersisthenconnectedtotheconverter.
ConvertertransformersforLCCHVDCschemesarequitespecialised
becauseofthehighlevelsofharmoniccurrentswhichflowthroughthem,
andbecausethesecondarywindinginsulationexperiencesapermanentDC
voltage,whichaffectsthedesignoftheinsulatingstructure(valveside
requiresmoresolidinsulation)insidethetank.InLCCsystems,the
transformer(s)alsoneedtoprovidethe30phaseshiftneededforharmonic
cancellation.

ConvertertransformersforVSCHVDCsystemsareusuallysimplerand
moreconventionalindesignthanthoseforLCCHVDCsystems. Asinglephase,threewinding
convertertransformer.Thelong
Reactivepower valvewindingbushings,which
projectthroughthewallofthevalve
AmajordrawbackofHVDCsystemsusinglinecommutatedconvertersis hall,areshownontheleft.Theline
thattheconvertersinherentlyconsumereactivepower.TheACcurrent windingbushingprojectsvertically
flowingintotheconverterfromtheACsystemlagsbehindtheACvoltage upwardsatcentreright
sothat,irrespectiveofthedirectionofactivepowerflow,theconverter
alwaysabsorbsreactivepower,behavinginthesamewayasashunt
reactor.Thereactivepowerabsorbedisatleast0.5MVAr/MWunderidealconditionsandcanbehigherthanthis
whentheconverterisoperatingathigherthanusualfiringorextinctionangle,orreducedDCvoltage.

AlthoughatHVDCconverterstationsconnecteddirectlytopowerstationssomeofthereactivepowermaybe
providedbythegeneratorsthemselves,inmostcasesthereactivepowerconsumedbytheconvertermustbe
providedbybanksofshuntcapacitorsconnectedattheACterminalsoftheconverter.Theshuntcapacitorsare
usuallyconnecteddirectlytothegridvoltagebutinsomecasesmaybeconnectedtoalowervoltageviaatertiary
windingontheconvertertransformer.

Sincethereactivepowerconsumeddependsontheactivepowerbeingtransmitted,theshuntcapacitorsusually
needtobesubdividedintoanumberofswitchablebanks(typically4perconverter)inordertopreventasurplusof
reactivepowerbeinggeneratedatlowtransmittedpower.

Theshuntcapacitorsarealmostalwaysprovidedwithtuningreactorsand,wherenecessary,dampingresistorsso
thattheycanperformadualroleasharmonicfilters.

Voltagesourceconverters,ontheotherhand,caneitherproduceorconsumereactivepowerondemand,withthe
resultthatusuallynoseparateshuntcapacitorsareneeded(otherthanthoserequiredpurelyforfiltering).

Harmonicsandfiltering

AllpowerelectronicconvertersgeneratesomedegreeofharmonicdistortionontheACandDCsystemstowhich
theyareconnected,andHVDCconvertersarenoexception.

WiththerecentlydevelopedModularMultiLevelConverter(MMC),levelsofharmonicdistortionmaybe
practicallynegligible,butwithlinecommutatedconvertersandsimplertypesofvoltagesourceconverters,
considerableharmonicdistortionmaybeproducedonboththeACandDCsidesoftheconverter.Asaresult,
harmonicfiltersarenearlyalwaysrequiredattheACterminalsofsuchconverters,andinHVDCtransmission
schemesusingoverheadlines,mayalsoberequiredontheDCside.

Filtersforlinecommutatedconverters
ThebasicbuildingblockofalinecommutatedHVDCconverteristhesixpulsebridge.Thisarrangement
producesveryhighlevelsofharmonicdistortionbyactingasacurrentsourceinjectingharmoniccurrentsoforder
6n1intotheACsystemandgeneratingharmonicvoltagesoforder6nsuperimposedontheDCvoltage.

