CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

Growth and reproduction are characteristics of cells, indeed of all living organisms. All
cells reproduce by dividing into two, with each parental cell giving rise to two daughter
cells each time they divide. These newly formed daughter cells can themselves grow and
divide, giving rise to a new cell population that is formed by the growth and division of a
single parental cell and its progeny. In other words, such cycles of growth and division
allow a single cell to form a structureconsisting of millions of cells.

Prevost and Dumans (1824) were the first to study cell division
during the cleavage of zygote of frog.
Nagelli (1846) was the first to propose that new cells are formed by
the division of pre-existing cells.
Rudolf Virchow (1859) proposed "omnis cellula e cellula" and "cell
lineage theory".
Cell division functions in

growth
repair
reproduction

Two types of cell division occur

mitosis
meiosis

Mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells and

conserves the chromosome number (2n).

Meiosis occurs in sexually reproducing organisms and results in

cells with half the chromosome number of the parent cell (2n).

Two important factors limit cell size and promote cell division
the ratio of the volume of a cell to the surface area and
 the capacity of the nucleus
Cell cycle :Cell division is an important process in all living organisms. During the
division of a cell, DNA replication and cell growth also take place. All these
processes, i.e., cell division, DNA replication, and cell growth, hence, have to take
place in a coordinated way to ensure correct division and formation of progeny
cells containing intact genomes. .The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its
genome, synthesis the other constituents of the cell and eventually divides into two
daughter cells. Although cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic increase)
is a continuous process, DNA synthesis occurs only during one specific stage in
the cell cycle. The replicated chromosomes (DNA) are then distributed to
daughter nuclei by a complex series of events during cell

Phases of cell cycle :

Interphase :

G1 Phase: Cell metabolically active and grows continuously.

S Phase: DNA synthesis occurs, DNA content increases from 2C to 4C,but the number of
chromosomes remains some (2N).

G2 Phase: Proteins are synthesized in preparation for mitosis while cell growth continues.

M Phase (Mitosis Phase): Starts with nuclear division, corresponding to separation of

daughter chromosomes (karyokinesis) and usually ends with division of cytoplasm
(cytokinesis).

Quiescent stage (G0): Cells that do not divide and exit G1 phase to enter an inactive
stage called G0. Cells at this stage remain metabolically active but do not proliferate.

MITOSIS :
Prophase :

Replicated chromosomes, each consisting of 2 chromatids, condense and

become visible.

Microtubules are assembled into mitotic spindle.

Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear.

Centriole moves to opposite poles.

Metaphase :

Spindle fibres attached to kinetochores (small disc-shaped structures at the

surface of centromers) of chromosomes.

Chromosomes line up at the equator of the spindle to form metaphase

plate.

Anaphase :

Centromeres split and chromatids separate.

Chromatids move to opposite poles.

 Telophase :

Chromosomes cluster at opposite poles.

Nuclear envelope assembles around chromosome cluster.

Nucleolus, Golgi complex, ER reform.

Cytokinesis is the division of protoplast of a cell into two daughter cells after
Karyokinesis (nuclear division).

Cytokinesis in animal cells : Appearance of furrow in plasma membrane which

deepens and joins in the centre dividing cell cytoplasm into two.

Cytokinesis in plant cells : Formation of new cell wall begins with the formation of a
simple precursor cell plate which represents the middle lamella between the walls of
two adjacent cells.

Types of mitosis

(1) Intranuclear or Promitosis: In this nuclear membrane is not lost

and spindle is formed inside the nuclear membrane e.g., Protozoans
(Amoeba) and yeast. It is so as centriole is present within the nucleus.

(2) Extranuclear or Eumitosis: In this- nuclear membrane is lost and

spindle is formed outside nuclear membrane e.g., in plants and animals.

(3) Endomitosis: Chromosomes and their DNA duplicate but fail to

separate which lead to polyploidy e.g., in liver of man, both diploid (2N)
and polyploid cells (4N) have been reported. It is also called
endoduplication and endopolyploidy.

(4) Dinomitosis: In this nuclear envelope persists but microtubular

spindle is not formed. During movement the chromosomes are attached
with nuclear membrane

Significance of Mitosis :

Growth of organism by the addition of cells.

Maintenance of surface/volume ratio if the cell.

Maintenance of chromosome number of a cell.

Helps in regeneration.

It is a mode of reproduction in unicellular organism.

Helps in body repair and wound healing.

MEIOSIS :

Specialized kind of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting
in formation of 4 haploid daughter cells.

