SIEMENS Energy Sector

Load flow including HVDC

Power Transmission Division

Overview

Introduction

Network equations

Net elements and their representation for load flow studies

Representation of power electronics in the load flow

Data required for load flow studies

Load flow solution

Derived load flow results

Introduction 1

Tasks of the electrical power suppliers:

Planning of the future power system
Secure operation of the existing power system
Reliable supply of the customers

Planning instruments and processes are required to determine:

The voltage and current distribution in the steady state
The loading of the equipment in the steady state
The power flows in the steady state
The equipment stress in the case of short circuits
The stability behaviour of the system during and after
system faults
The transient behaviour and the equipment stress during
system faults and regular making and breaking operations
Introduction 2

Normally all these tasks require simulation tools

The power systems are very complex
An analytical solution of the network equations or the
differential equations is normally not possible
Therefore numerical solution algorithms are required

Required are:
Suitable program tools depending on the type of study
Suitable models of the system components depending on
the type of study
A reliable data base for the system components
Network equations 1

I1

The bus admittance matrix Y is required

Y is the basis for the solution of the load flow

Branch equation : I12 = (U1-U2)Y12 = -I21

Kirchhoffs law : I = 0 I10+I12+I13+I14 = I1

Combination of the branch equations and Kirchhoffs law:

(U1-0)Y10+(U1-U2)Y12+(U1-U3)Y13+(U1-U4)Y14 = I1

Sorting of the equation:

U1(Y10+Y12+Y13+Y14)-U2(Y12)-U3(Y13)-U4(Y14) = I1
Network equations 2

For a system with n busses the following set of equations can be

written:
Bus 1 : Y11U1 + Y12U2 + ... + Y1nUn = I1
Bus 2 : Y21U1 + Y22U2 + ... + Y2nUn = I2
... ... ... ... ...
Bus n : Yn1U1 + Yn2U2 + ... + YnnUn = In

This can als be also be written as a matrix equation:

YU = I

Y is the bus admittance matrix with the following elements:

Yii = Sum of the admittances, which are connected to bus i
Yij = Sum of the admittances connecting the nodes i and j multiplied by -1

The Y matrix is the mathematical image of the passive net elements

Net elements and their representation 1

Synchronous generators
Xd R

Xd : Synchronous reactance

E : Synchronous internal voltage, e.m.f.

E UT
UT : Terminal voltage

Long transmission lines or cables

Z
Zw =
Surge impedance
Y
Yw
sinh( len) = Z Y Propagation factor

Z = R + jL Impedance per length

cosh( len) 1
Yw
sinh( len)
Y = G + jC Shunt admittance per length

len Line length

Net elements and their representation 2

Short transmission lines or cables

X R
R = R len
X = X len
C/2 G/2 G/2 C/2 C = C len

Transformers
Example : two winding transformer
Xk : Short circuit reactance
Xk RCu :1
RFe : Iron losses

RCu : Copper losses

: Tap ratio
RFe
: Vector group angle

Ideal Transformer
transformer vector group
Net elements and their representation 3

Loads including induction machines (motors)

P/Q
UBus

Representation as P and Q depending on the type of load

P is often treated as a constant current load
Q is often treated as a constant impedance load
For induction machines the motor characteristic and the slip
have to be considered

Reactive power elements

Shunt reactors and shunt capacitors LS C
Series compensation
S

L C or C
Current limiting reactors
P P Filter

Representation with their element values

Harmonic filters as C, representing the fundamental wave
reactive power
Representation of power electronics in the load flow

Static Var Compensator : Representation as constant Q

HVDC
Active power Pr for example at the rectifier is defined by the user
The active power Pi at the inverter is then calculated by the simulation
program, depending on the parameters of the DC circuit and the
converter losses
The reactive power at the rectifier and at the inverter is calculated by
the simulation program for example according to the IEEE equations for
steady state operation of the HVDC (IEEE PAS - 95 No.1 (1976) P 76-88 )
Id : Direct current
K U ac
Id = [cos( ) cos( + u E )]
Uac : Bus voltage

