Table of Contents

Chapter One: Algebra

Basic Law of Natural Numbers

Laws of Equality
Inequality
Laws of Exponents
Radicals
Logarithms
Polynomials
Special Products and Factoring
Division of Polynomials
Factor & Remainder Theorem
Binomial Theorem
Pascals Triangle
Sum of Coefficients
Proportion
Quadratic Formula
Partial Fraction
Variation
Arithmetic Progression
Geometric Progression
Harmonic Progression
Work, Age, Digit, Number, Clock, Mixture
Problems
Motion Problem (Uniform Motion)
 Permutation
Combination
Probability
Repeated Trials
At least One Condition
Matrices and Determinants
Operation of Matrices
Determinant
Solutions to Linear Equations by Determinant
Complex Numbers
Complex Equation
Polar or Trigonometric Form
De Moivres Theorem
Exponential Form
Venn Diagram

Chapter Two: Plane and Spherical

Trigonometry

Functions of Right Triangle

Pythagorean Theorem
Trigonometric Identities
Basic Identities
Pythagorean Relations
Sum and Difference of Angles
Double Angle Formulas
Half-Angle Formulas
 Powers of Functions
Product of Functions
Sum and Difference of Functions
Oblique Triangle
Sine Law
Cosine Law
Law of Tangents
Mollweides Equation
Angles
Properties of Triangle
Area of Triangle
Median of Triangle
Altitudes of Triangle
Angle Bisectors of Triangle
Spherical Trigonometry
Spherical Triangle
Right Spherical Triangle
Napiers Rules
Oblique Spherical Triangle
Law of Sines
Law of Cosines
Napiers Analogies
Terrestrial Sphere
Chapter Three: Plane Geometry

Definitions
Theorems and Properties of Triangles
Area of Triangle
Rectangle
Square
General Quadrilateral
Parallelogram
Rhombus
Trapezoid
Cyclic Quadrilateral
Ptolemys Theorem
Polygons
Theorems in Polygons
Regular Polygons
Circle
Theorems on Circles
Area of Circle
Sector
Segment
Parabolic Segment
Spandrel of Parabola
Ellipse
Radius of Circles
Circumscribed about a Triangle
Inscribed in a Triangle
 Escribed in a Quadrilateral
Circumscribed about a Quadrilateral
Inscribed in a Quadrilateral
Area by Approximation
Trapezoidal Rule
Simpsons One-Third Rule
Area by Coordinates

Chapter Four: Solid Geometry

Polyhedrons
Regular Polyhedron (Platonic Solids)
Eulers Polyhedron Theorem
Prism
Rectangular Parallelepiped
Cube
Truncated Prism
Pyramids
Frustum of a Pyramid
Cylinders
Right Circular Cylinder
Cone
Right Circular Cone
Frustum of a Cone
Frustum of Right Circular Cone
Sphere
Spherical Segments
 Spherical Cone
Spherical Lune and Wedge
Spherical Polygons
Spherical Pyramid
Solids of Revolution
Pappus Theorems
Ellipsoid
Prolate and Oblate Spheroids
Paraboloid of Revolution
Prismatoid
Prismoidal Formula
Volume of Some Prismatoid
Similar Solids

Chapter Five: Analytic Geometry

Distance between Two Points

Straight Line
Slope of the Line
Standard Equations
Angle between Two Lines
Distance from a Point to a Line
Distance between Two Parallel Lines
Division of Line Segment
Midpoint of Line Segment
Conic Sections
Circle
 Parabola
Ellipse
Hyperbola
Variations of Problems in Conics
Tangents and Normal to Conics
Polar Coordinate system
Distance between two points
Relationship between Polar and Cartesian
Polar Curves
Space Analytic Geometry
Rectangular Coordinate System
Cylindrical Coordinate System
Spherical Coordinate System
3D Graphs

Chapter Six: Differential Calculus

Limits
L Hospitals Rule
Short Technique on Limits
Differentiation Formulas
Algebraic Functions
Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
Trigonometric Functions
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Hyperbolic Functions
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
 Slope of the Curve
Rate of Change
Curvature and Radius of Curvature
Circle of Curvatrure
Graph of a Function
Relative Maximum and Relative Minimum
Points of Inflection
Applications of Maxima and Minima
Steps in Solving Maxima & Minima Problems
Common Variable Relationship for Maximum
and Minimum Values
Time Rates

Chapter Seven: Integral Calculus

Integration Formulas
Algebraic, Exponential, & Logarithmic
Functions
Trigonometric Functions
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Hyperbolic Functions
Integration by Parts
Trigonometric Substitution
Wallis Formula
Examples
Wallis Formulas
Double Integration
 Triple Integration
Integration by Parts
Algebraic Substitution
Trigonometric Substitution
Integration by Partial Fraction
Plane Areas
Using Horizontal Strip
Using Vertical Strip
By Polar Coordinates
Area of Some Polar Curves
Length of Arc
Centroid of Plane Areas
Moment of Inertia
Polar Moment of Inertia
Product of Inertia
Mass Moment of Inertia
Properties of Common Shapes
Solids of Revolution
Using Circular Disk
Using Hollow Cylindrical Shell
Surface Area
Volume of Other Solids of Known Cross Section
Centroid of Volume
Work
Work to Stretch a Spring
Work in Winding Up Load
Chapter Eight: Differential Equation

Variable Separable
Homogeneous First Order Differential Equation
Linear First Order Differential Equation
Differential Equation
Bernoullis Equation Type
Finding the Differential Equation from a General
Solution
Applications of Differential Equation
Population Growth
Exponential Growth and Decay
Cooling and Heating
Flow Problems
Continuous Compound Interest
Motion Problems
Newtons Second Law of Motion

Chapter Nine: Engineering Mechanics

Statics
Force Systems
Resultant of Forces
Resultant of Forces in Space
Resultant of Parallel Forces
Resultant of Non-coplanar forces
Equilibrium of Forces
 Cables
Parabolic Cables
Catenary
Cables Under Concentrated Loads
Friction
Belt Friction
Properties of Sections
Centroid
Center of Gravity of Flat Plates
Centroids of Composite Figures
Moment of Inertia
Polar Moment of Inertia
Moment of Inertia With Respect to Inclined
Axis
Mohrs Circle
Dynamics
Kinematics
Translation
Rectilinear Translation
Uniform Motion
Variable Acceleration
Constant Acceleration
Free-falling Body
Curvilinear Motion
Motion Curves
Rotation
Kinetics
 Newtons Laws of Motion
D Alemberts Principle
Centrifugal Force
Conical Pendulum
Banking of Curves
Ideal Angle of Banking
Horizontal Rotating Platform
Work and Energy
Work and Energy Equation
Impulse and Momentum
Impulse and Momentum Equation
Law of Conservation of Momentum
Coefficient of Restitution

