Composites.

" Part B 27B (1996) 295-305

Copyright 1996ElsevierScienceLimited
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
ELSEVIER
1359-8368(95)00015-1 1359-8368/96/$15.00

Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes

under bending

J. F. Davalos*, H. A. Salim, P. Qiao, R. Lopez-Anido

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Constructed Facilities Center
(CFC), West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506-6103, USA

and E. J. Barbero
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering and CFC, West Virginia University,
Morgantown, West Virginia 26506-6103, USA
(Received December 1994; accepted April 1995)

A comprehensive approach for the analysis and design of pultruded FRP beams in bending is presented. It is
shown that the material architecture of pultruded FRP shapes can be efficiently modeled as a layered system.
Based on the information provided by the material producers, a detailed procedure is presented for the
computation of fiber volume fraction (Vf) of the constituents, including fiber bundles or rovings, continuous
strand mats, and cross-ply and angle-ply fabrics. Using the computed Vfs, the ply stiffnesses are evaluated
from selected micromechanics models. The wall or panel laminate engineering constants can be computed
from the ply stiffnesses and macromechanics, and it is shown that the predictions correlate well with coupon
test results. The bending response of various H and box sections is studied experimentally and analytically.
The mechanics of laminated beams (MLB) model used in this study can accurately predict displacements
and strains, and it can be used in engineering design and manufacturing optimization of cross-sectional
shapes and lay-up configurations. The experimental results agree closely with the MLB predictions and
finite element verifications.
(Keywords: pultrusion; F R P shapes; modeling; micromechanics; laminated beams; experimental results; finite elements)

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N conventional materials can not always be readily applied

Pultruded fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) beams and
columns are increasingly used in Civil Engineering
structures, due to their favorable properties like light
weight, corrosion resistance, and electromagnetic trans-
parency. In the design of F R P structural members, both
stiffness and strength properties are equally important
and depend on the material system and the geometry of
the cross-section. While changes in the geometry of F R P
shapes can be easily related to changes in stiffness,
changes in the material constituents and fiber orienta-
tions do not lead to such obvious results. In addition,
shear deformations in pultruded F R P composite materi-
als are usually significant l, and therefore, the modeling
of FRP structural components should account for shear
effects.
Because of the complexity of composite materials,
analytical and design tools developed for members of
* Member ICCE
to FRP shapes. On the other hand, numerical methods,
such as finite elements, are often difficult to use, require
specialized training, and are not always accessible to
design engineers. Therefore, to expand the structural
applications of pultruded sections, a comprehensive
engineering design method for F R P shapes should be
developed. Such a design tool should allow practitioners
to perform analyses of customized shapes as well as to
optimize innovative sections.
Although it is generally accepted that pultruded
sections can be simulated as laminated composites 2,
there are no available guidelines for the computation of
the fiber volume fractions (Vr) of the constituent
materials in the laminate. Therefore, this paper presents
practical formulae and examples that permit the evalua-
tion of Vrs of fiber-bundles or rovings, coninuous strand
mats, and cross-ply and angle-ply fabrics. For pultruded
sections, it is not practical to evaluate the ply stiffnesses
experimentally, since the material is not produced
by lamination lay-up. This paper presents selected

295
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes: J. F. Davalos et al.

