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originally by Todd Lammle, published by Sybex; condensed May 2001 by Robert S. with gratitude to Shankar
“Good artists copy. Great artists steal.” – Pablo Picasso I try to avoid repeating myself, so you might have to read the whole booklet to
The best way to study something is to regurgitate it in one’s own words. When find a definition you need. When I introduce terms, I often show them in bold
I studied CCNA, I wrote this thing. I reduced 700 pages to a fourteen-page face type (but, then, I use bold face type for a lot of things).
booklet so I could carry it around, reviewing everywhere I went. To save space, I use the following conventions:
This document is color-coded, with all the IOS commands in violet arial narrow, - I refer to OSI layers as “L2,” “L3,” &c., instead of “data-link” and “network.”
for example. As I realize the minimal benefits of color when one prints on black - When I bother to show IOS prompts, I leave off the router names.
and white laser printers, I’ve tried to be sensible about my choices. I still suggest - I shorten bandwidth to BW, virtual circuit to VC, configuration file to CF, &c.
you print it in color, if possible. (Word Viewer wrongly italicizes my commands.) - The proper Latin plural of “status” is “stati” but I sometimes say “stats.”
In each chapter, Todd Lammle lists key terms with which you should be - “Et cetera” (or “etc.,” meaning “and so forth”) can also be written “&c.”
familiar before the exam. I haven’t tried to define every term but I have written I’ve borrowed from other sources, too, because I want as much of the exam here
them in blue, underlined in squiggles, so look at each and ask, “Can I define this?” as possible. I’ve tried to make it all self-evident. This booklet, alone, might be
An easier color code to spot is my grey shading. This indicates stuff Lammle, enough to pass the exam (everything on my exam is here) but that wasn’t my goal.
instructors, and some unreliable friends have told me is not likely to be on the Although Lammle’s $140 book isn’t perfect (his Frame Relay stuff has several
exam. Reading it might help your understanding but don’t sweat memorizing it. errors and omissions, for example, and the CD-ROMs are full of mistakes) but you
should still buy it and the network simulator software that comes with it.
Wiggly red lines to either side show text I’ve been strongly warned to study.
My exam was 75 minutes & 65 questions. Different exams have different
I’m more careful than Lammle to show correct prompts – I didn’t want to waste
passing scores, so your final score is MEANINGLESS. Buona Fortuna! R.S.
space repeating config t and int s0 – so it’s up to you to notice the mode we’re in.
Cisco ly Yours,
Contents: [Note: Chapters II & VI are paired.] IV – router configuration basics (pg 7) VIII – IPX (pg 10)
I – LANs, OSI model, Cisco model (pg 1) V – IP routing, RIP, IGRP (pg 8) IX – access lists (pg 11)
II – switches, Spanning Tree Protocol (pg 5) VI – VLANs, tagging, VLAN Trunk Protocol (pg 5) X – WANS, HDLC, PPP Frame Relay, ISDN (pg 12)
III – IP subnetting (pg 6) VII – boot-up & connectivity tools (pg 9) Appendix B – the Catalyst 1900 switch (pg 14)
CHAPTER I – INTERNETWORKING and the OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION MODEL or “Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Around.”
(5-7 questions on the OSI model; an unknown number on general networking)
This chart summarizes the ISO Open Systems Interconnection model, laid out in more detail hereafter. A layered model reduces complexity, permits the use of
standard interfaces, lets engineers make modular changes, lets different technologies inter-operate, accelerates evolution, and is easier to learn. Although all seven
layers could be on the exam, they’ re not equally critical: You can answer the basic OSI layer questions by knowing enough to tell them apart. The real reason to study
layers 2 and 3, where switches and routers work, and L4, where many big protocols appear, is these descriptions form the foundation for much of the exam. If you
don’ t grasp the L2 – L4 details of this chapter well enough to write them out from memory, you’ re toast.
layer L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7
mnemonic “ Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Around!”
name Physical Data-Link Network Transport Session Presentation Application
Destination Navigates the Truckers & Split-Second Pasting Parts & Pieces into
functional
Drop-boxes & National hiway Teamsters Sequencing Proper Products
mnemonic
Doorsteps Network
blasts frames nails packets wraps segments chops data into
Protocol Data
into bits into frames into packets segments data
Unit (PDU)
a conveyor a mailman a navigator a loading dock a dispatcher (or talk a newspaper editor a corporate executive
This layer is
belt finding a finding a town worker boxing a show host) compiling documents issuing instructions
analogous to...
mailbox shipment sequencing tasks
The Big Picture: sending and hardware logical (network) packing & shipping timing file formats giving orders
It’s all about... receiving bits addressing addressing
physical framing routing end-to-end dialog control encryption, compression, assorted application
key concepts
topology connections translation functions
puts bits on frames data for routes between provides flow control opens / closes demands transfers;
main network
the wire local network networks sessions IDs partners; final
operations
error resolution
hardware network addresses ports / sockets
This layer filters
(physical) / protocol #s
PDUs using…
addresses
deviceshubs switches routers gateways
The CISCO 3-LAYER where-you-should-spend-your-money MODEL - determines how best to handle requests
- security, filtering, firewalls
CORE LAYER
- queuing (print jobs, &c.)
- speed is critical
- transitions between routing protocols (including static routing)
- can affect all users
- definition of broadcast/multicast domains
- should be fault-tolerant and reliable
- no filtering, security slowdowns, or inter-VLAN routing ACCESS LAYER
- no workgroup access - a.k.a. the “ desktop layer”
- could use FDDI, fast (100Mb) Ethernet, gigabit (1000Mb) Ethernet, or ATM - more specific security
- when improvements are necessary, upgrade; don’ t expand - segmenting for more collision domains
- connectivity to distribution layer via 100Mbps links
DISTRIBUTION LAYER
- Dial on Demand Routing (DDR)
- routing
- Ethernet switching
- inter-VLAN routing
- static routing
- WAN access
- connect 10Mbps switches to workstations; 100Mbps switches to servers
- gatekeeper to the core layer
1
THE UPPER LAYERS: COMMAND & CONTROL THE MIDDLE LAYERS: SHIPPING & RECEIVING
L7 Application Layer
* DATA STREAMS (MESSAGES) *
It’s all about GIVING ORDERS; the corporate executive; what you see on the
L4 Transport Layer – “Truckers & Teamsters”
* chops data into SEGMENTS *
It’s all about PACKING & SHIPPING (either reliable TCP/SPX or unreliable
screen; interaction with the user; interaction between programs; UDP/IPX); the loading dock worker; data chopper & reassembler; creates and
communications launching. reads segments; asks, “Which port (which pipeline) do we stuff this into?” “Did
The highest level of the model. It defines the manner in which applications interact the packets get where they should?” “What belongs in this pipe?”
with the network, including database management, e-mail, and terminal-emulation Defines protocols for structuring messages and supervises the validity of the
programs. transmission by performing some error checking.
KEY CONCEPTS: file, print, message, database, and application services KEY CONCEPT: end-to-end connection
2
- CDP - ‘Cisco Discovery Protocol’ investigation of neighbor devices
L3 Network Layer – “ Navigates the National Highway
Network” * wraps segments into PACKETS (data or
route update) or DATAGRAMS *
- SNAP - ‘SubNetwork Architecture Protocol’ data transfer, connection
management, and QoS
- L2TP - ‘Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol’ frame disguising
It’s all about LOGICAL ADDRESSING; the long-haul navigator finding a
town; “ How do we get to that network from here?” TECHNOLOGIES:
Defines protocols for data routing to ensure that the information arrives at the - switches (fast, application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) hardware-based)
correct destination node and manages communications errors. - bridges (slower, software-based)
- modems
KEY CONCEPT: routing - ISDN “ clouds”
NETWORK OPERATIONS PERFORMED: - Ethernet frames
- logical / network identification - IPX frames (four varieties: Ethernet_II, 802.3, 802.2, & SNAP)
- routing / network navigation - Frame Relay frames (two varieties: Cisco & IETF)
- breaking up broadcast domains - Token Ring frames
- ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) standard for cell-switched WANS
DISCRIMINATES BY: - DSL “ modems”
- network (IP, IPX) addresses - cable “ modems”
- ‘protocol numbers’ in IP packets identifying which L4 protocol the data is for
The TWO SUBLAYERS and THEIR SPECIFIC JOBS:
PROTOCOLS (for routing and navigation) FOUND AT THIS LAYER:
- IP - ‘Internet Protocol’ connectionless network addressing and routing
- IPX - ‘Internetwork Packet eXchange’ unreliable delivery boy using
L2a Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer handles
L2 encapsulation
- defined by 802.2
connectionless transfers, NetWare' s alternative to TCP/IP - framing
- AppleTalk - optional flow control
- X.25 - enables DTE use over DCE networks; precursor to Frame Relay - packet handling instructions
- ARP -‘Address Resolution Protocol’ (“What' s the MAC address for this IP - control-bit sequencing
address?”)
- RARP -‘Reverse Address Resolution Protocol’ (“I am diskless workstation XXX;
What is my IP address?”) L2b Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer controls
access to the media
- defined by 802.3 & 802.5
- BootP - ‘Bootstrap Protocol’ (“I am diskless workstation YYY; What is my IP
address and what should I do first?”) - CSMA/CD
- DHCP - ‘Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol’ (“I’ m new here; what is ALL - MAC (hardware) addresses
my IP information?”) - logical topology
- ICMP - ‘Internet Control-Message Protocol’ error-reporting, supporting: - line discipline
• PING - ‘Packet Internetwork Groper’ connectivity detector - ordered delivery of frames
• TraceRoute - traces packet paths using ICMP timeouts - optional flow control
• delivery of operational messages such as “ Destination Unreachable,” “ Buffer - error notification (not correction) in frames
Full,” and “ Maximum Hop Count Reached” - Token Ring
- RIP - ‘Routing Information Protocol’ routing scheme - DQDB (Don’ t worry; nobody knows what this is.)