Itisverycostlytoprovideharmonicfilterscapableofsuppressingsuchharmonics,soavariantknownasthe
twelvepulsebridge(consistingoftwosixpulsebridgesinserieswitha30phaseshiftbetweenthem)isnearly
alwaysused.Withthetwelvepulsearrangement,harmonicsarestillproducedbutonlyatorders12n1ontheAC
sideand12nontheDCside.Thetaskofsuppressingsuchharmonicsisstillchallenging,butmanageable.

LinecommutatedconvertersforHVDCareusuallyprovidedwithcombinationsofharmonicfiltersdesignedto
dealwiththe11thand13thharmonicsontheACside,and12thharmonicontheDCside.Sometimes,highpass
filtersmaybeprovidedtodealwith23rd,25th,35th,37th...ontheACsideand24th,36th...ontheDCside.
Sometimes,theACfiltersmayalsoneedtoprovidedampingatlowerorder,noncharacteristicharmonicssuchas
3rdor5thharmonics.

ThetaskofdesigningACharmonicfiltersforHVDCconverterstationsiscomplexandcomputationallyintensive,
sinceinadditiontoensuringthattheconverterdoesnotproduceanunacceptablelevelofvoltagedistortiononthe
ACsystem,itmustbeensuredthattheharmonicfiltersdonotresonatewithsomecomponentelsewhereintheAC
system.AdetailedknowledgeoftheharmonicimpedanceoftheACsystem,atawiderangeoffrequencies,is
neededinordertodesigntheACfilters.[38]

DCfiltersarerequiredonlyforHVDCtransmissionsystemsinvolvingoverheadlines.Voltagedistortionisnota
probleminitsownright,sinceconsumersdonotconnectdirectlytotheDCterminalsofthesystem,sothemain
designcriterionfortheDCfiltersistoensurethattheharmoniccurrentsflowingintheDClinesdonotinduce
interferenceinnearbyopenwiretelephonelines.[39]Withtheriseindigitalmobiletelecommunicationsystems,
whicharemuchlesssusceptibletointerference,DCfiltersarebecominglessimportantforHVDCsystems.

Filtersforvoltagesourcedconverters

Sometypesofvoltagesourcedconvertersmayproducesuchlowlevelsofharmonicdistortionthatnofiltersare
requiredatall.However,convertertypessuchasthetwolevelconverter,usedwithpulsewidthmodulation
(PWM),stillrequiresomefiltering,albeitlessthanonlinecommutatedconvertersystems.

Withsuchconverters,theharmonicspectrumisgenerallyshiftedtohigherfrequenciesthanwithlinecommutated
converters.Thisusuallyallowsthefilterequipmenttobesmaller.Thedominantharmonicfrequenciesare
sidebandsofthePWMfrequencyandmultiplesthereof.InHVDCapplications,thePWMfrequencyistypically
around12kHz.

Configurations
Monopole

Inacommonconfiguration,calledmonopole,oneoftheterminalsofthe
rectifierisconnectedtoearthground.Theotherterminal,atapotential
highaboveorbelowground,isconnectedtoatransmissionline.The
earthedterminalmaybeconnectedtothecorrespondingconnectionatthe
invertingstationbymeansofasecondconductor.
Blockdiagramofamonopolesystem
Monopoleandearthreturn withearthreturn
Ifnometallicconductorisinstalled,currentflowsintheearthand/orseabetweentwospeciallydesignedearth
electrodes.Thisarrangementisatypeofsinglewireearthreturnsystem.

Theelectrodesareusuallylocatedsometensofkilometresfromthestationsandareconnectedtothestationsviaa
mediumvoltageelectrodeline.Thedesignoftheelectrodesthemselvesdependsonwhethertheyarelocatedon
land,ontheshoreoratsea.Forthemonopolarconfigurationwithearthreturn,theearthcurrentflowis
unidirectional,whichmeansthatthedesignofoneoftheelectrodes(thecathode)canberelativelysimple,
althoughthedesignofanodeelectrodeisquitecomplex.