Chapter Ten: Strength of Materials

Simple Stress
Normal Stress
Shearing Stress
Bearing Stress
Thin Walled Pressure Vessels
Cylindrical Vessel
Spherical Vessel
Thick Walled Cylinders
Simple Strain
Stress Strain Diagram
Axial Deformation
 Shearing Deformation
Poissons Ratio
Biaxial Deformation
Triaxial Deformation
Thermal Stress
Torsion
Helical Spring
Spring in Series
Spring in Parallel
Shear and Moment in Beams
Shear and Moment Diagrams
Moving Loads
Stresses in Beams
Radius of curvature
Flexure Formula
Shearing Stress
Superimposed Beams
Spacing of Rivets or Bolts in Built-up Beams
Economic Sections
Combined Stresses
Combined Axial and Flexure
Kern of a Section
Combined Axial and Shearing Stress
Mohrs Circle
Combined Torsional and Flexural Stresses
Beam Formulas (Moment, Deflection, and
Rotation)
 Simple and Cantilever Beam
Propped Beamasasas
Fully Restrained Beam
Dynamic (Impact) Loading

Chapter Eleven: Fluid Mechanics and

Hydraulics

Properties of Fluids
Unit Weight and Density
Specific Volume
Visocosity
Surface Tension
Capillarity
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity
Compression of Gases
Pressure Disturbances
Unit Pressure
Total Hydrostatic Pressure
On Planes Surfaces
On Curved Surfaces
Buoyancy
Statical Stability of Floating Bodies
Relative Equilibrium of Fluids
Rotating Vessels
Fluid Flow in Pipes
Reynolds Number
 Energy Equation
Bernoullis Energy Theorem
Head Lost in Pipe Flow
Pipes in Series
Pipes in Parallel
Equivalent Pipe
Orifice and Tubes
Unsteady Flow
Weir
Cipolletti Weir
Triangular Weir
Suttro Weir
Unsteady Flow
Hydrodynamics
Drag Force

Chapter Twelve: Engineering Economics

Cash Flow Diagrams
Simple Interest
Ordinary and Exact Interest
Compound Interest
Continuous Compounding
Nominal and Effective Rate
Equivalent Nominal Rates
Annuity
Ordinary Annuity
Deferred Annuity
 Annuity Due
Perpetuity
Uniform Gradient
Arithmetic Gradient
Geometric Gradient
Capitalized and Annual Costs
Cost Comparison of Different Alternatives
Depreciation
Straight-Line Method
Sinking Fund Method
Sum of the Years Digit Method
Declining Balance Method
Double Declining Balance Method
Capital Recovery (Depletion)
Bond
Break-Even Analysis

Chapter Thirteen: Conversion Factors,

Constants

Commonly Used Conversion Factors

Commonly Used Constants
Constants in Physics and Mathematics
Factors for Conversion to S.I. Unit
Prefixes
Chapter One: Algebra

Basic Law of Natural Numbers

Let a, b, and c be any number.

1. Law of Closure for Addition

a+b

2. Commutative Law for Addition

a+b = b+a

3. Associative Law for Addition

a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c

4. Law of Closure for Multiplication

ab

5. Commutative Law for Multiplication

ab = ba

6. Associative Law of Multiplication

a ( bc ) = ( ab ) c

7. Distributive Law
a ( b + c ) = ab + ac
Basic Laws of Equality

1. Reflexive Property
a = a

2. Symmetric Property
If a = b, then b = a

3. Transitive Property
If a = b and b = c, then a = c. That is, things
equal to the same thing are equal to each
other.

4. If a = b and c = d, then a + c = b + d.
That is, if equals are added to the equals, the
results are equal.

5. If a = b and c = d, then ac = bd. That is,

if equals are multiplied to the equals, the
results are equal.

Inequality

A statement that one quantity is greater than or less

than another quantity.

Symbols used in inequality:

 a is greater than b
a > b
a is less than b
a < b
a is less than or equal to b
a b
a is greater than or equal to b
a b

Theorems of Inequalities

1. a > b if and only if -a < -b

2. If a > 0 , then -a < 0
3. If -a < 0 , then a < 0
4. If a > b , c < 0 , then ac < bc
5. If a > b ,c > d , then ( a + c ) > ( b + d )
6. If a > b , c > d , and a, b, c, d > 0, then
ac > bd
1 1
7. If a > 0 , b > 0, a > b, then <
a b

Other Important Properties in Algebra

1. a 0=0
2. If a b = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0 or both
a and b are zero.
0
3. = 0 if a = 0
a
a
4. = undefined
0
a
5. =0

Laws of Exponents (Index Law)

1. an = a a a (n factors)
2. am an = am + n
am
3. = am - n
an
n
4. ( am ) = a m n
5. ( abc )n = an bn cn
a n an
6. ( ) =
b bn
m
n
7. an = am
1 1
8. a-m = and am =
am a-m
9. a0 = 1
10. If am = an , then m = n provided a 0

Properties of Radicals

1
n
1. an = a
m m
= am = a
n n
2. a n
n
a = a
n
3.
n n
a b = ab
n
4.
n
a n a
5. n = , provided that b 0
b b
Properties of Logarithms

1. loga MN = loga M + loga N

M
2. loga = loga M - loga N
N
3. loga Mn = n loga M
4. loga a = 1
5. loga ax = x loga a = x
6. loga 1 = 0
7. If loga M = N, then aN = M
8. If loga M = loga N , then M = N
9. loge M = ln M
e = 2.71828 ( Naperian ) logarithm
10. logm 10 = log 10 (Common) logarithm
11. logn M = log M / log n = ln M / ln n
12. If logb x = a , then x = anti logb a
13. ax = anti loga x
14. log10 4250 = log10 ( 1000 4.25 )
= log 1000 + log 4.25
log10 4250 = 3 + 0.6284 = 3.6284
3, the integral part, is called the
characteristic.
0.6284, a non-negative decimal fraction
part, is called the mantissa.
Polynomials

Expanding Brackets

By multiplying the brackets together, each term in one

bracket is multiplied to each term of the other bracket.

( a + b + c )( d + e ) = ad + ae + bd + be + cd + ce

Factorization

Factorization is the opposite process of expanding

brackets. The usual process incudes a changing a long
expression without any brackets to a shorter
expression that includes brackets.

