5/17/2017

ME3322C Thermodynamics
Summer 2017
Lecture 2: Th (May 18)
Instructor: Prof. Zhuomin Zhang
Office: 343 Love, Phone: 404-385-4225
E-mail: zhuomin.zhang@me.gatech.edu

HW#1 due next Tuesday in class

My office hours 1-3 PM on May 22 (Monday)
Grader Yiyang Zhous office hours: 4:30-6 PM on May 22

Please read Chapter 1 and Chapter 2.

Chapter 2: Energy and First Law

Mechanical Energies:
1 1 2
Kinetic energy (KE): mV 2 , I (moment of inertia, angular velocity rad/s)
2 2

Gravitational force F = mg ; Linear spring force F = k ( x x0 )

Potential energy (PE): mg ( z z0 ), where z0 is a reference

1
Potential energy (PE) for a sprint: k ( x x0 ) 2 , where x0 is the equilibrium position
2
dV 1

s2
Fm dW F ds W12 F ds m V22 V12
dt s1 2
Power: W F V
t
Electrical Power and Work: W IV IR 2 ; W 2 Wdt Wavg t
t1

1
 5/17/2017

Units of Energy and Power

Units of energy: [J] = [N m] = [kg m2 s-2] = [V A s] = [W s]

Power [W] = [J/s] = [N m/s] = [V A]

English units for energy: British thermal unit or [Btu]

1 Btu = 778.17 ft-lbf (foot-pound) = 1.0551 kJ

1 kJ = 737.56 ft-lbf = 0.9478 Btu

1 horse power [hp] = 745.7 W = 2545 Btu/h

1 W = 1 J/s = 3.413 Btu/h

1 kW-hr = 3600 kJ = 3.6 MJ

Note that the prefix is k [kilo-] and M [mega-]

Expansion and Compression Work

A case having many practical applications is a gas (or
sometimes liquid) undergoing an expansion (or compression)
process while confined in a piston-cylinder assembly.

E.g. A hand-held pump;

in an automobile engine.
F pA

For a displacement dx

The work done by the cylinder is dW pAdx pdV

V2
Here, V is not voltage nor velocity. Hence, W
V1
pdV Eq. (2.17)

2
 5/17/2017

Piston-Cylinder Work
Warning: During an actual expansion of a gas such a relationship
may be difficult, or even impossible, to obtain owing to non-
equilibrium effects during the process for example, effects
related to combustion in the cylinder of an automobile engine.
Equation (2.17) may be applied to ideal situations where friction
losses are small and the pressure in the while cylinder is uniform
(relatively slower so that equilibrium can be established each
small movement).
For this we imagine the gas undergoes a sequence of equilibrium
states during the process. Such an idealized expansion (or
compression) is called a quasi-equilibrium process.
It is positive for expansion and negative for compression where
the system (cylinder) receives work.

Modeling Expansion and Compression Work

In a quasi-equilibrium
expansion, the gas moves
along a pressure-volume
curve, or path, as shown.
V2
W pdV
V1

Applying Eq. 2.17 (above),

the work done by the gas on
the piston is given by the
area under the curve of
pressure versus volume.

3
 5/17/2017

Special Cases
Isobaric (constant pressure). It is a horizontal line so that:
V2
W12 pdV pV p (V2 V1 ) 12
V1

Constant volume (no work is done).

W23 0 See 2 3 in the figure.

Linear: PV-1 = const.

Inverse: PV = const.

Polytropic: PVn = const.

(So, linear and inverse are the special polytropic cases.)

Polytropic Process
V2 V2
W pdV const. V n dV
V1 V1

What if n = 1?

V
W constant ln 2 where constant = p1V1 = p2V2.
V1

Otherwise, n 1 (any real number but 1):

V21n V11n p2V2 p1V1

V2
W const. V n dV PV n

1 n 1 n
V1 1 1

What do we get when n = 0?; n = ? or n = 1 ?

If V2 > V1, then W > 0 regardless of n, work output by the system during expansion.

4
 5/17/2017

Energy and Internal Energy

Energy is an extensive property that includes the kinetic
and potential energies of engineering mechanics.

Another form of energy, the internal energy U. We will

have more in-class discussions on the internal energy.

Specific internal energy is the internal energy per unit

mass u = U/m or per unit mole u = U/n.

We will discuss how to evaluate the change of internal

energy since we often need only the relative values.

Energy Conservation
Energy change of a system from state 1 to state 2:

E2 E1 = (U2 U1) + (KE2 KE1) + (PE2 PE1) (Eq. 2.27a)

E = U + KE + PE (Eq. 2.27b)

Here, KE is based on the macroscopic motion of the system.

For closed systems, energy is transferred in and out across the
system boundary by two means only: by work and by heat.

Energy is conserved. This is the first law of thermodynamics.

E E2 E1 Net energy received by the system

through its boundaries during the process

For an isolated system, its energy is a constant: E = 0 .