Forlongdistancetransmission,earthreturncanbeconsiderablycheaperthanalternativesusingadedicatedneutral
conductor,butitcanleadtoproblemssuchas:

Electrochemicalcorrosionoflongburiedmetalobjectssuchaspipelines
Underwaterearthreturnelectrodesinseawatermayproducechlorineorotherwiseaffectwaterchemistry.
Anunbalancedcurrentpathmayresultinanetmagneticfield,whichcanaffectmagneticnavigational
compassesforshipspassingoveranunderwatercable.

Monopoleandmetallicreturn

Theseeffectscanbeeliminatedwithinstallationofametallicreturnconductorbetweenthetwoendsofthe
monopolartransmissionline.Sinceoneterminaloftheconvertersisconnectedtoearth,thereturnconductorneed
notbeinsulatedforthefulltransmissionvoltagewhichmakesitlesscostlythanthehighvoltageconductor.The
decisionofwhetherornottouseametallicreturnconductorisbaseduponeconomic,technicalandenvironmental
factors.[40]

Modernmonopolarsystemsforpureoverheadlinescarrytypically1.5GW.[41]Ifundergroundorunderwater
cablesareused,thetypicalvalueis600MW.

Mostmonopolarsystemsaredesignedforfuturebipolarexpansion.Transmissionlinetowersmaybedesignedto
carrytwoconductors,evenifonlyoneisusedinitiallyforthemonopoletransmissionsystem.Thesecond
conductoriseitherunused,usedaselectrodelineorconnectedinparallelwiththeother(asincaseofBaltic
Cable).

Symmetricalmonopole

Analternativeistousetwohighvoltageconductors,operatingathalfoftheDCvoltage,withonlyasingle
converterateachend.Inthisarrangement,knownasthesymmetricalmonopole,theconvertersareearthedonly
viaahighimpedanceandthereisnoearthcurrent.Thesymmetricalmonopolearrangementisuncommonwith
linecommutatedconverters(theNorNedinterconnectionbeingarareexample)butisverycommonwithVoltage
SourcedConverterswhencablesareused.

Bipolar

Inbipolartransmissionapairofconductorsisused,eachatahighpotentialwithrespecttoground,inopposite
polarity.Sincetheseconductorsmustbeinsulatedforthefullvoltage,transmissionlinecostishigherthana
monopolewithareturnconductor.However,thereareanumberofadvantagestobipolartransmissionwhichcan
makeitanattractiveoption.

Undernormalload,negligibleearthcurrentflows,asinthecaseofmonopolartransmissionwithametallic
earthreturn.Thisreducesearthreturnlossandenvironmentaleffects.
 Whenafaultdevelopsinaline,withearthreturnelectrodesinstalled
ateachendoftheline,approximatelyhalftheratedpowercan
continuetoflowusingtheearthasareturnpath,operatingin
monopolarmode.
Sinceforagiventotalpowerratingeachconductorofabipolarline
carriesonlyhalfthecurrentofmonopolarlines,thecostofthe
secondconductorisreducedcomparedtoamonopolarlineofthe
samerating.
Inveryadverseterrain,thesecondconductormaybecarriedonan
independentsetoftransmissiontowers,sothatsomepowermay Blockdiagramofabipolarsystem
continuetobetransmittedevenifonelineisdamaged. thatalsohasanearthreturn

Abipolarsystemmayalsobeinstalledwithametallicearthreturn
conductor.

Bipolarsystemsmaycarryasmuchas4GWatvoltagesof660kVwithasingleconverterperpole,asonthe
NingdongShandongprojectinChina.Withapowerratingof2000MWpertwelvepulseconverter,theconverters
forthatprojectwere(asof2010)themostpowerfulHVDCconverterseverbuilt.[42]Evenhigherpowerscanbe
achievedbyconnectingtwoormoretwelvepulseconvertersinseriesineachpole,asisusedinthe800kV
XiangjiabaShanghaiprojectinChina,whichusestwotwelvepulseconverterbridgesineachpole,eachratedat
400kVDCand1600MW.