2x2 - 6x + 4 = 2 x2 + 3x + 2
= 2(x-2)( x -1)

Special Products and Factoring

1. ( x + y )( x - y ) = x2 - y2
2. ( x + y )2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
3. ( x - y )2 = x2 - 2xy + y2
4. ( x + y + z )2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2xz + 2yz
5. x3 + y3 = ( x + y ) x2 - xy + y2
6. x3 - y3 = ( x - y ) x2 + xy + y2
 3 3 2
7. x6 - y6 = x2 - y2 = ( x2 - y2 ) [ x2 +
2
x2 ) ( y2 + y2 ] = ( x + y ) ( x - y ) ( x4 +
x2 y2 + y4 )

Division of Polynomials

Carrying out the division of polynomials in so different,

in principle, to numerical division. Consider the
following example.

Example 1-1
Divide x4 - 10x2 - 9x - 20 by x 4

Solution A: (By long division)

x3 + 4x2 + 6x + 15 remainder 40

x-4 x4 - 10x2 - 9x - 20 1. x4 x = x3
x4 - 4x3

4x3 - 10x2 2. 4x3 x = 4x2

4x3 - 16x2

6x2 - 9x 3. 6x2 x = 6x
6x2 - 24x

15x - 20 4. 15x x = 15
 -15x - 60

Remainder 40

Solution B: (By Synthetic Division)

Write the coefficients of the terms, supplying zero as
the coefficient of the missing power of x.

1 0 -10 -9 -20 4
4 16 24 60

1 4 6 15 40

The quotient is x3 + 4x2 + 6x + 15 remainder 40.

Factor Theorem

Consider a function f(x). If f(1) = 0 then ( x - 1) is a

factor of f(x). If f(-3) = 0 then ( x + 3) is a factor of f(x).
Use of factor theorem can produce the factors of a
expression in a trial and error manner.

Example:
Factorize 2x3 + 5x2 - x - 6
Solution:

f(x) = 2x3 + 5x2 - x - 6

f(1) = 2(1)3 + 5(1)2 - (1) - 6 = 0,
hence (x-1) is a factor
f(-1) = 2(-1)3 + 5(-1)2 - (-1) - 6 = -2,
hence (x+1) is not a factor
f(2) = 2(2)3 + 5(2)2 - (2) - 6 = 28,
hence (x-2) is not a factor
f(-2) = 2(-2)3 + 5(-2)2 - (-2) - 6 = 0,
hence (x+2) is a factor
f(-3/2) = 2(-3/2)3 + 5(-3/2)2 - (-3/2) - 6 = 0,
hence (2x+3) is a factor

Thus, 2x3 + 5x2 - x - 6 = (x-1) (x+2) (2x+3)

Remainder Theorem

If a polynomial f (x) is divided by (x - r) until a

remainder which is free of x is obtained, the remainder
is f(r). If f(r) = 0, then (x - r) is a factor of f(x).

Example 1-2
Find the remainder when x4 - 10x2 - 9x - 20 is divided
by (x - 4).

Solution:
f(x) = x4 - 10x2 - 9x - 20
x-r = x-4,r = 4
Remainder = f(4) = (4)4 - 10(4)2 - 9(4) - 20 = 40

Example 1-3
Find k such that x-3 is a factor of kx3 - 6x2 + 2kx - 12.

Solution:
Remainder = f(3) =k(3)3 - 6(3)2 + 2k(3) - 12 = 0
k=2

Binomial Theorem, Expansion of (a+b)n

Properties:
1. The number of terms in the expansion n + 1.
2. The first term is an and the last term is bn ,
3. The exponent of a descends linearly from n
to 0,
4. The exponent from b ascends linearly from
0 to n,
5. The sum of the exponents of a and b in any
of the terms is equal to n,
6. The coefficient of the second term and
second from the last term is n,

Pascals Triangle

(Used to determine the coefficients of the terms in a

binomial expansion)
 (a + b)0 1
(a + b)1 1 1
(a + b)2 1 2 1
(a + b)3 1 3 1 3
(a + b)4 1 4 6 4 1
(a + b)5 1 5 10 10 5 1

rth term of ( a + b )n

n!
rth term= an - r+1 br+1
( n - r + 1 ) ! ( r - 1)!

To get the middle term set

n
r = + 1
2

Example 1-4
5
Find the 3rd term in the expansion of x2 + y .

Solution 1:
(Using the properties and Pascals Triangle)

5 5 4 3
x2 + y = ( x2 ) + 5 x2 y + 10 x2 y2
 = x10 + 5x8 y + 10x6 y2

Solution 2: (Using the Formula)

n!
rth term = an - r + 1 b r - 1
(n-r+1)!(r-1)!
r = 3, a = x2, n = 5, b = y

5! 5-3+1 3-1
3rd term = (x2 ) y
(5-3+1)!(3-1)!
6 2
=10x y

To expand completely a given binomial, one may use

the following procedure:

Example 1-5
Expand (x + y)8

Solution:
By principle, the first term is x8, the second term is
8x y. The variable part of the third term is x6y2. To get
7

the coefficient:

(Coefficient of previous term)(exponent of x)

C=
(exponent of y)+1
 (8) (7)
C3 = = 28
1+1
rd
3 term = 28 x6 y2
(28) (6) 6 2
4th term = x y = 56x3 y3
2+1
(56) (5) 4 4
5th term = x y = 70x3 y3
3+1

(x + y)8 = x8 + 8x7 y + 28x6 y2 + 56x5 y3 + 70x4 y4

+ 56x3 y5 + 28x2 y6 + 8xy7 + y8

Sum of Coefficient of Variables

To get the sum of the coefficients in the expansion of

(ax+by+ )n , substitute 1 to each of the variables x,
y

Example 1-6
Find the sum of the coefficient of the variables in the
expansion of (2x + 3y - z)8.

Solution:
Sum = [ (2)(1) + (3)(1) - 1 ]8 = 48 = 65536
Proportion

Proportion is a statement of equality between two

ratios.

a c
a : b = c : d or =
b d

where:
b and c are called the means
a and d are called the extremes
d is the fourth proportional to a, b and c

In the ratio a / b, a is called the antecedent and b is

called the consequent

The mean proportional to a and b is

Mean Proportional = ab

Properties of Proportion:

1. Proportion by Inversion
a c b d
If = then =
b d a c

2. Proportion by Alteration
 a c a b
If = then =
b d c d

3. Proportion by Composition
a c a+b c+d
If = then =
b d b d

4. Proportion by Division
a c a-b c-d
If = then =
b d b d

5. Proportion by Composition and Division

a c a+b c+d
If = then =
b d a-b c-d

Quadratic Formula

For the quadratic equation Ax2 + Bx + C = 0

- B B2 - 4AC
x=
2A

Where B2 4AC is called the discriminant

If B2 = 4AC, the roots are equal
If B2 > 4AC, the roots are real, unequal
If B2 < 4AC, the roots are imaginary
Properties of Roots

If the roots of the quadratic equation Ax2 + Bx + C = 0

are x1 and x2, then,

B
Sum of the roots, x1 + x2 = -
A
C
Product of the roots, x1 x2 =
A

Partial Fraction

Functions of x that can be expressed in the form

P(x) Q(x), where both P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials
of x, is known as rational functions.
A rational function is known as a proper fraction if the
degree of P(x) is less than the degree of Q(x).