10

5
 5/17/2017

Energy Transfer by Work

The symbol W denotes an amount of energy transferred
across the boundary of a system by work.
Since engineering thermodynamics is often concerned
with internal combustion engines, turbines, and electric
generators whose purpose is to do work, it is convenient
to regard the work done by a system as positive.
W > 0: work done by the system
W < 0: work done on the system

The same sign convention is used for the rate of energy

transfer by work called power, denoted by W .

11

Illustrations of Work - I
When a spring is compressed, energy
is transferred to the spring by work.

When a gas in a closed vessel is

stirred, energy is transferred to the gas
by work.

When a battery is charged electrically,

energy is transferred to the battery
contents by work.

Also, when a charge is accelerated in They are all

mechanically
an electric field F = qE = ma. equivalent !!
12

6
 5/17/2017

Illustrations of Work - II
Electrical motor converts Wind turbine (generator) or water
electricity to mechanical energy turbine converts mechanical
energy to electricity

2 kW

Blade length less than 1 m.

In an ideal case, no friction or
no dissipation, these forms of
energy can convert 100% from A car alternator
one another. In practice, (used to charge
friction cannot be avoided and the battery)
friction create a heating effect.
13

Energy Transfer by Heat

Energy transfers by heat are induced only as a
result of a temperature difference between the
system and its surroundings.
Net energy transfer by heat occurs spontaneously
only in the direction of decreasing temperature.
Heat transfer by conduction, convection or radiation.
We call it a heat interaction.
Q amount of energy transfer in a heat interaction
Q heat transfer rate or the rate of heat transfer [W]
Positive Q [J] when it goes into the system
A process that does not involve heat transfer is adiabatic.
Reminder: Heat and work are not properties of the system !
14

7
 5/17/2017

First law of thermodynamics for a

closed system
In a process 1 to 2: E = E2 E1 = Q W (Eq. 2.35a)

Alternatively, KE + PE + U = Q W (Eq. 2.35b)

In Eqs. 2.35, a minus sign appears before W. Why?

Q and W are the net heat in and net work out.

The time rate form of the closed system energy

balance is
dE
E Q W (Eq. 2.37)
dt
15

Time for some discussions/questions/examples

1

Review what we have learned:

(1) Energy conservation of a closed system in a process.
(2) Different types of work.
(3) Heat transfer or heat interaction, the quantity heat Q [J].

16

8
 5/17/2017

Example
Problem 2.34

Assumption: Closed system and quasi-equilibrium processes

Known: CO (M = 28) in a piston-cylinder assembly undergoes three processes

Find: We are asked to sketch the processes on a p-V diagram and calculate
the work for each process.

17

18

9
 5/17/2017

Net work is the enclosed area of the cycle !!

Discuss cycle, cyclic processes.

Discuss perpetual motion machine of the first kind.

19

Modes of Heat Transfer

For any particular application, energy transfer by heat
can occur by one or more of three modes:
Conduction (occurs in stationary media mainly solids
or solid-solid contacts, but also in fluids when it is
stationary)
Radiation (transfers energy via electromagnetic
waves of photons, it can transfer energy between
objects through vacuum)
Convection (is due to fluid motion. We are interested
in what happens when a fluid is near the solid surface:
heat transfer between the wall and the air; heat transfer
between water and the pot)

20

10
 5/17/2017

Electrical Analog of Heat Conduction

V
T1
T2
R

I Q

V T T1 T2
I Q Heat transfer rate
R Rth Rth

Electrical resistance: Thermal resistance:

L L
R Rth Thermal resistance
A A
Here, is the thermal conductivity.

21

Conduction
By Fouriers law, the rate of heat
transfer normal to the x direction Q x is
proportional to the wall area A and the
temperature gradient,
dT
Qx A (Eq. 2.31)
dx
is a property of the wall material called
the thermal conductivity.
[Why there is a minus sign? What is the unit of and can it be negative?]

In this case, temperature varies linearly with x, and thus

dT T2 T1 T T
( 0) and Eq. 2.31 gives Qx A 1 2
dx L L
22

11
 5/17/2017

Thermal Radiation
1. Radiation absorption

The sun gives us about 1000 W/m 2 on the earths surface (normal direction).

Laser and infrared lamp gives us heat as well.

We typically use absorptivity (fraction absorbed) * incident power to

determine the amount of thermal radiation received by an object
(usually near its surface).

2. Radiation emission

All materials emit thermal radiation if its temperature is greater than absolute
zero. The amount of emission can be given as
A surface area; - emissivity (always less than 1);
Q A Ts4
- Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

23

Thermal Radiation
An application involving net
radiation exchange between an
object at a surface temperature
Tb and a large surrounding at Ts
is shown at right. Type equation here.
Net energy is transferred in the direction of the
arrow and quantified by
Qe,net A[Tb4 Ts4 ] (Eq. 2.33)
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
5.67 108 W/m 2 K 4 One must use absolute temperature.

24

12
 5/17/2017

Convection
Convection is energy transfer between a solid surface and an
adjacent gas or liquid by the combined effects of conduction
(random motion) and bulk flow within the gas or liquid.

The rate of energy transfer by convection is quantified by

Newtons law of cooling.