Submarinecableinstallationsinitiallycommissionedasamonopolemaybeupgradedwithadditionalcablesand
operatedasabipole.

Abipolarschemecanbeimplementedsothatthepolarityofoneorbothpolescanbechanged.Thisallowsthe
operationastwoparallelmonopoles.Ifoneconductorfails,transmissioncanstillcontinueatreducedcapacity.
Lossesmayincreaseifgroundelectrodesandlinesarenotdesignedfortheextracurrentinthismode.Toreduce
lossesinthiscase,intermediateswitchingstationsmaybeinstalled,atwhichlinesegmentscanbeswitchedoffor
parallelized.ThiswasdoneatIngaShabaHVDC.

Backtoback

Abacktobackstation(orB2Bforshort)isaplantinwhichbothconvertersareinthesamearea,usuallyinthe
samebuilding.Thelengthofthedirectcurrentlineiskeptasshortaspossible.HVDCbacktobackstationsare
usedfor

couplingofelectricitygridsofdifferentfrequencies(asinJapanandSouthAmericaandtheGCC
interconnectionbetweenUAE[50Hz]andSaudiArabia[60Hz]completedin2009)
couplingtwonetworksofthesamenominalfrequencybutnofixedphaserelationship(asuntil1995/96in
Etzenricht,Drnrohr,Vienna,andtheVyborgHVDCscheme).
couplingtwonetworksofthesamenominalfrequencyandafixedphaseshiftrelationship(anexamplein
NorthAmericaisHydroQuebecnetwork(60Hz)whichhasa90degreephasedifferencewiththeIESO
(Ontario),NewYorkandNewEnglandnetworks(60Hz))
differentfrequencyandphasenumber(forexample,asareplacementfortractioncurrentconverterplants)

TheDCvoltageintheintermediatecircuitcanbeselectedfreelyatHVDCbacktobackstationsbecauseofthe
shortconductorlength.TheDCvoltageisusuallyselectedtobeaslowaspossible,inordertobuildasmallvalve
hallandtoreducethenumberofthyristorsconnectedinseriesineachvalve.Forthisreason,atHVDCbackto
backstations,valveswiththehighestavailablecurrentrating(insomecases,upto4,500A)areused.

Multiterminalsystems
ThemostcommonconfigurationofanHVDClinkconsistsoftwo
converterstationsconnectedbyanoverheadpowerlineorundersea
cable.

MultiterminalHVDClinks,connectingmorethantwopoints,are
rare.Theconfigurationofmultipleterminalscanbeseries,parallel,or
hybrid(amixtureofseriesandparallel).Parallelconfigurationtendsto
beusedforlargecapacitystations,andseriesforlowercapacity
stations.Anexampleisthe2,000MWQuebecNewEngland
Transmissionsystemopenedin1992,whichiscurrentlythelargest AblockdiagramofabipolarHVDC
multiterminalHVDCsystemintheworld.[43] transmissionsystem,betweentwostations
designatedAandB.ACrepresentsan
Multiterminalsystemsaredifficulttorealiseusinglinecommutated alternatingcurrentnetworkCON
convertersbecausereversalsofpowerareeffectedbyreversingthe representsaconvertervalve,eitherrectifier
polarityofDCvoltage,whichaffectsallconvertersconnectedtothe orinverter,TRrepresentsapower
system.WithVoltageSourcedConverters,powerreversalisachieved transformer,DCTListhedirectcurrent
insteadbyreversingthedirectionofcurrent,makingparallel transmissionlineconductor,DCLisa
connectedmultiterminalssystemsmucheasiertocontrol.Forthis directcurrentfilterinductor,BPrepresents
reason,multiterminalsystemsareexpectedtobecomemuchmore abypassswitch,andPMrepresentpower
commoninthenearfuture. factorcorrectionandharmonicfilter
networksrequiredatbothendsofthelink.
Chinaisexpandingitsgridtokeepupwithincreasedpowerdemand, TheDCtransmissionlinemaybevery
whileaddressingenvironmentaltargets.ChinaSouthernPowerGrid shortinabacktobacklink,orextend
startedathreeterminalsVSCHVDCpilotprojectin2011.Theproject hundredsofmiles(km)overhead,
hasdesignedratingsof160kV/200MW100MW50MWandwill undergroundorunderwater.Oneconductor
beusedtobringwindpowergeneratedonNanaoislandintothe oftheDClinemaybereplacedby
mainlandGuangdongpowergridthrough32kmofcombinationof connectionstoearthground.
HVDClandcables,seacablesandoverheadlines.Thisprojectwasput
intooperationonDecember19,2013.[44]