2x2 + 4x - 5
Proper Fraction:
5X3 + 6x2 - 2x - 1

A rational function is said to be an improper fraction

if the degree of P(x) is greater than or equal to the
degree of Q(x).

3x2 - 2x + 1 4x2 - 2x + 3
Improper Fraction: ;
2x2 + 6 3x + 2
Improper fractions may be expressed as the sum of a
polynomial and a proper fraction.

12x2 - 13x - 9 5
For example, = 3x + 2 +
4x - 7 4x - 7

x-4
Proper fractions such as can be expressed as
2x2 - 4x
the sum of partial fraction, provided that the
denominator will factorize.

Consider the following example:

2 3 2 (2x - 4) - 3x x-8
- = =
x 2x - 4 x (2x - 4) x (2x - 4)

If we reverse the process,

x-8 2 3
= -
x (2x - 4) x 2x - 4
x-8
Thus, the fraction can be expressed or
x (2x - 4)
2 3
resolved into partial fractions - .
x 2x - 4

The following are the different cases of fractions that

can be resolved into partial fraction.

Case I. Factors of the denominator all linear, none

repeated.
 3x2 + 32x - 51 A B C
= + +
(x - 1) (x - 2) (x + 3) x - 1 x - 2 x + 3
3x2 + 32x - 51 = A(x - 2) (x + 3) + B (x - 1) (x + 3) +
C (x - 1) (x - 2)

This equation is an identity, hence it is true for any

value of x.
To solve for A, set x = 1, A = 4
To solve for B, set x = 2, A = 5
To solve for C, set x = -3, A = -6

Case II. Factors of the denominator all linear, some

repeated.

4x2 + 7x + 8 A B C D
3
= + + 2
+ 3
x (x + 2) x x + 2 (x + 2) (x + 2)
3 2
4x + 7x + 8 = A (x + 2) + Bx (x + 2) +
2

Cx (x + 2) + Dx

Expand and equate the coefficients of like powers to

solve for A, B, C and D.

Case III. Some factors of the denominator are

quadratic, none repeated.

x4 - x3 + 14x2 - 2x + 22 A Bx + C Dx + E
= + 2 + 2
(x + 1)(x2 + 4)(x2 - 2x + 5) x+1 x +4 x - 2x + 5
 x4 - x3 + 14x2 - 2x + 22 =
A(x2 + 4)(x2 - 2x + 5) + (Bx + C)(x + 1)(x2 - 2x + 5)
+ (Dx + E)(x + 1)(x2 + 4)

Expand and equate the coefficients of like powers to

solve for A, B, C, D and E.

Case IV. Some factors of the denominator quadratic

some repeated.

3x4 - 19x3 + 60x2 - 91x + 64

=
x (x2 - 3x + 4)2
A Bx + C Dx + E
+ 2 +
x (x - 3x + 4) (x2 - 3x + 4)2

3x4 - 19x3 + 60x2 - 91x + 64 =

A (x2 - 3x + 4)2 + (Bx + C)(x)(x2 - 3x + 4) + (Dx + E)(x)

Expand and equate the coefficients of like powers to

solve for A, B, C, D and E.

Partial fractions are often used to help simplify a

separate problem such as one involving integration.

4x + 1 1 2
dx = dx + dx
2x2 + 5x - 3 2x - 1 x+3
Variation

Direct Variation
x is directly proportional to y:
x y or x = ky
k = constant of proportionality

Inverse Variation
x is inversely proportional to y:
1 k
x or x =
y y

Joint Variation
x is directly proportional to y and inversely
proportional to the square of z:
y ky
x or x =
z2 z2

Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)

A sequence of numbers in which the difference of any

two adjacent terms is constant.

Ex. 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, (common difference = 3)

Elements:
a1 = first term
an = nth term
am = any term before an
d = common difference
 d = a2 - a1 = a3 - a2
s = sum of all terms

nth term of an A.P.

an = a1 + (n - 1) d or an = am + (n - m) d

Sum of n terms of an A.P.

n n
S= (a + an ) or S = [ 2a1 + (n - 1)d ]
2 1 2

Geometric Progression, G.P.

A sequence of numbers in which any two adjacent

terms has a common ratio.

Ex. 2, 6, 18, 54, . (common ratio, r = 3)

nth term of a G.P.

an = a1 rn-1 or an = am rn-m
a2 a5
Common ratio, r = =
a1 a4
Sum of n terms of a G.P.

a1 (rn - 1)
S= , when r >1
r-1

a1 (1 - rn )
S= , when r < 1
1-r

Sum of an Infinite Geometric Progression, I.G.P.

For a geometric progression of 0 < r < 1 and n =

infinity

Harmonic Progression

A sequence of numbers in which their reciprocals

forms an Arithmetic Progression.

Example 1-8
Find the 12th term of the series 6, 3, 2.

Solution
The reciprocals are 1/6, 1/3, which forms an A.P.
with a common difference d of 1/6.

In A.P., the 12th term is:

 a1
Sum of an IGP =
1-r
a12 = 16 + (12 - 1) (16) = 2
Therefore, in H.P. the 12th term is .

Work Problem

1
Rate=
Time to finish the work

Work done=Rate Time

Example 1-9

If A can do a job of 4 hours and B can do the same job

in 8 hours, working together from start (a) what part of
the job have they done in 2 hrs? (b) how many hours
can they finish the job?

Solution:
Rate of A =
Rate of B = 1/8
Work done in 2 hours =
( 14)(2) + ( 18)(2) = 34
This means or 75% of the work was done.

Time to finish the job:

 1 t + 1 t = 1 complete job
4 8
t = 2.667 hours

Work Problem with n Persons with the Same Rate

Doing the Job

Principle:
If 8 persons can do a job in 6 days, the
number of man-days to finish the job is (8)(6)
= 48 man-days
Thus, if 12 persons will do the job, it will take
them 48/12 = 4 days to finish it.