6 T X t K : Converter type dependent constant

B : Number of converter bridges in series

T : Transformer tap ratio

3 B U 2
Qac = ac
[2 u E + sin (2 ) sin (2 + 2 u E )] XT : Transformer impedance
4 T 2 X t
: Firing angle

uE : Overlap angle, which can be calculated from

the direct current equation
Data required for load flow studies 1

Synchronous generators
Nameplate data:
Rated voltage kV
Rated apparent power MVA
Synchronous reactance p.u.
Loss resistance p.u.
Rated power factor
Operating point data:
Active power MW
Reactive power MVar
or
Operating voltage kV
Power factor

Transmission lines or cables

Rated voltage kV
Length km
Positive-sequence specific resistance /km
Positive-sequence specific reactance /km
Positive-sequence specific capacitance nF/km
Data required for load flow studies 2

Two winding transformers

Rated apparent power SN MVA
Rated voltage HV-side kV
Rated voltage LV-side kV
RCu+jXk at rated tap position or p.u. of ZN=UN2/SN
Magnetizing current % of rated current
Vector group
Number of tap steps and step size
Xk variation depending on the tap position

Three winding transformers

Rated apparent power HV-MV side MVA
Rated apparent power HV-LV side MVA
Rated apparent power MV-LV side MVA
Rated voltage HV-side kV
Rated voltage MV-side kV
Rated voltage LV-side kV
RCu+jXk HV-MV at rated tap position or p.u. of ZN
RCu+jXk HV-LV at rated tap position or p.u. of ZN
RCu+jXk MV-LV at rated tap position or p.u. of ZN
Magnetising current % of rated current
Vector groups
Number of tap steps and step size
Xk variation depending on the tap position
Data required for load flow studies 3

Loads
Nameplate data:
Voltage level kV
Rated apparent power MVA
Rated power factor
Operating point data:
Active and reactive power demand MW / MVAr
Load type
+ Static load (impedance, heating, etc.)
+ Motor load (ASM, SM)
Compensation (for induction motors) MVAr

Reactive power elements

Rated voltage kV
Reactors
Reactor inductance H
Quality factor
Capacitors
Capacitance F

Filters
Connection diagram
Capacitance F
Inductance H
Quality factor
Data required for load flow studies 4

HVDC
Control mode (power or current control)
The DC line resistance []
Rated DC voltage [kV] and rated DC current [kA]
Active power demand [MW]
Number of converter bridges in series
Desired rectifier firing angle (alpha) [deg]
Desired inverter extinction angle (gamma) [deg]
Maximum and minimum alpha and gamma in the steady state
Rated AC system voltage [kV]
Converter transformer reactance [p.u. or ]
Converter transformer rated tap ratio
Converter transformer tap changer data (no. of taps ; tap step
size)
Load flow solution - general

The voltages, currents and power flows are calculated in the

steady state (undisturbed, symmetrical operation). Therefore
only the positive sequence systems has to be taken into account

The main questions are:

Voltage profile at all network busses for a given generation and
load scheme
MVA flow through the network elements
Total network losses

The busses are characterised by 2 complex (4 real) quantities:

Bus voltage vector : U = |U|exp(j)
MVA flow across the connected branches : S = P+jQ

Of special importance are load and generation busses

Load flow solution - generation busses

Generation busses with voltage control

The active power P and the voltage |U| are defined by the user
The voltage angle and the reactive power Q are unknown

Generation busses where active and reactive power are known

Possible but normally not used for generation busses
The active power P and the reactive power Q are defined by the user
The voltage vector U = |U|exp(j) is unknown

Reference bus (slack bus)

There is only one reference bus in the interconnected power system
The voltage vector U = |U|exp(j) is defined by the user. Normally the
voltage angle is chosen to be zero
The reference bus delivers the delta power (possible unbalance between
load and generation ; losses)
The active power P and the reactive power Q are unknown
Load flow solution - load busses
It is assumed that the active and reactive power are known
The active power P and the reactive power Q are defined by the user
The voltage vector U = |U|exp(j) is unknown
An important assumption is, that the voltage control is performed at the
generation busses. This is true for real power systems.