- IGRP - ‘Interior Gateway Routing Protocol’ routing scheme for large,
SOME FRAME FIELDS of INTEREST:
heterogeneous networks
- FCS - ‘Frame Check Sequence’ field in Ethernet frame (holds the CRC value)
- OSPF - ‘Open, Shortest Path First’ routing scheme
- SSAP - ‘Source Service Access Point’ hardware address field
- EIGRP - ‘Enhanced Interior Gateway Protocol’ routing scheme
- DSAP - ‘Destination Service Access Point’ hardware address field
- BGP - ‘Border Gateway Protocol’ routing scheme
- IGMP - ‘Internet Group Management Protocol’ membership manager for
Those Wacky IEEE Specifications: It might help to list some big ones…
multicast groups
802.1: bridging, switching, VLANs, STP 802.3: CSMA/CD & the Ethernets
- RSVP - ‘Resource reSerVation Protocol’ bandwidth reserver
802.2: L2 framing; connection-oriented & 802.5: Token Ring media access
TECHNOLOGIES: connectionless operations
- routers (slower, software-based)
- layer 3 switches (faster, ASIC hardware-based)
“ Where, exactly, is this going?” “ When, exactly, does it go?” PROTOCOLS (for bit sequencing) FOUND AT THIS LAYER:
Validates the integrity of the flow of data from one node to another by - RS-232, RS-449, and other serial line protocols
synchronizing blocks of data and controlling the flow of data. - V.32 and other CCITT modem protocols
KEY CONCEPT: framing NETWORK OPERATIONS PERFORMED:
- putting bits onto the transmission medium
NETWORK OPERATIONS PERFORMED:
- physical / hardware / MAC identification TECHNOLOGIES:
- framing data for transmission onto the local network segment - active (amplifying) hubs
- breaking up collision domains - passive hubs
- CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) error notification (not correction) - repeaters
- concentrators
DISCRIMINATES BY:
- network interface cards (NICs)
- hardware (MAC) addresses
5
CHAPTER III – IP (5 questions) Note the hosts are the magic numbers minus 2 and “ networks” is just “ hosts”
[Note: I moved lists of the individual protocols to Chapter I with their associated upside-down. You might be asked how many hosts you have or, similarly, to mask
OSI layers. They aren’ t nearly as important as subnetting. YOU MUST just enough bits to leave a range of X hosts. Class C numbers are in the table but
ABSOLUTELY KNOW HOW TO SUBNET QUICKLY FOR THE EXAM.] counting class A and B hosts can be painful. Our example segment had 16 values
in the 3rd octet, from 192 to 207, but each of those also represents from 0 to 255 in
IP ADDRESSING
the last octet, so we’ re talking about 4,096 addresses, here. Each octet you jump to
An IP address is of 32 bits divided into four octets of 4 Bytes, each:
the left represents 256 times the octet to its right.
11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 11111111 (= 255.255.255.255 in decimal)
The first four bits show the class. Classes A, B, & C use the first; first two, and Put another way, because each number in the third octet, from 192 up to and
first three octets, respectively, as their network portion. The more network ID bits, including 207, is worth 256, we multiply 16 x 256 to find out how many addresses
the fewer bits remain for any host IDs, and vice-versa. exist in our range. The short answer is 4,096 but, because we can’ t use the
network or broadcast addresses, we must subtract those two to see there are 4,094
first first network host
class notes possible hosts in our range. That’ s your final answer. The simplified formula is
4 bits octet addresses addresses
(magic number x 256) – 2 but if you’ re instead counting steps in the second octet,
0xxx 1-126 A 126 16,777,214 (127 reserved for
it’ s (magic number x 65,536) – 2. Remember that for counting in class A.
10xx 128-191 B 16,384 65,534 loopback tests)
110x 192-223 C 2,097,152 254 If 4,096 hosts are still too many, you can go on masking right into the next
111x 224-239 D multicast multicast octet, say 172.18.250.202/27. The mask is now three bits into the fourth (and
1111 240-255 E reserved reserved final) octet. This is normally class C turf, so you have to pay attention to that 172
to know it’ s still a class B. Our cheater’ s table has no row for the 11 bits we’ re
SUBNETTING now stealing, so just ignore the third octet and pretend we’ re only stealing from the
Subnetting means masking-off a range of IP addresses into a smaller network fourth. Read the table for three stolen bits (from the fourth octet). Our mask is
segment to reduce its population. This scheme improves performance, allows 255.255.255.224, our magic number is 32, and, since we’ re ignoring the third octet
better management, facilitates the use of expensive WAN links, and gives planet of the mask, we’ re going to apply the magic number to the fourth octet. Our IP
Earth more network addresses to work with so we don’ t run out as fast. A subnet address lands between the magic number multiples 172.18.250.192 (our network
mask of 1s is applied to the IP address to mark its network portion. Let’ s say a address) and 172.18.250.224 (the next network address), meaning
huge corporation died and left us its entire class B network – but we only know 172.18.250.223 is our broadcast address; everything in between,
one address in it. Here is that address in both binary and easy-to-read decimal: 172.18.250.193 through 172.18.250.222, is our host range, with 30 addresses.
10101100.00010010.1111010.11001010 = 172.18.202.10
It’ s a class B, so its network address is 172.18.0.0. Its node (or host) address is Some are harder than others, especially A or B addresses using a little more or a
202.10. The normal class B mask that says where one ends and the other begins is little less than full octets. Here are some you’ re glad you don’ t see everyday.
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 = 255.255.0.0, Watch how the net address and the next net address change as another bit is stolen.
right on the “ dot” between the 2nd and 3rd octets, just like usual. Now, in every address 122.67.69.10 /15 122.67.69.10 /16 122.67.69.10 /17
network segment, the 1st address, the network address, is special; it’ s the address mask 255.254.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.128.0
we route to. The last address before the next segment is special, too; it’ s the class A A A
address we broadcast to. All the dull addresses in between? Those can be magic # 2 (in 2nd octet) 1 (in 2nd octet) 128 (in 3rd octet)
assigned to hosts. Here, our broadcast address is 172.18.255.255, meaning our net address 122.66.0.0 122.67.0.0 122.67.0.0
hosts run from 172.18.0.1 to 172.18.255.254. But we know not to put 65,534 host b/c address 122.67.255.255 122.67.255.255 122.67.127.255
computers in one Ethernet network! (See the above table.) Instead, we can subnet next NA 122.68.0.0 122.68.0.0 122.67.128.0
and carve out several smaller networks if we mask out (“ steal” ) an additional few address 122.67.69.10 /23 122.67.69.10 /24 122.67.69.10 /25
bits from the next, empty octet to the right. Let’ s change our mask by stealing four mask 255.255.254.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.128
more juicy bits from the third octet: class A A A
11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000 = 255.255.240.0, our new mask, or magic # 2 (in 3rd octet) 1 (in 3rd octet) 128 (in 4th octet)
rd
“ 240 in the 3 octet,” for short. [Also, instead of writing out the address and its net address 122.67.68.0 122.67.69.0 122.67.69.0
entire mask, we can use a shorthand of 172.18.250.202/20 to say we’ ve got a mask BC address 122.67.69.255 122.67.69.255 122.67.69.127
20-ones-long.] We calculate new addresses by applying a “ magic number” to the next NA 122.67.70.0 122.67.70.0 122.67.69.128
mask octet. The magic number equals 256 minus the mask. A new segment starts address 172.67.69.10 /23 172.67.69.10 /24 172.67.69.10 /25
with every multiple of the magic number. mask 255.255.254.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.128
Our job now is to find the new network address, broadcast address and valid class B B B
host address range for our one machine at 172.18.202.10. The magic number for magic # 2 (in 3rd octet) 1 (in 3rd octet) 128 (in 4th octet)
rd
our .240 mask is 16. Our mask is in the 3 octet. So, as you count up the 3 octetrd net address 172.67.68.0 172.67.69.0 172.67.69.0
from ‘0’ to ‘255’ a new segment starts at every multiple of 16, from 16x0, onward: BC address 172.67.69.255 172.67.69.255 172.67.69.127
172.18.0.0, our first multiple, next NA 172.67.70.0 172.67.70.0 172.67.69.128
172.18.16.0, our second multiple, Startling lessons learned:
172.18.32.0, our third, - Just because the mask is /25 doesn’ t mean it’ s a class C address!
172.18.48.0 ...and so on. Each multiple is the first address of a different baby - Just because the mask is 255.255.255.0 doesn’ t mean it’ s a class C address!
subnet.* Which multiple are we in? Our 202.10 is between multiples - Class can only be determined by looking at the first octet!
172.18.192.0 and 172.18.208.0. The broadcast address for our segment is the - Just because an address ends in .0 doesn’ t mean it’ s a network address!
address right before 208.0, so it’ s 172.18.207.255. The range of host addresses is - Just because an address ends in .255 doesn’ t mean it’ s a broadcast address!
every address between the network and the broadcast addresses, like so: - Not all network addresses end in .0!
172.18.192.0 is the network address, - Not all broadcast addresses end in .255!
172.18.192.1 to 172.18.207.254 is the host range, and - Don’ t let anyone tell you, “ .128 masks are always illegal!”
172.18.207.255 is the broadcast address, meaning - Without the address, the mask cannot tell you how many sub-networks you get!
172.18.250.202 is valid and not reserved or illegal. The end. - You may have to crunch the numbers to find out if a given host address is valid!
Those of us who can’ t do math can cope somewhat by memorizing this table: And beware these strange rules:
stolen bits mask (binary) mask magic # hosts networks - *You’ re can’ t use first or last multiples. This keeps ‘classful’ routing protocols
1† 10000000 .128 128 126 0† (RIP or IGRP) from getting confused by masks that aren’ t /8, /16, or /24. BUT…
2 11000000 .192 64 62 2 - You can waste less space by subnetting the first and last multiples even further
3 11100000 .224 32 30 6 with a variable-length subnet mask. Don’ t use more than 2 VLSMs on a network.
4 11110000 .240 16 14 14 - 10.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0, 192.168.0.0 can be private networks if kept off the Internet.
5 11111000 .248 8 6 30 - †The following .128 (one bit) masks only become valid if you say ip subnet-zero
6 11111100 .252 4 2 62 For class A: 255.128.0.0; for B: 255.255.128.0; for C: 255.255.255.128. These
7‡ 11111110 .254 2 0‡ 126 let you create only two subnets and still use them both.
8‡ 11111111 .255 1 0‡ 254 - ‡You can’ t steal either 7 or 8 bits from a class C address. You’ d have no hosts!
6
CHAPTER IV – CONFIGURATION BASICS (10-15 questions) (config-line)# password bozo - sets the console port password
- To configure a router, connect its console port to the serial port of a PC with a also: (config-line)# exec-timeout <min> <sec> - sets session timeout; 0 0 = never
‘console’ cable and a DB9-to-RJ45 adapter. Set HyperTerminal to your COM also: (config-line)# logging synchronous - hold pop-up messages while typing
port at 9600 baud and turn on the router. (You can’ t Telnet to a virgin router (config-line)# line aux 0 - port 0 is the only port available
until IP is set up, so for remote configuration use an AUX port & modem.) (config-line)# login
Setup Mode is entered either by typing the setup command or by typing erase (config-line)# password bozo - sets the auxiliary port password; aux is typically
startup-config and rebooting. The three Setup Mode options are: used for modems but can also be used as a console connection
1) Decline the initial config dialog, skip Setup, go to the Command-Line Interface. (config-line)# line vty 0 4 - VTY is usually lines 0-to-4; more with “ Enterprise” IOS
2) Basic Management Setup allows enough connectivity for management, only. (config-line)# login
3) Extended Setup, with configuration options for each interface. The setup (config-line)# password bozo - sets the Telnet password; Telnet will not operate
sequence is: hostname, en secret, en password, VTY password, SNMP, L3 until this is set, unless you leave access open with line vty 0 4 then no login.
protocols, asynch (modem) lines, BRI interface, other interfaces [connector, (config-line)# exit
full- or half-duplex, IP address & mask], and review. You then have three final (config)# no service password-encryption - turns optional encryption off
options: CLI, start over, or save & exit. CTRL-c terminates setup mode. MESSAGE of the DAY BANNER Shown at every console, aux, or Telnet entry.