Example 1-10
A job could be done by eleven workers in 15 days. Five
workers started the job. They were reinforced with four
more workers at the beginning of the 6th day. Find the
total number of days to finish the job.

Solution

Let t = number of days the four workers has to work

with five workers to finish the job.
Number of man-days to finish the job:
(11)(15)=165 man-days
Five workers started the job for 5 days and (5 + 4)
workers continued the job at the beginning of the 6th
day for t days until completion.

(5)(5) + (5 + 4)t = 165 ; t = 15.56 days

Total number of days = 15.56 + 5 = 20.56 days

Principles in Age Problem

The difference of the ages of two persons is constant.

If x is the age of Peter now:
His age 5 years ago is x 5
His age 7 years hence is x + 7

Principles in Digit Problem

For a three-digit number:

Let: h = hundreds digit
t = tens digit
u = units digit
The number is 100h + 10t + u
The reverse number is: 100u + 10t + h
The sum of the digits is h + t + u

Principles in Number Problem

Let x be the first number and y be the second number

First number is twice the other: x = 2y
First number is five (5) more than thrice of the other:
 x = 5 + 3y
First number is six (6) times less than one-half of the
y
other: x = 2 - 6
The sum of their squares: x2 + y2
The cube of their difference: (x - y)3

Clock Problem

If the minute hand moves a distance of x, the hour hand

moves x/12.

If the second hand moves a distance of x, the minute

hand moves x/60 and the hour hand moves x/720.

Example 1-11
How many minutes after 2 oclock will the hands of the
clock be perpendicular for the first time?
Solution:

x = 10 + x12 + 15
x = 27.273 min.
Mixture Problem

Example 1-12
How many grams of gold must be added with 500
grams of an alloy containing 30% gold and 70% silver
in order to produce another alloy analyzing 40% gold
and 60% silver?

Solution
Represent the different mixtures by boxes

500 x 500 + x

30% G 40% G
70% S 100% G 60% S

(500)(30%) + x(100%) = (500 + x)(40%)

1500 + 10x = 2000 + 4x
x = 83.33 grams

Motion Problem

Uniform Motion or Constant Speed

 S = vt

Where: S= distance, v = velocity, t = time

If x = speed of airplane (or boat) in still air (or still water)

and y = speed of wind (or water current) in the same
direction then the speed of the airplane (or boat) with
the wind (or current) is x + y and its speed against the
wind (or current) is x y.
Permutation

Permutation refers to the arrangement of objects in a

definite order.

The permutation of n different things taken r at a time

is:

n!
P(n , r) =
(n - r) !

and P(n , n) = n !

Note: 0! = 1

Example 1-13
How many permutations can be made out of the letters
on the word DIEGO taken 3 at a time?

Solution:
n=5,r=3
5!
P(5 , 3) = (5 - 3)!
= 60 ways

The permutation of n things of which q are alike, r are

alike and so on is:

n!
P=
q! r!
Example 1-14
How many permutations can be made out of the letters
in the word ENGINEERING?

Solution:

n = 11 ; (3 E's, 3 N's, 2 I's, 2 G's )

11!
P= = 277, 200 ways
3! 3! 2! 2!

Permutation of n things in a Circle

P = (n - 1) !

Combination

Combination refers to a collection of objects without

regard to sequence or order of agreement.

Combination of n things taken r at a time:

P(n , r) n!
C(n , r) = =
r! (n - r)! r !

and C(n , n) = 1
Example 1-15
How many ways can you draw 3 Queens and 2 Kings
from a deck of 52 cards?

Solution:
A deck of 52 cards has 4 Queens and 4 Kings, thus
C = C (4,3) C (4,2) = 24 ways

Combination of n things taken 1, 2, 3, , n at a time

C = 2n - 1

Example 1-16
How many ways can you invite any one or more of your
five friends to your birthday party?

Solution: C= 25 -1=31 ways

Probability

Single Event

number of favorable ways

Probability =
total number of ways

If an event can happen in h ways can fail in f ways,

then the probability that the event will happen is:
 h
p=
h+f

And the probability of the event will fail is:

f
q=
h+f

And

p+q=1

Example 1-17
For a single question in the board exams, there are
four choices and only one of which is correct. By
guessing, what is the probability that you will get the
correct answer?

Solution:
The event here is to get the correct answer and there
are four trials. Out of four trials, the event (correct
answer) can happen only once, and can fail 3 times.
Thus, the probability that the event will happen is
1 1
p= =
1+3 4
Multiple Events

Dependent and Independent Events

Two or more events are said to be dependent if the

happening of one affects the probability of the
happening of the others, and independent if the
happening of one does not affect the probability of the
happening of the others.

The probability of happening of two or more

independent or dependent events is the product of
their individual probabilities.

P = P1 P2 P3

Mutually Exclusive Events

Two or more events are said to be Mutually Exclusive

if it is impossible for more than one of them to happen
in a single trial. The probability that some one, two or
more mutually exclusive events to happen is the sum
of their individual probabilities.

P = P1 + P2 + P3 +
Example 1-18
A box contains 4 blue chips and 5 red chips.
a. If one chip is drawn at random, what is the
probability that it is blue?
b. If two chips are drawn at random, what is the
probability that both are red?
c. If two chips are drawn at random, what is the
probability that one is blue and the other is
red?
Solution:
a. Single Event. There are four blue chips out
of nine chips. P = 4/9
b. Multiple Events. The events (getting red) are
to occur twice.
First draw red: There are five red chips out
of nine chips. P1 = 5/9
Second draw red: There are now only four
red chips out of eight chips. P2 = 4/8 or
Thus P = P1 P2 = (59)(12) = 15/18.
c. Mutually Exclusive. The event here is to get
a red and a blue ball in two draws. This can
happen in two ways (first draw red and
second draw blue) and another is (first draw
blue and second draw red), but these two
cannot happen in the same time, hence they
are mutually exclusive events.
First draw Red, Second draw Blue
5 4 5
P1 = =
9 8 18
First draw Blue, Second draw Red
4 5 5
P2 = =
9 8 18
5 5 10
Thus, P = P1 + P2 = + =
18 18 18

Repeated Trials

The probability that an event can occur exactly r times

in n trials is:

P(n, r) = C (n, r) pr qn-r

Where p is the probability that the event can happen

and q is the probability that the event will fail.

Example 1-29
There are ten questions in an examination. The
probability that an examinee will get the correct
answers is 0.25. What is the probability that he will get
(a) exactly 7, and (b) at least 7 correct answers?

