DEFECTS IN TIMBER

A defect is any irregularity occurring in

or on wood which reduces is strength,
durability and usefulness. It may
improve or reduces its appearance
 Defects in Timber

Defects caused in timber may be basically

classified into two categories:

Internal Defects due to factors affecting the
growing tissue or the tree.

External Defects due to external agents or
subsequent treatment of timber.
 CAUSES OF DEFECTS

(DUE TO)

NATURAL FORCES INSECTS SEASONING

FUNGI CONVERSION
 CHEMICAL STAIN

KNOTS

SHAKES

DEFECTS DUE
TO NATURAL TWISTED FIBRES
FORCES
RIND GALLS

UPSETS

BURLS
CHEMICAL STAIN:-
THE WOOD IS
SOMETIMES
DISCOLOURED BY
THE CHEMICAL
ACTION CAUSED
WITH IT BY SOME
EXTERNAL
AGENCY.THIS IS
KNOWN AS
CHEMICAL STAIN.
KNOTS:-THESE ARE THE BASES OF
BRANCHES OR LIMBS WHICH ARE
BROKEN OR CUT OFF FROM THE
TREE.

THE PORTION FROM WHICH THE

BRANCH IS REMOVED RECIEVES
NOURISHMENT FROM THE STEM FOR
A PRETTY LONG TIME AND IT
ULTIMATELY RESULTS IN FORMATION
OF DARK HARD RINGS WHICH ARE
KNOWN AS KNOTS.

AS CONTINUITY OF WOOD FIBRES

ARE BROKEN BY KNOTS,THEY FORM
A SOURCE OF WEAKNESS

According to size (diameter)
 Pin Knot not more than
6.5mm
 Small Knot - more than
6.5mm but not more
than 20mm
 Medium Knot- more than
20mm but not more than
40mm
 Large Knot- more than
40mm

According to form
Round or Oval Knot- a knot cut more or less at right angles
to its long axis so that the exposed is round or oval.

Splay or Spike Knot- a knot cut approximately parallel to

its long axis so that the exposed section has an elongated
shaped.

According to quality

 Live Knot- a knot whose fibers are completely

intergrown with those of the surrounding wood.

 Sound Knot- a live knot free from decay.
 Tight Knot- a live or dead knot held firmly in place
 Dead Knot- a knot whose fibers are not intergrown with
those of the surrounding wood.
 Loose Knot- a dead knot which is not held firmly in place.
 Knot Hole- a hole left as results of the removal of a knot.
 Decayed Knot- a knot softer than the surrounding wood,
and containing decay.
 Shakes- or cracks are caused by the rupture of tissues resulting in
partial or complete separation of the fibers along the grain.

Star Shakes

Heart Shakes

Cups Shakes

Ring Shakes

Radial Shakes
Heart shake: Wood tissue
separates due to uneven
stress forming a crack.

Star shake: This occurs

where several shakes
radiate from the centre
region.
Ring shake: This type of shake follows the
line of the growth ring. The split occurs
between two growth ring and is the result
of uncontrolled seasoning.
It appears as a curved
split which partly or
wholy separates annual
rings from one another.

It may also be caused

due to excessive frost
action on sap present
in the tree when the
tree is young.
Ring shake: When cup
shakes cover the entire
tree, they are known as
ring shakes.

Resin pockets: Resin pockets do not affect the

overall strength of the timber. They are more of a
problem when it comes to machining and
finishing the timber surface. The resin sticks to
machine blades, eventually blunting them.
Rind Galls- Rind means bark
and gall indicates abnormal
growth. The peculiar curved
swelling found in the body of
the tree are known as RIND
GALL. These are typical curved
swelling formed upon the trunk
of the tree by successive layer
of the sapwood.

They develop at points from

where branches are improperly
cut off or removed. They are
rarely found in a tree and
timber found in this part is very
weak and not durable.
Upsets- are clipping or buckling of fibers caused by crushing of
fibers when the trunk is felled
violently over a rocky surface and
exposure of the tree in its young
age to fast blowing winds.
BURLS:-THEY ARE
PARTICULARLY
FORMED WHEN A TREE
RECIEVES SHOCK OR
INJURY IN ITS YOUNG
AGE.DUE TO ITS
INJURY,THE GROWTH
OF TREE IS
COMPLETELY UPSET
AND IRREGULAR
PROJECTIONS APPEAR
ON THE BODY OF
TIMBER
Twisted or Spiral Grain- fibers or wandering
hearts are caused by the prevalent wind
turning
or twisting the tree at its young age constantly
in one direction.