- In User Exec Mode type > en and a password to go to Privileged Exec Mode, (config)# banner motd <dc> Any character can be the delimiting character (DC)
then one of these three options to enter Global Config Mode: but the default is #. Pressing it ends the message, so it cannot be used in the
# config terminal brings up the running-config file in RAM text.
# config memory brings up the startup-config file in NVRAM (= copy start run) - Other banners are exec, incoming, and login. To keep multiple banners on
# config network gets a config file from a remote TFTP host (= copy tftp start) separate lines, add an extra blank line before pressing the DC.
- If you use either of those last two, the machine swaps the file you requested into
INTERFACE CONFIGURATION
RAM so you can work on it. This replaces your running CF, so be careful!
(config)# interface serial 0 engages an interface & changes the prompt to (config-
- From global config mode, you can visit several sub-modes, for example:
if)#.
(config)# interface s0 to work on an interface (with a (config-if)# prompt). From
- 2500 Series routers have fixed configurations but 2600, 3600, 4000, and 7000
there, type (config-if)# interface s0.1 to make a subinterface [(config-subif)#].
specify their interfaces with slots and port numbers: interface fastethernet 0/0.
(config)# line vty 0 4 to work on a line [the new prompt = (config-line)#].
- On 7000 or 7500-Series routers with “ Versatile Interface Processor” (VIP) cards,
(config)# router rip to work on a routing protocol [prompt = (config-router)#].
define an interface by slot / port_adapter / port#, thus: interface ethernet 2/0/0.
- In global config mode, commands are called “ major” or “ global.”
(config-if)# media-type <100BaseX/MII> sets media type (normally auto-detected).
- Commands from (config-xxxx)# prompts are called “ subcommands.”
(config-if)# no shutdown turns on an interface; (config-if)# shutdown turns it off
IOS Commands to Move Up or Down Between Different Modes/Prompts
(NOTE: Chart developed in-part from simulator software; not confirmed with real routers!) - Interfaces are shutdown by default.
Mode: Prompt (config)# hostname Chicago labels the router. (The label is case-sensitive.)
down: up:
enter/leave IOS: none (config-if)# description Sales Department LAN labels the interface.
----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
user exec: return exit quit logout IP CONFIGURATION
> ----- ----- exit ----- quit ----- logout (config)# int e0 engages Ethernet interface 0.
privileged exec: enable disable (config-if)# ip address 172.16.10.2 255.255.255.0 secondary configures IP.
# ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- (The secondary command adds this info, rather than replacing an earlier IP set up.)
global config: config t exit end ^z (config-if)# no shut turns on service to the interface.
(config)# ----- ----- ----- end ----- ^z SERIAL INTERFACE SPEED SETTINGS
interface: int e0 exit ^z - Serial interfaces usually attach to a CSU/DSU that provides synch clocking. If
(config-if)# ----- exit ----- ----- ----- two DTE routers are directly attached (as in a lab), the one at the DCE end of the
subinterface: int e0.1 cable must provide clocking. Use (config-if)# clock rate 64000 with the rate in bps.
(config-subif)# ----- ----- ----- - The default bandwidth label on an interface is set to 1544kbps (T1 speed).
IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF, & other protocols read this label to calculate routes. (RIP
COMAND LINE CURSOR GYMNASTICS and HELP COMMANDS ignores it.) To set it, type (config-if)# bandwidth 64 where the rate is in kbps.
CTRL-w - erases a word CTRL-u - erases a line
CTRL-a - moves to start of line CTRL-e - moves to end of line SAVING and VIEWING CONFIGURATIONS
CTRL-f or - moves fwd one character CTRL-b or - moves back a character - Saving your configuration copies the file “ running-config” to NVRAM,
ESC-f - moves forward one word ESC-b - moves back one word overwriting “ startup-config.” Do this with copy running-config startup-config.
CTRL-p or - recalls previous command CTRL-n or - steps forward to next - View the two files with sh run and sh start. (You can shorten the file names, if
you like.) Note: Each file shows the IOS version in use when it was created.
in history buffer newer command in history buffer
TAB - completes partial commands CTRL-c - breaks off long data displays - Erase CFs with erase run and erase start. (Boots to setup mode if no start file.)
- A CF is an ASCII file and can be edited with any text editing program.
CTRL-z - ends any configuration mode CTRL-SHIFT-6 - pauses some running
- You can also copy CFs to TFTP hosts. Use copy run tftp or copy start tftp to
and returns to privileged exec mode processes (e.g. Telnet sessions)
make the backup and copy tftp run or copy tftp start to restore the desired file.
command ? - (with a space) gives all possible options to follow “ command”
xxxxx? - (no space before the ?) gives all possible completions of the text “ xxxxx” INTERFACE DIAGNOSTICS
- Ping an interface using a specific protocol with ping <protocol> <address>.
sh history - shows last 10 (default value) commands
- Get the address of a neighbor with sh cdp neighbor detail.
sh terminal - shows terminal configuration & size of command history buffer
- Telnet (the best tool to verify IP connectivity) telnet <address/hostname>. (The
terminal history size <0-256> - resizes command history buffer
word “ telnet” is understood if you just type the address or hostname.)
sh version - shows IOS version, CF names and sources, hardware config,
Configuration Register code # sh running-config tells interface stati, descriptions, &c.
# sh interface e0 as above, plus tells if the interface is administratively down (using
5 PASSWORDS – en secret, en password, console port, aux port, & Telnet shutdown). Shows L2 & L3 addresses, encapsulation methods, collision stats,
- Two passwords are available to enter the Privileged Exec (“ enable” ) Mode: Maximum Transmission Unit (1500 Bytes by default), BW label, keepalive
enable secret bozo - sets the encrypted enable password; this is the preferred one frequency (must be same on both ends); & carrier detect/keepalive status, thus:
enable password bozo - sets the plain-text enable password; use as a last resort Ethernet0 is up, line protocol is up. The first item shows L1 cable or interface
The two can’ t be in effect simultaneously; if you try, the ‘secret’ takes precedence. problems, the second item shows L2 mismatched keepalives, encapsulations, or
enable use-tacacs - sets enable password on several routers using TACACS server clock rates not set. I always call it the “ L1/L2 up/down stats.” Possibilities are:
SETTING the OTHER PASSWORDS (& using OPTIONAL ENCRYPTION) up/up = operational down/down = interface problem
- You can encrypt the 4 plain-text passwords so sh running-config won’ t show ‘em: up/down = connection trouble administratively down/down = disabled
(config)# service password-encryption - turns optional encryption on - If the interface is administratively off, the remote end will say down and down.
(config)# enable password bozo - sets the plain-text ‘enable’ password, just like we - You can reset the counters for the above command with # clear counters <int#>.
did above; this can be included in the encryption process if you desire # sh controllers s 0 shows info about the physical interface and type of serial cable
- Next, set the three “ line” passwords, the ones used to connect to the router: (DTE or DCE) attached. (Note the required space between the s and the 0.)
(config)# line console 0 - port 0 is the only port available sh <ip/ipx> interface shows L3 address, applied lists, L1/L2 status for all interfaces.
(config-line)# login sh <ip/ipx> interface brief just gives the status check with L1/L2 ups/downs.
7
CHAPTER V – IP ROUTING (6-10 questions) Holddowns are cleared early if a route update arrives with a better metric than
- The ability to route requires a knowledge of a destination address, of potential the dead route had.
routes to other networks and the best route to each, a learning relationship - Triggered updates are immediate, forced (instead of periodic) updates to
between neighboring routers, and a means to maintain and verify routing tables. routing tables made when things change. They reset holddown timers if
- Each interface on a router must attach to a different network. the timer expires, the router gets a processing task proportional to the
- Routers discard packets for unknown networks (if default routing is not enabled). number of links in the network (making the router effectively forget about
- Basic router set up (see Chapter IV) gives a hostname to the router, applies an IP the holddown), or a new update says network status has changed.
address (and clock rate, if needed) to each interface, and turns the interfaces on.
ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIP)
- If a network is unreachable, its entry is automatically dropped from the table.
- RIP is a D/V protocol sending a full table every 30 seconds.
- There are three types of routing: static, default, and dynamic:
- RIP has a long convergence time.
STATIC ROUTING - RIP uses only one metric: hop count, with a maximum hop count of 15.
no CPU overhead requires deeper understanding - AD = 120
no network bandwidth new routes must be added manually - RIP will load balance between up to 6 links of equal cost.
administrator oversight of security only workable on small networks - good for small networks but inefficient on large ones with slow WAN links or
- Syntax: ip route <dest_addr> <dest_mask> <next_hop> <admin_dist> permanent many routers
(config)# ip route 172.16.20.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.2 - turns on static routing - RIP v1 uses only classful routing, requiring all devices to use the same subnet
- next_hop could also be the exit_interface for a point-to-point link (on a WAN). because it doesn’ t send subnet info in its updates.
- admin_distance (AD; 0-255) is a scale of trust in routing information, - RIP v2 does do classless routing but is not on the exam.
depending on its source. Some default ADs for various sources are: - RIP uses three timers:
connected interface 0 OSPF 110 - update timer: sets update frequency (default = 30 seconds)
static or default route 1 RIP 120 - invalid timer: sets time with no mention of route before route is declared
EIGRP 90 external EIGRP 170 invalid (default = 90 seconds)
IGRP 100 unknown 255 (will never be used) - flush timer: sets time after invalid status before the route is removed from the
- permanent keeps unreachable networks from being deleted from the table. table (default = 240 seconds) The flush delay is used to inform other routers
- Verifying static routes using # sh ip route shows the directly connected of the dead route’ s impending removal.
networks and any remote networks the router knows and can reach. Directly - RIP is configured thus:
connected routes have a C beside them; static routes have an S and a note (config)# no ip route 172.16.20.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.2 - removes static routes;
similar to [1/3] that shows [AD / hops to the particular network]. static routes have an AD of 1, so RIP (AD = 120) would never do anything
(config)# router rip - enables RIP
DEFAULT ROUTING
(config-router)# network 172.16.0.0 - sets network to advertise (note: no mask!)
