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Gareth Affleck looks at beginnings, middles and ends.

at A-level examiners tend to insist on tricky things like answering the question,
analysis rather than narrative and including information to support your point of
view.

Although every essay will demand a unique answer, there are techniques common
to all essays which will ensure that you don't go too far wrong.

Read the question

This sounds too obvious to mention. But every year some students see a word or
phrase in the title and proceed to reel off a prepared answer without considering
whether what they are writing actually addresses the question asked. This will be
immediately obvious to anyone reading the essay and gain you a few marks. Read
the question several times to make sure you understand what it is asking.

Analyse the question

When you have read the question should then analyse it. This is vital many people
do not make the distinction between what the question is asking and what the
question is about. By breaking down the title into key words (the issue to be
considered) and topic words (the subject matter), you can ensure that you actually
answer the question rather than provide a simple narrative of events.

Analysing the Question

Essential steps: select a question; identify the subject of the question; what are you
being asked to do - that is, what kind of information will you need to answer the
question, and how will you have to treat it? Circling the key words in the question is
sometimes a helpful first step in working out exactly what you need to do. It is
useful to note that there is usually a natural way of structuring your answer: that is,
a way of organising an answer which follows naturally from the format of the
question and which will put the fewest obstacles in the way of the reader:

'Explain' and 'why' questions demand a list of reasons or one big reason; each
reason will have to be explained - that is, clarified, expounded, and illustrated.

'Assess', 'evaluate' and 'define-the-significance-of' questions require judgements


supported by reasons, explanation and evidence. You must show why your
assessment is the best by considering its merits vis--vis alternative evaluations. It
might be useful to define and defend the criteria on which your judgement depends.
That is, to explain why they are the best criteria for judging the historical
phenomenon at issue

'What-role-did-X-play-in-Y' questions imply a functionalist approach - that is, they


require that you identify the function of some phenomenon, group or institution
within some specific system. Thus, the subject of the question is the 'Y' rather than
the 'X' element. That is, the question requires a discussion of the system as a whole
and the consideration of alternative explanations of how 'X' worked within it.
'To-what-extent' questions involve a judgement of measure. One way of answering
the question would be set up a series of 'tests', as it were, that can be investigated
in turn.

This essay will examine five spheres which cast light on the extent of Jewish
influence in high medieval France: namely, their role in the commercial life of the
towns, the role of Jewish banking in the agrarian economy, their influence on
Christian intellectual life, .. [and so on].

The essay would need a conclusion in which you pulled together the results of your
test cases:

It has been seen that the Jews exerted a profound influence on the intellectual life of
the universities but almost none on that of the established monastic orders..

'Quote-and-discuss' questions require you to identify the issue at stake and to


produce a reasoned response. You may respond, for example, by agreeing with the
quotation in which case you will need to explain why agreement is the best
response, why it would be wrong to disagree. You should consider the merits of a
variety of responses. If possible you should always examine the book or article from
which the quotation has been taken in order to discover what its author meant by it,
to discover how the author has understood the issues.

'Compare-and-contrast' questions demand the identification of similarities and


differences. One method of tackling such an essay would be to distinguish five or six
areas of similarity and contrast, and to devote a section of the essay to each area -
a section in which you would assess the degree of similarity and reach a sub-
conclusion. The conclusion would then require a summation of the various 'sub-
conclusions'.

It needs to be stressed that none of these types of question calls for a narrative
approach. You will never be asked to produce a narrative of what happened. In rare
circumstances, a few sentences of narrative may form part of the evidence cited in
support of a point, but the essay as a whole should be organised according to a
logical structure in which each paragraph functions as a premise in the argument.
The analytical and expository voice will always prove more effective than the
narrative mode of writing.

Planning

This is without doubt the most vital part of writing an essay. It is your plan that
determines what approach you take to answering the question. If you have written
your plan properly, you will know exactly what your answer is going to be this is
not something that should be decided while you are writing your essay. More
importantly, your plan will ensure that you actually answer the question. Everything
you write must be related to the question, and without a plan it is all too easy to
lose focus and write irrelevant nonsense. There is nothing a teacher likes doing
more than crossing out huge chunks of an essay with the word 'irrelevant'! Write a
good plan and this won't happen to you.

INTRODUCTION

Your introduction must make a good impression. It is the first thing anyone will read:
if it fails to grip, the rest of the essay will have to be very good to retrieve the
situation. Ideally your introduction should sparkle, leaving the impression 'Wow, this
girl knows what she's talking about: I want to read more'. At the very least it must
be competent.

