Running head: WHERE THE POWER LIES: TRUE BARRIERS TO FEMALE LEADERSHIP

Where the Power Lies: True Barriers to Female Leadership

Melanie Gamache

Brandon University

030060

01.755 Administrative Leadership in Educational Institutions

Dr. Jaqueline Kirk
December 11, 2016
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Where the Power Lies: True Barriers to Female Leadership

I had been interested and moderately following the US Presidential campaign over the

past year, listening to the commentary from political experts and growing more wary with the

results of each poll and debate. But in September, a CBC reporter had analyzed a New York

Times poll and revealed that 33% of women were not happy that a female was a major front

runner for the presidency. (Dutton, De Pinto, Backus & Salvanto, 2016). Outraged, I blatantly

confronted every educated adult with whom I came into contact with the analysis from this poll.

My colleagues, friends, and acquaintances did not seem nearly as shocked by the statistics as I

and so began my investigation into the reversal of the so-called Girl Power movement,

apparently notable and imminent for over a century in the Western world.

The 46th US presidential campaign was a public display of exactly how archaic the

perception of woman continues to be as the idea of a womans ability and competency to lead

was called into question. The female candidate in the presidential race does not represent all

women, and there are certainly events that preceded the election that got Clinton into hot water

with much of the voting public, however, the criticism for being female weak, incompetent,

and unable to handle the pressure of leading a country is completely unnerving.

It is true that the voting American public is split roughly between women and men so this

stereotype of women and the qualities deemed necessary to lead are not ones held and

perpetuated by men alone, although it is men who have typically received the blame for creating

a culture of gender inequity. In reality, the barriers challenging women to advance into

leadership roles are learned and internalized through historic and cultural gender constructs and

stereotypes. Women perpetuate this sexism by conforming to and expecting the female
 WHERE THE POWER LIES: TRUE BARRIERS TO FEMALE LEADERSHIP 3

stereotype while sustaining the notion that leadership qualities do not align with those of a

woman.

Theoretical Framework Feminist Theory

The term feminist has been shrouded in a cloak of negativity for decades. This is likely

because historically and culturally, the female gender has been perceived as weak, passive, and

subservient. This construct comes from a tradition, historically and culturally founded,

influenced by the ideals of white males in the middle-upper class, as demonstrated in Figure 1.

In this model, the foundation of the leadership concept is based on history and culture. In a

Western society, these two facets are controlled and upheld by white, middle-upper class males.

As a result, gender constructs, established from historical and cultural values, further the beliefs

and customs of the white, middle-upper class male perspective. The influence of this ideal male

on a patriarchal society is referred to as privilege (Blackmore, 2013; Coleman & Ganong, 2014).

Figure 1. Layers of Influence of Leadership

Leadership, carried out by the ideal male

Gender constructs, formed through a privileged lens

Culture, influenced by history

History of a patriarchal society

Figure 1. This figure depicts the layers of influence that form the notion of leadership and leaders. This model is one
established in a traditional patriarchal, Western society where leadership constructs are formed based on history, culture,
and gender roles.
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Privilege has marginalized individuals and groups who do not share the experiences or

perspectives of white, middle-upper class men, and as a result the perspectives of the

marginalized population have been silenced. These layers, as evidenced in Figure 1, are not

separate, rather they blend together and it would be impossible to separate the elements into

individual constituents to examine or to change them. Because of this complex blending, the

norm in the West has been to follow a privileged leadership into the 21st century. The

expectations of effective leadership have been instilled in many individuals as typically male

characteristics including rationality, confidence, optimism, and adaptation to difficult situations

(Blackmore, 2014, p. 144). The divide between characteristics categorized as inherently male

or female continue to resonate despite a shifting paradigm about what constitutes effective

leadership and gender.

