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Daniel Coffin
Northcentral University
CoffinDEDU8200-5 2
CoffinDEDU8200-5 3
The purpose of this assignment is to prepare an annotated introduction for a research paper,
organizing my thesis related to my research topic of interest, supporting subtopics, and paraphrased
information taken from my research sources which I intend to use to support my thesis. This
research paper investigates the topic of fluency development as it relates to overall reading
achievement in middle school struggling readers of low socioeconomic status and advances the
thesis that fluency development instruction is an important precursor for reading comprehension
and that the current prevailing paradigm of middle grades reading instruction that deemphasizes
middle school readers of low socioeconomic status whose literacy development is more likely to
have been delayed by poor pre-literacy and literacy experiences in the home, reduced exposure to
print, and increased chance of attending substandard schools. These struggling readers failure to
read fluently negatively affects not only their reading performance, but academic achievement in all
Annotated Outline for Fluency Development and Low-SES Struggling Readers in the Middle
Grades
I. Introduction: The Effect of Low Socioeconomic Status (SES) on Oral Reading Fluency and
quickly and with minimal effort, and with appropriate tone and phrasing; these aspects
of fluency are called accuracy, automaticity, and prosody (Paige & Magpuri-Lavell,
2014).
B. Extensive research has shown that oral reading disfluency is correlated with diminished
vocabulary and poor reading comprehension (Hilsmier, Wehby, & Falk, 2016).
C. The middle grades language arts curriculum generally emphasizes instruction in
reasoning that these skills have already been obtained in the elementary grades (Leko,
2015).
D. Students of low socio-economic status and English language learners (ELL) are at
particular risk for being disfluent readers due to vocabulary deficits, lack of exposure to
print, and diminished intrinsic motivation to read (Parker, Zaslofsky, Burns, Kanive,
child-directed speech than those of lower socioeconomic status and use speech to elicit
comprehension, influencing reading comprehension both directly and indirectly (Li &
elementary grades still show the same deficiencies in high school; difficulties in
performance as learning requires proficient reading (c.f. learn to read vs. read to
learn paradigm); it is, therefore, imperative that teachers of reading in the middle
grades develop effective means of diagnosing and intervening to solve problems with
oral reading fluency (Meisinger, Bloom, & Hynd, 2008; Hilsmier, Wehby, & Falk,
2016).
II. Accuracy
A. Accuracy is an aspect of fluency which refers to the ability of a reader to decode text
without error. Accuracy in phonetic decoding at a rate of less than 90% is considered to
be frustration level and may result in an inability of a reader to make sense of the text
to be read (Parker, Zaslofsky, Burns, Kanive, Hodgson, Scholin, & Klingbeil, 2015).
B. Accuracy depends on a strong basis in phonic awareness (discerning sounds within
spoken words) and phonics (discerning the relationship between sounds and sound
learn and practice with phonetic patterns in both drill and authentic reading (Kim,
whole word or word part from their memory in order to read without pausing to struggle
increasing orthographical complexity; this inventory of sight words (words that do not
need to be decoded phoneme by phoneme, but are recognized as a whole) enable readers
to read more quickly without sacrificing accuracy (Vaessen & Blomert, 2010).
C. Automatized decoding reduces cognitive load in the reader, freeing working memory to
attend to relationships between words in a sentence rather than within the word itself,
and understand; reading text aloud in a way that approximates natural speech,
increased fluency leads to improved comprehension, which in turn informs the manner
in which a reader performs the oral reading of a text (Rasinski, Rupley, & Nichols,
2008).
V. Assessment of Fluency and Fluency Development Interventions
A. Accuracy and automaticity of text are generally assessed by means of words correct per
measure the effect of fluency development interventions on reader accuracy and speed
which assesses pacing, tone, volume, and phrasing; these scores can also be gathered and
fluency; fluency gains have been shown to transfer from a single text to overall reading
experiences and that silent reading does not contribute to reading comprehension,
meaning that SSR (sustained silent reading), which is a common instructional technique
is not effective for disfluent oral readers (Price, Meisinger, Louwerse, & DMello,
2015).