Occurs during gametogenesis in plants and animals.

Involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division called Meiosis I and
Meiosis II.

Interphase occurs prior to meiosis which is similar to interphase of mitosis except the S
phase is prolonged.

4 haploid daughter cells are formed.

Meiosis I -

Prophase I : Subdivided into 5 phases.

Leptotene :

Chromosomes make their as single stranded structures.

Compaction of chromosomes continues.

Zygotene :

Homologous chromosomes start pairing and this process of association is called

synapsis.

Chromosomal synapsis is accompanied by formation of synaptonemal complex.

Complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes is called

bivalent or tetrad.

Pachytene :

Crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids of homologous

chromosomes.

Diplotene :

Dissolution of synaptonemal complex occurs and the recombined chromosomes

separate from each other except at the sites of crossing over. These X-shaped
structures are called chaismata.

Diakinesis :

Terminalisation of chaismata.

Chromosomes are fully condensed and meiotic spindles assembled.

Nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelope breaks down.

Metaphase I :

Bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate.

Microtubules from opposite poles of the spindle attach to the pair of homologous
chromosomes.

Anaphase I:

Homologous chromosomes separate while chromatids remain associated at their

centromeres.

Telophase I :
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.

Cytokinesis follows (diad of cells).

Interkinesis : Stage between two meiotic divisions. (Meiosis I and meiosis II)

Meiosis II -

Prophase II

Nuclear membrane disappears.

Chromosomes become compact.

Metaphase II

Chromosomes align at the equator.

Microtubules from opposite poles of spindle get attached to kinetochores of sister

chromatids.

Anaphase II

Simultaneous splitting of the centromere of each chromosome, allowing them to

move towards opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase II

Two groups of chromosomes get enclosed by a nuclear envelope.

Cytokinesis follows resulting in the formation of tetrad of cells i.e., 4 haploid

cells.

Types of meiosis
Gametic/Terminal meiosis: In many protozoans, all animals and some
lower plants, meiosis takes place before fertilization during the 'formation
of gametes. Such a meiosis is described as gametic or terminal.

Zygotic or Initial meiosis: In fungi, certain protozoan groups, and some

algae fertilization is immediately followed by meiosis in the zygote, and
the resulting adult organisms are haploid. Such a meiosis is said to be
zygotic or initial. This type of life cycle with haploid adult and-zygotic
meiosis-is termed the haplontic cycle.

Sporogenetic / Intermediate meiosis

(i) Diploid sporocytes or spore mother cells of sporophytic plant, undergo

meiosis to form the haploid spores in the sporangia
(ii) Haploid spore germinates to form haploid gametophyte which
produces the haploid gametes by mitosis.

(iii) Haploid gametes fuse to form diploid zygote which develops into
diploid sporophyte by mitotic divisions. e.g., In higher plants like
pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
Significance of Meiosis

Formation of gametes: In sexually reproducing organisms.

Genetic variability

Maintenance of chromosomal number: By reducing the chromosome number in

gametes. Chromosomal number is restored by fertilisation of gametes.

Features of prophase are:

(a) Chromosomal material condenses to form compact mitotic

chromosomes. Chromosomes are seen to be composed of two chromatids
attached together at the centromere.

(b Initiation of the assembly of mitotic spindle, the microtubules, the

proteinaceous components of the cell cytoplasm help in the process.

Cells at the end of prophase, when viewed under the microscope, do not
show golgi complexes, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleolus and the nuclear
envelope.

Features of metaphase are:

(a) Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of chromosomes.

(b) Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator and get aligned along
metaphase plate through spindle fibres to both poles.

Characteristics of anaphase are:

(a) Centromeres split and chromatids separate.

(b) Chromatids move to opposite poles.

Characteristics of Telophase are:

(a) Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles and their identity is

lost as discrete elements.

(b) Nuclear envelope assembles around the chromosome clusters.

(c) Nucleolus, golgi complex and ER reform.
KaryoPlasmic Index:
KI = Vn/(Vc-Vn)

Vn = Volume of nucleus, Vc = Volume of cell

Vc - Vn = Volume of cytoplasm

Karyoplasmic index of small cell is high as they have less cytoplasm.

Nucleus efficiently controls the activity of cytoplasm in small cells.

Surface-volume ratio of a cell plays an important role in starting cell

division. A cell draws all the materials needed for its maintenance &
growth from its surface. When a cell grows in size its volumes increases
more than its surface. So a stage will reach when the surface area
becomes insufficient to draw the material. At such critical stage, division
of cell started.