The safe way to begin is simply to state what you are going to do: sum up in a few
sentences what the question is asking and say how you are going to answer it. This
approach will not excite an examiner, but as long as you have identified the key
areas for investigation (which you will have worked out in your plan), you will have
made a satisfactory start.

Discuss the conditions which led to the outbreak of the Russian Revolution

e.g ten days that shook the world. This is how American journalist John
beads describes the outbreak of the Russian Revolution. this historical event
led to the establishment of the worlds first Communist Government. Those
ten days changed the nature of government in Russia and was as a result of
certain conditions that existed in Russia. Those conditions being: the rule of
the Tssar, the rule of the provisional government , the economic
backwardness and decay of Russia , societal ills such as rampant poverty
and the leadership and message of the Bolshevik Party.

Another approach is actually to state your answer in the introduction and then go on
to prove your case in the essay. This approach is far more exciting because it shows
that you have a definite point of view, and are prepared to argue it. It shows an
examiner that you have planned your essay, know what you are going to say and in
all probability will support it with good evidence.

E.g. what factors led to the outbreak of the First World War?

World War One, also known as The Great War and The First Modern War
was a very large scale war lasting over four years, involving nations from
around the world and ultimately killing more than twenty million people. The
cause of this war cannot be accredited to one single event but rather an
assassination of a nations leader and many political philosophies including
militarism, nationalism, imperialism and the formation of alliances.

The final type of introduction is far more individual You might use an interesting
quote, describe a significant event, take issue with the question or otherwise set the
scene It is hard to define, but the effect will be to show that you have complete
mastery of the subject, understand the issues at stake and will be dealing with them
thoroughly.

e.g. Discuss the view that Germany was responsible for the outbreak of WWI, 1914
to 1918.

According to historian A.J.P. Taylor, [The German] bid for continental


supremacy was certainly decisive in bringing on the European War... Taylor
claims in his book, The Struggle for European Mastery that German ambitions
caused the conflict. Other historians such as Fritz Fischer have supported
this viewpoint.

Though Germany has been appropriated much of the responsibility for the
outbreak of WWI, its the opinion of this writer that though significant,
Germany alone was not responsible for the outbreak of the war. There were
other factors that will be discussed: the alliance system, militarism,
imperialism and nationalism.
The Chief of the German General Staff Helmuth von Moltke's comment - 'we
are ready, and the sooner the better for us' - sums up the German attitude in
1914.

The Middle

The main body of the essay is where you prove your case. Once you have planned
your essay, this section will almost write itself It is just a question of filling in the
gaps. You will know what paragraphs you are going to write and what information
you are going to use. However, remember that you are making an argument, not
narrating a story. You have already identified the key words in the question now is
the time to use them. Every paragraph must refer in some way to the key words or
it will be irrelevant. Be ruthless you will have far more information than you need
and must select carefully only that which you need to support your argument.

However, you must equally avoid an essay consisting only of argument you must
not make unsubstantiated claims. For everything you say you must have a
supporting fact or example otherwise your essay will be just so much hot air. This
balance between analysis and supporting detail is what makes up the skill of' essay
writing, and takes time to learn. Once you have done so, success will be yours.

Prioritize your points in each paragraph, for example:

The most important reason which led towards the collapse of the Tsarist regime
was...

Then structure each paragraph like this:

Point

Evidence

Explanation
Link to the question

Always make sure the topic sentence and your introduction relates directly to the
essay question.

Each Point gets a paragraph

Then you must remember to PEE every paragraph

(i.e. within each paragraph, you will always have a Point, Evidence and an
Explanation)

What were the reasons for the failure of the League of Nations?

Point

State the point clearly, bluntly and briefly.

The first reason the League failed was that its organisation was chaotic.

Evidence

Put a fact (or facts) to prove what you are saying

The Leagues Secretariat was tiny, yet it had to co-ordinate the work of the
Assembly, the Council, and all the Committees and Commissions.

Explanation

Then explain how what you are saying answers the question you have been asked.

NOTE, it is this bit of the paragraph that gets you your marks.

This was very important because it harmed the League in a number of ways.
Decisions sometimes took months. Important minutes and notes were lost. This
links to the paragraph on the League's failures, because failure caused more failure.
Most importantly, the Conference of Ambassadors (a small group of the most
powerful countries) found it easier to meet together and make a quick decision, so it
often overturned decisions the League had made (e.g. over Corfu, 1923) - which
links to the fact that the League's main members let it down.'

