Running head: COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY FOR STRUGGLING

READERS

Cognitive Information Processing Theory:

Reading Strategies for Struggling First Graders

Nuong Nguyen

California State University, Monterey Bay

Cohort MIST XII

IST 520 Learning Theories

Professor Sarah Tourtellotte

Spring 2017
COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY FOR STRUGGLING READERS 2

Table of Contents

I. Introduction..3
II. Description of Teaching Situation...3
III. Description of Applicable Theories...4
IV. Teaching Strategies7
V. Theorys Strengths and Weaknesses...7
VI. Instructional Theory...8
VII. Application to the Capstone Project.9
VIII. Target Audience10
IX. Constraints...11
X. Conclusion....12
References......13
Appendix A....16
COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY FOR STRUGGLING READERS 3

I. Introduction

The capstone project entitled Reading Strategies for Struggling First Graders will apply

the cognitive information processing learning theory to design instruction. The project stems

from a current need for explicit instruction of first graders on reading strategies that will help

them improve on their reading fluency and meet the Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA)

level target. The DRA assesses students reading ability in phonemic awareness, phonics,

vocabulary, reading fluency, and comprehension. According to Matthews and Snow (2016), if

students struggle to decode the words in the story this will in return affect their comprehension.

Currently, 38% of first graders at John Steinbeck School are reading below grade level and are

struggling with decoding words. According to Lloyds Prediction of School Failure from Third-

Grade Data, she associates the lack of literacy skills with high school dropouts and risk of

school failure. Furthermore, she points out that it is crucial students develop literacy skills by the

end of third grade (2012).

According to the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), students are expected to meet

each grade levels expectations and goals in order to be college and career ready (2017).

According to the first grade standards, students should be able to read short and long vowels,

digraphs, words with inflectional endings, and two syllable words (2017). However, more than

one third of the first grade classes are only able to read words with short vowels sounds fluently.

As a result, the students struggle when they move on to second grade where the text is more

complex and less time is focused on learning how to read. Therefore, it is crucial that students

receive the reading foundation skills in first grade. This capstone project strives to teach first

graders reading strategies to improve their decoding skills.

II. Description of Teaching Situation

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The goal of this project is to teach first graders reading strategies to help them with word

recognition. The goal is also to help students understand word patterns and to build automaticity

while reading. The capstone project will provide practice of the different reading strategies

through an e-learning module to help students accurately decode words. Each module will teach

students one reading strategy. The reading strategies will include: looking at pictures, making

each phoneme sound, stretching out the sound, changing the vowel sound, breaking up the words

into syllables or word families, rereading, and using the context clues to figure out the word.

III. Description of Applicable Theories

There are six major conceptions of how we process information from the cognitive

perspectives: the multi-stage approach, memory system concept, state concept, level of

processing theory, parallel distributed processing theory, and the global workspace concept.

Cognitive information processing theory (CIP) first developed as a need to address

cognitive processes beyond the stimulus and response model. The theory developed by George

Miller, Noam Chomsky, Alan Newell, and Herbert Simon at a Symposium on Information

Theory in 1956 to explain how the mind organizes and transforms sensory data (Gredler, 2009).

The theorists describe the mental processes analogous to a computer with input functions, the

central processing unit and its random access memory (short term memory), hard drive (long

term memory), and output functions, which was greatly influenced by the invention of computers

in the 1950s. In addition, the theory focuses on what happens in between the processing of

information.

The basic assumptions of the information processing theory are that the memory system

is an active, organized processor of information and prior knowledge plays an important role in
COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY FOR STRUGGLING READERS 5

learning (Gredler, 2009). The first concept of CIP is Broadbents multistage model. According

to the model, the human memory actively selects the sensory data from the environment through

the senses, mainly visual and auditory, and briefly stores it in the sensory registers. The

information then moves to the working or short-term memory. Next, the information is encoded

and meaningful connections are made between the new information and prior knowledge and

stored into the long term memory. Retrieval happens afterwards as the learner recalls and applies

what was learned (Broadbent, 1958). Thus, the CIP theory focuses on how information is

organized, learners prior knowledge, and the processes involved in attention, encoding, storing,

and retrieval (Gredler, 2009).

In the CIP theory, the memory system concept, state concept, and level of processing are

described as states or levels in the portion of the long term memory. The second concept of CIP

is the memory system. According to Endel Tulving (2002), the memory system concept

describes the different types of memories, like semantic, procedural, and episodic. Semantic

memory makes it possible to retain facts and general knowledge. Procedural memory is

responsible for motor skills and stores information on how to perform certain steps. Episodic

memory enables a person to remember past experiences (Tulving, 2002). The third concept of

human memory is the state concept, which identifies information as being active in the working

memory or inactive in the long term memory. Today, the human memory is viewed as a

complex system that processes and organizes all our knowledge (Gredler, 2009).