Wind Cracks- are shakes on the outside of a

log due to the shrinkage of the exterior surface
caused by the atmospheric influences.
Dead wood - timber which is obtained
from dead standing trees. It ican be
identified by its light weight and
reddish color.

Druxiness - This defect is indicated by

white decayed spots which are concealed
by healthy wood. They are probably
formed by access of fungi.
 DEFECTS DUE TO SEASONING

TWIST CUP BOW SPRING SPLIT HONEY COMBING

Seasoning and Shrinkage
Seasoning will cause dramatic
changes such as increase in
strength but also distortion and
shrinkage.

The greatest amount of

shrinkage takes place
tangentially along the grain with
little loss over the radial direction and along the length of the board.
Because of these varying shrinkage rates, tangential boards tend to
cup because of the geometry of the annual rings. Some rings are
much longer than the others close to the heart.

Therefore there will be more shrinkage

at these parts than the others.
GEOMETRICAL IMPERFECTIONS &
DISTORTIONS IN TIMBER
 DEFECTS DUE TO
SEASONING
BOW:-THIS DEFECT IS
INDICATED BY CURVATURE
FORMED IN DIRECTION OF
LENGTH OF TIMBER

CUP:-THIS DEFECT IS
INDICATED BY CURVATURE
FORMED IN TRANSVERSE
DIRECTION OF TIMBER
 CHECK:-A CRACK
WHICH SEPERATES
FIBRES OF WOOD.IT
DOES NOT EXTEND
FROM ONE END TO
THE OTHER

SPLIT
SPLIT:-WHEN CHECK
CHECK EXTENDS FROM ONE END
TO OTHER,IT IS KNOWN AS
A SPLIT
 TWIST:-WHEN A PIECE OF
TIMBER HAS SPIRALLY
DISTORTED ALONG ITS
LENGTH,IT IS KNOWN AS A
TWIST

HONEY-COMBING:-DUE TO
STRESS DEVOLOPED DURING
DRYING,VARIOUS RADIAL AND
CIRCULAR CRACKS DEVELOP IN
THE INTERIOR PORTION OF
TIMBER,WHICH RESEMBLES
WITH HONEY-COMB TEXTURE HONEY-COMB STRUCTURE
Case Hardening- it is due to
the unequal drying of the
exterior surfaces under
compression and the interior
surfaces under tension due to
rapid drying.
 Collapse - the cells of
timber are flattened
due to excessive
shrinkage.
 DEFECTS DUE TO CONVERSION

CHIP MARK DIAGONAL GRAIN TORN GRAIN WANE

DEFECTS DUE TO CONVERSION
CHIP MARK:-THIS DEFECT IS
INDICATED BY MARK OR SIGNS
PLACED ON FINISHED SURFACE
OF TIMBER.THEY MAY BE
FORMED BY PLANING MACHINE

WANE:-THIS DEFECT IS
DENOTED BY PRESENCE
OF ORIGINAL ROUNDED
SURFACE ON
MANUFACTURED PART
OF TIMBER
DIAGONAL GRAIN:-THE DEFECT IS
FORMED DUE TO IMPROPER
SAWING OF TIMBER.IT IS
INDICATED BY DIAGONAL MARKS
ON STRAIGHT GRAINED SURFACE
OF TIMBER
TORN GRAIN:-DEFECT CAUSED
WHEN A SMALL DEPRESSION
IS FORMED ON A FINISHED
SURFACE OF TIMBER BY
FALLING A TIMBER OR SO

TORN GRAIN
Machine Burn: Discoloration
of the wood due to
overheating caused by
friction, and either scorching
the wood or the resins
within it. Machine burn is
caused by stopping or not
feeding the wood across the
blades at the correct rate of
speed. machine burn can
almost always be prevented
by using sharp blades and
correct feed rates.
CAUSES OF DECAY
There are so many agents which may cause decay of timber
to name a few:

Alternate moisture & dryness

Fungi & molds

Insects & worms

Heat & confined air

CAUSES OF DECAY
But there are three main harmful agencies which cause
timber decay.

(1) Decay or Rot:

Decay or rot of timber is the result of the activity of

various bacterias and fungi, which utilize various portions of
timber as food; they require both oxygen and excess moisture.
Hence timber having moisture content below 25 % will not rot
easily.
CAUSES OF DECAY
(2) Insects:

There are so many insects which attack the wood, out of

them termites (white ants) are the main insects which are
very dangerous for timber.