micromechanics formulae for the computation of the laminated composites require accurate predictions of
laminae stiffnesses based on their respective Vfs. In ply stiffnesses, which can be evaluated through micro-
particular, the use of micromechanics formulae for mechanics by estimating the Vf of the constituents; and
composites with periodic microstructure 3 is recom- (2) the modeling of member response requires a relatively
mended. The ply stiffnesses can then be used in classical simple, but accurate method that can be used in
lamination theory (CLT)4 to predict the laminate engineering analysis and design, which can be accom-
stiffnesses. In this study, predictions with CLT are plished by the proposed MLB model.
favorably compared to experimental results of FRP
coupon samples cut from full-size sections.
Based on a formal engineering approach of first-order 2.1. Prediction of material properties
shear deformation theory, the mechanics of thin-walled
Pultruded sections, such as H, box, and other shapes,
laminated composite beams (MLB) was developed5.
consist typically of arrangements of flat walls or panels.
Accounting for the cross-section geometry and material
Usually, the reinforcement used is E-glass, and the resin
anisotropy, this formulation permits the computation of
or matrix is either vinylester or polyester. Although these
beam stiffness coefficients and shear correction factor,
sections are not produced by lamination lay-up, the
that can be conveniently used in Timoshenko beam
arrangement of the constituent materials can be simu-
equations. Then, the stress resultants are used to
lated as a layer system, and the stiffness properties of
compute ply stresses in a post-processing operation. In
each panel can be predicted by lamination theory in
this study, MLB is used as an efficient tool for the
terms of the ply stiffnesses computed through micro-
analysis and design of pultruded FRP sections. The
mechanics. A typical pultruded section may include the
predictions of MLB for H and box beams are validated
following four types of layers (Figure 1 ): (1) A thin layer
with finite element analyses and an experimental
of randomly-oriented chopped fibers (Nexus) placed on
program.
the surface of the composite. This is a resin-rich layer
The experimental study presented in this paper
primarily used as a protective coating, and its contribu-
includes two H and two box pultruded beams, which
tion to the laminate response can be neglected; (2)
are tested in bending to evaluate displacements and
continuous strand mats (CSM) of different weights
strains. The samples are subjected to 3-point and 4-point
consisting of continuous randomly-oriented fibers; (3)
loadings, and the largest box section (10 10 3/4") is
stitched fabrics (SF) with different angle orientations,
tested at various span-to-depth ratios to evaluate shear
and (4) roving layers that contain continuous unidirec-
effects. The predictions of the MLB model agree well
tional fiber bundles, which contribute the most to the
with the experimental results, which are also verified with
stiffness and strength of a section. Each layer is modeled
finite element analyses using 8-node isoparametric shell
as a homogeneous, linearly elastic, and generally
elements of ANSYS. Through the analytical and
orthotropic material, and to evaluate its properties, the
experimental program described in this paper, an
information provided by the material producer and
efficient and comprehensive analysis and design
pultrusion manufacturer are used to compute Vf of each
approach for pultruded FRP beams is illustrated. The
equivalent ply, as explained next.
proposed approach intends to bridge a gap between the
sophisticated modeling of composite materials and the
requirement for a simple but consistent tool for 2.1.1. Computation of fiber volume fraction. The Vf
engineering design. for each ply, either a roving or a CSM or a SF layer, is
Since there are no simplified and yet rigorous design
guidelines for pultruded FRP members, it is significant
that this paper presents a practical method that can be 62.5/ft - 61 yield roving o
used for the analysis, design, and optimization of FRP S Nexus Veil ~ ] _ / / 1 5 . 5 oz 90 SF
beams. The paper is organized in two major sections: (1) ~ ~ ~ \ \ ~ \ ~ 1/2 oz CSM
Modeling considerations, which include prediction of [ O O O O qlp O O ~ID O I - 1 oz CSM
ply/laminate stiffnesses and member response; and (2)
12 oz +45 SF
analytical and experimental evaluations of FRP beams,
which include test results of coupon samples and full-size 52.5/ft - 61 yield
members. 15.5 oz 90 SF
t oz CSM

2. MODELING OF PULTRUDED FRP SHAPES rovings -- 250

FRP shapes are not laminated structures in a rigorous

sense. However, they are produced with material
architectures that can be simulated as laminated config-
urations. In this section, the following two issues are
discussed: (1) The modeling of FRP sections as Figure 1 Lay-up of illustrative example

296
 Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes: J. F. Davalos et al.
defined as the ratio of the volume of fibers present to the
total volume of the layer, and therefore, the relative
volumes of fiber and matrix are determined to evaluate
the ply stiffnesses. Similarly, the Vr of the whole section
can be defined. For the CSM and SF layers, which are
respectively specified in oz/ft 2 and oz/yd 2, the Vr can be
determined as follows:
W the elastic properties of roving and SF layers are also
( Vr)CSM/SF pt (1)
where, w is the weight per unit area in lb/in 2, p is the
unconsolidated density of the CSM or SF fibers in lb/in 3,
and t is the "as manufactured' thickness of the material
(inches) as provided by the material producer. Thus, as
an approximation, it is assumed that the thicknesses of
these constituents remain constant during part manu-
facturing, and that the voids are filled with resin. For the
roving layers, the Vr is defined as:
nrAr
(v0r - (2)
tr
where, nr is the number of rovings per unit width (in J)
provided by the manufacturer, tr is the assumed in situ
thickness of the roving-matrix layer, which is computed
by subtracting the thicknesses of the CSM and SF layers
from the pultruded laminate thickness; A r is the area of
one roving computed from:
1 is approximately 15% higher than the experimental
Ar = (3)
YPr
where, Y is the yield specified in yards/lb and converted
to in/lb, and p~ is the density of the fibers given by the
producer. Once the Vfs for all the typical layers are
computed, the ply stiffnesses are predicted using selected
micromechanics formulas.
2.1.2. Prediction of ply stiffhess. Several formulae of
micromechanics of composites have been developed
and used over time 6. The degree of correlation between
experimental data and theoretical predictions depends
on the accuracy of the model used. In this study, the
ply stiffnesses for the roving and stitched fabric layers
are computed using primarily a recent micromechanics
model for composites with periodic microstructure
developed by Luciano and Barbero 3. Detailed expres-
sions for the computation of the elastic constants E l ,
E2, GI2 , and u12 are given in the original paper along
with experimental correlations. As an illustration, the
expression for the computation of the in-plane shear
modulus G12 is given by:
G12 = a m - v f - -~ G m - G (4)
where, the subscripts f and m refer to fiber and matrix
respectively, and $3 is given by
S 3 = 0.49247 - 0.47603 Vf - 0.02748 Vf2
In addition, the composite cylinders model 7 which is
based on the self-consistent theory s ~0, can provide
reasonably accurate stiffness predictions for roving and
SF layers. The formula for G12 given by the composite
cylinders model is
(1 4- Vf)Gf 4- (1 - Vt,)Gm
GI2 = Gm (5)
( 1 - vf)af 4- (1 4- Vf)6 m
For comparative purposes and because of its popularity,
computed by the mechanics of materials rule of mixtures
approach 4. For example, the expression for G12 is given
by
GmGr
G12 = (1 - Vt-)Gr + gfG m (6)
The stiffness of the CSM layers are estimated from the
approximate expressions ~1 for randomly oriented com-
posites, based on the assumption that the material is
isotropic in the plane 12. The following expressions given
in ref. 11 are used:
E
E = g E3 , + 5E 2 G = ~ E , +E~. u = - 2G
-- 1 (7)
where, E I and E2 are computed from any of the micro-
mechanics models described earlier, and E, G, and u are
equivalent isotropic elastic constants. Recent experi-
mental results for CSM strips have shown that the
extensional stiffness, E, estimated with the above formula
valuel3.
2.1.3. Prediction of panel stiffhesses. Once the ply
stiffnesses for each flat panel or wall section of a pul-
truded shape are computed through micromechanics
formulas, the stiffnesses of a panel can be computed
from classical lamintion theory (CLF) 4. In particular,
the compliance matrix corresponding to the extensional
stiffness matrix, A, can be used to evaluate the laminate
engineering properties in terms of the transformed stiff-
ness coefficients ~)ij. An example is given next to illus-
trate the computation of ply and laminate elastic
properties.
2.1.4. Example: elastic properties of a pultruded box
section. Using the manufacturer's information and
the micro/macromechanics approach described above,
the material properties of the box section shown in
Figure 1 are evaluated. This 4 x 8 x 1/4" pultruded
shape was manufactured using E-glass and vinylester
resin by Creative Pultrusions Inc., and it consists of six
CSM layers, two cross-ply and two angle-ply SF layers,
and two roving layers. The Vrs' of the constituent layers
are computed from equations (1) and (2) and the infor-
mation given in Table 1. As explained before, the thick-
ness of the roving layers is computed by subtracting the
thicknesses of the CSM and SF layers from the total
thickness of the laminate (0.25").
To evaluate the ply stiffnesses through micromecha-
nics, the properties of fiber and resin are given in Table 2.
To obtain accurate results, the elastic properties of the
297
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes. J. F. Davalos et al.