Feminist theory is centered on a belief system that recognizes and addresses privilege and

inequity in society (Coleman & Ganong, 2014; Guihen, 2015; Turock, 2001) in order to allow

diverse perspectives to shape the system. This theory is one that falls under the collective

umbrella of Social Justice theory (Barton, 2006; Turock, 2008). Although in the past, Feminist

theory was misconstrued as a female only stance because the qualities associated with Feminist

leadership are characteristically feminine including collaboration, cooperation, collective

decision-making, and above all, relationship-building, (Batiwala, 2010, p. 7) however the

theory does not only focus on women. Individuals whose experience does not align with white,

middle-upper class men may, in fact, operate and view a system through the Feminist lens. This

theory is less concerned with traditional gender constructs than the experiences that allow leaders

to understand and compel them to act in favour of oppressed, privilege-lacking individuals and

groups.
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The Feminist stance, illustrated in Figure 2, employs empowerment of marginalized,

oppressed, individuals and groups as a means to promote and include diverse perspectives

(Barton, 2006; Turock, 2001). In theory, these elements are equal pieces of a whole that

contribute to the qualities associated with feminist leaders. The model explains that feminist

leaders understand marginalization and unprivileged experiences through diverse perspectives

and are empowered to lead by representing the large unprivileged population. A disconnect in

the theory occurs when empowerment of women is barred and sustained by women whose ideals

of the female gender and characteristics of a leader are ingrained by traditional gender

constructs.

Figure 2. Conceptual Model of Feminist Leadership

Unprivileged Empowerment
Experiences

Diverse Marginalized
Perspectives Population

Figure 2. Feminism is a blend of the experiences and perspectives of a marginalized population. Feminist
leadership theory combines these three aspects with empowerment of the marginalized to advance in
leadership positions.

Educational leaders who understand and include the diverse perspectives of the students

and staff within a school and community, make decisions and create initiatives that do not
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assume all individuals have privileged experiences. These leaders bring marginalized

populations to the center and focus their action on respectful growth and development of a

system through an environment of acceptance, tolerance, and inclusivity (Batiwala, 2010), which

is well suited to meet the needs of the diverse learning population.

Women have historically been part of the marginalized population. The sexism that

continues to pervade 21st century thinking is deeply rooted in the historic and cultural constructs

of the past. Through empowerment, there is a gradual shift in acceptance of women as leaders,

as seen in the gradual inclusion of feminist leadership into traditional leadership, including the

number of women in administrator and senior admin roles in Mountain View School Division.

Even in our division, female empowerment is stalled by high competition and oppression

between females. I have witnessed female colleagues resisting, opposing, and criticizing other

women in leadership roles, or those trying to advance into leadership roles. This criticism and

lack of support, sustained by women, maintains the notion that women have the inability to lead.

Literature Review

Foundational Perceptions of Women and Leaders

A womans role, as perceived by society, underwent the biggest change during wartime

when women stepped out of their home and singular domestic role into the workplace to fill the

void of men who answered the call of duty. However temporary the perception was, the

necessity for women to take on jobs outside of the home during war was the foothold that

secured womens place and perception in publically contributing and leadership roles. The

learned and internalized expectations of women, though, were already, and remain, solidly in

place. These constructs of the female gender are more than oral history or beliefs, they are the
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qualities deemed desirable for the females (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Those qualities are described

by Eagly and Karau as communal, primarily concerned with the welfare of other people for

example affectionatesensitive, nurturant, and gentle (p. 574). These desire for these qualities

is trained into girls by their families, even in terms of leadership, when family responsibilities

relying on these communal qualities such as babysitting, completing chores are largely the

responsibility of daughters, where sons may have greater achievement expectations including

educational opportunities, more training in financial planning and greater exposure to the

community leaders of the establishment (Newman, Pettinger, & Evan, 1995, p. 125). For many

girls, the desire to meet traditional expectations of feminine behaviour acts as a barrier to

meeting the idealized expectations of a leader (Salmond & Fleshman), which traditionally favour

more agentic qualities including assertive, controlling, and confident tendenc[ies] (Eagly &

Karau, 2002, p. 574). These agentic qualities traditionally are desirable for males to possess.

Women who do challenge the traditional female role and aspire to positions of senior

management or leadership in education are often caught in a double bind. The double bind is a

situation of permanent tension for women. In order to achieve a position of authority and

leadership, women must enact the agentic qualities associated with a leadership position and,

according to Sheryl Sandberg, demand their place at the table, keep their hands raised to ask for

what they want, and not give up or focus negatively on what theyve missed instead of what

theyve accomplished (Sandberg, 2010). The double bind, though, means that women who take

on this confident toughness deviate from the normative feminine qualities, and the consequence

is that these agentic, aggressive women are perceived as bitchy. In my experience in education

and leadership, female administrators who hold staff accountable for their actions receive less

support from colleagues than if the same reprimand came from her male counterparts.
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Comments which allude to her apparent sexual and biological influences demonstrate the sexist

assumption that the female administrators behaviour is dictated by her uncontrolled hormones

instead of her job description and high standards for staff.