VI. Conclusion: Gaps in the Research
A. To what degree are various pre-literacy deficiencies ameliorated by intensive in-school
deficiencies?
B. At what point do developing readers benefit less from phonics decoding interventions to
develop fluency and more from prosody development? Can words correct per minute
(WCPM) be used as a cut-off point to determine when this change would be most
effective?
C. Are fluency development interventions effective at improving not only WCPM and
fluency rubric outcomes, but also intrinsic reading motivation? If not, what additional
D. What is the long-term benefit that accrues to readers who have participated in fluency
regular classes?
References
Archer, A.L., Gleason, M.M., & Vachon, V.L. (2003). Decoding and fluency: Foundation skills for
struggling readers. Learning Disability Quarterly, 26, 89-101.
Ardoin, S.P., Christ, T., Morena, L.S., Cormier, D.C., & Klingbeil, D.A. (2013). A systematic
review and summarization of the recommendations and research surrounding curriculum-based
measurement of oral reading fluency (CBM-R) decision rules. Journal of School Psychology,
51(1), 1-18.
Cho, K.W., Altarriba, J., & Popiel, M. (2015). Mental juggling: When does multitasking impair
reading comprehension? The Journal of General Psychology, 142(2), 90-105.
CoffinDEDU8200-5 8
Hilsmier, A.S., Wehby, J.H., Falk, K.B. (2016). Reading fluency interventions for middle school
students with academic and behavioral disabilities. Reading Improvement, 53(2), 53-64.
Hoff, E. (2003). The specificity of environmental influence: Socioeconomic status affects early
vocabulary development via maternal speech. Child Development, 74(5), 1368-1378.
Kim, Y.G., & Wagner, R.K. (2015). Text (oral) reading fluency as a construct in reading
development: An investigation of its mediating role for children from grades 1 to 4. Scientific
Studies of Reading, 19(3), 224-242.
Kim, M.K., Bryant, D.P., Bryant, B.R., & Park, Y. (2017). A synthesis of interventions for
improving oral reading fluency of elementary students with learning disabilities. Preventing
School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 61(2), 116-125.
Meisinger, E.B., Bloom, J.S., & Hynd, G.W. (2008). Reading fluency: implication for the
assessment of children with reading disabilities. Annals of Dyslexia, 60(1), 1-17.
Mikk, J. (2008). Sentence length for revealing the cognitive load reversal effect in text
comprehension. Educational Studies, 34(2), 119-127.
Paige, D.D., & Magpuri-Lavell, T. (2014). Reading fluency in the middle and secondary grades.
International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 7(1), 83-96.
Parker, D.C., Zaslofsky, A.F., Burns, M.K., Kanive, R., Hodgson, J., Scholin, S.E., & Klingbeil, D.
A. (2015). A brief report on the diagnostic accuracy of oral reading fluency and reading
inventory levels for reading failure risk among second- and third-grade students. Reading &
Writing Quarterly, 31(1), 55-67.
Price, K.W., Meisinger, E.B., Louwerse, M.M, & DMello, S. (2016). The contributions of oral and
silent reading fluency to reading comprehension. Reading Psychology, 37(2), 167-201.
Rasinski, T., Rupley, W.H., & Nichols, W.D. (2008). Synergistic phonics and fluency instruction:
The magic of rhyming poetry! New England Reading Association Journal, 44(1), 9-14.
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2017). Working memory training in typically developing children: A meta-
analysis of the available evidence. Developmental Psychology, 53(4), 671-685.
Vaessen, A., & Blomert, L. (2010). Long-term cognitive dynamics of fluent reading development.
Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 105, 213-231.
Wilfong, L.G. (2015). Using poetry to improve fluency, comprehension, word recognition, and
attitude toward reading in struggling English language learners. New England Reading
Association Journal, 51 (1), 41-49.
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Young, C., & Nageldinger, J. (2014). Considering the context and texts for fluency: Performance,
readers theater, and poetry. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 7(1), 47-
56.