Quotes

After all your efforts making notes, you will naturally want to use some of them in
your essay that is why you made them. However, you must be very careful how
you use quotes. They can only be used in a discussion of various historians' points
of view, i.e. 'Wilkinson says..., but Shennan says...', or to sum up an argument you
have already proved. What they absolutely 100% can never be used for is to prove
a point. The most common use of quotes is 'Wilkinson says that...', with no further
information. This does not prove your point. A quote from an historian, however well
respected, is not proof. Saying that Wilkinson has said something does not prove
that what he has said is true. If you are going to use a quote you must support it
with the relevant facts or examples, just as if' it was your own words, or you will
gain no marks for your carefully memorised notes.

Conclusions

The conclusion is where you sum up what you have said in your essay. It is
absolutely vital never fail to write one. This is the last thing an examiner reads and
counts for a great deal: a good conclusion can rescue an indifferent essay and set
the seal on a good one. It is here that you draw together the threads of your
argument and hammer home your points, leaving the reader in no doubt as to your
answer. You should refer explicitly to the key words of the question and reinforce the
points you made in the main body. Above all it should contain nothing new it is
simply a restatement of your argument. If there is anything you have not already
said it is too late now!

Like the introduction, the conclusion can be a challenging paragraph to write. This is
because the conclusion must review the main points without being repetitive or
boring.

Structure of the Conclusion

1.Sum up and review your main points.

2.Re-examine your thesis in light of everything that you have proven

3.Point toward the larger significance of your ideas. If your readers now believe
everything in your thesis, what do they now know and why is it important? In other
words, so what?

Good Ideas for Conclusions

If your essay began with a question, include the answer in your conclusion

Use a short, significant quotation or anecdote that summarizes the main intent of
the essay

If your essay pointed out a problem, suggest solutions

Widen the perspective of what you have discussed; in light of your thesis, what
does your reader now know about a given time period?

What to Avoid in the Conclusion

The phrase, In conclusion, I have shown that

Recopying your topic sentences or introduction exactly


Putting in minor details or afterthoughts

Using inflated declarations or clich

Apologizing for what you failed to do in the essay

Going off in an entirely new or unrelated direction

Transitions are words or phrases that connect ideas and/or show the relationship
between them. Use transitions to connect the sentences within your paragraphs.
Examples of transitional words and phrases include: Nevertheless However
Therefore In addition As a result Equally important

You can also use transitional statements at the beginning and/or end of paragraphs
to connect the paragraph to the paragraphs before or after as well as to your thesis

Agreement / Addition / Similarity

The transition words like also, in addition, and, likewise, add information, reinforce
ideas, and express agreement with preceding material

in the first place not only ... but also as a matter of fact in like
manner

in addition coupled with in the same fashion / way

first, second, third in the light of not to mention to say


nothing of

equally important by the same token again also

then equally identically


uniquely

like as too moreover as well as

together with of course likewise


comparatively

correspondingly similarly furthermore additionally

Opposition / Limitation / Contradiction

Transition phrases like but, rather and or, express that there is evidence to the
contrary or point out alternatives, and thus introduce a change the line of reasoning
(contrast).

although this may be true in contrast different from

of course ..., but on the other hand on the contrary


at the same time in spite of even so / though

be that as it may then again above all

in reality after all but

(and) still unlike or

(and) yet while albeit

Besides as much as even though

Although instead whereas

Despite conversely otherwise

However rather nevertheless

Nonetheless regardless notwithstanding

Cause / Condition / Purpose

These transitional phrases present specific conditions or intentions.

in the event that granted (that) as / so long as

on (the) condition (that) for the purpose of with this intention

with this in mind in the hope that to the end that

for fear that in order to seeing / being that

in view of If .. then

unless when whenever

while because of since

lest in case provided that

given that only / even if so that

so as to owing to inasmuch as

due to

Examples / Support / Emphasis

These transitional devices (like especially) are used to introduce examples as


support, to indicate importance or as an illustration so that an idea is cued to the
reader.
in other words to put it differently for one thing

as an illustration in this case for this reason

to put it another way that is to say with attention to

by all means important to realize another key


point

first thing to remember most compelling evidence must


be remembered

point often overlooked to point out on the positive /


negative side

with this in mind notably including

like to be sure namely

chiefly truly indeed

certainly surely markedly

especially specifically expressively

surprisingly frequently significantly

in fact in general in particular

in detail for example for instance

to demonstrate to emphasize to
repeat

to clarify to explain to enumerate

such as

Effect / Consequence / Result

Some of these transition words (thus, then, accordingly, consequently, therefore,


henceforth) are time words that are used to show that after a particular time there
was a consequence or an effect.