The double bind makes women more self-conscious and drains energy away from really

important tasks at hand (Oakley, 2000, p. 325). As an instructional coach and member of my

schools Response to Intervention (RTI) team, my role is to work with and support staff in

planning, differentiated instruction, and assessment. The double bind effect forces me to

strategically handle crucial conversations and actions more carefully. Instead of directing my

focus and energy into supporting best practice in the classroom, which I am quite skilled at, a

great deal of time and energy is devoted to second guessing my approach and trying to prove

myself as trustworthy to my colleagues.

When constructs like desirable gender qualities, double binds, and expectations of leaders

exist in society what becomes ingrained is not only the belief that women arent as effective as

men as leaders but that they should not be leaders because it is uncomfortable and deviates from

the privileged tone established for women in western society.

The Female Barrier

Oakleys analysis of gender based barriers to women in management explained that

women are most likely to cite subjective barriers to leadership positions (2000). These barriers

are behaviours formed by the stereotype that women are incompetent, incapable of leading, and

unable to make tough decisions. That stereotyping is sustained throughout ones life, constantly

fed by others learned sexism. Learned sexism begins at a young age for all children. During

their impressionable youth, they are conditioned to expect the desirable qualities assigned to
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males and females, at times subtly and other times, blatantly. Classmates and peers are

particularly influential for young girls and the majority of that influence is negative (Salmond &

Fleshman, 2010). It is likely that children learn stereotypes from significant adults in their lives

including parents, relatives, and teachers. Given that society expects the majority of child

rearing to be a female responsibility and the role of teachers, particularly at the elementary level,

is filled predominantly by females, its reasonable to assume that children of both genders are

learning sexism from the influential females in their lives. These learned expectations are

internalized by all children as universal truths, which explains why the stereotype of female

incompetence is so ingrained in our society, why it is so difficult to change, and how it is

perpetuated so effortlessly.

Girls are taught to include others and work cooperatively from a young age and so

consistently solicit input from others, (Oakley, 2000). The input that is solicited from their

peers, classmates, and friends, is what conditions girls to behave according to the culturally

constructed expectations of females. A group of girls will ostracize another girl that calls

attention to herself, (Oakely, 2000, p. 325) so when females seek validation from their peers, a

prominent group that has learned to perpetuate the desired communal traits of the female, girls

who challenge the norm are shut down. When girls are discouraged or put down repeatedly

from a young age for acting confidently, assertively, or trying to take control of a situation, they

become fearful of being laughed at, causing others to become upset with them, or being excluded

from their female peer group (Salmond & Fleshman, 2010; Oakley, 2000).

Preferences in Leadership

The qualities associated with CEOs and successful senior leaders are consistently those

associated with a male stereotype, regardless of the gender of the leader (Oakley, 2000).
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Individuals, regardless of gender, who do not conform to those qualities may be perceived as

more feminine and incompetent. Tone and pitch of voice, physical appearance, and mode of

dress (Oakley, 2000, p. 326) are also seen as barriers for women in advancing to leadership

positions. Women who are perceived as unattractive or who have, or are trained to use, a lower-

pitched, more masculine voice are more likely to elicit support as a leader (Oakley, 2000). This

may stem from natural competition between females for a mate as women who are perceived as

unattractive pose less of a threat to other women, or as a result of the socialized behaviour of

girls to reject peers who use feminine qualities confidently. Women with low-pitch voice

training or who dress in a way that is not characteristically feminine do not project as prominent

a feminine image and therefore are more likely to be supported or accepted by other women.

Hillary Clinton faced public scrutiny over the pitch change in her voice during the election

campaign compared to the pitch used in her concession speech as well she was critiqued for

appearing not necessarily attractive (Griswold, 2016, para 3). With no official

acknowledgment to voice training, Clintons artificial, low-pitch voice may have been an attempt

to appeal to voters. While voice pitch is not the sole factor that determines electoral votes,

Klofstads research (2015) indicates that pitch and level of perceived attractiveness are subtle

determinants in procuring support for female candidates.