The fourth concept of human memory is the level of processing which describes how

deeply we process information. Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) did experiments to test

the different levels of processing in 1975. Participants were shown 60 words and asked to recall

certain words or aspects of the words, like if the letter was uppercase or lowercase or the
COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY FOR STRUGGLING READERS 6

meaning of a word. The study showed that there was shallow processing when the participant

had to identify the structure or phoneme of the word, which was easily forgotten, and deeper

processing when asked for the meaning of the word or to link it to prior knowledge, which had

better results retaining the information (1975). The preliminary stages of processing involves

physical or sensory features, like lines, pitch, and loudness. The later stages involve pattern

recognition and semantics with greater cognitive processing. According to Tulving and Madigan

(1970), elaboration coding takes places as the word might trigger associations, images, past

experience resulting in deeper processing.

The fifth concept of human memory is the connectionist model or parallel distributed

processing (PDP). The current model influenced by CIP theory explains how multiple

processing can take place all at once from different parts of the memory system as a result of the

connections between information stored in units. This makes solving a larger task faster

(McClelland, Remelhart, Hinton, 1986). According to Schneider and Graham (1992), when

reading a word, multiple processing of information and constraints take place as one has to

recognize the individual letters, the word as a whole, and the meaning simultaneously. When

processing occurs, there is a propagation of activation from one unit to another via connections

among the units (McClelland & Rumelhart, 1986). A connection can be excitatory or inhibitory.

Learning occurs through adjustments of connection strengths. Memory storage is just a form of

learning. (McClelland, n.d.). Furthermore, connections can be strengthen by experiences.

Some theorist describes the storage of knowledge in structures known as scripts (Schank, 1976),

frames (Minsky, 1975), or schemata (Norman & Bobrow, 1976; Rumelhart, 1975). However,

everyday events do not fit in a single script but interact with various sources of information.
COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY FOR STRUGGLING READERS 7

Lastly, global workspace concept describes the human consciousness that allows people

to interpret, learn about, interact with, and act upon the world (Baars, 1997b). Consciousness

makes us aware of ourselves and our surroundings. Bernard Baars uses the theater metaphor,

where the bright spot on the stage represents the consciousness in the working memory with all

the attention. The director, audience, and behind-the-scenes are the unconscious parts where

automatic processing happens. In some instances, conscious situation can elicit unconscious

information in order to help interpret the following conscious events. Even though, a lot of

learning is implicit, all learning requires conscious access to what is to be learned (Baars,

1997a).

IV. Teaching Strategies

The role of the teacher is to facilitate student learning by activating their prior

knowledge, present information in an organized fashion, and to help students encode information

into their long term memory (Craik & Tulving, 1975). Since students receive a lot of sensory

information, it is important for the teacher to call attention to what is important during the lesson.

Also, the teacher should activate the students prior knowledge and help students make

connections. Since the working memory is very limited, only present small amounts of new

information at a time and chunk materials and use memory aids and techniques, like mnemonic

devices and elaborative rehearsal, so that students do not become overwhelmed and experience

cognitive load (1975). Also, allow students to find patterns and organize their thinking using

mind maps, graphic organizers, and charts. Furthermore, help students make meaningful

connections to allow deeper processing of information.

V. Theorys Strengths and Weaknesses

COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY FOR STRUGGLING READERS 8

The cognitive information processing theory has many strengths. The theory explains

how information is processed rather than simply responding to stimuli as illustrated in

behaviorism. It explains how the mind organizes and stores the information as memory. In

addition, CIP emphasizes the importance of attention and activating prior knowledge. The

cognitive theory helps inform instruction. Based on CIP, teachers would reduce students

cognitive load by presenting fewer new concepts, helping the students make connections, use

memory aids, and graphic organizers to help organize the students thinking.

Some weaknesses of the cognitive information processing theory include the way

research was collected and the lack of considerations of the learner holistically. According to

Howard Gardner, one of the weaknesses of CIP was how the subjects were studied in an isolated

and controlled environment (1985). However, learning does not take place in a vacuum with

perfect conditions. There is a lack of social context and social interaction, which is explained in

a constructivist theory. Also, CIP theory oversimplifies the processing of information and does

not take into account emotions and motivational factors that affect a learner (Mayer, 1996). The

human mind is more complicated than illustrated in CIP and needs to be studied under real life

conditions.

VI. Instructional Theory

In Gagnes Nine Events of Instruction, the focus is on instruction. There are nine critical

elements to a lesson: gain attention, inform the learner of the objective, stimulate recall of prior

knowledge, present the material, provide guidance, elicit performance, provide feedback, assess

performance, and enhance retention and transfer (Gagne, Wagner, Rojas, 1981). These nine

events help the students with internal processes such as attention, encoding and retrieving

(Reiser & Dempsey, 2012).

COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY FOR STRUGGLING READERS 9

VII. Application to the Capstone Project

According to the cognitive information processing theory, the working memory is

limited, and one should only present a few new concepts at a time. Therefore, each e-module

will only focus on one reading strategy. The seven reading strategies will include: looking at

pictures, making each phoneme sound, stretching out the sound, changing the vowel sound,

breaking up the words into syllables or word families, rereading, and using the context clues to

decode the word. To help students recall the information, each strategy will have a unique name

and animal associated with it. For instance, one of the reading strategies if the students are

having trouble with decoding a word is to break up the words into syllables or word families.