Table 1 Ply properties

No. of plies and type Nominal weight* w (lb/in 2) Ar (in2) t Thickness (in) Vf

2, 1/2oz CSM 1/2 oz/2ft2 2.17014 x 10 -4 -- 0.0075* 0.315

4, 1 oz CSM 1 oz/ft 4.34028 x 10 -4 -- 0.0200* 0.236
2, 15.5 oz 90 SF 15.5 oz/yd 2 7.47492 x 10 4 __ 0.0230* 0.353
2, 12 oz + 45 SF 12.2 oz/yd 2 5.88349 x 10-4 -- 0.0220* 0.291
2, 61 yield roving 61 yards/lb -- 4.9497 10 -3 0.0325 ~ 0.793

* provided by material producer

t computed by subtracting the thicknesses of the CSM/SF layers from the laminate thickness

Table 2 Material properties of the constituents The compliance matrix [a], which is the inverse of A,
Material E (psi) G (psi) u p (lb/in 3)
becomes:

E-glass fiber 10.5 106 4.1833 106 0.255 0.092 1.19 x 10-6 -3.831 x 10-7 0 ]
Vinylester resin* 7.336 105 2.3714 x 105 0.30 0.041
-3.831 x 10 7 1.536 x 10 6 0
J
[Os] --"
* obtained experimentally (Tomblin 1994)
0 0 4.902 x 10 6

From which, for example, Ex is simply given by

vinylester resin were obtained experimentally by testing
E - 1/(tall), where t = 0.25 in. is the laminate thick-
all-resin rods in tension and torsion 14. The roving and SF
ness. Similarly, the remaining elastic properties are com-
ply properties are computed from the micromechanics
puted, and the results are: Ex = 3.361 x 106psi, Ey =
formulae described above (e.g. equations (4)-(6)), and
2.604 x 106 psi, Gxy = 0.816 x 106 psi, and Uxy = 0.322.
the properties of the CSM layers are computed from
The accuracy of these values can be evaluated by testing
equation (7). The properties of the 4-45 SF layer are
coupon samples, as illustrated later in this paper. The
computed by dividing the layer into two laminae of
modeling of FRP shapes is discussed in the next section.
opposite fiber orientation angles. The ply stiffnesses of
the constituent layers are summarized in Table 3, and it
can be observed that the extensional stiffneses computed 2.2. Prediction of member response
by the rule of mixtures formulae agree with those given
In this study, the response of FRP shapes in bending is
by the periodic microstucture and composite cylinders
evaluated using a formal engineering approach to the
models. However, for the in-plane shear stiffness, the Gl2
mechanics of thin-walled laminted beams (MLB), based
value given by the rule of mixtures is approximately 34%
on kinematic assumptions consistent with Timoshenko's
lower for the roving layer and 50% lower for the CSM
beam theory. An overview of the MLB theory used is
layers in relation to the other two models.
presented next.
Using CLT, the engineering properties (Ex, Ey, Uxy,
The three different methodologies that are available in
and Gxy) of the panel are computed by assembling the
the literature to evaluate the stiffness of laminated
transformed stiffness coefficients into the extensional
composite beam elements under flexure are discussed 15.
stiffness matrix A. The expressions for Aij are given as4
The approach proposed by Whitney et al. 16 and Tsai 17
N considers that the effective moduli of a laminated beam
Aij = Z(Oij)kt k i,j = 1,2, 6 (8) are the corresponding engineering constants of the
k=l
laminate. Hence, the effective beam moduli are obtained
where, tk is the thickness of the k th ply, and for this from the reciprocals of the components of the laminate
example, the stiffness matrix A becomes compliance matrix, which is obtained by full inversion of
0.914 x 106 0.228 106 0 7
the laminate stiffness matrix. The basic assumption in
this approach is that the lateral force and moment stress
-[0 80,06 0708 ,0 0
0 0.204 106 J resultants in a beam element are zero. Lopez-Anido et al.t5
showed experimentally that this approach represents the