Voltage dependence of the loads

During the iteration loops of the load flow solution algorithm the voltage
dependence of the loads can be taken into account
The P and the Q of the different load types are normally voltage
dependent. The voltage dependence of P and Q varies with the type of
load
In the normal voltage range the P of asynchronous motors is nearly
independent of the bus voltage
The P of light bulbs varies with U1.6, the P of electric heaters with U2
Within the normal steady state voltage range the voltage dependence of
P and Q can be described by the following equations:
p q
U U
P = Pn Q = Qn
Un Un
For load flow calculations often p=0 (constant power) or p=1(constant
current) and q=2 (constant impedance) are used
Load flow solution - bus equations 1

For each bus i of the power system having n busses, the following
equation can be written:
Yi1U1 + Yi2U2 + ... + YinUn = Ii
The currents Ii are not known explicitely, however, can be calculated from
the known P and Q values:
Si = 3UiIi* = Pi+jQi
Ii = (Pi-jQi)/(3Ui*)
This yields:
3Ui*(Yi1U1 + Yi2U2 + ... + YinUn) = (Pi-jQi)
n
3 U Y ik U k = Pi j Qi
*
i
k =1

For the admittances and the bus voltages it can be written:

Yik = Gik+jBik
Ui = Uiw+jUib
Load flow solution - bus equations 2

This yields:
n
3 (U iw j U ib ) (Gik + j Bik ) (U kw + j U kb ) = Pi j Qi
k =1

Separation into real and imaginary part:

n
3 {U iw (U kw Gik U kb Bik ) + U ib (U kb Gik + U kw Bik )} = Pi
k =1
n
3 {U ib (U kw Gik U kb Bik ) U iw (U kb Gik + U kw Bik )} = Qi
k =1

The above is a system of 2n non-linear equations for the 2n

unknown bus voltage components Uiw and Uib

From 2n equations 2n unknown quantities can be determined.

However, an analytical solution is not possible, because the equations
are non-linear. Therefore a numerical solution algorithm is required.
Load flow solution - numerical solution methods

Well known and reliable numerical solution

algorithms for the calculation of the load flow in
power systems are:
The current iteration algorithm
The NewtonRaphson algorithm
Load flow solution - current iteration 1

For each unknown bus voltage vector an initial estimation is made:

Ui =U i
0

For each bus i the bus equation can be rearranged as follows:

n
Pi j Qi
Y ik U k =
k =1 3 U i
*

n
Pi j Qi
Y ii U i + Y ik U k =
3 U i
*
k =1
k i

Pi j Qi n
Y ik U k
3 U i
*
k =1
k i
Ui =
Y ii
Load flow solution - current iteration 2

In each iteration step(h) the new estimate of the bus voltage Ui is calculated
using the known bus voltages of the last iteration step(h-1) and the already
calculated bus voltages of the current iteration step(h). The previous equation
yields:
Pi j Qi
i 1 n
Y ik U k Y
( h 1)
U k
(h)

Ui =
(h) 3 U( i )
( h 1) *
k =1 k =i +1
ik

Y ii
For each bus i with given Pi and Qi the right side of the equation can be
completely calculated from known quantities. This gives directly the new
estimate of the bus voltage:
Pi j Qi i 1 n
( h 1)

(h)

( )
Y ik U k Y ik U k
( h 1) *
3 U i k =1 k =i +1
U iw( h ) = Re
Y ii


Pi j Qi i 1 n
( h 1)

(h)

( )
Y ik U k Y ik U k
( h 1) *
3 U i k =1 k =i +1
U ib( h ) = Im
Y ii


Load flow solution - current iteration 3
For each bus i with given Pi and |Ui| the equation can be rearranged as
follows: Qi( h )
U i = U iw + j U ib = Re{ A} + j Im{A} j
(h) (h) (h)

(
3 Y ii U i )
( h 1) *

U i = U iw + j U ib = Re{ A} + j Im{A} Qi( h ) Re{B} Qi( h ) j Im{B}

(h) (h) (h)

with the complex (completely determined) quantities A and B:

i 1 n
Pi
Y ik U k Y ik U k
(h) ( h 1)