The strategy will be called Chunky Monkey and will have a picture of a monkey (Karen Jones,

2016). By associating the reading strategy with the picture and name, this will help the student

with recall. Furthermore, by chunking, grouping, and finding patterns in the words, this will help

the students process the word quicker (Bruning et al., 1995).

This capstone project is focused on designing instruction to teach the strategy. The first

three steps of Gagnes Nine Events of Instruction is crucial: gain attention, inform the learner of

the objective, stimulate recall of prior knowledge (Gagne, Wagner, Rojas, 1981). In order for the

student to learn the strategy, it will take conscious effort (Baars, 1997a). Informing the learner of

the objective helps students know what to expect and what they will accomplish by the end of

the lesson. Stimulating prior knowledge will help students make connections and decrease the

amount of information in the working memory (Craik & Tulving, 1975).

The layout of the instruction will be simple. There will be tabs for students to access the

information and allow them to go back and relearn something if needed. Multimedia such as
COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY FOR STRUGGLING READERS 10

videos, audio, and graphics will all be purposeful, since too many distracting elements can

increase cognitive load. There will be examples of how to apply the reading strategies.

The last five steps of Gagnes Nine Events of Instruction will help with processing the

information from short term memory into long term memory (Gagne, Wagner, Rojas, 1981).

Students will have a chance to practice what they have learned and be assessed at the end of the

e-module. To ensure retention students will paraphrase or draw a picture what they have learn,

use repetition, and memory aides.

VIII. Target Audience

The targeted audience are first graders learning how to read. Even though the e-learning

module is intended for students who are reading at below grade level, it is still beneficial to the

whole class. Students who are in first grade and reading at grade level or above, still struggle

with decoding words that they have not been exposed to. Therefore, all students can use the

reading strategies to improve their decoding skills and fluency.

First graders range from age 6 to 8. The students coming into first grade have a range of

reading skills from knowing some alphabet sounds to being able to read short and long vowels.

However, from my informal observation, the majority only know one or two strategies when

they are struggling to decode a word. It is typical at this age for students to have trouble

recognizing the letters b, d, q, and p. Also, most first graders have some understanding of

concepts of print. For instance, words are made up of sounds, and one reads from left to right.

See figure 1 for examples of the concept of print assessment used at the beginning of the year.

Also, incoming kindergarteners are expected to read at a level 4, which includes short vowels
COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY FOR STRUGGLING READERS 11

and some common long vowel patterns, on the Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA);

however, more than one third are reading at level 1, which includes only words like no or yes.

Learners attitudes towards reading depend on their experiences in school and at home.

Most students enjoy being read to. When it comes to the students reading the book themselves,

there is a range from enjoyment to dreading the task. From my observation as a teacher over the

past six years, the students that have trouble with the alphabet sounds, and do not read at home,

dread reading and sometimes are even reluctant to hold a book.

Cognitive information processing theory is appropriate and applicable to first graders. It

involves reducing cognitive load through reading strategies and informs instruction on how

learners process information. The first graders have a short attention span, so it is important to

activate prior knowledge and help the students make connections (Craik & Tulving, 1975).

Since students like animals, each strategy will be paired with a picture to help students

remember and connect the information. Furthermore, making learning fun will help grab the

students attention. By designing instruction using CIP theory, this will help facilitate learning,

as students encode, retrieve and store the information from short term to long term memory.

IX. Constraints

Real world constraints include learners lack of fine motor skills and limited equipment

access. Most students are used to touch screen computers; however, the computers at school do

not have that capability. Since the students will learn through the e-module, they will have to be

able to click and use a mouse. Teaching computers skills beforehand would benefit the students

a lot. Furthermore, each class is limited to 6 laptops; therefore, students will have to take turns

accessing the e-learning modules.

COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY FOR STRUGGLING READERS 12

X. Conclusion
The capstone project entitled Reading Strategies for Struggling First Graders will apply

the cognitive information processing learning theory to design instruction. Some of the key

elements of the CIP theory are activating prior knowledge, organizing information, and encoding

information into the long term memory. The e-module will focus on these elements by

presenting information in small chunks and in a meaningful way. To help with retention, students

will use repetition, paraphrase and draw pictures of what they have learned, and use memory

aides with animal pictures and unique names to remember the strategies. Furthermore, to help

reduce cognitive load, the instruction will activate the students prior knowledge. This helps

students make connections, and find patterns while decoding the words. The cognitive theory

helps explains the processes of attention, encoding, retrieval and the different memory storages.

The CIP theory will help facilitate learning and take into account the way the mind processes

information beyond the stimulus and response model.

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COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY FOR STRUGGLING READERS 13

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Appendix A
Figure 1: Concepts of Print Assessment four
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