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Unit 1 Lifestyle, Transport, Genes and Health

Topic 1 Lifestyle, health and risk
Explain the importance of water as a solvent in transport, including its dipole nature.

Water

Water is the medium of transport in all living things because it is an excellent solvent. This
solvent ability comes from the fact that the water molecules have uneven charge distribution, one
end of the molecule is slightly positive +, and the other end is slightly negative -. The water
molecule is said to be polar.

In a water molecule, two hydrogen atoms each share a pair of electrons with an oxygen atom,
forming a molecule with the formula H2O.

However, the electrons are not shared absolutely equally. In water, the oxygen atom gets slightly
more than its fair share, and so has a small negative charge, written (delta minus). The
hydrogen atoms get slightly less than their fair share, and so have a small positive charge, written
+ (delta plus). This unequal distribution of charge is called a dipole.

In water, the negatively charged oxygen of one molecule is attracted to a positively charged
hydrogen of another, and this attraction is called a hydrogen bond (see diagram below). It is
much weaker than a covalent bond, but still has a very significant effect.

The hydrogen bonds largely accounts for the unique properties of water. Hydrogen bonds are
strong enough to hold water molecules together and attract water molecules to charged particles
or charged surface.
Extensive hydrogen bonding gives water unusual properties.

Notes prepared by DEEPAK RAVEENDRAN

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Properties of water:-

Water is an excellent solvent for ions and polar molecules (molecules with an uneven
charge distribution, such as sugars and glycerol) because the water molecules are
attracted to the ions and polar molecules and therefore collect around and separate them.
This is what happens when a chemical dissolves in water.

e.g. Sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolves in water

Oxygen faces the Na+ ion Hydrogen faces the Cl- ions

Water as a transport medium-Water is the transport medium in the blood, in the

lymphatic, excretory and digestive systems of animals, and in the vascular tissues of
plants.

Water has a relatively high heat capacity. In order for the temperature of a liquid to be
raised, the molecules must gain energy and consequently move about more rapidly. The
hydrogen bonds that tend to make water molecules stick to each other make it more
difficult for the molecules to move about freely; the bonds must be broken to allow free
movement. This explains why more energy is needed to raise the temperature of water
than would be the case if there were no hydrogen bonds. This makes water more resistant
to changes in temperature. This means that the temperature within cells and within the
bodies of organisms (which have a high proportion of water) tends to be more constant
than that of the air around them.

Water has a relatively high latent heat of vapourisation. This is a consequence of its
high heat capacity. The fact that water molecules tend to stick to each other by hydrogen

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bonds means that relatively large amounts of energy are needed for vapourisation to
occur, because hydrogen bonds have to be broken before molecules can escape as a gas.
The energy transferred to water molecules during vapourisation results in corresponding
loss of energy from their surroundings, which therefore cool down. e.g the cooling of
skin (heat is lost)during sweating.

Water molecules have very high cohesion in other words they tend to stick to each
other. This explains why water can move in long, unbroken columns through the vascular
tissue in plants and is an important property in cells. High cohesion also results in high
surface tension at the surface of water.

Water takes part as a reagent in some chemical reactions inside cells. For example, it is
used as a reagent in photosynthesis. Water is also essential for all hydrolysis reactions.

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Distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides (glycogen and

starch amylose and amylopectin) and relate their structures to their roles in providing
and storing energy.

Describe how monosaccharides join to form disaccharides (sucrose, lactose and maltose)
and polysaccharides (glycogen and amylose) through condensation reactions forming
glycosidic bonds, and how these can be split through hydrolysis reactions.

Carbohydrates

All carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrate part of the
name comes from the fact that hydrogen and oxygen atoms are present in the ratio of 2: 1, as
they are in water (hydrate refers to water). The general formula for a carbohydrate can
therefore be written as Cx(H2O)y. Carbohydrates are divided into three main groups, namely
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. The word saccharide refers to a sugar or
sweet substance.

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Disaccharide Polysaccharide

Eg: Glucose Eg: Maltose Eg: Starch

Fructose Hexose Sucrose Glycogen
Galactose Lactose Cellulose

Ribose
Deoxyribose Pentose

Monosaccharides(monomers)

Monosaccharides are sugars. Sugars dissolve easily in water to form sweet-tasting solutions.
Monosaccharides have the general formula (CH2O)n and consist of a single sugar molecule
(mono means one). The main types of monosaccharides are pentoses (5C) and hexoses (6C).

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Examples of monosaacharides:

1. Glucose (C6H12O6):-

- Glucose

There are two forms of glucose- alpha glucose and beta glucose

Uses and properties of glucose

The most important monosaccharide

All green leaves manufacture glucose
Transported in mammalian blood
Glucose is an energy substrate (respiration)
Forms the building block of starch, glycogen, maltose, sucrose and lactose
Soluble and osmotic effect

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2. Fructose (C6H12O6):-

* Fruit sugar
*Found in honey
* Sweetest sugar
*Component of sucrose
*An energy source

3. Galactose (C6H12O6):-

Found in mammalian milk

Component of lactose sugar

4. Ribose (C5H10O5) and Deoxyribose (C5H10O4)

Ribose- Found in nucleotides that

Deoxyribose-Found in DNA forms RNA, Component of ATP,
Component of NAD (Nicotine amide
adenine dinucleotide).