A=
(
( h 1)
3 U i
*
)
k =1 k = i +1

Y ii
j
B=
(
3 U i
( h 1) *
) Y ii

Together with the known absolute value of the bus voltage |Ui| this gives 3
linear equations for the three unknown quantities Qi, Uiw and Uib:
U iw = Re{ A} Qi( h ) Re{B}
(h)

U ib = Im{A} Qi( h ) Im{B}

(h)

( ) + (U )
U i = U iw
(h) 2 (h) 2
ib
Load flow solution - current iteration 4

Now for each bus i the convergence condition |Ui(h)-Ui(h-1)|< is

checked. The flow chart gives an overview of the current iteration
process
Start

Determine Y
Estimate Ui(0)
Iteration step counter h:=1

Calulation of Ui(h) using the

previously discussed
current iteration algorithm

yes
|Ui(h)-Ui(h-1)|<
Calculation of
no derivated load
h:=h+1 flow results

Stop
Load flow solution Newton-Raphson 1

With the Newton iteration the solution of the function g(x)=0 can
be improved if g(x(h-1)) for the estimate x(h-1) is substituted by a
Taylor series:
( h 1) 1 dg ( x ( h 1) ) ( h ) ( h 1) 1 d 2 g ( x ( h 1) ) ( h )
g ( x) = g ( x )+ (x x )+ 2
( x x ( h 1) ) 2 + ... = 0
1! dx 2! dx
For practical applications only the first term of the Taylor series is
taken into account. This is equivalent to the substitution of g(x) by
the tangent in x(h-1)
( h 1) dg ( x ( h 1) ) ( h )
g ( x) = g ( x )+ ( x x ( h 1) ) = 0
dx

g(x)

g(x(h-1))

x(h) x(h-1) x
Load flow solution Newton-Raphson 2

The previous equation can be rearranged. For the improvement x

of the solution of the equation can be written:

( h 1) g ( x ( h 1) )
x (h)
x = x =
dg ( x ( h 1) )
dx
The calculation has to be repeated until |x(h-1)-x(h-1)|< is fulfilled.

The application of the Newton-Raphson algorithm can be

generalised for a set of functions gi(x1,x2,...,xn) = gi(x) = ai of n
variables. The elements xi of the unknown vector x to improve the
solution can be calculated as follows for each function gi:
( h 1)
gi ( x + x) = ai
Development into a Taylor series yields:
( h 1) ( h 1)
( h 1) g ( x ) g ( x )
gi ( x ) + x1 i + ... + xn i = ai
x1 xn
Load flow solution Newton-Raphson 3

For the complete set of equations the following matrix equation

can be written:

g1 ( x ( h 1) ) g1 ( x
( h 1)
)
... x a g ( x ( h 1) )
x1 xn 1 1 1
... ... ... ... =
...
( h 1) ( h 1)
g n ( x ) g n ( x ) x a g ( x ( h 1) )
... n n n
x 1 x n

The matrix of the partial derivatives is called the Jacobian matrix

J. The Jacobian matrix is calculated for the already known solution
x(h-1) of the previous iteration step. Note : The elements of J change
during each iteration step
The above matrix equation is a set of n linear equations for the n
elements of the unknown improvement vector x. Therefore all xi
can be determined from the matrix equation. Then the improved
solution vector can be calculated:
( h 1)
=x + x
(h)
x
Load flow solution Newton-Raphson 4

Of course the above algorithm can also be applied for the set of
the 2n equations for the 2n unknown bus voltages U=Uiw+jUib
n
Pi (U ) = 3 {U iw (U kw Gik U kb Bik ) + U ib (U kb Gik + U kw Bik )} = Pi
k =1
n
Qi (U ) = 3 {U ib (U kw Gik U kb Bik ) U iw (U kb Gik + U kw Bik )} = Qi
k =1

The application of the Newton-Raphson algorithm yields:

P1 (U ( h 1) ) P1 (U
( h 1)
) P1 (U
( h 1)
) P1 (U
( h 1)
)
... ...
U 1w U nw U 1b U nb

... ... ... ... ... ... U1w P1 WP1 P1 (U ( h1) )
( h 1) ( h 1) ( h 1) ( h 1)