- Default routing is a variant of static routing used only on stub networks (routers
(config-router)# passive–interface s0 - sets interface to receive but not send
with only one port leading to another router). It replaces multiple static route
updates if you wish to limit RIP broadcast traffic
commands with a single instruction to send all packets for unknown destinations to
- Verifying RIP with # sh ip route again shows a table of info similar to static
the same default next hop (another router’ s interface) or ‘gateway of last resort.’
routing, except with an R next to each dynamically acquired RIP table entry.
- similar to a static route entry but with wildcards (vs. network and mask info)
- 1 delete static route entries with no ip route 172.16.20.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.2 INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING PROTOCOL (IGRP)
st
- 2 nd add default entry: ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.16.10.2 where 172.16.10.2 is the - IGRP is a Cisco proprietary D/V protocol designed as an improvement to RIP.
gateway of last resort. - IGRP has maximum hop count of 100 by default with a maximum setting of 255.
- 3rd, Cisco routers are classful, allowing protocols like RIP and IGRP to expect - AD = 100
only /8, /16, or /24 masks on each interface. Typing ip classless, however, - IGRP uses a composite metric of BW and delay by default but can also use
keeps packets from being discarded due to unrecognized destinations. Always reliability, load, and/or MTU (maximum transmission unit), if desired.
use this command with default routing, even though it will sometimes work - IGRP uses four timers: update = 90 seconds; invalid = 3 x update;
without it. (Classless routing is set by default in newer IOS releases.) flush = 7 x update; holddown = (3 x update) + 10 seconds
- Verifying dynamic routes with # sh ip route shows similar information as with - IGRP is configured thus:
static routes, except the several S entries have been replaced by one S* entry (config)# router igrp 10 - enables IGRP in AS number 10; all routers in an
indicating the default route “ candidate.” autonomous system must be configured with the same AS # (1-65535)
(config-router)# network 172.16.0.0 - sets network to advertise (note: no mask!)
DYNAMIC ROUTING: RIP & IGRP DISTANCE VECTOR PROTOCOLS
- IGRP can load balance up to 6 unequal routes using this command to control the
- uses routing protocols to automatically update tables (at a cost of bandwidth)
balance between the lowest cost and the highest acceptable cost:
- two types: Interior Gateway Protocols and Exterior Gateway Protocols
(config-router)# variance <1-128> where the value is the metric variance
- IGPs are used within autonomous systems (AS; a set of networks under
multiplier
common administration, sometimes called a domain).
- other commands to help control traffic distribution are:
- EGPs are used between autonomous systems.
(config-router)# traffic-share balanced meaning, “ share over the routes in proportion
- three classes of routing protocols (RIP and IGRP, only, are on the exam):
to their metrics,” and
1) distance vector (RIP/IGRP) uses hop counts [but see IGRP details, below].
(config-router)# traffic-share min meaning, “ share only among routes with the same,
2) link state (OSPF) uses 3 tables: direct connections, topology, & routing;
lowest cost”
gets a full view of the network (no rumors) by bandwidth analysis and
- Verifying IGRP routes with # sh ip route again shows similar tables, now with an
triggered updates, but is hard to set up and consumes much BW, itself.
I for “ IGRP” next to each dynamically acquired table entry and a note similar to
3) hybrid (EIGRP) uses bits of both
[100/160360] which shows the [default IGRP AD / composite metric].
The INS and OUTS of DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (D/V) - Note: If RIP is accidentally left on, it will continue to consume BW and CPU
- passes complete tables between routers (“ routing-by-rumor” vs. investigation) cycles, but never change a routing table because of its higher cost (AD = 120).
- If dual routes exist to a network, the best is chosen by AD, then by other metrics.
ROUTING TABLE DIAGNOSTICS
- If two links have same hop count but different BW, you get pinhole congestion.
sh ip route a table of routes to all directly connected or reachable remote networks.
- Convergence occurs when all routers know the routes to all networks.
sh ip protocols shows settings: which routing protocol is in use, update frequency,
- D/V tracks changes with periodic update broadcasts to all active interfaces. Slow
time to next update, timer settings, metric weights, max hops, load balancing,
convergence means discrepancies can develop between routing tables and
networks advertised, gateways found, and AD to each.
reality, causing routing loops wherein rumor-fed routers endlessly pass around
sh protocols shows if routing is enabled, L1/L2 up/down stats, & L3 addresses.
packets convinced their neighbors can reach a deceased link. Some cures:
sh run shows the configurations you ordered.
- Maximum hop counts: RIP permits 15 hops before a packet is discarded.
debug ip rip shows routing updates as they come & go. If you’ re Telnetting-in,
- Split horizon rules: routing info can’ t be sent via the interface it arrived on.
you must type terminal monitor to get these reports.
- Route poisoning: dead routes are explicitly updated as being unreachable (16
debug ip igrp events summarizes IGRP info running on network, all requests and
hops away) and receiving routers send explicit poison reverse updates as
responses, but NO INFO ABOUT INDIVIDUAL ROUTES.
confirmations because, hey, sometimes rumors just aren’ t good enough.
debug ip igrp transactions shows detailed contents of requests and responses,
- Holddowns: delays that make routers ignore updates to keep them from
including info about individual routes.
reinstating a dead route; improves stability by letting changes settle first.
8
CHAPTER VII – BOOT-UP & CONNECTIVITY TOOLS (unk # questions) - Turn on bit 6 by typing (config)# config-register 0x2142, then reload the router,
[or, on a 2500 Series router, > o to reach the option menu, then > o/r 0x2142, then I
ROUTER MEMORY COMPONENTS
for ‘initialize’
ROM (a.k.a. boot ROM) - instructions encoded on EPROM chips, including:
or, on a 2600 Series router, rommon 1> confreg 0x2142, then reset.]
- POST (power on self-test) - checks hardware for configuration and errors
- Decline to enter setup mode (asked because there is no startup-config in use).
- bootstrap sequence - instructions to initiate a start-up when the power comes on
- Enter privileged mode with > enable; copy the startup-config file (it’ s still there
- ROM monitor - provides a user interface in the absence of any valid IOS image
in NVRAM, even though it wasn’ t used) to the running-config file with copy
- Mini-IOS - called RxBOOT or bootloader by Cisco; will help router boot if no
start run; config t then set any passwords desired (enable secret bozo, &c.); save
real IOS is present; able to load a real IOS into flash and bring up an interface CF with copy start run; reset the CR with config-register 0x2102.
RAM (a.k.a. DRAM) - erased whenever shutdown; holds packet buffers, routing - Reload the router with # reload.
tables, functioning software and data, and the running-config file; some routers
can keep the IOS here. Examine the CF with sh running-config; RAM contents BACKING UP the IOS to a TFTP HOST
with sh memory, sh buffers, and sh stacks; programs with sh processes; CPU - By default, the IOS is stored in flash.
use with sh processes cpu. - First, copy the existing operating system to a tftp host.
flash - an EEPROM chip (keeps its memory when the router is off; can be erased [To make a router a TFTP host for storing flash images, type (config)# tftp server.]
or overwritten by special software commands); holds the Cisco Internetwork - Type # sh flash. The file’ s name will be similar to c25000-js-l.112-18.bin. This
Operating System (IOS); Some routers protect the flash in read-only mode will also show any room available in flash for more file storage.
unless you boot from ROM. Examine the IOS with sh version or the size & - ping your intended remote host to ensure you have connectivity.
contents of the flash memory with sh flash. - Type # copy flash tftp. (Note: This displays the same info as the sh flash
NVRAM (non-volatile RAM) - also holds its memory when shut down; stores the command.) When asked, enter the IP address of the remote host, the source
startup-config file transferred to RAM at startup and the configuration filename, the destination filename, and confirm the copy. TFTF can only copy
register code for boot control. Examine the CR with sh version and the stored the file to the default directory on the host, so you need to set that up, first.
configuration file with sh startup-config. RESTORING / UPGRADING the IOS from a TFTP HOST
SELECTING an IOS for your NEXT BOOT [Note: This procedure forces a reboot and terminates any Telnet sessions.]
(config)# boot system flash <filename> - get IOS from flash; <filename> is optional - Put the desired source file in the default TFTP folder on the host.
(config)# boot system tftp <filename> <server_addr> - get IOS from a network file - Type # copy tftp flash. Confirm, enter the host IP address, source filename, and
(config)# boot system rom - use that Mini-IOS hiding in ROM destination filename, confirm the erasure of the flash (if there’ s insufficient
- If you add all of these lines to your CF, the router will attempt each one in turn. room for both the new and old files or if this is a virgin flash), confirm again,
accept a backup of the running-config to the startup-config (if needs be), and
The ROUTER BOOT SEQUENCE confirm again. The router erases the flash, transfers the data, does a checksum
- To reboot the router, type > reload. verification, and reboots. Whew!
- The POST loads from ROM and checks health of the machine.
- The boot sequence is engaged to issue start up instructions. CISCO DISCOVERY PROTOCOL
- The IOS is loaded (from flash, by default); router now has an operating system. - CDP gathers info about the hardware and protocols on directly connected Cisco
- If a CF exists in NVRAM, it is loaded into RAM; otherwise setup mode starts. neighbor devices. It uses L2 SNAP multicasts.
- # sh cdp (on either routers or switches) shows your CDP timer (seconds between
CONFIGURATION REGISTER MATH your transmittals of CDP on all active interfaces; default = 60) and your CDP
- 16 binary bits / 4 hex digits; viewed with # sh version holdtime (seconds you’ ll hold an incoming CDP packet; default = 180.)
- The CR is usually set to 0x2102. In binary that equals 0010–0001–0000–0010, - To set these, type (config)# cdp timer <seconds> or cdp holdtime <seconds>.
with bits 1, 8, & 13 turned on. Four bits at a time it reads “ 2 – 1 – 0 – 2.” - Routers run CDP by default. (config)# cdp run and no cdp run turn it on and off.
a 1 in this bit means... - There’ s still no CDP on an interface until it’ s enabled using (config-if)# cdp
dec
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 bin
bit
hex
(Note: Bits that are normally on are shown in bold type.) enable.
0 0x0001 - View neighbor info with # sh cdp neighbor. This lists the devices’ IDs, your
bits 0-3 control the bootfield (the source of the IOS):
interface connected to them, your remaining holdtimes for their last packets,
1 0x0002 0x0000; CR = xxx0: ROM monitor mode (no IOS)
what they do, what series they are, and their port or interface connected to you.
2
6 0x0040 0 = use CF from NVRAM; 1 = ignore NVRAM - # sh cdp interface lists all your interfaces’ L1/L2 up/down stats, encapsulations,
7 0x0080 OEM bit enabled and cdp timer & holdtime settings. But if an interface has CDP disabled, it
8 0x0100 keyboard break disabled won’ t even be mentioned!