Table 3 Ply material properties computed by three micromechanics models

El (106 psi) E2 (106 psi) ul2 GI2 (106 psi)

Lamina PM CC ROM PM CC* ROM PM CC ROM PM CC ROM

1/2 oz CSM 2.093 2.132 2.077 2.093 2.123 2.077 0.407 0.412 0.412 0.744 0.755 0.337
1 oz CSM 1.710 1.758 1.727 1.710 1.758 1.727 0.402 0.407 0.404 0.610 0.625 0.305
15.5oz 90 fabric 4.118 4.276 4.181 1.183 1.141 1.092 0.389 0.281 0.284 0.457 0.455 0.356
1 2 o z + 4 5 fabric 3.505 3.674 3.576 1.056 1.022 1.006 0.396 0.284 0.287 0.405 0.404 0.327
61 yield roving 8.469 8.438 8.478 3.374 3.093 2.796 0.343 0.262 0.264 1.429 1.387 0.941

* E 2 is an average of the computed upper and lower limits

Note: PM = periodic microstructure, CC = composite cylinders, R O M = rule of mixtures

298
 Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes. J. F. Davalos et al.

actual stiffness of laminated composite beam elements (Ns = Ms = Msz = 0), and assuming that the off-axis
under flexure for span-to-width ratios _> 6. Therefore, plies are balanced symmetric (al6 =/316 7_ 0), the exten-
the approach is adopted in this study to model pultruded sional, bending-extension coupling, bending, and shear
structural shapes by first-order shear deformation theory stiffnesses of the ith wall are expressed as:
for thin- and moderately thick-walled laminated beams
mi ~- ( ~ I 1 A - I ) i , /~i---- (--fillA 1)i,
with open or closed cross-sections 5.
In the present model, the stiffnesses of a beam are D i = (all A 1)i, /'i = (a61)i (10)
computed by adding the contribution of the stiffnesses of
where A 7_ OZl1611 -- /3~1
the component panels, which in turn are obtained from
the effective beam moduli. The model accounts for where Ns, 3~ts and &tsz are laminate resultant force and
membrane stiffness and flexure stiffness of the walls, but moments and al6 and/3t6 are compliance elements.
shear lag warping effects are not considered, The position General expressions for the beam stiffness coefficients
of the neutral axis is defined in such a way that the are derived from the beam variational problem. Hence,
behavior of a beam-column with asymmetric material axial (Az), bending (Dx, Dy), and shear (Fx, Fy) stiffnesses
and/or cross-sectional shape is completely described by that account for the contribution of all the walls can be
axial, bending, and shear stiffness coefficients (Az, Dy, Fy) computed as
only. Furthermore, a shear correction factor is obtained
from energy equivalence. An overview of the mechanics m z = ~-] Aibi
of laminated beams (MLB) theory is presented next. i=l
The basic kinematic assumptions in MLB are: (1) The n
contour does not deform in its own plane, and (2) a plane B,, = cos 0i]b/
i=1
section originally normal to the beam axis remains plane,
but not necessarily normal to the beam axis due to shear i " 2 r
deformation. Straight FRP beams with at least one axis Dy= Ai (V/--y,,)"+l-~Sln 0i (ll)
i=l
of geometric and material symmetry are considered. The
pultruded sections are modeled as assemblies of flat
walls. The compliance matrices [a]3x3 , [3133, [~]3x3 are + 2Bi()' i - y,,) cos q)i 4- L)/cos2 q~i]bi
obtained from classical lamination theory (CLT) 17. For
each wall the position of the middle surface is defined by Fy = ~ Fibi sin 2 (5i
the function (Figure 2): i=1
The beam bending-extension coupling coefficient (Bx or
.v(si) = si sin (Pi + .i~i for - ~-bi< Si __<~bi (9) By) can be eliminated by defining the location of the
neutral axis of bending (Xn or )',1) as
where bi is the wall width, Yi is the position of the wall n
centroid, and O~ is the orientation of the i th wall. cos
By defining stress resultant assumptions in each i=1 (12)
wall compatible with beam theory without torsion )'" = Az

Y
b2

, Y3 =

X
Figure 2 Cross-section geometry and reference coordinate systems

299
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes. J. F. Davalos et al.