InIndia,themultiterminalNorthEastAgraprojectisplannedforcommissioningin20152017.Itisrated6000
MW,andittransmitspowerona800kVbipolarlinefromtwoconverterstations,atBiswanathCharialiand
Alipurduar,intheeasttoaconverteratAgra,adistanceof1728km.[45]

Tripole

Aschemepatentedin2004[46]isintendedforconversionofexistingACtransmissionlinestoHVDC.Twoofthe
threecircuitconductorsareoperatedasabipole.Thethirdconductorisusedasaparallelmonopole,equippedwith
reversingvalves(orparallelvalvesconnectedinreversepolarity).Theparallelmonopoleperiodicallyrelieves
currentfromonepoleortheother,switchingpolarityoveraspanofseveralminutes.Thebipoleconductorswould
beloadedtoeither1.37or0.37oftheirthermallimit,withtheparallelmonopolealwayscarrying1timesits
thermallimitcurrent.ThecombinedRMSheatingeffectisasifeachoftheconductorsisalwayscarrying1.0ofits
ratedcurrent.Thisallowsheaviercurrentstobecarriedbythebipoleconductors,andfulluseoftheinstalledthird
conductorforenergytransmission.Highcurrentscanbecirculatedthroughthelineconductorsevenwhenload
demandislow,forremovalofice.

Asof2012,notripoleconversionsareinoperation,althoughatransmissionlineinIndiahasbeenconvertedto
bipoleHVDC(HVDCSileruBarsoor).

Otherarrangements
CrossSkagerrakconsistedsince1993of3poles,fromwhich2wereswitchedinparallelandthethirdusedan
oppositepolaritywithahighertransmissionvoltage.Thisconfigurationendedin2014whenpoles1and2again
wererebuilttoworkinbipoleandpole3(LCC)worksinbipolewithanewpole4(VSC).ThisisthefirstHVDC
transmissionwhereLCCandVSCpolescooperateinabipole.

AsimilararrangementwastheHVDCInterIslandinNewZealandafteracapacityupgradein1992,inwhichthe
twooriginalconverters(usingmercuryarcvalves)wereparallelswitchedfeedingthesamepoleandanewthird
(thyristor)converterinstalledwithoppositepolarityandhigheroperationvoltage.Thisconfigurationendedin
2012whenthetwooldconverterswerereplacedwithasingle,new,thyristorconverter.

Coronadischarge
Coronadischargeisthecreationofionsinafluid(suchasair)bythepresenceofastrongelectricfield.Electrons
aretornfromneutralair,andeitherthepositiveionsortheelectronsareattractedtotheconductor,whilethe
chargedparticlesdrift.Thiseffectcancauseconsiderablepowerloss,createaudibleandradiofrequency
interference,generatetoxiccompoundssuchasoxidesofnitrogenandozone,andbringfortharcing.

BothACandDCtransmissionlinescangeneratecoronas,intheformercaseintheformofoscillatingparticles,in
thelatteraconstantwind.Duetothespacechargeformedaroundtheconductors,anHVDCsystemmayhave
abouthalfthelossperunitlengthofahighvoltageACsystemcarryingthesameamountofpower.With
monopolartransmissionthechoiceofpolarityoftheenergizedconductorleadstoadegreeofcontroloverthe
coronadischarge.Inparticular,thepolarityoftheionsemittedcanbecontrolled,whichmayhavean
environmentalimpactonozonecreation.Negativecoronasgenerateconsiderablymoreozonethanpositive
coronas,andgenerateitfurtherdownwindofthepowerline,creatingthepotentialforhealtheffects.Theuseofa
positivevoltagewillreducetheozoneimpactsofmonopoleHVDCpowerlines.