A 2001 Gallup Poll indicated that women prefer men as a boss (Eagly & Karau, 2002),

which indicates that as women age, the learned sexism from their youth is evident in their

preferences and expectations for what constitutes a leader. The poll did indicate that preference

for female leadership is somewhat increasing but that consistently, both genders desire men in

positions of authority.
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Discussion and Conclusion

I perceive the underlying tone of research dedicated to the barriers for female

advancement in leadership as constricted and hopeless, neither of which is acceptable for the 21st

century. The expectations of a womans role and what constitutes as desirable qualities of

females are archaic, outdated, and yet deeply rooted in our society. In 2016 through many

commendable efforts, including legislation, activism, and collective voices, there has been a

demand for equality and equity in the home and the workplace, however my experience in

personal and professional settings suggest that, until now, very little movement is made in

swaying the pillars that uphold the glass ceiling. While it is true that change is hard, especially

when traditions run deep and continue to be valued by the majority of both genders, change is

unquestionably impossible if the transition continues to be focused almost entirely at an

organization or system level. It is completely ineffective to change the perception of leadership

characteristics or to empower marginalized leaders, like women, through educational policy,

administrator or other leadership hirings, or promotions, when the lack of support for advancing

women continues to be maintained internally by individuals within the system. Real change

must confront societal opinions and beliefs about females and their incongruence with leadership

qualities. Changing a mindset is difficult, but certainly possible.

For decades, the Feminist movement targeted and pressured change in men, or

organizations run by men, including the educational system. This was a reasonable target for

that time, because men were perceived to have held all the power in society, from the surface,

anyway. In 2016, the research and our experiences illustrate that no longer are men solely to

blame for the underrepresentation of women in leadership or the socially accepted perception
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that females are weak or incompetent. In reality, that blame is shared equally among women and

it is irrefutably clear that women hold the greatest power in maintaining or changing the

traditional beliefs held by our Western society because it is women who accept, enact, and

propagate the female and male constructs as they have been traditionally conceived.

Our first significant adult is typically our mother, perhaps a grandmother, and it is she

who sets the foundation for our vision of self and of the world. She chooses our dress, shapes

our appearance through diet and aesthetic conventions like haircuts, and teaches us the

rudimentary elements of social interaction. As we grow and our familys needs change, we are

left in the care of older female siblings, neighbours, relatives, and babysitters who reiterate the

social conventions they, too, have learned from their matriarch. Entering school, children, who

are already pre-programmed to accept and expect women to further maintain and uphold the

notion of what is expected of boys and girls, are taught largely by a female staff, often under the

direction of a man who is perceived to dole out punishment and consequences when a pupils

behaviour is out of line. This dynamic further reinforces the concept that women are nurturers,

who follow the conventions of curriculum and the school while being incapable of real authority.

Experiences beyond the school system and into the career or corporate world translate

much the same way; women take on supportive roles and communal tasks while men lead

organizations through rewards and punishments. A womans biggest barrier to advancement,

especially in terms of leadership, is the perception, and even self-awareness, that she has

deviated from the prescribed, expected, normative behaviour of a nurturing, docile female. It is

this irrational perception that has been established and maintained by our infant, early, and

developmental role models, who are females.

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If real change is to occur in how females are perceived, accepted, and achieve, the change

must occur within females. I believe the feeble tone of the research is largely attributed to the

fact that the focus for change is on the glass ceiling, and yet, should be on the pillars that uphold

it. To break down those walls will be a slow process, and it must be a simultaneous retraining of

the sacred beliefs about desirable female roles embedded alongside the millions of strong,

confident, assertive women who deviate from the norm and verbalize that it is acceptable to do

so.

Regardless of ones political beliefs or party alliance, it is undeniable that the 2016

presidential campaign and election were historic and unforgettable events. The votes, the

rhetoric, and the scandals cannot be ignored but the true win may have been for young and

potential mothers. Through the campaign and debates, they saw an educated, confident,

assertive woman who defied the female standard, challenged the notion of traditional male

leadership, and directed young girls to do the same. Clintons deliberate challenge of historic

and cultural norms in a public, and highly scrutinized, platform signals that the time to

significantly change the normal within our society is upon us, and that the power for change

rests with women.

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