Introducing the coordinate y~ = y -Yn, the extensional

and bending responses are decoupled. An explicit 2 oz CSM ~ ......

expression for the static shear correction factor (K, Ky) 1.5 oz CSM pi~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 7/in -113 yield

is derived from energy equivalence. As an approximation 13 yield

in design, the shear correction factor for pultruded H and 13 yield

box sections can be taken as 1.0. General equations for
(a) H 4"x4"x1/4"
various F R P sections are presented in ref. 18.
2 oz CSM < B ~ ~ I 3.67/In -61 yield
Displacement and rotation functions can be obtained 2 oz CSM ; ,
_ ~ ....~ ~ , ~ < ~ o , ~ ' 367/in -61 yield
by solving the Timoshenko beam theory equilibrium [ ]
ir I -
~
- ~ 2 oz C S M ~
1.5 OZ CSM p ~ ' . . . . '.*' . . . .
"
. 4 . 6 7 / I n -61 y~ld
equations. Deflections at discrete locations can be com- [ I
il
II
1.5 oz CSM
k~eDo,~qi~i~o~giDe(4.t7/ir1-61 yield
2 ozCSM .....................
puted by employing energy methods that incorporate the : -- 2 z CSM
matdx

beam bending and shear stiffnesses. General formulae for E ~ 3 1.5 oz CSM ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~<D ~ ~ ~; ~ 4"1711n"61 yiel

maximum bending deflections (~Sb) and shear deflections (b) H 6"x6"x1/4"

(60 for typical beam loadings and boundary conditions are
available in manuals. For example, the maximum deflec- Figure 3 Layup configurations of pultruded H sections
tion for a four-point loading of a beam of span L and
concentrated loads (P) applied at L/3 is:
20Z CSM

23PL 3 PL ,,oq, o~,,=oq,,~.2~,.n-,, ,,..d

6 = ~Sb+6s - - - - F-- (13) 3 oZ CSM
648Dy 3KyFy (a) BOX 4 " x 4 " x l / 4 "

1/2 oz CSM ........ Veil

For a beam loaded in the z - y plane, the axial, shear,
2 o~ CSM
and bending stress resultants are N~, Vy, and My. Then, 3 OZCSM ~ Q Q 0 0 0 Q 0 ~ 0 ~ 2.8/In -28 yield
the strains and curvature at the middle surface of the ith 3 oz CSM ~ 2.8/In -28 yield

wall are given as

Nz My
Cz(S/'z) = Z + (y(si) - Yn) D y '
(b) BOx 10"10'%3/4"
My
"~sz(Si,Z) = sinq~i, 2z(Si,Z) = ~ C O S ( ~ i (14) Figure 4 Layup configurations of pultruded box sections
Y Y Uy

and the stress resultants in the ith wall are

fVz(si, z) = My z + Bi~z, Nsz(Xi, z) =/~i~sz, I- 18" ,I

Mz(s~,~) = &~ + b~z
Ply strains and stresses, at a location (si, z) of the i th
wall, can be obtained from the six stress resultants by
employing CLT ~7. The location of the shear center
S(xs,Ys) is defined in order to decouple bending and
torsion. Evaluation of deflections and ply stresses for an
H section were satisfactorily correlated with a refined
layered shell finite element model 5. The modeling con-
cepts discussed in this section are used in this paper to
evaluate the response of H and box F R P sections tested
in bending.
3. RESPONSE E V A L U A T I O N OF P U L T R U D E D
FRP SHAPES
The responses of two H and two box F R P beams are
evaluated experimentally and analytically. The beams
are tested in bending, and deflections and strains are
recorded. The test beams are analyzed using micro-
mechanics 3 and macromechanics 4 in combination with
MLB 5 and shell finite elements 19. The experimental and
analytical procedures and results are discussed in this
section.
(15)
Longitudinal
1 8" ,I
/
]Transverse/
Box 10 xl0"xa/4'
Figure 5 Plan view of coupon samples cut from box section
3.1. Experimental evaluation
Four types of pultruded cross sections manufactured
using E-glass fibers and vinylester resin are evaluated in
this study. The sections include: two H (4 x 4 x 1/4" and
6 x 6 x 1/4") beams, each consisting of 7 layers; one box
beam (4 x 4 x 1/4") consisting of 3 layers; and one box
beam (10 x 10 x 3/4") consisting of 17 layers. The stack-
ing sequence of the cross-sections of the test-samples are

300
 Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes: J. F. Davalos et al.

Table 4 Laminate properties comparisons of box 10 x 10 x 3/4" section

Exx Eyy /Jxy Gxy

Experimental 4.147 x 106 psi 2.044 x 106 psi 0.301 7.144 x 105 psi
(COV) (3.37%) (9.06%) (2.03%) (2.77%)
Analytical 4.021 x 106 psi 1.991 x 106 psi 0.294 7.250 x 105 psi
%Difference 3.0% 2.6% -2.3% + 1.5%

COV = coefficient of variance

Note: %difference is based on the experimental results

Table 5 Engineering constants of laminae for H and box sections

El E2 GI2 tk
Beam section Layer* (106 psi) (106 psi) (106 psi) ut2 (in)