Termites of one class live under ground and eat wood and
forms tubes or tunnels inside it.
CAUSES OF DECAY
(3) Fire:

Fire is also the damaging factor for timber. As timber

has tendency to burn, so fire can damage it easily.
 Decay of Timber
 Due to fungal Attack A fungus starts its life
as a tiny seed or spore, one of millions
produced at the fruiting stage.
oFungi are system plant organisms which live
on and attack timber causes it to rot or decay.
oFungi can only exist in following condition:
Air for their respiration
Moisture
Suitable Temperature
Food Supplies
 DEFECTS DUE TO FUNGI

BLUE STAIN BROWN ROT DRY ROT HEART ROT WET ROT WHITE ROT
BLUE STAIN :- A discoloration
that penetrates the wood
fibre. The sap of wood is
converted to a bluish color by
the action of certain types of
fungi. It can be any colour
other than the natural colour
of the piece in which it is
found. It is classed as light,
medium or heavy and is
generally blue or brown.
 BROWN ROT :-THE TERM ROT IS USED TO
INDICATE DECAY OR DISEASE OF TIMBER,THE
FUNGI OF CERTAIN TYPE REMOVES CELLULOSE
COMPOUNDS FROM WOOD AND HENCE WOOD
ASSUMES THE BROWN COLOUR

WHITE ROT:-IT IS JUST OPPOSITE OF BROWN

ROT. IN THIS CERTAIN TYPE OF FUNGI ATTACK
LIGNIN OF WOOD AND WOOD ASSUMES THE
APPEARANCE OF A WHITE MASS CONSISTING
OF CELLULOSE COMPOUNDS
 HEART ROT:-THIS IS FORMED WHEN BRANCH HAS
COME OUT OF THE TREE.IN SUCH CASE,THE HEART
WOOD IS EXPOSED TO ATTACK OF ATMOSPHERIC
AGENTS.ULTIMATELY THE TREE BECOMES WEAK
AND IT GIVES HOLLOW SOUND WHEN STRUK WITH
HAMMER
WET ROT:-SOME KIND OF FUNGI CAUSEDCHEMICAL
DECOMPOSITION OF WOOD OF TIMBER AND IN
DOING SO CONVERT TIMBER INTO GREYISH BROWN
POWDER.IT IS KNOWN AS WET ROT. SOME
IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED ABOUT
WET ROT ARE.
THE ALTERNATE WET AND DRY CONDITIONS FAVOURS THE DEVELOPMENT
OF WET ROT
IF UNSEASONED OR IMPROPERLY SEASONED TIMBER ARE EXPOSED TO RAIN
AND WIND,THEY BECOME EASILY LIABLE FOR ATTACK OF WET ROT.
TO PREVENT WET ROT,THE WELL SEASONED TIMBER SHOULD BE USED FOR
EXTERIOR WORK OR FOR UNDERGROUND WORK AND IT SHOULD BE COVERED
BY TAR OR PAINT FOR PROTECTION AGAINST MOISTURE
DRY ROT :- SOME TYPES OF FUNGI FEED ON
WOODS AND DURING FEEDING THEY ATTACK ON
WOOD AND CONVERT IT INTO DRY POWDER
FORM.THIS IS KNOWN AS DRY ROT.THE
FOLLOWING FACTS TO BE NOTED.

DRY ROT OCCURS AT THE PLACES WHERE THERE IS NO FREE CIRCULATION OF AIR
SUCH AS IMPROPERLY VENTILATED BASEMENTS,ROOMS ETC AND DAMPED
SITUATION LIKE KITCHEN TOILET ETC.
THE UNSESONED SAP WOOD ARE EASILY ATTACKED BY DRY ROT.
THE FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH OF FUNGUS CAUSING DRY ROT ARE
ABSENCE OF SUNLIGHT,DAMPNESS,PRESENCE OF SAP,STAGNANT AIR AND WARMTH.
IT IS ALSO CAUSED BY CHARRING,PAINTING AND TARRING THE UNSEASONED
TIMBER.
THE DRY ROT MAY BE PREVENTED BY USING WELL SEASONED TIMBER FREE FROM
SAP.
WHEN A PART OF TREE IS SERIOUSLY AFFECTED BY DRY ROT,THE DAMAGED
PORTION MAY BE COMPLETELY REMOVED AND REMAINING UNAFFECTED PORTION
SHOULD BE PAINTED WITH A SOLUTION OF COPPER SULPHATE.
Pitch: An accumulation of resinous material
on the surface or in pockets below the
surface of wood. Also called gum or sap.

Loose /Dead Knot: A knot that cannot be

relied upon to remain in place in the piece.
Caused by a dead branch that was not fully
integrated into the tree before it was cut
down.
Tight/Live Knot: A knot fixed by growth or
position in the wood structure so that it firmly
retains its place in the surrounding wood.

Spalt: Typically found in dead trees, spalting is

any form of wood discoloration caused by
fungi.
Wormhole: Small holes in the wood caused by
insects and beetles.