Pn (U ) Pn (U ) Pn (U ) Pn (U ) ... ... ...
U ... ...
U nb U nw Pn WPn Pn (U
( h 1)
U nw U1b )
1w
( h 1) ( h 1) ( h 1) ( h 1)
= =

1Q (U ) Q1 (U ) Q1 (U ) Q1 (U ) U1b Q1 WQ1 Q1 (U ( h 1) )
U ... ...
U nw U1b U nb ... ... ...
1w

( h 1)
... ... ... ... ... ...
U nb

Qn

n
WQ Q n (U )

( h 1) ( h 1) ( h 1) ( h 1)
Qn (U )
...
Qn (U ) Qn (U )
...
Qn (U )
U1w U nw U1b U nb
Load flow solution Newton-Raphson 5

For a bus k where Pk and Qk have been defined by the user, the
line k of the previous matrix equation can remain without any
changes.

For a bus k where Pk and Uk =|Uk| with (Uk)2=(Ukw)2+(Ukb)2 have

been defined, the following substitutions in the corresponding line k
of the matrix equation are required:
( h 1) ( h 1)
Qk (U ) U k (U )
for all elements j = 1...n of J
U jw U jw
( h 1) ( h 1)
Qk (U ) U k (U )
for all elements j = n + 1...2 n of J
U jb U jb
Qk U k

After the above substitutions for the PU-busses the 2n unknown

bus voltage components Uiw and Uib can be calculated from the
modified matrix equation. Then for each bus i the convergence is
checked by |Ui(h)-Ui(h-1)|<. The flow chart gives an overview about the
Newton-Raphson solution process
Load flow solution Newton-Raphson 6

Basic equations:
n
Pi (U ) = 3 {U iw (U kw Gik U kb Bik ) + U ib (U kb Gik + U kw Bik )} = Pi
k =1
n
Qi (U ) = 3 {U ib (U kw Gik U kb Bik ) U iw (U kb Gik + U kw Bik )} = Qi
k =1

Calculation of the diagonal elements of the Jacobian matrix J:

Example:
( h 1)
Pi (U ) n

= 3 2 U iw Gii + U kw Gik U kb Bik
( h 1) ( h 1) ( h 1)

U iw k =1
k i
Similar calculation possible for:
( h 1)
Qi (U )
U ib
Load flow solution Newton-Raphson 7

Calculation of the off-diagonal elements of the Jacobian matrix J:

Example:
( h 1)
Pi (U
U kw
)
{ }
= 3 U iw( h 1) Gik + U ib( h 1) Bik for k i ; k = 2...n

Similar calculation possible for:

( h 1) ( h 1) ( h 1)
Pi (U ) Qi (U ) Qi (U )
U kb U kw U kb
Load flow solution Newton-Raphson 8

Flow chart Start

Determine Y
Estimate Ui(0) Calculation of the Jacobian matrix J
Iteration step counter h:=0
Calculation of the Uiw(h) and Uib(h)
according to the previously discussed
Newton-Raphson algorithm

Uiw(h+1) = Uiw(h)+ Uiw(h)

Uib(h+1) = Uib(h)+ Uib(h)

h:=h+1

Calculation of Pi(h), Qi(h) and |Ui| according to the 2n

real bus equations and the maximum deviations:
max{Pi(h) = WPi-Pi(h)}
max{Qi(h) = WQi-Qi(h)}
max{|Ui(h)| = |WUi|-|Ui(h)|}

max|P(h)|<
no
max|Q(h)|<
max|Ui(h)|<

yes
Calculation of
derivated load flow
results

Stop
Derived load flow results

The discussed numerical solution algorithms calculate only the

complex bus voltages. However, also other load flow results are
required, which have to be derived from the calculated bus voltages:
The branch currents Iik
Iik Iki
Iik = (Ui - Uk)Yik
Ui Uk
Yik
The currents of load and generation Ii
I = YU
The branch power flow Sik and the power flow Si of load and generation
Sik = Pik+jQik = 3(Ui)(Iik)*
Si = Pi+jQi = 3(Ui)(Ii)*
The network losses
PV_ik = 3|Ui Uk|2Re{Yik}
n n
PV _ total = PV _ ik
i =1 k =1