Qc hA Tb Tf (Eq. 2.34)

Here, h is called convection coefficient

that depends on the conditions of the
flow and properties of the fluids.

Discuss units of h; introduce a bit of free convection and forced convection.

25

Convection
An application involving
energy transfer by
convection from a transistor
to air passing over it is
shown at right.

Energy is transferred in the direction of the arrow and

quantified by
Q c hA[Tb Tf ] (Eq. 2.34)
where
A is the area of the transistors surface and
h is an empirical parameter called the convection heat
transfer coefficient. 26

13
 5/17/2017

Thermodynamic Cycles
Discuss cycle and cyclic process:
A thermodynamic cycle is a sequence of processes that
begins and ends at the same state.

Examples of thermodynamic cycles include

Power cycles that develop a net energy transfer by work in the
form of electricity using an energy input by heat transfer from hot
combustion gases.

Refrigeration cycles that provide cooling for a refrigerated

space using an energy input by work in the form of electricity.

Heat pump cycles that provide heating to a dwelling using an

energy input by work in the form of electricity.
27

Power Cycle
A system undergoing a power cycle is
shown at right.

The energy transfers by heat and work

shown on the figure are each positive in the
direction of the accompanying arrow. This
convention is commonly used for analysis
of thermodynamic cycles.

What do we have? Environment as the cold body.

What do we consume? Heat from a hot body.
What do we benefit? Work output.

28

14
 5/17/2017

Power Cycle
The performance of a system undergoing a power cycle
is evaluated on an energy basis in terms of the extent to
which the energy added by heat, Qin, is converted to a net
work output, Wcycle. This is represented by the ratio
Wcy cle
(power cycle) (Eq. 2.42)
Qin

called the thermal efficiency.

Introducing Eq. 2.41, an alternative form is obtained
Qin Qout Q
1 out (power cycle) (Eq. 2.43)
Qin Qin

29

Power Cycle Example

A system undergoes a power cycle while
receiving 1000 kJ by heat transfer from hot combustion
gases at a temperature of 500 K and discharging 600 kJ
by heat transfer to the atmosphere at 300 K. Taking the
combustion gases and atmosphere as the hot and cold
bodies, respectively, determine for the cycle, the net
work developed, in kJ, and the thermal efficiency.

Substituting into Eq. 2.41,

Wcycle = 1000 kJ 600 kJ = 400 kJ.
Then, with Eq. 2.42,
= 400 kJ/1000 kJ = 40%.

30

15
 5/17/2017

Refrigeration Cycle
A system undergoing a
refrigeration cycle is shown at right.
As before, the energy transfers
are each positive in the direction of
the accompanying arrow.

What do we have? Environment as the hot body.

What do we consume? Work input.
What is out purpose? Heat removal from cold body.

31

Refrigeration Cycle
The performance of a system undergoing a
refrigeration cycle is evaluated on an energy basis as
the ratio of energy drawn from the cold body, Qin, to
the net work required to accomplish this effect, Wcycle:

Qin Qin
(Eq. 2..44, 245, 2.46)
Wcycle Qout Qin

called the coefficient of performance for the refrigeration

cycle. Subscript out or in means out of or into the
cyclic system (machinery).

32

16
 5/17/2017

Heat Pump Cycle

The heat pump cycle analysis Indoor
warm
closely parallels that given for the house
refrigeration cycle. The same figure
applies:
But now the focus is on Qout, which is
Outdoor
the heat transfer of energy from the cold
system per cycle to the hot body such ambient
as to the living space of a dwelling.
Qin is the heat transfer of energy to the system per
cycle from the cold body drawn from the surrounding
atmosphere or the ground, for example.

33

Heat Pump Cycle

As before, Wcycle is the net

energy transfer by work to
the system per cycle,
usually provided in the form
of electricity.

As for the refrigeration cycle, the energy balance

reads
Wcycle = Qout Qin (Eq. 2.44)
34

17
 5/17/2017

Heat Pump Cycle

The performance of a system undergoing a heat pump
cycle is evaluated on an energy basis as the ratio of
energy provided to the hot body, Qout, to the net work
required to accomplish this effect, Wcycle:
Qout
(heat pump cycle) (Eq. 2.47)
Wcy cle

This is called the coefficient of performance (COP) for the

heat pump cycle.
Introducing Eq. 2.44, an alternative form is obtained
Qout
(heat pump cycle) (Eq. 2.48)
Qout Qin
The COP of a heat pump system should be greater than 1. Why?
35

Heat Pump Cycle Example

A system undergoes a heat pump cycle while
discharging 900 kJ by heat transfer to a dwelling at 20oC and
receiving 600 kJ by heat transfer from the outside air at 5 oC.

Taking the dwelling and outside air as the hot and cold
bodies, respectively, determine for the cycle, the net work
input, in kJ, and the coefficient of performance.

Substituting into Eq. 2.44, Wcycle = 900 kJ 600 kJ = 300 kJ.

Then, with Eq. 2.47, = 900 kJ/300 kJ = 3.0. Note the coefficient of
performance is reported as its numerical value (!do not use %).

36

18