9 0x0200 [function unknown] TELNET or VTY (Virtual TeletYpe)
1
10 0x0400 IP broadcast addresses use all zeros - Why VTY? Because the old Teletype abbreviation is “ TTY.” Does that help?
11 0x0800 - Using Telnet tests connectivity through the entire IP stack. It’ s your best test.
bits 11 & 12 control the console line speed - Telnet is preferable to debug, which can place extreme traffic loads on a router.
12 0x1000
13 0x2000 boot the default ROM software if a network boot fails - By default, before you can Telnet in to a device, its VTY password must be set.
2
You can Telnet into (but not from) a 1900 Series switch but you must first set
14 0x4000 IP broadcast addresses use no network numbers
its enable mode password level 15. This lets you get to the switch’ s
15 0x8000 enable dialog messages and ignore NVRAM contents
Management Console menus or command line. (You can ping from a 1900.)
- Simplified: xxx0=ROM monitor mode, xxx1=IOS from ROM, xxx2=IOS from - Launch Telnet from any Cisco or DOS prompt by typing telnet and either the
flash, xx0x=use the CF in NVRAM, xx4x=skip the CF; Some CR examples: address or hostname to connect to. Also, any time you simply type a name or
2000 - RxBOOT diagnostics mode; use ‘b’ to continue booting address into a router prompt, the Cisco IOS assumes you want to Telnet there.
2100 – force ROM monitor mode with rommon> prompt - Close a session from the remote end’ s prompt with exit. Do the same from your
2101 – boot IOS from ROM + NVRAM with router(boot)> (for upgrading flash) prompt with disconnect <connection_#/connection_name>.
2102 – normal boot up (i.e. with IOS from flash + NVRAM) - To get back your own prompt without disconnecting, press CTRL-SHIFT-6, then x.
(2102-210F – use the default boot filename specified in NVRAM) - # sh sessions lists current Telnet connections and their connection numbers with
2141 – boot to ROM and skip the CF (for disaster recovery) a * beside the most recently used. Press ENTER ENTER to go back to that one.
2142 – boot the IOS from flash but skip the CF (for password recovery) - All the active consoles and ports on your router are shown with # sh users. (It’ s
- Change the CR with (config)# config-register <value>, then reboot really more like ‘sh ports.’ ) Again, a * marks the user (port) of the current
terminal session. If you’ re Telnetting out, your end will show all the hosts
RESETTING PASSWORDS by TURNING ON BIT 6 for ACCESS: you’ re connected to. Run this command on the remote end (via Telnet) and
- Reboot; at the console port, interrupt the boot sequence within 30 seconds with a you’ ll see all its incoming connections, yours included.
break command (CTRL-BREAK) to get to the rommon 1> prompt (on some - Eject a guest with sh users to see his line number, then clear line <#> to toss him.
routers). [WinNT’ s HyperTerminal won’ t do breaks, so upgrade or use 95/98.]
Continued on page 14 with “ TWO WAYS TO RESOLVE HOST NAMES…”
9
CHAPTER VIII – IPX (4-5 questions on encap. types & how to turn on/off) IPX ENCAPSULATION
– Part 1: IPX BASICS – - Here we mean taking L3 IPX datagrams and framing them in L2 IPX frames for
Like IP, IPX is comprised of a suite of protocols. Novell’ s layered protocols use on Ethernet, Token Ring, or FDDI.
don’ t, however, follow the OSI model: - Because of Novell changes through the years, these L2 frames come in four
incompatible frame types for Ethernet, two for Token Ring, and three for FDDI.
IPX...
For example, the fields in the four different IPX Ethernet frames look like this:
- stands for “ Internetwork Packet eXchange”
Ethernet_802.3 802.3 IPX
- is connectionless (like UDP), therefore communications using it get no
acknowledgements Ethernet_802.2 802.3 802.2 LLC IPX
- approximates L3 (mostly) and L4 functions Ethernet_II Ethernet IPX
- talks to higher layers via “ sockets,” akin to TCP “ ports” Ethernet_SNAP 802.3 802.2 LLC SNAP IPX
- sends everything via broadcasts (very resilient but problematic for big See why it’ s a problem? Cisco has five different names for the frame types, thus:
internetworks)
NetWare name Cisco name notes
SPX... Ethernet_802.3 novell-ether used in NW3.x; default for Ethernet
- stands for “ Sequenced Packet eXchange” Ethernet_802.2 sap for NW4.0; most common (says Cisco)
- adds-on connection oriented functions (akin to TCP) Ethernet_II arpa the best if using both TCP/IP and IPX
- identifies individual connections as virtual circuits, each with a specific Ethernet_SNAP snap
connection ID in the SPX header Token –Ring sap default for Token Ring
- operates at the equivalent of L4 Token –Ring_SNAP snap
Novell RIP... FDDI_SNAP snap default for FDDI
- stands for “ Routing Information Protocol” FDDI_802.2 sap
- is a distance/vector routing protocol FDDI_RAW novell-fddi
- uses “ ticks” (18ths-of-a-second) and (if there’ s a tie) hop counts as metrics - On a serial interface, the default encapsulation remains Cisco proprietary HDLC.
- I’ ll label it as RIPIPX so as not to confuse it with TCP’ s “ RIP.” - Each frame type in use on a network segment constitutes a separate virtual IPX
network with its own, unique IPX network address and its own broadcast traffic.
SAP... - To display frame types and IPX network IDs in use on a NW server, type
- stands for “ Service Advertising Protocol”
CONFIG on that server.
- is used to advertise/request network services from NetWare servers
– Part B: HOW TO DO IPX, ROUTER-WISE –
NLSP...
IPX SETUP
- stands for “ NetWare Link Services Protocol”
- Two parts to IPX setup: enabling IPX routing and enabling IPX on an interface.
- is a more advanced replacement for RIPIPX and SAP
- Cisco HDLC remains the default encapsulation method for each serial interface.
- is a link-state routing protocol (config)# ipx routing - automatically starts RIPIPX
NCP... (config)# ipx network <network_ID_#> encapsulation <frame_type> secondary
- stands for “ NetWare Core Protocol” encapsulation <frame type> is optional (see default types in above table)
- provides security, file access, synchronization, &c secondary (also optional) indicates this command is an additional
configuration with yet another frame type to use, rather than just a
In summary, Novell provides much internetworking capability on its own.
reconfiguration of the interface.
CLIENT- SERVER RELATIONS - Some examples of the above command:
- NetWare machines are either clients OR servers. Period. (config)# ipx network 20
- Servers almost always run the NetWare OS. (config)# ipx network 20 encapsulation sap secondary
- Clients can run MAC, DOS, Windows, NT, OS/2, Unix, or VMS. - A warning about the secondary command: Although multiple frame types can be
- Clients broadcast GNS (“ Get nearest Server” ) requests; servers answer with GNS configured on a single segment (to support different generations of Novell, say),
replies containing pointers to specific servers holding the requested resources; the this can be a lousy idea because each frame type generates its own, added
info comes from SAP tables on the servers. broadcasts. You can avoid multiple frame types by making subinterfaces, instead.
- Cisco routers can build their own SAP tables and respond as though they were ipx maximum-paths <1-64> - enables round-robin load sharing over several equal-
NW servers, or respond on behalf of a remote NW server in a different network. cost paths
ipx per-host-load-share - always sends traffic for a specific host via the same path
SERVER-SEVER RELATIONS when load sharing
- Servers speak to each other 2 ways: with SAP packets for service info and with
RIPIPX for routing info. IPX DIAGNOSTICS
- Both are sent in broadcasts at 60-second intervals. show ipx route a table of routes to all reachable IPX segments, with ticks & hops.
- Broadcasts include the sender’ s own info plus accumulated info about other show ipx interfaces gives a long list: L1/L2 up/down stats, IPX addresses with
servers, as well. Eventually, all NW servers become fully enlightened. encapsulation type, and other IPX settings, mostly about access lists (chapter IX).
- Cisco routers can play this IPX update game, too; this is good because broadcasts show ipx interface e0 Same as above, but for only a single interface.
don’ t normally cross routers (keeps more traffic within individual segments). show interface e0 DOES NOT SHOW IPX ADDRESS!
show protocols lists 3 things: routed protocols, L1/L2 up/down stats, and IP and
IPX ADDRESSING IPX addresses (with IPX encapsulation type, except on subinterfaces).
- IPX addressing is hierarchical, as in IP. The first eight hex digits are the network
show ipx servers displays the accumulated SAP table info, including all known
address; the remaining twelve form the node address. Here’ s an example:
servers and their offerings.
00007C80.0000.8609.33E9
show ipx traffic shows the number and type of IPX packets transmitted (both
network portion node portion total
RIPIPX and SAP traffic).
up to 8 hex digits 12 hex digits = 20 hex digits
debug ipx routing activity displays routing updates as they occur
4 Bytes 6 Bytes = 10 Bytes (1/2 Byte per hex)
debug ipx sap activity displays SAP updates as they occur
32 bits 48 bits = 80 bits (4 bits per hex)
- By convention, leading zeroes in the network address are usually not shown. Once you have the IPX address of a remote router (using show cdp neighbor detail
- The network portion of an IPX address is used, as with any L3 address, to route or show cdp entry * or by Telnetting into it), you can ping that address three ways:
packets between networks. An administrator assigns the network number. ping <ipx_address> (although that wastes time trying to ping via IP, first)
- The node portion, however, is derived automatically by copying the device’ s L2 ping ipx <ipx_address>
MAC address. This means every IPX address contains both L3 and L2 info. or, for more details,
- Automatic IPX addressing means workstations require no DHCP or manual ping
configuration. ipx
- Because L2 addresses are already included within the logical addresses, there is <ipx_address>
no need for something like ARP to provide L3-to-L2 resolution. Pretty smart.
10
CHAPTER IX – ACCESS LISTS (3 questions) IP LIST WILDCARDS USING “BLOCKS”
- Rather than considering an entire octet with a 0 or ignoring it with a 255, you can
- Access lists limit packets to specified segments for improved operation and
opt to consider “ blocks” of 4, 8, 16, 32, or 64 addresses within an octet by using
simplified traffic patterns, as well as limiting access for improved security.
the corresponding wildcards 3, 7, 15, 31, or 63, respectively. For example, in
- IP and IPX lists work similarly.
access-list 1 deny 172.16.32.0 0.0.7.255 the numeral 7 means “ deny 172.16.32.0
- “ Inbound” means from segment to router, whilst “ outbound” means from router
through 172.16.39.0.” This is the block of eight network addresses from 32-to-39
to segment. Lists are applied specifically to traffic of one direction or the other.
because the wildcard to consider eight addresses is the number “ 7” and the
- IP and IPX lists are either ‘standard’ or ‘extended.’ Standard lists filter only by
starting address given in the corresponding (third) octet is “ 32.”