Applications
Overview

ThecontrollabilityofacurrentflowthroughHVDCrectifiersandinverters,theirapplicationinconnecting
unsynchronizednetworks,andtheirapplicationsinefficientsubmarinecablesmeanthatHVDCinterconnections
areoftenusedatnationalorregionalboundariesfortheexchangeofpower(inNorthAmerica,HVDCconnections
dividemuchofCanadaandtheUnitedStatesintoseveralelectricalregionsthatcrossnationalborders,although
thepurposeoftheseconnectionsisstilltoconnectunsynchronizedACgridstoeachother).Offshorewindfarms
alsorequireunderseacables,andtheirturbinesareunsynchronized.Inverylongdistanceconnectionsbetweentwo
locations,suchaspowertransmissionfromalargehydroelectricpowerplantataremotesitetoanurbanarea,
HVDCtransmissionsystemsmayappropriatelybeusedseveralschemesofthesekindhavebeenbuilt.For
interconnectionstoSiberia,Canada,andtheScandinavianNorth,thedecreasedlinecostsofHVDCalsomakeit
applicable,seeListofHVDCprojects.Otherapplicationsarenotedthroughoutthisarticle.

ACnetworkinterconnections

ACtransmissionlinescaninterconnectonlysynchronizedACnetworkswiththesamefrequencywithlimitsonthe
allowablephasedifferencebetweenthetwoendsoftheline.Manyareasthatwishtosharepowerhave
unsynchronizednetworks.ThepowergridsoftheUK,NorthernEuropeandcontinentalEuropearenotunitedinto
asinglesynchronizednetwork.Japanhas50Hzand60Hznetworks.ContinentalNorthAmerica,whileoperating
at60Hzthroughout,isdividedintoregionswhichareunsynchronised:East,West,Texas,Quebec,andAlaska.
BrazilandParaguay,whichsharetheenormousItaipuDamhydroelectricplant,operateon60Hzand50Hz
respectively.However,HVDCsystemsmakeitpossibletointerconnectunsynchronizedACnetworks,andalso
addthepossibilityofcontrollingACvoltageandreactivepowerflow.

AgeneratorconnectedtoalongACtransmissionlinemaybecomeunstableandfalloutofsynchronizationwitha
distantACpowersystem.AnHVDCtransmissionlinkmaymakeiteconomicallyfeasibletouseremote
generationsites.WindfarmslocatedoffshoremayuseHVDCsystemstocollectpowerfrommultiple
unsynchronizedgeneratorsfortransmissiontotheshorebyanunderwatercable.[47]

Ingeneral,however,anHVDCpowerlinewillinterconnecttwoACregionsofthepowerdistributiongrid.
MachinerytoconvertbetweenACandDCpoweraddsaconsiderablecostinpowertransmission.Theconversion
fromACtoDCisknownasrectification,andfromDCtoACasinversion.Aboveacertainbreakevendistance
(about50kmforsubmarinecables,andperhaps600800kmforoverheadcables),thelowercostoftheHVDC
electricalconductorsoutweighsthecostoftheelectronics.

Theconversionelectronicsalsopresentanopportunitytoeffectivelymanagethepowergridbymeansof
controllingthemagnitudeanddirectionofpowerflow.AnadditionaladvantageoftheexistenceofHVDClinks,
therefore,ispotentialincreasedstabilityinthetransmissiongrid.