Dry rot: a condition of wood in which a fungus

breaks down wood fibers and renders the
wood weak and brittle.
 Decay of Timber
 Due to Insects damage to timber by insects
is quite considerable particularly in warm
country.

o Types of Insects:
Termites
Beetles
Boarers
 DEFECTS DUE TO INSECTS

(CAUSED BY)

BEETLES MARINE BOARERS TERMITES

 DEFECTS CAUSED BY
BEETLES

Flour like powder

 THEY FORM PIN HOLES OF SIZE ABOUT 2MM DIA IN WOOD

 TUNNEL FORMATION IS DONE IN SAP WOOD BY LARVAE OF
BEETLE
 CONVERSION OF TIMBER INTO FLOUR LIKE POWDER
 THEY DO NOT DISTURB OUTER SHELL OR COVER
 DEFECTS DUE TO MARINE BOARERS

BORES

THEY ARE FOUND IN SALTY WATER

THEY FORM TUNNELS OR BORES TO TAKE SHELTERS
DIAMETER AND LENGTH OF HOLES ARE AS HIGH AS 25MM AND 60
MM RESPECTIVELY
AFFECTED WOOD LOOSES ITS COLOUR AND STRENGTH
NO TIMBER IS COMPLETELY IMMUNE FROM ATTACK OF MARINE
BOARERS
 DEFECTS CAUSED BY TERMITES

LIVES IN COLONY AND VERY FAST IN EATING AWAY THE WOOD FROM
CORE OF CROSS-SECTION.
MAKES TUNNELS IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS AND USUALLY NOT
DISTURB THE OUTER SHELL OR COVER.
THE TIMBER PIECE ATTACKED BY TERMITES MAY LOOK SOUND UNTILL
IT COMPLETELY FAILS
FEW GOOD TIMBERS LIKE TEAK,SAL,ETC CAN RESIST THE ACTION OF
TERMITES
 Evaluation of Defects of Timber
Knots- tend to weaken timber in tension but may improve the
strength in compression.
Checks, Splits and Shakes- these reduce the shearing resistance
of the wood.
Compression Wood- increase density and shrinkage along the
grain and decreased shock resistance.
Tension Wood- it has high longitudinal shrinkage tending it to
warp and split.
Sap Rot- this results in decreased shock resistance and increased
absorption.
Slope of Grain- this lowers the tensile strength parallel to the
grain and the modulus of rupture which increases in the case of
radial slope of grain.
 Evaluation of Defects of Timber

Loose Grain- weaker than closed grain timber.

Wane- this reduce the mechanical properties and volume.
Worm Hole- deep, large worm holes spoil the appearance and
reduce the mechanical properties of timber.
Pith Pockets- affect the appearance and reduce the mechanical
properties of timber.
Boxed Heart- in cut sizes of timber, it does not affect the quality
appreciably.
Discoloration of Heartwood- it does not affect the mechanical
properties and this defect can be ignored in preservative treated
timber.
 Evaluation of Defects of
Timber
Mould- this essentially spoils the appearance of the
wood.
Sap Stain- which the stain is the most important,
does not affect the strength properties of timber.
 COMMON METHODS OF WOOD
PRESERVATION

Spraying or brushing with wood preservative

Pressure treatment
Dipping
METHODS OF PRESERVATION

External
Externalapplication
applicationof
ofpreservative
preservative
coating
coating

Internal
Internallumber
lumberisissubjected
subjectedto
topressure
pressure&&
injected
injectedwith
withchemical
chemicalsuch
suchasaszinc
zinc
chloride
chloridesolution/salt
solution/salt

53
EXPLANATIONS
Pressure treatments force preservative
into wood under higher than atmospheric
pressures. Properly pressure treated wood
is recommended for use in situations of
high decay hazard (ground line contact).

vacuum process: wood is placed in a

sealed container and as much air is
pumped out as is possible, creating lower
than atmospheric pressure in the wood
cells. Preservative is flooded into the tank
and the seal is broken creating a partial
vacuum which sucks preservative into the
wood.
 Thermal process or hot-cold bath involves
placing wood in a tank of hot preservative oil
followed by immersion in cold preservatives.
The hot bath heats and expands the air within
the wood, forcing some of the air out. The
wood is then immersed in the cold bath and
the heated air contracts pulling preservative
in with it. The thermal process is frequently
used in treating utility poles
 Cold soaking in solutions of creosote or
penta has been moderately effective in
treating round stock of species with thick,
easily treated sapwood, such as that of
many pines. Cold soaking should not be
used when heartwood is exposed. Normal
soaking times vary from 24 to 48 hours
and there is little control over retention
and penetration.