Solution
a.) There are 10 questions, n = 10 with p = 0.25 and q
= 0.75.
The probability of getting exactly 7 is
P(10,7) = C (10, 7) 0.257 0.7510 - 7
= 0.00309 or 405/131072
 b.) At least seven means can be exactly
7, 8, 9, or 10.
Pat least 7 = P(10,7) + P(10,8) + P(10,9) + P(10,10)
Pat least 7 = C (10, 7) 0.257 0.7510 - 7 + C
(10, 8) 0.258 0.7510 - 8 +C (10, 9) 0.259
0.7510 - 9 +C (10, 10) 0.2510 0.7510 - 10 =0.00351

The At Least One Condition

The probability that the event can happen at least

once in a trial is:

P=1-Q

Where Q is the probability that the event will totally fail.

Example 1-20
The probability of getting a credit in each of the three
examinations is 0.65. What is the probability of getting
at least one credit?

Solution:
There are three trials (n=3) with p = 0.65 and q = 0.35.
Thus, the probability of getting no credit at all is Q =
(0.35)(0.35)(0.35) = 0.042875. Thus,

P = 1 - Q = 0.957125
Matrices and Determinants

Matrix

A matrix is a rectangular collection of variables or

scalars contained within a set of square [ ] or round ()
brackets. A matrix consist of m rows and n columns.

Classification of Matrices

Square Matrix a matrix whose number of rows m is

equal to the number of columns n.

Diagonal Matrix a diagonal matrix is a square matrix

with all zero values except for aij value for all i = j.
2 0 0
0 3 0
0 0 1

Identity Matrix an identity matrix is a diagonal matrix

with all non-zero entries equal to 1.
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

Scalar Matrix a scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix

with all non-zero entries equal to some other constant.
8 0 0
0 8 0
0 0 8
Triangular Matrix A triangular matrix has zeros in all
positions above or below the diagonal.

Important Algebraic Operations in Matrices

1. Equality of Matrices
Two matrices are equal if they have the same
number of rows and columns and their
corresponding entries are also equal.

2. Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

Addition (or subtraction) of matrices can be
accomplished by adding (or subtracting) the
corresponding entries of two matrices which
have the same shape.

Example 1-21
Add
1 4 1 3 0 2
7 1 6 + 2 5 6
-3 0 4 9 1 1

1+3 4+0 1+2 4 4 3

= 7+2 1+5 6+6 = 9 6 12
-3+9 0+1 4+1 6 1 5

3. Multiplication of Matrices
Multiplication of matrix can be done only if the
number of columns of the left-hand matrix is
 equal to the number of rows of the right-hand
matrix. Multiplication is accomplished by
multiplying the elements in each right-hand
matrix column, adding the products, and then
placing the sum at the intersection point of the
involved row and column.

Example 1-22
2 (2)(2)+(1)(4)+(5)(1)
2 1 5 13
4 = =
1 4 7 (1)(2)+(4)(4)+(7)(1) 25
1

4. Division of Matrices
Division of matrices can be accomplished only
by multiplying the inverse of the denominator
matrix.

Other Operations on a Matrix

1. The Transpose of a Matrix

The transpose is an (n x m) matrix formed

from the original (m x n) matrix by taking the
ith row and and making it the ith column. The
diagonal is unchanged in this operation. The
transpose of a matrix is indicated as A.

Example 1-23:
Determine the transpose of A
 1 6 9 1 2 7
'
A = 2 3 4 ; Hence A = 6 3 1
7 1 5 9 4 5

2. The Determinant of a Matrix

The determinant D, is a scalar calculated

from a square matrix. The determinant of a
matrix is indicated by enclosing the matrix by
vertical lines.

Properties of Determinants

A. If a matrix has a row or column of zeros, the

determinant is zero.

1 4 0
4 5 0 =0
1 7 0

B. If a matrix has two identical rows or columns,

the determinant is zero.

1 2 5
4 6 1 = 0
1 2 5

C. If a matrix is triangular, the determinant is

equal to the product of the diagonal entries.
 2 0 0
0 3 0 = (2)(3)(5) = 30
0 0 5

D. The value of the determinant is not changed

if corresponding rows and columns are
interchanged.

1 4 6 1 2 1
2 5 2 = 4 5 7
1 7 9 6 2 9

E. If each of a column or row of a determinant

is multiplied by m, the value of the
determinant is multiplied by m.

1 4 5 1 22 5 1 2 5
4 6 1 = 4 32 1 = 2 4 3 1
2 8 4 2 42 4 2 4 4

By properties defined in B and E, the

following can be applied:

1 4 2
5 1 10 =0
3 6 6

(since the elements of column 1 and 3 are

exact multiples)
F. If two columns or rows of a determinant are
interchanged, the sign is changed.

2 1 6 2 6 1
5 4 7 = - 5 7 4
1 3 9 1 9 3

G. The value of a determinant is not changed if

each element of a column (or row) is
multiplied by a number k and added (or
subtracted) in the corresponding elements
of a column (or row).

1 4 5 1 4 5 + (1)(3) 1 4 8
4 6 1 = 4 6 1 + (4)(3) = 4 6 13
2 8 4 2 8 4 + (2)(3) 2 8 10

H. If each element of the column (say the kth

column) of a matrix is expressed as the sum
of two terms, the determinant is equal to the
sum of the two determinants, where (a) the
elements of each of the two determinants
are identical to the corresponding elements
of a given determinant except for the
elements of the kth column, and (b) the first
term of the kth column of the given
determinant form the kth column of one of
the two determinants and the second term
form the kth column of the other determinant.
 4 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2
6 2 3 = 5 2 3 = 1 2 3
2 5 1 1 5 1 1 5 1

Example 1-24
Solve for x: (2nd order)
4 5
x= = (4)(3) - (2)(5) = 2
2 3

3. The Cofactor of any Entry in a Matrix

The cofactor of an entry in a matrix is the

determinant of the matrix formed by omitting
the entrys row and column in the original
matrix. The sign of the cofactor is
determined from the following positional
matrices.
+ - +
- + -
+ - +

Or, the sign of the cofactor can be

determined by the relation (-1)i+j , where i is
the column number and j is the row number.

Example 1-25
Find the cofactor of -2 in the following matrix.
 2 7 3
-2 5 6
3 4 7

Solution:
-2 is at column 1 row 2. The resulting matrix
is
(-1)1 + 2 7 3
4 7
The cofactor is:
7 3
-1 = - [ (7)(7) - (4)(3) ] = - 37
4 7

4. The Classical Adjoint

The classical adjoint is a matrix formed from

the transposed cofactor matrix with the
conventional sign arrangement. The
resulting matrix is represented as Aadj.