H 4 x 4 x 1/4" 1.5oz CSM 1.716 1.716 0.605 0.419 0.025

2 oz CSM 1.861 1.861 0.655 0.421 0.03
30 rovings (113 yield) 4.320 0.959 0.371 0.293 0.05
28 rovings (113 yield) 4.065 0.912 0.353 0.294 0.05
matrix 0.490 0.419 0.198 0.240 0.045
Box 4 x 4 x 1/4" 3 oz CSM 2.140 2.140 0.752 0.423 0.04
2 oz CSM 1.861 t .861 0.655 0.421 0.03
25 rovings (61 yield) 3.043 0.758 0.293 0.296 0.18
H 6 x 6 x 1/4" 1.5oz CSM 1.716 1.716 0.605 0.419 0.025
2 oz CSM 1.861 1.861 0.655 0.421 0.03
22 rovings (61 yield) 4.047 0.909 0.35 l 0.294 0.05
28 rovings (61 yield) 5.016 1.104 0.428 0.289 0.05
25 rovings (61 yield) 4.532 0.999 0.387 0.292 0.05
matrix 0.490 0.490 0.198 0.240 0.045
Box 10 x 10 x 3/4 ''~ l/2oz CSM 2.090 2.090 0.743 0.297 0.0075
1 oz CSM 1.716 1.716 0.610 0.423 0.02
2 oz CSM 2.090 2.090 0.743 0.297 0.03
3 oz CSM 2.290 2.290 0.810 0.295 0.04
28 rovings (28 yield) 5.370 1.520 0.595 0.280 0.06375
42 rovings (28 yield) 7.650 2.630 1.076 0.273 0.06375

* The rovings are reported as the total number per panel

t vinylester material properties were obtained experimentally

shown in Figures 3 and 4. The 10 x 10 x 3/4" box section
was manufactured by Morison Molded Fiber Glass
Company of Bristol, VA, and the other three sections
were produced by Creative Pultrusions Inc. of Alum Bank,
PA. The experimental program included testing of coupon
samples, cut from one of the box beams, and full-
member samples.
3.1.1. Coupon testing. The laminate stiffnesses of the
walls or panels of the F R P beams used in this study can
be predicted using the micro/macromechanics approach
described in Section 2.1, and to validate the accuracy of
the proposed models, coupon samples were cut from the
10 x 10 x 3/4" box section and tested in tension and tor-
sion. Samples of 2-inch widths were cut along the longi-
tudinal and transverse directions of the box beam (see
Figure 5). The longitudinal samples were 18" long, and
the transverse samples were 8" long (limited by the 10"
dimension of the box beam). Eight longitudinal and
five transverse samples were tested in tension to deter-
mine the extensional stiffnesses, Ex and Ey, and Poisson's
ratio Uxy. The shear stiffness Gxy w a s determined from
torsion tests of 10 longitudinal samples. Using the
assumption of transverse isotropy 2 and the measured
torque and angle of twist, the shear stiffness was com-
puted from Saint Venant's torsion solution for rectangular
bars. The results are reported in Table 4, along with the
analytical predictions computed from micromechanics 3
and CLT. The differences between the predicted and aver-
age computed values are less than 3%. Therefore, for the
other three sections tested in this study, the material prop-
erties were only evaluated analytically.
3.1.2. Member testing. The two H and two box
sections were tested in bending under 3-point and also
4-point loadings. For the 3-point test, the load was
applied at the midspan of the sample, and for the 4-point
test of the 10 x 10 z 3/4" box section, the concentrated
loads were applied at third points, where for the other
three sections, the loads were applied at 20" from each
end, with a distance between loads of 32". Both H beams
and the 4 x 4 x 1/4" box beam were tested for a span of
6 ft, whereas the 10 x 10 3/4" box section was tested
for five spans: 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 feet. The samples
were tested in a load frame, and the load was applied
with a hydraulic jack and recorded using a load cell.
For all the samples, the maximum deflections at
midspans were recorded with linear variable differential
transducers (LVDTs), and the strains at midspan were
recorded with strain gages. For the two H sections and
the 4 x 4 z 1/4" box section, which were tested 21, only
the maximum strains at top and bottom flanges were

301
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes: J. F. Davalos et al.

displacements were recorded with a computerized data

IManu'aure"s'n'rm=inl acquisition system. The analytical evaluations are presented

first, and the results of the experimental/analytical response
are presented and discussed at the end of this section.
8! ~ P~dic Microstru~u_~.~
3.2. Analytical evaluations
2~ J Ply MechanicalPropertiesj Based on the modeling of pultruded FRP shapes
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
..... discussed in Section 2, the computer program FRPBEAM
was developed by Qiao et al. 22 to model and analyze
FRP shapes in bending. The response of the four sections
[ Panel MechanicalProperties] tested in this study (Figures 3 and 4) are analyzed with
this program and also with the finite element program jg.
The computation of ply stiffnesses follows the procedure
presented in Section 2. A summary of the computed ply
~i
1.1
[Beam Stiffness Coefficientsj properties are given in Table 5. The modeling of member
response are briefly discussed in this section.
The displacements and strains of the four sections
evaluated in this paper are predicted using the theory
described in Section 2 and implemented in the computer
program FRPBEAM. A flowchart of the computational
Beam Displacements
Panel Stress Resultants
&/ procedure is given in Figure 6, and the three major
modules are: (1) A preprocessor to evaluate the ply
properties, as discussed above; (2) a processor to
evaluate wall or panel stiffnesses with CLT (equation
(10)), beam stiffness coefficients and shear correction
factor with MLB (equation (I 1)), beam displacements
and rotations with Timoshenko beam theory (e.g.
equation (13)), panel midsurface strains and curvatures
I
i
(equation (14)), and panel stress resultants (equation
ol (15)); and (3) a post-processor to evaluate ply strains and
Q-[ ........................................................................
stresses with CLT. The computed panel stiffnesses of
Figure 6 Computational flowchart of program F R P B E A M
webs and flanges of the test beams are given in Table 6,
and the beam stiffness coefficients and shear correction
measured, while for the 10 x 10 x 3/4" box section, factors are given in Table 7, where the membrane and
strains were also measured at five locations on one web flexural components of the bending stiffness are listed
and at three locations on the opposite web. The tests separately. It is interesting to observe that the membrane
were conducted in the elastic range, and the strains and component, which is the first term of Dy in equation (11),