• source address or
-The starting address (“ 32,” in the above example) must be always a multiple of
• destination address (IPX, only). the block size. Here the block size is eight and because “ 32” is, in fact, a multiple
- Extended lists can filter by of eight, everything is proper. Hint: as a quick check, this rule means the starting
• source address address must be always a multiple of four, the smallest possible block. You can’ t
• destination address start a block at a value of 39, for example, nor can you start a block of 64
• L3 ‘protocol’ field (IP, TCP, & UDP in IP lists; SAP & SPX in IPX lists) addresses with the value “ 40.” (But you can permit a block of 64 and then deny
• IP ‘port’ number (or IPX ‘socket’ number) little blocks of 4 within it!)
- Lists are first created, one test at a time. They are then applied to an interface.
- As you build a list, each new test is appended to its end. The sequence matters! VTY (Telnet) ACCESS CONTROL
- De-apply a list with no ip access-group 1 in, then delete it with no access-list 1; to (config)# access-list <1-99> <deny/permit> <source_address>
kill just one test, type the whole line (no access-list 1… and remaining parameters). - Telnet lists are applied like other lists, but with slightly different commands:
- Apart from that method, lists cannot be edited in the Cisco IOS but the results of (config)# access-list 1 deny 172.16.30.2 - creates the access list
show running-config or show access-list can be copied to a text editor and changed. (config)# line vty 0 4 - shifts to the Telnet line-specific prompt
- Only one list per protocol or per direction may be placed on an interface. (config-line)# access-class 1 in - applies the access list to that Telnet line
- SYNTAX NOTE! access-list to create; ip access-group (or ipx ) to apply! EXTENDED IP LISTS
(config)# access-list <100-199> <deny/permit/dynamic> <protocol>
OPERATIONAL RULES
<source_address> <destination_address> <option> <port>
- The tests in a list are always considered sequentially.
- Once a packet finds a ‘permit’ or ‘deny’ match, that action is taken and no further <dynamic> signifies a dynamic list of ‘permits’ and ‘denies.’
testing of that packet occurs. <protocol> is a protocol sufficiently high up the OSI model to act upon the port
- Each list ends with an implicit “ deny everything else” statement. number you’ ll specify. It’ s typically TCP or UDP, because IP, ICMP, &c. –
- Lists filter only traffic from other routers, not traffic originating in their router. even though they’ re legitimate choices – cannot filter on L4 port numbers!
<source_address> can appear in the following formats:
LIST CONSTRUCTION GUIDELINES host <ip_address> as above
- Place the most specific tests first. <ip_address wildcard> as above
- Apply standard lists as close to the destination as possible. any as above
- Apply extended lists and SAP filters close to the source to reduce network traffic. <destination_address> can appear in the following formats:
- If no ‘permit’ statement is included, no packets will pass. (Duh!) host <ip_address> as above
- Unless you end a list ‘permit all others,’ any traffic not passed will be discarded. <ip_address> <wildcard> as above
- Slap an access list onto a port with only narrow permissions and you can any as above
unwittingly block a lot of traffic. eq equal to the specified port number
ID NUMBER RANGES FOR ACCESS LISTS gt greater than the specified port number
1 – 99 IP standard lt less than the specified port number
100 – 199 IP extended neq not equal to the specified port number
200 – 299 Protocol Type Code range within the specified range of port numbers
300 – 399 DECnet <option> can appear in the following formats:
400 – 499 XNS standard eq equal to the specified port number
500 – 599 XNS extended gt greater than the specified port number
600 – 699 AppleTalk lt less than the specified port number
700 – 799 48-bit MAC Address standard neq not equal to the specified port number
800 – 899 IPX standard range within the specified range of port numbers
900 – 999 IPX extended established allow to pass (usually) if using an already-established connection
1000 – 1099 IPX SAP fragments check fragments
1100 – 1199 48-bit MAC Address extended log logs list #, protocol, source/dest. addresses, & port for any matches
1200 – 1299 IPX Summary Address extended log-input same as “ log” also including input interface
precedence match packets with given precedence value
STANDARD IP LISTS
tos match packets with given TOS value
(config)# access-list <1-99> <deny/permit> <source_address>
<port> application port, either by name (telnet) or number (23)
<1-99> is the list ID number. access-list 100 deny tcp any host 172.16.30.2 eq 23 log - deny tcp packets from any
<source_address> can appear in the following formats: source to host 172.16.30.2, specifically those for ports equal to 23; log any hits
host <ip_address> ‘host’ is the default command & may be eliminated: access-list 100 permit ip any any - permit remaining ip packets from any source to
access-list 1 deny host 172.16.30.2 - OR – any destination
access-list 1 deny 172.16.30.2 - deny traffic from this specific host ip access-group 100 out - applies the specified list to this interface
<ip_address> <wildcard> adds flexibility to the above. In the wildcard each
0 means “ consider the corresponding octet in the IP address,” and each IP LIST DIAGNOSTICS
255 means “ ignore the corresponding octet.” Be as specific as you like: show access-list - shows all lists by ID number and their configurations but does
access-list 1 deny 172.16.30.2 0.0.0.0 - deny traffic from just this host not show the interface to which a list is applied
access-list 1 deny 172.16.30.0 0.0.0.255 - deny traffic from all hosts in show access-list <id#> - same, but for a specific list, only; also does not show the
network segment 172.16.30.0 interface to which applied
access-list 1 deny 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 - deny traffic from any source show ip access-list - shows only ip (standard and extended) lists, in detail
(In the address, an ignored octet can contain any digits but is usually filled show ip interface - shows which interfaces bear which lists
with a zero, by convention.) show running-config - shows all lists and the interfaces using them
any similarly means, “ consider packets from any source,” as in
access-list 1 deny any - deny packets from any source Continued on page 14 with “ STANDARD IPX LISTS”
hostname <name> specifies one host: access-list 1 deny hostname RouterB
- Each additional access-list command adds another test line to the specified list.
- The command (config-if)# ip access-group <1-99> <in/out> applies the specified
list to this interface. For example: (config-if)# ip access-group 1 in
11
CHAPTER X – WANs: When Ethernet Just Doesn’t Cut It (6-10 questions) - good for infrequent, high-speed transfers
CONNECTION TYPES - a good alternative when you’ re too far from a CO for DSL signals to reach
leased serial line (a.k.a. “ point-to-point dedicated line” ): - a back-up method to Frame Relay or a T1 leased line; good for branch offices
- synchronous serial (a direct, precisely timed digital link between 2 machines) - a suite of protocols designed by ITU-T telco bureaucrats, so it has weird terms
- always connected; no call & setup needed; you don’ t share the wire - often uses PPP for encapsulation, maintaining link integrity, & authentication
- expensive but the best for constant, high-speed traffic - for encapsulation it can use PPP, HDLC (default on BRI interfaces), or LAPB
- 45Mbps, max. - supports most every type of upper-layer protocol
packet-switched (e.g. X.25 or Frame Relay): PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol – late-1980s):
- line remains open into a “ cloud” network of switches used by many clients - provides ‘fake Ethernet’ L2 encapsulation for L3 contents over a modem or
- best for occasional burst transfers serial point-to-point link, either router-to-router or host-to-network
- cheaper alternative to leased lines if you’ re not constantly transmitting - mostly L2 with a L1 component
- ATM, using equal-sized 53-Byte packets or “ cells” , is called “ cell-switched” - used mostly over circuit-switched networks, either on asynchronous (dial-up)
circuit-switched (e.g. ISDN or POTS/PSTN dial-up): or synchronous (ISDN) links
- asynchronous serial (PPP dial-ups) or synchronous serial (ISDN) - uses generic HDLC but uses NCP to identify the L3 protocol it encapsulates
- connected only when needed (usually by a call through telco copper circuits) - features PAP or CHAP authentication
- offers the lowest bandwidth of the three types - It’ s an ISO-standard means of identifying encapsulated L3 info, so it can be
- toll networks are ones using the public switched telephone network (PSTN) used to connect proprietary formats.
TELECOM CONNECTION TERMS - the successor to SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) since the late 1980s
DCE (“ the mechanisms & links of the network portion” ) Frame Relay (a child of X.25; late-1980s):
- replaces Ethernet, & other LAN frames with Frame Relay frames for
CPE
transparent transmission across packet-switched networks
CSU/ CO
DTE POP
- L2 with some L1 functions
DSU
DEMARC - industry-standard
- connection-oriented via private or switched virtual circuits (PVCs or SVCs)
DCE = data communications equipment LOCAL LOOP - originally designed for ISDN; now supports IP, DECnet, AppleTalk, IPX, &c.
DTE = data terminal equipment; a router or PC
- NBMA (Non-Broadcast, Multi-Access): will not broadcast, so routers must
CPE = customer premises equipment; the stuff on-site, no matter who owns it copy routing protocols, &c. onto all VCs. All connected routers are peers.
DSU = data service unit; the T1 adapter & timing device, usually combined with the...
CSU = channel service unit; the digital connector
- uses only best-effort delivery; leaves any error checking to higher layers; less
CO = central office, the provider’ s nearest point-of-presence error checking = less overhead than old X.25, so it has better performance
Demarcation (‘Demarc’ ) = point (equipment closet) where the CPE and Local Loop meet - excellent for bursty traffic if reliable connections; not great for voice or video
- allows dynamic bandwidth allocation, congestion control, simple flow control
– SUMMARY of WAN PROTOCOLS (except DSL, which is too new) – - 56kbps to 2,078kbps
HDLC (High-level Data-Link Control – developed from the 1970s, onward): A Word about Bit- vs. Byte-Oriented L2 Protocols:
- provides L2 encapsulation & error-checking for point-to-point links on - Bit-Oriented protocols transmit frames regardless of content; may use single
synchronous serial lines. bits to hold control info; more efficient and trustworthy than Byte-Oriented;
- used over leased-line, circuit-switched, or packet-switched networks can run in full-duplex; e.g. SDLC, HDLC, LAPB, LLC, TCP, IP.
- L2 and a bit of L1 - Byte-Oriented protocols mark frame boundaries with specific characters; need
- bit-oriented whole bytes for control info; generally superceded by bit-oriented protocols.