Note that for and because are placed before the cause/reason. The other devices
are placed before the consequences or effects.

as a result under those circumstances in that case

for this reason in effect for thus


because the then hence consequently

therefore henceforth

thereupon forthwith accordingly

Conclusion / Summary / Restatement

These transition words and phrases conclude, summarize and / or restate


ideas, or indicate a final general statement. Also some words (like
therefore) from the Effect / Consequence category can be used to
summarize.

as can be seen generally speaking in the


final analysis

all things considered as shown above in the


long run

given these points as has been noted in a word

for the most part after all in fact

in summary in short on balance

in brief in essence to summarize

altogether overall ordinarily

usually by and large to sum up

on the whole in any event in either case

all in all Obviously Ultimately

Definitely

Structure of the Introduction

1.Grab the readers attention and introduce the historical question the paper will
explore.

2.Clearly explain the scope of the essay - the time period, places, and subjects
discussed in the essay.

3.Give basic background if needed and explain the historical setting.

4.State thesis and give an overview of main points or categories of evidence.

5.You can also use your introduction to introduce your main primary sources, if
used, historiography, or theoretical framework.
Good Ideas for the Introduction

Begin with a quotation and show its relevance

Or, begin with a story, example, or anecdote

Or, begin with a paradox or apparent contradiction

Or, emphasize the difference between your evidence or interpretation and the
arguments of other scholars

Always provide background information and establish the historical setting if


necessary

Always clearly state your thesis and provide a road map to your reader of what is
to come

What to Avoid in the Introduction

Using dictionary definitions

Echoing the instructors question exactly

Using inflated declaration or a clich (Throughout human history; The more things
change, the more they stay the same)

Apologizing for the deficiencies in the paper

Quoting extensively the words and ideas should be your own

Including gratuitous personal preambles (such as long digressions about your


personal feelings about a topic

Quoting: You can support your ideas and make your essay more interesting with
well-chosen quotations. Rather than detracting from your work, well-chosen
quotations add to it, giving your argument validity and support. Be careful,
however, to use quotations sparingly and only when there is something essential
about the wording of the quotation that cannot be summarized or paraphrased. Use
quotations to support your ideas, but not to speak for you.

When to Quote

As a general rule, quote sparingly. Use only a few quotations in your essay and
choose them carefully. If your quotations are to be effective, they must be an
integral part of your essay. Resist the temptation to throw in a quotation merely
because it sounds impressive and has something to do with your subject. Have a
reason for using a quotation. Use the following guidelines on when to quote:

when the writer's style or eloquence is so memorable that summarizing or


paraphrasing would be significantly less effective. For example, Winston Churchill's
World War II speech, "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing
grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets..."1

when you want to comment on, agree with, disagree with or otherwise take
exception to what the writer has said

when you want to comment specifically on the writer's use of words

The shorter your quotations are, the better. In a short essay in particular, you should
avoid quoting huge chunks of text. The ideal quotation is often just a few words
integrated into your own sentences.

Introducing Quotations: Make sure to introduce the quotation so that it is linked


clearly and smoothly with your thoughts.Vary the way in which you introduce
quotations with phrases such as "according to," "in the opinion of," "as X argues (or
believes, admits, affirms, declares, suggests, etc.)." These are known as attributory
words.

Explaining Quotations: After the quotation, make sure that you supply any
needed explanations of or comments on the quotation. Do not assume the
reader will interpret the quotation exactly as you do.

Your introductory paragraph is probably the most important paragraph in your


essay. You need to answer these two questions

for the reader, "What is the question?" and "What is the author's opinion on the
question?"

Your opening paragraph is probably the most important paragraph in your essay.
You need to answer these two questions for

the reader, "What is the question?" and "What is the author's opinion on the
question?"

Your opening paragraph should resemble the following format:

Sentence #1

Open your essay with a general statement about the topic. Try to use one of

their key words or one of your own.

Sentence#2

Narrow your focus with a more specific statement.

Sentence#3

This should be your thesis statement. In a very clear fashion, state your
personal
opinion on the topic selected. Design this statement so that it leads into the

specifics of your introduction and essay.

Sentence #4

This sentence should set up the three topics, point, or opinions you are
going to

use in proving you thesis. List the topics in the order in which you are going
to

discuss them in the body of your essay. Remember to place you weakest
topic

in the middle of #2 slot. You want your first and last body paragraphs to be

strong.

Sentence #5

This is the concluding sentence of your introduction. State your opinion (if
you

have not done so already) if that is what the question asks. Otherwise sum
up

your introduction and state direction you will be taking in your essay.

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