Table 6 Panel stiffness coefficients of webs and flanges (given per unit width)
Flange Web

Extensional Bending Shear Extensional Bending Shear

Beam Section (kip-in/in 2) (kip-in3/in 2) (kip-in/in 2) (kip-in/in 2) (kip-in3/in 2) (kip-in/in z)

H 4 x 4 1/4" 816.0 3.72 118.0 611.0 3.61 108.0

Box 4 4 1/4" 690.0 3.13 102.0 690.0 3.13 102.0
H 6 x 6 1/4" 836.0 3.92 119.0 658.0 3.88 112.0
Box 10 10 3/4" 3010.0 134.00 527.0 3010.0 134.00 527.0

Table 7 Beam stiffnesses, shear correction factors

Bending stiffness Dy (106 lb-in4/in 2)
Shear stiffness Fy Shear correction
Beam section Membrane Flexural Total (106 lb-in2/in 2) factor Ky
H 4 4 1/4" 28.783 0.0298 28.844 0.406 0.9980
Box 4 x 4 x 1/4" 24.271 0.0235 24.291 0.762 0.9959
H 6 6 x 1/4" 93.325 0.0470 9.121 0.641 0.9977
Box 10 10 3/4" 1590.356 2.4676 1598.200 10.061 0.9959

302
 Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes."J, F. Davalos et al.

Table 8 Deflectonsand strains comparisons of FRP sections under 3-point loading

Maximum deflection (in/kip) Maximum strain (#c/kip)

Beam section Span (fl) Exp. MLB 6MLB/6Exp. FE Exp. MLB fMLB/~:Exp. FE
H 4 4 x 1/4" 6 0.315 0.314 0.997 0.308 1232 1330 1.079 1400
Box 4 x 4 x 1/4" 6 0.327 0.344 1.052 0.331 1475 1480 1.003 1500
H 6 x 6 x 1/4" 6 0.112 0.1116 0.996 0.1102 590 578 1.021 600
Box 10 x 10 x 3/4" 14 0.06258 0.06600 1.055 0.06206 129 130 1.008 135

Table 9 Deflectionsand strains comparisons of FRP sections under 4-point loading

Maximum deflection (in/kip) Maximum strain (/Le/kip)

Beam section Span (ft) Exp. MLB ~MLB/fExp. FE Exp. MLB ~MLB/eExp FE
H4 4 x 1/4" 6 0.2401 0.2263 0.943 0.210 810 738 0.911 750
Box 4 4 1/4" 6 0.2515 0.2525 1.004 0.246 910 823 0.904 830
H6 x 6 x I/4" 6 0.0740 0.0781 1.055 0.0773 322 321 0.997 315
Box l0 x 10 x 3/4" 14 0.0504 0.0532 1.054 0.0510 77 78 1.013 75

is significantly larger than the flexural component (last
term of Dy in equation (11)). The total bending stiffnesses
in Table 7 are computed by equation (11), accounting for
the bending-extension effects (second term of Dy in
equation (1 l)) in some of the sections which exhibited
minor lay-up asymmetries.
To verify the prediction accuracy with the F R P B E A M
program, the test beams are also analyzed with the
commercial finite element program ANSYS 19 using
Mindlin 8-node isoparametric layered shell elements
(SHELL 99), which include shear deformation. An
aspect ratio of one (length-to-width) is used to define
the mesh for each member, and the input material
properties used are taken from Table 5. The analytical
and experimental results are correlated next.
3.3. Comparison and discussion of results
As shown in Table 4, the panel or laminate stiffnesses
computed from the predicted laminae properties agree
closely with experimental results obtained for the coupon
samples of the 10 x 10 x 3/4" box section. These results
provide confidence in the computational procedure for
ply stiffnesses proposed in this paper. For all four F R P
sections and a maximum load of 1000 lbs., the predicted
maximum deflections and strains for the 3-point loading
case are compared to the experimental values in Table 8.
Similarly, the maximum deflections and strains for the
4-point loading case are given in Table 9. The results
indicate that the predicted values with MLB agree very
well with the FE and experimental values, with
maximum differences of 5.5% for displacements and
7.9% for strains. The MLB and FE results match closely
the experimental values over the entire range of loading,
as illustrated by Figure 7 for the midspan displacement of
the 6 x 6 x 1/4" H section under 3-point loading, and by
Figure 8 for the maximum strains of the 10 x 10 x 3/4"
box section under 4-point loading.
To evaluate the shear effects, the 10 x 10 x 3/4" box
section was tested under five different spans (6, 8, 10, 12,
and 14 feet). The MLB explicit solution permits the
computation of the bending and shear components of
deflection, and as shown in Table 10, shear deflection for
the 3-point loading accounts for approximately 27% of