- uses frame characters and checksums
- does not permit authentication – The DETAILS to KNOW about PARTICULAR PROTOCOLS –
- comes in many flavors; ‘Normal Response Mode’ is an ISO-standard, BUT… PPP
- It does not identify the L3 protocol it encapsulates, THEREFORE… - Its L2 portion has three parts:
- Each vendor (Cisco included) has a proprietary identification method for an - NCP (Network Control Protocol), used to identify the L3 contents
encapsulated L3 protocol, making different vendor’ s HDLCs incompatible. - LCP (Link Control Protocol), used to make/break connections; LCP provides:
- The generic, ISO version of HDLC is used by PPP (only place you’ ll see it). • PAP or CHAP authentication
- Cisco HDLC is the default encapsulation for serial interfaces on Cisco routers. • ‘Stacker’ or ‘Predictor’ (for Cisco) compression
HDLC History: IBM made SDLC (Synchronous DLC) in the mid-‘70s as • ‘Quality’ and ‘Magic Number’ error-checking
part of its System Network Architecture for mainframes. Everyone copied it. • ‘Multilink’ load splitting
First the ISO made HDLC to give L2 framing to other networks. Now HDLC - generic (not proprietary!) HDLC, used to encapsulate L3 contents with no ID
has several variants: there’ s NRM for SDLC users and the ITU-T bureaucrats - Its L1 portion has one part: the EIA/TIA-232C (“ RS-232” ) serial link standard
in France made LAP for early X.25 users, LAPB for current X.25, LAPD for
ISDN D-channels, and LAPM for modems. The IEEE built their 802.2 specs - PPP sessions are established in three phases:
on it and many vendors, Cisco included, have their own flavors. Fun, huh? - a link establishment phase
- an authentication phase
X.25 (1970s): - a network layer protocol (L3) phase
- hooks DTE gear to DCE networks via a Packet Assembler/Disassembler (PAD)
- ITU-T precursor to Frame Relay; not great for voice, video, or bursty traffic - PPP authentication methods: (You can use one, not both.)
- used over packet-switched networks - PAP (Password Authentication Protocol); like it sounds, clear text
- the L3 component of the stack is called PLP (Packet Level Protocol) authentication by the exchange of a password
- uses LAPB for L2 functions; uses the X.121 international addressing standard - CHAP (Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol); a three-way
LAPB (Link Access Procedure, Balanced – actually “ HDLC-LAPB” ; 1980s): handshake; much more secure than PAP
- an HDLC variant providing heavy error-checking for DTE-DCE connections CONFIGURING PPP:
- L2 and a bit of L1 (config-if)# encapsulation ppp - turns on PPP for a serial link
- connection-oriented (config)# hostname Chicago - name it so it can identify itself when authenticating
- bit-oriented (config)# service password-config - option to encrypt the password you are setting
- was developed as part of the X.25 stack but can stand alone (config)# username Atlanta password bozo - set the name of remote router and the
- some overhead due to strict time-out and windowing requirements password it must give; Note: both routers’ passwords must be identical
- an alternative to HDLC-NRM for error-prone connections (config-if)# ppp authentication chap - set authentication method; Note: if you then
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network – 1970s and 1980s): say ppp authentication pap, CHAP will be the default with PAP as a back up
- L1, L2, and L3 PPP DIAGNOSTICS:
- used on ckt-switched networks like the “ plain old telephone system” (POTS) show interface s0 - gives PPP info, LCP status, as well as all the usual stuff
- synchronous serial; 100% digital from end-to-end debug ppp authentication - verifies your authentication setup
- like dial-up but in digital format with immediate connections & higher speeds
- can carry voice plus data, video, audio, large files, &c. More…
12
172.16.30.1
FRAME RELAY (3 questions) CHI-NY PVC ISDN (2-3 exam questions; expect definitions)
s0.7
16
NY
- ISDN has an alphabet soup of component labels. In North America/Japan:
172.16.30.17
23
17
V U NT1
CHI TE1
CO module
ET LT
CO NY-ATL PVC inside the
ISDN switch cloud TE1
V U T S
24 42
NT NT
CO Frame Relay ET 1 2 TE1
“ cloud” of switches
X = DLCI LT
ATL
= CSU/DSU S R
= FR Switch CHI-ATL PVC T
41 172.16.30.18 In Europe & Australia: TE2
A
- DTEs in FR connect via PVCs or SVCs. Every VC is labeled at either end with a
Data-Link Connection Identifier or DLCI (“ DEL-see” ) numbered 16-1007. S/T
- FR is NBMA, so routers must copy broadcasts onto all virtual circuits but Split- TE1
Horizon rules stop routing info (except from RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, &c. in the IP ISDN switch cloud
suite) and service updates (IPX SPA/GNS) from coming and going via the same (NT1 stuff
interface. Separate ‘full-mesh’ connections between every router might be inside)
complex and expensive. Instead, subinterfaces can host many VCs, each with S/T R TE2
its own DLCI and L3 characteristics (IP address, &c.) on one physical interface. T
(config-if)# encapsulation frame-relay <type> enables FR on specified interface or A
subinterface and sets the encapsulation type used by the provider. The default
type is cisco and it’ s proprietary; ietf (Internet Engineering Task Force) is an TE1 (Terminal Equipment, type 1): an ISDN-ready device
encapsulation based on PPP and is for connections to non-Cisco equipment. TE2 (Terminal Equipment, type 2): an ISDN-stupid device; no ISDN capability
- Create a subinterface (a common interface trick, not just a FR command) with NT1 (Network Termination, type 1): handles L1 ISDN specs; part of the carrier
(config-if)# interface s0.7 <link_type>. The two link types are point-to-point (only network outside North America/Japan but here packaged as a separate box (a
1 VC connects to your interface; each connection needs its own subnet) and type of CSU/DSU) to connect to our primitive ISDN networks
multipoint (several VCs connect; all FR interfaces use the same subnet). NT2 (Network Termination, type 2): handles L2 & L3 ISDN specs; Lammle says
(config-subif)# frame-relay interface-dlci <16-1007> applies a DLCI to a specific they are usually provider equipment (like a switch or PBX) and only rarely seen
subinterface; required on point-to-point subinterfaces; optional on multipoint. as CPE gear. I think he’ s clueless about NT2s because other sources show them
- A Link (or Local) Management Interface (LMI) tracks and maintains the link as in my picture (above) and they say an NT2 is often integrated with an NT1
from the router to the FR switch. It verifies flow, auto-assigns local or global into a single box. (Maybe that’ s why Lammle didn’ t see them.)
DLCIs, and reports a circuit status as active, inactive, or deleted. The three TA (Terminal Adapter): often incorrectly called an ISDN ‘modem;’ the wire-
LMI types are cisco (the default), ansi, and q933a. Since IOS v11.2, LMI type converter thingy you must stick in front of a TE2 to get it to play ISDN games.
is auto-sensed but you can set it with (config-if)# frame-relay lmi-type <type>. LT (Line Termination): a physical connection point into the telco network
- On multipoint interfaces only, IP or IPX addresses at the distant-end must be ET (Exchange Termination): the telco’ s ISDN switch, the first one in the cloud
mapped to DLCIs at your end, either statically or (using Inverse ARP) R reference point: between a TE2 and its TA; 2 wires
dynamically. [See the examples below.] Static maps are more reliable because S and T reference points: Supposedly, an NT2 connects to CPE gear by an ‘S’ and
IARP sometimes makes nonsense mappings to unknown devices. to an NT1 by a ‘T’ . Sybex’ s diagrams show no NT2s, so I made my picture
FRAME RELAY EXAMPLE with STATIC MAPPING on ROUTER “ NY” : from other sources. We can say for sure 1) S & T are electrically and
(config)# int s0 - go to a serial interface zero functionally equivalent, so their names often get combined and B) they must be
(config-if)# encapsulation frame-relay - turn on Frame Relay the same as the 4-wire connections between European NT1s and TE1s/TAs,
(config-if)# int s0.7 multipoint - create a multipoint subinterface because that’ s where they’ re always pictured. Helpful? I didn’ t think so.
(config-subif)# no inverse-arp - turn off Inverse ARP U reference point: between DCE (meaning “ telecom” ) line termination equipment
(config-subif)# ip address 172.16.30.1 255.255.255.0 - set IP address on subinterface and NT1s (only in North America and other ass-backward zones); 2 wires
(config-subif)# frame-relay map ip 172.16.30.17 16 ietf broadcast - map Chicago’ s V reference point: between ET and LT; I have no idea how many wires it has.
IP address to your DLCI 16; use IETF encapsulation for this subinterface ISDN protocols starting with...
because Chicago has non-Cisco gear; let broadcasts use this virtual circuit - E deal with ISDN use over existing phone systems
(config-subif)# frame-relay map ip 172.16.30.18 17 - map Atlanta’ s IP to DLCI 17 - I deal with concepts, aspects, and services (“ Could you be more vague?” )
(config-subif)# frame-relay keepalive <seconds> - set LMI keepalive (default = 10) - Q deal with switching and signaling
- To use less-stable, automatic IARP mapping instead, enter only these commands: BRI (Basic Rate Interface) 2B (bearer) + 1D (data) channels, total 128kbps
(config-if)# int s0.7 multipoint - create a multipoint subinterface B = data @ 64kbps
(config-subif)# encapsulation frame-relay ietf - turn on Frame Relay, IETF type D = control & signaling @ 16kbps
(config-subif)# ip address 172.16.30.1 255.255.255.0 - set subinterface’ s IP address PRI (Primary Rate Interface)
- FR switches can apply three congestion control methods: In North America: 23B + 1D channels (a “ T1” ), total 1.544Mbps
- DE (Discard Eligibility) bit: Less-important packets have the DE bit turned In Europe, Australia, &c: 30B + 1D channels (an “ E1” ), total 2.048Mbps
on so they may be dumped if congestion occurs. B = data @ 64kbps [Since 1k=1024 and 1M=1024k, I know the above
- FECN (Forward Explicit Congestion Notification) bit: Gets turned on as a D = control & signaling @ 64kbps totals don’ t add up but try not to worry about it!]
warning to the destination if a packet encounters congestion along its trip. How ISDN connects: Router connects D channel to near-end ISDN switch; switch
- BECN (Backward Explicit Congestion Notification) bit: Gets turned on in a sets path to distant-end switch via SS7 signaling; distant-end switch connects D
special packet sent back to the source as a warning. channel to remote router; B channel(s) are connected from end to end.
- CIR (Committed Information Rate): A provider’ s guaranteed minimum rate - Use (config)# or (config-if)# isdn switch-type <keyword> to configure the correct
with faster speeds possible if traffic is light. Low CIRs mean more packets are ISDN switch type, where the keyword tells the manufacturer and switch type.
dispensable, with their DE bits set to ‘on.’ Basic-5ess = an AT&T basic rate and Basic-ni1 = a National ISDN-1 switch.
- BRI interface hookups may require you use isdn spid1 <spid> <local_dial#> and
FRAME RELAY DIAGNOSTICS: isdn spid2 <spid> <local_dial#> to configure the SPID (Service Protocol ID –
# show frame-relay <x> where ‘x’ = ip, route, traffic, or, more importantly, like an account number) for each B channel to let your equipment talk to the
lmi shows type, errors, LMI traffic details ISDN switches. The local dial number may or may not be required.
pvc stats for PVCs (up/down) & DLCIs, including BECN and FECN counts - A full ISDN PRI setup goes: isdn switch-type <keyword>; controller t1 <slot/port>;
map L3 address-to-DLCI number mappings, static/IARP mapping, LMI stats framing esf; linecode b8zs; pri-group <timeslots/range>. (So I’ m told.)