Example 1-26
Determine the classical adjoint of
2 3 -4
0 -4 2
1 1 5

Solution:
After Solving the cofactors of each entry, the
matrix of the cofactors is
 -18 2 4
-11 14 5
-10 -4 -8

The classical adjoint is

-18 -11 -10
Aadj = 2 14 -4
4 5 -8

5. The Inverse Matrix

The inverse, A-1 of a matrix A is a matrix such

that (A)(A-1) = I where I is a square matrix
with ones along the left-to-right diagonal and
zeros elsewhere.

Example 1-27
4 5
Determine the inverse of .
2 3
Solution:
The determinant is
4 5 (4)(3) (5)(2)
D= = - =2
2 3
The inverse is
1 3 -5 32 -52
=
2 -2 4 -1 2
Solution to System of Linear Equations using
Determinants (Cramers Rule)

For a system of linear equations,

Nx Ny
x= ;y=
D D

Where:
D = determinant of the coefficient of the variables
Nx = determinant taken from D replacing the
coefficients of x by their corresponding constant terms
leaving all other terms unchanged.
Ny = determinant taken from D replacing the
coefficients of y by their corresponding constant terms
leaving all other terms unchanged.

Example 1-28
Solve for x, y, and w in the following equations:
3x - 2y + w = 11
x + 5y - 2w = - 9
2x + y - 3w = - 6
Solution:
3 -2 1 3 -2
D = 1 5 -2 1 5 = - 46
2 1 -3 2 1
 11 -2 1 11 -2
Nx = -9 5 -2 -9 5 = - 92
-6 1 -3 -6 1

3 11 1 3 11
Ny = 1 -9 -2 1 -9 = 46
2 -6 -3 2 -6

3 -2 11 3 -2
Nw = 1 5 -9 1 5 = - 138
2 1 -6 2 1

Nx - 92
x= = =2
D - 46

Ny 46
y= = =-1
D - 46

Nx - 138
x= = =3
D - 46

Complex Numbers

Algebraic or Rectangular Form

a + bi

Where a = real part, b= imaginary part, i =

-1 and i2 = -1
Example 1-29
3
1. i7 = i6 i = i2 i = ( - 1 ) 3 i = - i
122
2. i245 = i244 i = i2 i = ( -1 )122 i = i

Addition or Subtraction

Addition or subtraction of complex numbers is obtained

by combining similar terms and applying i2 = -1

Example 1-30
Simplify i30 - 2i25 + 3i17
Solution:
15 12 8
=i2 - 2 i2 i + 3 i2 i
=(-1)15 - (2) (-1)12 i + (3) (-1)8 i
=-1 - 2i + 3i = -1 + i

Multiplication of Complex Numbers

Multiplication of complex numbers is similar to

multiplication of polynomials.

Example 1-31
(3 + 2i) (4 - 3i) = 12 - 9i + 8i - 6 = 18 i
Conjugate of a Complex Number

The conjugate of a complex number is obtained by

changing the sign of the imaginary part.

Number Conjugate
2 + 3i 2 - 3i
3 - 5i 3 + 5i
- 5 + 2i - 5 - 2i

The product of a complex number and its conjugate is

always a real number.

Example 1-32
(2 + 3i)(2 - 3i) = 4 - 9i2 = 4 - 9 ( - 1) = 13

Division of Complex Numbers

Division of a complex number is obtained by

multiplying the numerator and denominator by the
conjugate of the denominator.

Example 1-33
3 + 4i 2 + i 6 + 3i + 8i + 4i2
=
2-i 2+i 2- i2

6 + 11i - 4 2 + 11i 2 11
= = = + i
4 - ( - 1) 5 5 5
Complex Equation

Two complex numbers are equal if their real parts are

equal and their imaginary parts are equal.

(a + bi) is equal to (c + di) if a = c and b = d

Example 1-34
Solve for x and y if 3x - 2yi = 6 + 8i
Solution:
3x = 6 , - 2y = 8 ; Hence x = 2 and y = - 4

Polar Form or Trigonometric Form

The polar form of a complex number is used to find the

roots of a complex number.

Argand Diagram (Complex Plane) :

a
a + bi
Imaginary axis, b

r b

Real Axis, a
In the Argand chart shown:

r = absolute value or modulus

= argument or amplitude
a = r cos
b = r sin

r = a2 + b2
b
tan =
a

a + bi = r cos + r sin i

a + bi = r (cos + sin i) = r cis

a + bi = r

Multiplication

r1 1 r2 2 = r1 r2 (1 + 2 )

Example 1-35:
5 30 6 45 = 30 75

Division
r1 1 r1
= (1 2
r2 2 r2
Example 1-36:
45 67
=3 50
15 17

De Moivres Theorem

[r ]n = rn n

True for all values of n.

Example 1-37:
[5 15]3 = 53 (3)(15) = 125 45

To obtain the mth root of a complex number there

are m solutions. The modulus r is always the same
and the argument are symmetrically spaced at
(360/m) apart, where m is the number of root
required.

Example 1-38
Find 5 + 12i

Solution
There are two roots, each are 360/2 = 180 apart.

First convert 5+12i to polar form. (a=5, b=12i)

r = 52 + 122 = 13
 12
tan , = 67.38
5
Thus, 5 + 12i = [13 67.38]1/2
=131/2 (1/2)(67.38)
= 3.61 33.69 and 3.61 213.69

Change to rectangular form:

3.61 33.69 = 3.61 ( cos 33.69 + i sin 33.69) = 3 + 2i
3.61 213.69 = 3.61 ( cos 213.69 + i sin 213.69)
= -3 - 2i

Thus, the roots are (3 + 2i) and (-3 - 2i).