Renewableelectricitysuperhighways

Anumberofstudieshavehighlightedthepotentialbenefitsofverywide
areasupergridsbasedonHVDCsincetheycanmitigatetheeffectsof
intermittencybyaveragingandsmoothingtheoutputsoflargenumbersof
geographicallydispersedwindfarmsorsolarfarms.[48]Czisch'sstudy
concludesthatagridcoveringthefringesofEuropecouldbring100%
renewablepower(70%wind,30%biomass)atclosetotoday'sprices.
Therehasbeendebateoverthetechnicalfeasibilityofthisproposal[49]and
thepoliticalrisksinvolvedinenergytransmissionacrossalargenumberof
internationalborders.[50]
TwoHVDClinescrossnearWing,
Thetransmissionlossesinsuchsupergridsareloweredbyincreasingthe NorthDakota.
transmissionvoltageandassuchtheirfeasibilityhasincreasedoverthe
years.In2010ABBGroupbuilttheworld'sfirst800kVUHVDCcable(in
China)andin2016theyannouncedtheirreceiptofanordertobuildan1100kVUHVDCcable(alsoinChina).[8]

Theconstructionofsuchgreenpowersuperhighwaysisadvocatedinawhitepaperthatwasreleasedbythe
AmericanWindEnergyAssociationandtheSolarEnergyIndustriesAssociationin2009.[51]CleanLineEnergy
PartnersisdevelopingfourHVDClinesintheU.S.forlongdistanceelectricpowertransmission.[52]

InJanuary2009,theEuropeanCommissionproposed300milliontosubsidizethedevelopmentofHVDClinks
betweenIreland,Britain,theNetherlands,Germany,Denmark,andSweden,aspartofawider1.2billionpackage
supportinglinkstooffshorewindfarmsandcrossborderinterconnectorsthroughoutEurope.Meanwhile,the
recentlyfoundedUnionoftheMediterraneanhasembracedaMediterraneanSolarPlantoimportlargeamountsof
concentratingsolarpowerintoEuropefromNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast.[53]

In2017,apowerlinetransmittingwindenergyfromOklahomatoTennesseeisexpectedtobebuiltasthefirst
UHVDCcableintheUnitedStates.Thelineisexpectedtobe1,100kilometres(680mi)longbetweenthe
OklahomapanhandleandthewesternpartofTennesseewithavoltageof600kV.[54]
Seealso
Electrodeline ListofHVDCprojectslistofHVDCprojectsin
Europeansupergrid history,incurrentoperation,andunder
FlexibleACtransmissionsystem construction
Highvoltagecable Submarinepowercable
Transmissiontower
Valvehall

ListofHVDCprojectslistofHVDCprojectsin
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Furtherreading
Kimbark,E.W.,Directcurrenttransmission,volume1,WileyInterscience,1971.
Cory,B.J.,Adamson,C.,Ainsworth,J.D.,Freris,L.L.,Funke,B.,Harris,L.A.,Sykes,J.H.M.,Highvoltage
directcurrentconvertersandsystems,Macdonald&Co.(publishers)Ltd,1965.

Externallinks
CIGRB4CompendiumofHVDCSchemes,2009.(http://b4.cigre.o
rg/Publications/OtherDocuments)publishedbyInternational WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoHVDC.
CouncilonLargeElectricSystems(CIGR)
ABBHVDCwebsite(http://www.abb.com/hvdc)
GEGridSolutionsHVDCwebsite(http://www.alstom.com/grid/productsandservices/engineeredenergyso
lutions/hvdctransmissionsystems/)
WorldBankbriefingdocumentaboutHVDCsystems(https://web.archive.org/web/20050524044311/http://
www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/em/transmission/technology_abb.pdf)
HVDCPLUSfromSiemens(http://www.hvdcplus.de/)
UHVDCchallengesexplainedfromSiemens(http://www.ptd.siemens.de/HVDC_Solutions_EPRI_Conferen
ce_0907_V_1b.pdf)
CentroElettrotecnicoSperimentaleItaliano(CESI)(http://www.cesi.it/services/power_transmission_and_dis
tribution/Pages/hvdc_interconnections.aspx/)

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