Contents

Foreword vii
Preface ix
Special Features xix
1. Introduction and Philosophy of a Protective Relaying System 1
1.1 Types of Faults 1
1.2 Abnormalities 6
1.3 Functions of Protective Relay Schemes 7
1.4 Major Components of an Electrical Power System 7
1.5 Basic Tripping Circuit with System Transducers 8
1.6 Testing and Maintenance of Relays 10
1.7 Zones of Protection 10
1.8 Requirements of a Protective System 11
1.9 Relay Operating Criteria 13
1.10 Main and Back-Up Protection 13
1.11 Evolution of Protective Relay Technology 14
Multiple Choice Questions 15
2. Electromagnetic Relays 16
2.1 Classification of Relays 16
2.2 Thermal Relays (Overload Relays) 17
2.3 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays 18
2.4 Time-Delayed Overcurrent Relays 19
2.5 Definite-Time Overcurrent Relays 19
2.6 Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relays 20
2.7 IDMT Overcurrent Relays 26
2.8 Non-Directional Normal Inverse-Time-Overcurrent
Relays without the Need of Auxiliary Supply 26
2.9 Voltage-Controlled Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relays 26
2.10 Induction-Cup Relays 28
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2.11 Differential Relays 29

2.12 Two-Input Relays 33
2.13 Directional Relays 34
2.14 Directional Overcurrent Relays 36
2.15 Impedance Relays 37
2.16 Reactance Relays 38
2.17 Ohm Relays 38
2.18 Mho Relays 39
2.19 Auxiliary Relays 42
Review Questions 49
Multiple Choice Questions 50
3. Static Relays 51
3.1 Advantages of Static Relays Over Electromagnetic Relays 51
3.2 Limitations of Static Relays 52
3.3 Basic Elements of Static Relays 53
3.4 Static Relays 59
Review Questions 63
Multiple Choice Questions 63
4. Microprocessor-Based Digital Protection 64
4.1 Advantages of Numerical (Digital) Relaying 64
4.2 Numerical Relay Hardware 69
4.3 Digital Signal Processing 72
4.4 Estimation of Phasors 79
4.5 Full-Cycle Fourier Algorithm 84
4.6 Half-Cycle Fourier Algorithm 86
4.7 Practical Considerations for Selection of Algorithm 87
4.8 Comparative Summary of Estimation Algorithm 88
4.9 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 89
Review Questions 91
Multiple Choice Questions 91
5. Generator Protection 93
5.1 Differential Protection 94
5.2 Inter-Turn Fault Protection 104
5.3 Stator Earth-Fault Protection 105
5.4 Rotor Earth-Fault Protection 112
5.5 Negative Phase Sequence Protection (Protection Against Unbalanced Loading) 117
5.6 Field Failure Protection (Protection Against Loss of Excitation) 120
5.7 Overload Protection 123
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5.8 Overvoltage Protection 124

5.9 Reverse Power Protection 124
5.10 Pole-Slipping Protection 127
5.11 Back-up Impedance Protection 131
5.12 Under-Frequency Protection 131
5.13 Miscellaneous Protections 132
5.14 Numerical Approach to Generator Protection 134
5.A.1 Appendix 1Class A, Class B and Class C Protections and Conditions Causing Alarm 134
5.A.2 Appendix 2Field Suppression 136
5.A.3 Appendix 3Information Required for Designing Protection Scheme for Generator and for
Relay Settings 137
Review Questions 138
Multiple Choice Questions 141
6. Transformer Protection 143
6.1 Faults in Transformers 143
6.2 Gas-Operated Relays 145
6.3 Overcurrent Protection 148
6.4 Restricted Earth-Fault Protection 148
6.5 Differential Protection 151
6.6 Protection Against Overfluxing 166
6.7 Protection of Grounding Transformers 166
6.8 Protection Against Overheating 168
6.9 Schemes for Small Transformers 168
6.10 Transformer Protection Using a Numerical Relay 169
6.A.1 Appendix 1 172
Review Questions 173
Multiple Choice Questions 174
7. Protection of Transmission Lines by Overcurrent Relays 175
7.1 Basic Radial Feeder 175
7.2 Methods of Discrimination 177
7.3 Rules for Setting the IDMT Relays 186
7.4 Two Overcurrent and One Earth-Fault Scheme for Protection of a Feeder 192
7.5 Three Overcurrent and One Earth-Fault Scheme for Protection of a Transformer Feeder 193
7.6 Common Problems with Overcurrent Relays 193
7.7 Directional Protection 200
7.8 Directional Relay 202
7.9 Maximum Torque Angle 204
7.10 Directional Earth-Fault Relays 206
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7.11 Detailed Protective Scheme of Directional Overcurrent