# show interface s0 - line, protocol, LMI type, and general LMI stats
More…
# debug frame-relay lmi - shows if router and switch are sharing correct LMI info
13
DDR (Dial-on-Demand Routing) for ISDN or DIAL-UP off – no trunking; try to convert other device to be on-trunk, too
- for low-volume, occasional connections via POTS/PSTN (dial-up or ISDN) - To selectively remove a VLAN from a trunked port (for security, broadcast, or
- connects when ‘interesting’ packets dictate; breaks when idle time-out ends. routing update issues): (config-if)# no trunk-vlan 5 - repeat for each VLAN to kill
- First, set up a static route (so routing protocol traffic won’ t keep you connected): - Multiple ports can trunk. Each is identified with a letter. Verify trunking with
(config)# ip route 172.16.50.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.60.2 - “ get to ’ 50 via 60.2” # sh trunk (for all trunking ports) or # sh trunk <letter> (for specific ports) and
(config)# ip route 172.16.60.2 255.255.255.255 bri0 -“ get to 60.2 via bri0” # sh trunk <letter> allowed-vlans to see remaining VLANs after some are removed.
- All participating routers require full static route knowledge of the network.
Key Terms: auto duplex: duplex is set automatically; dynamic entries: a L2 or L3
- Default routing can be used on stub networks (only one outlet to other networks).
address table built dynamically; port security: frame restrictions on switch ports;
- Next step, specify the interesting traffic with a ‘dialer-list’ command:
set-based: the older CLI for Cisco switches, as opposed to newer IOS-based types.
(config)# dialer-list 1 protocol ip permit - “ List 1 says, ‘all IP traffic is
interesting.’ ”
(config)# int bri0 - choose the interface CHAPTER VII – BOOT-UP & CONNECTIVITY TOOLS, continued from pg 9
(config-if)# dialer-group 1 - apply List 1 to the specified interface TWO WAYS TO RESOLVE HOST NAMES to IP ADDRESSES:
- Last step, configure the dialer: HOST TABLES: ip host <name> <tcp_port#> <ip_addresses_1-8> The default port
(config-if)# ip address 172.16.60.1 255.255.255.0 - assign the interface an IP number for TCP is 23 (so you can skip it) and you can list up to 8 IP addresses:
address (config)# ip host Atlanta 172.16.10.2
(config-if)# no shut - turn the interface on (config)# ip host Chicago 192.168.0.148, &c. To view your table, type # sh hosts.
(config-if)# encapsulation ppp - select an encapsulation type Manual entries will say perm; DNS entries will say temp. Verify with ping.
(config-if)# dialer-string 8350661 - set up the number(s) to dial – OR – - To remove an entry, type no ip host Atlanta.
(config-if)# dialer map ip 172.16.60.2 name Chicago 8350661 - map the number(s) to DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM (DNS): The IOS assumes you want to use DNS any
dial, which is more secure. (This method uses the IP address of the next hop time you type an unknown command. It looks for your typed gibberish in its
router and the hostname of the remote router for authentication.) hosts table, thinking you might be naming a device you want to Telnet to. To
- To tell the dialer when to bring up the second B channel, type turn this feature off, use no ip domain-lookup.
(config-if)# dialer load-threshold <1-255> <in/out/either>, where 1-255 is the relative - To set up DNS: Turn it back on with
load level and the direction tells which traffic you want used as a trigger. The (config)# ip domain-lookup. (What? You thought you could leave it off?)
default is to monitor outbound traffic. (config)# ip name-server 192.168.0.70 points to your DNS server. (6 servers, max.)
- To set the idle disconnect time for calls, use (config)# ip domain-name mycompany.com (optional) appends this domain name
(config-if)# dialer idle-timeout <seconds> The default is 120 seconds. any time you type the name of a host. This is a good idea because DNS
- You can extend the “ interesting” list by pointing it to an access list: demands FQDNs (Fully Qualified Domain Names) to operate.
(config)# dialer-list 1 list 100 -“ Use access list 100 to define dialer list 1.” View your host table with # sh hosts. Test with ping.
(config)# access-list 100 permit tcp any any eq smtp - add to access list 100 PINGing and TRACEing
(config)# access-list 100 permit tcp any any eq telnet - add to access list 100 - ‘Ping’ requests ICMP echo packets from a target; ‘Trace’ uses TTL (time-to-live)
(config-if)# dialer-group 1 - apply the dialer list to the specified interface values from each router it meets to send back a list of hops along the way.
- Note: The access list is created but not applied anywhere. The access list may - Both ping & trace work with many protocols. To specify a particular protocol,
be of any type, 1-1299. type ping <protocol> <target>. Same syntax for trace: trace <protocol> <target>.
ISDN & DDR DIAGNOSTICS: TURNING OFF DEBUG
ping or telnet - make sure ping and Telnet are designated “ interesting” so the link undebug ip <specific debug command> or no debug all or undebug all or just un al
comes up when you try to use them!
show dialer - gives diagnostic info for all the above dialer commands
CHAPTER IX – ACCESS LISTS, continued from pg 11
show isdn active - shows the number called, if a call is in progress
show isdn status - used before dialing to check SPID validity; confirms L1, L2, & STANDARD IPX LISTS
L3 are talking to the provider’ s switch (config)# access-list <800-899> <deny/permit> <source_ipx_address>
show ip route - displays all the known routes <destination_ipx_address> For example:
debug isdn q921 - gives L2 info, only (Remember those “ Q” protocols?) (config)# access-list 800 permit 20 40 - creates the list
debug isdn q931 - gives L3 info (including call set-up & tear-down) (config-if)# ipx access-group 800 out - applies it to the specified interface
debug dialer - display call set-up/tear-down activity as it happens - The wildcard “ -1” when used in either the source or destination address fields
isdn disconnect interface bri0 - hang up the specified interface; this is the same as means “ any host or network.”
shutting down the interface with (config-if)# shutdown
EXTENDED IPX LISTS
(config)# access-list <900-999> <deny/permit> <protocol> <source_ipx_address>
APPENDIX B – The CATALYST 1900 SWITCH, related to “ switching,” pg 5 <source_socket> <destination_ipx_address> <destination_socket>
- 1900 switch passwords must be from 4 to 8 characters long (not case-sensitive). IPX SAP FILTER LISTS - Must be placed on all participating routers!
- Switch ports are labeled by type slot/port (e.g. ethernet 0/16, or fastethernet 0/26). - INPUT lists stop specified SAP traffic from updating the router’ s SAP table.
Small switches have only “ slot zero.” Use (config)# int e0/16 to configure port 16. - OUTPUT lists stop specified SAP updates from being sent by the router.
FIRST, CREATE YOUR VLANs… (config)# access-list <1000-1999> <deny/permit> <source_ipx_address>
(config)# hostname MySwitch - names the switch <service_type> <SAP_server_name>
(config)# vlan 2 name sales - creates and names VLAN 2 <source_ipx_address> can appear in the following formats:
(config)# vlan 3 name marketing - creates and names VLAN 3 <0-FFFFFFFF> network ID, only
(config)# vlan 4 name tech - creates and names VLAN 4 <N.H.H.H> fully specific source address (both network and host)
- … Then map them to ports: (Only static mapping is on the exam.) All ports –1 indicates any network. (Note the minus sign.)
are initially mapped to VLAN 1, by default; only one VLAN is allowed per port: <service_type> can appear in the following formats:
(config)# int e0/2 - go to Ethernet port 2 (in slot 0) <0-FFFF> service code: 4 = file server, 7 = print server, 24 = router
(config-if)# vlan-membership static 4 - map only one VLAN; repeat for other ports <N.H.H.H> mask for specific source address
0 indicates all services.
# sh vlan – gives names, status, port mappings
(config)# access-list 1000 permit 9e.6666.7777.8888 4 sappy_serv - creates the list
# sh vlan 2 – as above, plus type, SAID, MTU, parent, ring#, bridge#, STP, &c.
(config-if)# ipx input-sap-filter 1000 - applies it to specified interface; note hyphens!
# sh vlan-membership - list each port, its VLAN, and whether static or dynamic
IPX LIST DIAGNOSTICS
PUTTING MULTIPLE VLANs through ONE PORT by TRUNKING IT
show ipx interface - shows IPX address, applied lists, SAP filters for all interfaces
Add ALL the VLANs to a “ trunked” port and set how it deals with the device
show ipx access-list - shows lists in detail (with all Fs instead of wildcards)
plugged into it: (config-if)# trunk <option> where option is one of the following:
(See IP LIST DIAGNOSTICS, above, for show access-list, & other options.)
auto – do trunk mode if the other device is on or desirable
desirable – negotiate trunk mode if other device is on, desirable, or auto * END *
on – permanent trunk port; negotiate conversion to trunked mode
nonegotiate – permanent trunk port; don’ t negotiate
14
SPECIAL BONUS PAGE: 10 things you should immediately dump onto your source AD
scratch paper as your exam begins (like, before you forget them). connected interface 0
7 All Application static or default route 1
6 People Presentation Data IGRP 100
5 Seem Session RIP 120
4 To Transport Segments
3 Need Network Packets 0 = ROM monitor mode (no IOS)
2 Data Data-Link Frames 1 = boot an IOS image from ROM
2
1 Processing* Physical Bits 2 = use the IOS specified in NVRAM (default)
(* Or whatever works for you.)
0
0 = use CF (default); 4 = ignore CF
CORE
2 1
DISTRIBUTION
ACCESS
FTP 21
Novell Cisco
Telnet 23
Ethernet_802.3 novell-ether (default)
SMTP 25
Ethernet_802.2 sap
DNS 53
Ethernet_II arpa
HTTP 80
Ethernet_SNAP snap
1-126 A
1 – 99 IP standard
128-191 B
100 – 199 IP extended
192-223 C
800 – 899 IPX standard
stolen bits mask magic # hosts networks ISDN switch cloud
1 .128 128 126 0
2 .192 64 62 2 V U T S
NT NT
3 .224 32 30 6 ET 1 2 TE1
4 .240 16 14 14 LT
5 .248 8 6 30
6 .252 4 2 62 S R
7 .254 2 0 126 T TE2
8 .255 1 0 254 A
2=
3 Cisco layers
_
0=
_ _
protocol port #
Novell Cisco
(default)
range class
IP standard
A
IP extended
B
IPX standard
C ISDN switch cloud
stolen bits mask magic # hosts networks
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
15