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Disaccharides (Dimers)

Disaccharides are formed by two monosaccharides joining together. The three most common
disaccharides are maltose (glucose + glucose), sucrose (glucose + fructose) and lactose
(glucose + galactose). The general formula of a disaccharide is usually 2[(CH2O) n] H2O,
where n is the number of carbon atoms. The joining of two monosaccharides takes place by a
process known as condensation.

Condensation reaction:- This is the joining of two monosaccharides by the removal of a water
molecule to form a glycosidic linkage. This reaction is brought about by an enzyme.

Examples of disaccharides (formation of sucrose, fructose and lactose):-

1. Sucrose:

Role of sucrose:

The form in which plant transport carbohydrates

Stored in stems and roots of sugar cane plants

2. Maltose:

Maltose is the immediate product of starch hydrolysis

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3. Lactose:

+ H2O

1, 4 glycosidic linkage

Role of lactose:

Milk sugar
Provide energy to young mammals

Glycosisdic linkage

For each condensation reaction, two hydroxyl (OH) groups line up alongside each other. One
combines with a hydrogen atom from the other to form a water molecule. This allows an oxygen
bridge to form between the two molecules, holding them together and forming a disaccharide
(di means two). The bridge is called a glycosidic bond.

The linkage between monosaacharide residues after the removal of H-O-H between them are
called a glycosidic linkage. It consists of strong covalent bonds.

Hydrolysis

This is the splitting of a disaccharide into its monosaccharide by the addition of water molecules.
The breaking of glycosidic linkage by the addition of water molecules brings about hydrolysis.
This can be brought about by enzymes or by treating with hydrochloric acid followed by heating.

Note: All monosaccharides and some disaccharides act as reducing agents and will reduce blue
Benedicts solution to produce an orange-red precipitate. They are called reducing sugars.
Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

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Formation of disaccharides - typical exam questions

Common exam questions include:

1. Name the reaction involved when a disaccharide is formed
2. Name the type of bond formed
3. Show, by drawing a diagram, how a disaccharide is formed

Polysaccharides (polymers) poly = many, saccharides = Sugar

Polysaccharides are built from many monosaccharides connected by glycosidic linkage formed
in condensation reaction. Because their molecules are so enormous the majority does not
dissolve in water. This makes them good for storing energy or for forming strong structures.
Each polysaccharide contain only one type of monomer.

Eg:- Starch-energy store in plants

Storage polysaccharides
Glycogen energy store in animals
Cellulose cell wall of plants
Structural polysaccharides
Chitin cell wall of fungi, exoskeleton of arthropods

Starch:-

In plants the storage polysaccharide is starch. Starch is a mixture of two polysaccharides both of
which are polymers of -glucose. They are amylose and amylopectin. They are made up of many
glucose residues linked by glycosidic linkage/bonds.

An amylose molecule is an unbranched/straight and long chain of -glucose residues with 1-4
links. It coils up into a spiral/helical shape forming the amylose helix. The helix forms a compact
shape which allows tight packing and is therefore an excellent storage molecule. The helix is
held in shape by hydrogen bonds between small charges on some of the hydrogen and oxygen
atoms in the glucose units. It is this helix which holds and forms a complex with iodine when we
test for starch. Amylose constitutes about 20 to 30 % of starch.

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1, 4 glycosidic linkage

Amylopectin is a branched chain polymer of glucose residue. Amylopectin constitutes about

70 to 80 % of starch. The branched chain prevents coiling. In amylopectin the glucose molecules
are joined by a-1,4-glycosidic bonds but after every 25 to 30 glucose molecules adjacent chains
are connected by a-1,6-glycosidic bonds i.e. amylopectin is branched. Amylopectin has many
protruding ends (glucose molecules) which can be hydrolysed rapidly allows rapid release of
glucose to provide energy via respiration.
1, 6 glycosidic linkage

1, 4 glycosidic linkage
Functions of starch:

Energy storage molecules in plants cells

Important energy source in the diet of many animals
Molecule compact-it takes up less space in cells
Insoluble: - Cannot leave the cell easily, no osmotic effect.
Unreactive: - does not get involved in chemical reactions in cells.

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Can be hydrolysed by enzymes into glucose and used in respiration

Glycogen: - Glycogen is the main storage polysaccharide of animal and fungal cells. Glycogen
is a polymer of glucose residues linked by I, 4 glycosidic and 1, 6 glycosidic bonds. It is highly
branched that is branches after 8 to 10 glucose residues. 1.4 glycosidic bonds are in the
unbranched part of glycogen while 1, 6 glycosidic bonds are responsible for the formation of
branches. Glycogen molecules clump together to form granules, which are visible in liver cells
and muscle cells, where they form an energy reserve. The structure of glycogen is similar to
amylopectin (in that it is a polymer of -glucose) of starch but has many more branches and the
branches are shorter. Glycogen is even more compact than amylopectin. Compact storage
molecule in mammalian liver and in fungal cells and can be broken down to release glucose. The
structure of glycogen allows faster hydrolysis than starch which is important as animals may
need emergency glucose faster than plants.

Glucose units

Function of glycogen

Energy storage molecule in animal cells like liver muscle cells and bacterial cells
Compact- it takes up less space in cells
Insoluble: - No osmotic effect.
Unreactive-large molecule
Can be easily hydrolysed by enzymes into glucose and used for respiration.

Structural comparison between amylose, amylopectin and glycogen

Notes prepared by DEEPAK RAVEENDRAN

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Lipids:-

Notes prepared by DEEPAK RAVEENDRAN