Protection of a High-Voltage Transmission Line 206
7.12 Dead Zone 207
7.13 Coordination of Overcurrent Relays in an Inter-Connected System 215
7.14 Facilities Provided in Modern Numerical Overcurrent and Earth-Fault Relays 221
7.15 Limitations of Overcurrent Relays 222
Review Questions 222
Multiple Choice Questions 230
8. Protection of Transmission Lines by Distance Relays 231
8.1 Stepped Distance Characteristics of a Distance Relay 231
8.2 Quantities to be Fed to Distance Relays 232
8.3 Problems in Distance Measurement 239
8.4 Switched and Polyphase Distance Relaying Schemes 257
8.5 Limitations of Distance Protection for Transmission Lines 265
Review Questions 266
Multiple Choice Questions 270
9. Carrier Current Protection of Transmission Lines 272
9.1 Pilot-Wire Protection 272
9.2 AC Wire Pilot Relaying 273
9.3 Limitations of AC Wire Pilot Relaying 273
9.4 Carrier-Current Protection 273
Review Questions 283
Multiple Choice Questions 283
10. Buszone Protection 284
10.1 Protection Requirements 284
10.2 Non-Unit Protection by Back-up Relays 285
10.3 Unit Protection Schemes 285
10.4 Breaker Back-up Protection 296
Review Questions 299
Multiple Choice Questions 299
11. Induction Motor Protection 300
11.1 Starting of an Induction Motor 300
11.2 Faults in Induction Motors 301
11.3 Abnormalities of Induction Motors 302
11.4 Protection of Small Induction Motors 306
11.5 Protection of Large Induction Motors 307
11.6 Numerical Motor-Protection Relay 314
Review Questions 319
Multiple Choice Questions 321
 Contents xvii

12. Testing, Commissioning and Maintenance of Relays 322

12.1 Acceptance Tests 322
12.2 Type Tests 322
12.3 Laboratory Set-up for Testing of Different Types of Relays 327
12.4 Dynamic Testing of Relays 337
12.5 Requirements for Testing of Static Relays 338
12.6 Recommended Application of Test Voltage Classes 339
12.7 Tests 339
Multiple Choice Questions 344
13. Protective Current and Potential Transformers 345
13.1 Equivalent Circuit and Vector Diagram of a CT 345
13.2 Construction of Current Transformers 345
13.3 Magnetisation Curve of a CT (CT Saturation Characteristic) 347
13.4 Difference Between CT Cores Used for Measurement and
those Used for Protective Relays 349
13.5 CT Errors 349
13.6 Calculation of CT Accuracy 350
13.7 Factors to be Considered while Selecting a CT 351
13.8 Problems Encountered in CT 353
13.9 CT Requirements for Different Protective Schemes 354
13.10 Specifications of a Current Transformer 357
13.11 Equivalent Circuit of a PT 359
13.12 Construction of Potential Transformer 360
13.13 Capacitor Voltage Transformer 360
13.14 Specifications of Voltage Transformer 362
Review Questions 363
Multiple Choice Questions 364
14. Circuit Breaking Fundamentals 365
14.1 Functions of Circuit Breakers 365
14.2 Types of Circuit Breakers 366
14.3 Fundamentals of Circuit Breaking 367
14.4 The Gaseous Discharges 368
14.5 Ionisation Process in a Gaseous Insulating Medium 369
14.6 Decay Process 370
14.7 Quenching of AC Arc 371
14.8 Arc Interruption Theories 374
14.9 Factors Affecting RRRV, Re-Striking Voltage and Recovery Voltage 375
14.10 Resistance Switching 388
14.11 Quenching of DC Arc 393
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Review Questions 396

Multiple Choice Questions 398
15. Electrical Switchgear 399
15.1 High-Voltage AC Circuit Breakers 400
15.2 High-Voltage DC (HVDC) Circuit Breakers 419
15.3 Isolators 420
15.4 Fuses 425
15.5 Miniature Circuit Breakers 434
15.6 Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers 436
Review Questions 437
Multiple Choice Questions 438
16. Short-Circuit Testing of Circuit Breakers 440
16.1 Specifications of a Circuit Breaker 440
16.2 Basic Short-Circuit Testing Plant 442
16.3 Short-Time Withstand Capacity Test 444
16.4 Single-Phase Testing 444
16.5 Unit Testing 444
16.6 Synthetic Testing 444
Review Questions 447
Multiple Choice Questions 447
17. Lightning Overvoltage Protection 449
17.1 Specifications of a Lightning Stroke 450
17.2 Protection Against Lightning Overvoltages 451
17.3 Different Types of Lightning Arresters Used in Practice 454
17.4 Overvoltage Factors 461
17.5 Choice of Insulation Level for Transmission Line 461
17.6 Insulation Coordination 463
17.7 Insulation Coordination Scheme for 132 kV Substation 464
Review Questions 465
Multiple Choice Questions 466

Answers of Multiple Choice Questions 467

AnnexureList of International Codes for Drawings of Circuits for Protective
Relaying 469
Bibliography 472
Index 476