1000
1000 P/2. e~ .P/2 .J"
900
900'
800
800' L_ i - .l! ~, 700
700
~, 600
600
500
500 =
400
400
5 300
300
2O0 ~, Experimental
200 /~ ta Experimental .......~... MLB
IO0
100 /,11111 ........~... MI.,B & FE (ANSYS)
~. ~ (ANSYS) 0
O= 0 1'0 2'0 3'0 4.0 50 6.0 7'0 80
0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 011 o.12 Strain
Center deflections (in)
Figure 8 Strains comparison at midspan for the 10 10 x 3/4" box
Figure 7 Deflections comparison for the H6 6 1/4" section section

303
Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes."J. F. Davalos et al.

Table 10 Midspan deflection comparisons for box 10 x 10 3/4" section

4-point loading 3-point loading

Exp. MLB Exp. MLB

~total 6total "~shear 6totaI ratio 6iota I ~total ~shear ~total ratio
L (fl) (in/kip) (in/kip) (%) (6MLB/~Exp.) (in/kip) (in/kip) (%) ((~MLB/(~Exp.)

6 0.005621 0.005238 24.7 0.93 0.006320 0.006708 26.8 1.06

8 0.011235 0.011077 15.5 0.99 0.013002 0.014036 17.1 1.08
10 0.020172 0.020424 10.5 1.01 0.023672 0.025519 11.5 1.08
12 0.033899 0.034156 7.6 1.01 0.039677 0.042875 8.4 1.08
14 0.05041 0.053151 5.7 1.05 0.062582 0.066001 6.4 1.06

0.05

0.04
ExP =

/
/~
- -

~
100

50
]o
0

4-
[3

11"
[]

~
0

4"
Top

o (a)
o.o,t z -501 .,
CI 0
Bottom

6 7 8 9
i...
10 11 12 13 14
-100
0.0 2~0 ,io 6~0
Width (in)
s:0 10.0

1 0.OO
Span (ft) f
Figure 9 Deflection comparisons for various spans of the 10 10 8.00
3/4" box section

. 6.00
"
the total deflection for the 6-ft span, and it decreases to
about 6% for the 14-ft span. As with the other FRP
~4,00
(b)
sections, the ratio of experimental to MLB predictions is
close to 1.0. The deflection comparisons with FE and
2.00
experimental results are shown graphically in Figure 9.
The longitudinal experimental and analytical strains for
three spans (6, 10, and 14ft) are compared in Figure 10, 0.00
- 1o o . o o -50.00 o.oo 50.00 1o o . o o
showing close agreement. Figure lOa shows the strains
Microstrains/load (~/kip)
across the width of the top and bottom flanges, and
Figure lOb shows the strains across the depth of the two Exp: = 6-ft + 10-ft 14-ft __ MLB
apposite webs. To study the Poisson's effects, transverse
Figure 10 Longitudinal strains for the l0 l0 3/4" box section: (a)
strains were also measured on top and bottom flanges, top and bottom flanges; (b) webs
and the experimental results were within 10% of the
MLB predictions.

The results of this study indicate that selected

4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In this paper a comprehensive analytical and experi-
mental program for the analysis and design ofpultruded
FRP shapes under bending is described. The interactive
computer program FRPBEAM is developed to carry out
the analysis of FRP beams, from the evaluation of ply
stiffnesses through micromechanics to the overall
member response through the mechanics of laminated
beams (MLB) model. The proposed approach can be
used as an efficient tool for engineering design by both
practicing engineers and pultrusion manufacturers.
micromechanics formulae can be used to accurately
predict the ply stiffnesses of the constituent materials of
the laminate, including fiber-bundles or rovings, con-
tinuous strand mats, and cross- and angle-ply fabrics.
These relatively simple formulae can provide accurate
results, provided that the constituent Vrs are correctly
estimated using the manufacturer's information and the
formulae given in this paper.
The experimental study discussed in this paper
includes H and box FRP sections, and the MLB model
predicts displacements and strains in excellent agreement
with the experimental results and finite element analyses

304
 Analysis and design of pultruded FRP shapes. J. F. Davalos et al.
with A N S Y S 19. The MLB model permits the computa-
tion of shear and bending deflections separately, and has
the ability to analyze any cross-sectional shape with
some minor restrictions. Therefore, MLB can be used to
conduct parametric studies, and it can be extended to
optimization studies of existing and new shapes.
In this study, distortional effects, such as shear-lag
and warping, which can be particularly significant for
thin-walled sections, were not considered. Moreover. the
analysis is limited to linear-elastic response and does
not include failure or buckling considerations. These
additional concerns need to be addressed in the design of
FRP beams, and the present formulation can be used as
the basis for further work in this area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The FRP sections tested in this study were partially
contributed by Creative Pultrusions, Inc. and Morrison
Molded Fiber Glass Company. The authors thank
Professor GangaRao and Mr Nagaraj for the use of
some of the experimental results presented in this paper.
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