Exponential Form

The exponential form of a complex number is used

when finding the logarithms of a complex number.

a + bi = r ( cos + i sin )
ei = r ( cos + i sin )
e-i = cos - i sin

a + bi = rei

Example 1-39
Find ln (3 + 4i)

Solution:
Convert 3 + 4i to polar form (a = 3, b = 4)
r= 32 + 42 = 5, tan = 4/3, = 53.13 = .9273 rad

3 + 4i = 5 53.13 = 5e0.9273i
ln (3 + 4i) = ln 5e0.9273i = ln 5 + ln e0.9273i
ln(3 + 4i) = 1.609 + 0.9273i

Venn Diagram

Example 1-40
An engineering professor conducted a survey
regarding the favorite subjects of the students. The
following data were gathered: 60 students like the
subject algebra, 50 like the subject calculus, and 45
likes the subject physics. Thirty students like both
algebra and calculus subjects, 25 students like both
calculus and physics subjects, and 20 students like
both algebra and physics subjects. Only 15
students like all the three subjects. How many
students were surveyed?
 Algebra 30
Calculus
60 50
1
25 10
15
5 10
20 25
15

Physics
45
Solution:
The diagram shows the following information:
25 like the subject algebra only
15 like the subject calculus only
10 like the subject physics only
15 like the subject algebra and calculus
subjects
10 like the subject calculus and physics
subjects
5 like the subject algebra and physics
subjects
15 likes all three subjects

Thus, the total number of students surveyed is:

25 + 15 + 10 + 15 + 10 + 5 + 15 = 95 students
No. of students surveyed = 95
Chapter Two Plane and Spherical
Trigonometry

Plane Trigonometry

Functions of a Right Triangle

c
a

From the right triangle shown (soh-cah-toa)

opposite side o
sin = = (soh)
hypotenuse h
adjacent side a
cos = = (cah)
hypotenuse h
opposite side o
tan = = (toa)
adjacent side a
adjacent side a
cot = = (tao)
opposite side o
hypotenuse h
sec = = (cha)
adjacent side a
hypotenuse h
csc = = (sho)
opposite side o
Pythagorean Theorem

In any right triangle, the square of the largest side

(hypotenuse) equals to the sum of the squares of
other two sides.

From the triangle shown below:

c 2 = a2 + b2

Trigonometric Identities

Identity is a type of equation which is satisfied with

any value of the variable or variables. Equations
that are satisfied by some value or values of the
variable are called conditional equation.

Consider the following equations:

x2 - 4 = 0 Conditional
equation
True only for
x = 2

(x + 2)2 = x2 + 4x + 4... Identity

sin = 0.5... Conditional

equation
 True only if
= 30, 150

sin2 + cos2 = 1. Identity

Basic Identities

c
a

From the triangle shown:

a ac sin
tan = = =
b bc cos
b bc cos
cot = = =
a ac sin
c c c 1
sec = = =
b bc cos
c c c 1
csc = = =
a ac sin
Pythagorean Relations

From the Pythagorean Theorem:

a2 + b2 = c2

Dividing both sides by c2:

a2 b2 c2 a 2 b 2
2
+ 2 = 2 or + = 1
c c c c c
Then;

sin2 + cos2 = 1

Dividing a2 + b2 = c2 by b2, we get,

tan2 + 1 = sec2

Dividing a2 + b2 = c2 by a2, we get,

1 + cot2 = csc2
Sum and Difference of Two Angles

sin ( x + y ) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

sin ( x - y ) = sin x cos y - cos x sin y

cos ( x + y ) = cos x cos y - sin x sin y

cos ( x - y ) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y

tan x + tan y
tan ( x + y )=
1 - tan x tan y

tan x - tan y
tan ( x - y )=
1 + tan x tan y

Double Angle Formulas:

Double angle formulas can be derived using the

sum of the angle formulas.

Consider the following sample:

sin 2x = sin ( x + x ) = sin x cos x + cos x sin x

Thus,

sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x

We can apply similar procedure to the rest of the

formulas:

cos 2x = cos2 x - sin2 x

= 1 - 2 sin2 x
= 2 cos2 x - 1
2 tan x
tan 2x =
1 - 2 tan2 x

Half-Angle Formulas

x 1 - cos x
sin =
2 2

x 1 + cos x
cos =
2 2
x 1 - cos x sin x
tan = =
2 sin x 1 + cos x
1 - cos x
=
1 + cos x
Powers of Functions

1 - cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
sin2 x = ; cos2 x =
2 2
1 - cos 2x
tan2 x=
1 + cos 2x

Product of Functions

1
sin x cos y = [ sin(x + y) + sin (x - y)]
2
1
sin x sin y = [ cos(x - y) - cos (x + y)]
2
1
cos x cos y = [ cos(x + y) - cos (x - y)]
2
Sum and Difference of Functions (Factoring
Formulas)

x+y x-y
sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2
x+y x-y
sin x - sin y = 2 cos sin
2 2
x+y x-y
cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos
2 2
x+y x-y
cos x - cos y = -2 sin cos
2 2
sin ( x + y )
tan x + tan y =
cos x cos y
sin ( x - y )
tan x - tan y =
cos x cos y

Oblique Triangles

An oblique triangle is any triangle that is not a right

triangle. It could be an acute triangle (all three
angles of the triangle are less than the right angles)
or it could be an obtuse triangle (one of the three
angles is greater than the right angle). Actually, for
the purposes of trigonometry, the class of oblique
triangles might just as well include right triangles
too. Then the study of oblique triangles is really the
study of all triangles.
 C

a
b

A
B c

Sine Law

In any triangles, the ratio of any one side to the sine

of its opposite angle is constant. (This constant ratio
is the diameter of the circle circumscribing the
triangle.)

a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C

Cosine Law

In any triangle, the square of any one side equals

the sum of the squares of the other two sides,
diminished by twice their product to the cosine of its
included angle.
 a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C

Law of Tangents

A-B B-C
a-b tan b-c tan
= 2 ; = 2
a+b A+B b+c B+C
tan tan
2 2
C-A
c-a tan
= 2
c+a C+A
tan
2

Mollweides Equations

A-B A-B
a-b sin a+b cos
= 2 ; = 2
c C c C
cos sin
2 2
How to get the other trigonometric functions with
one function known.

Example 2-1

If sin = 1k, find the other functions.

k
1

k2 - 1

From the right triangle shown,

k 2 - 1 k 2 - 1
cos = ; cot = ;
k 1
k 2 - 1
csc =
k

1 k
tan = ; sec =
k 2 - 1 k 2 - 1

Angles

The concept of angle is one of the most important

concepts in geometry. The concepts of equality,
sums and differences of angles are important and
used throughout geometry, but the subject of
trigonometry is based on the measurement of
angles.

Angle is the space between two rays that extend

from a common point called the vertex.

Angle,

An acute angle is an angle < 90

A right angle is an angle = 90

An obtuse angle is an angle > 90

A straight angle is an angle = 180

A reflex angle is an angle > 180.

Complementary angles are angles

whose sum is 90

Supplementary angles are angles whose

sum is 180
 Explementary angles are angles whose
sum is 360

Units of Angle

90 = 2 radians = 100 grads = 1600 mils

1 radian is the angle subtended by an arc of a circle

whose length is one radius.

r
r

1 radian

Other Elements and Properties of a Triangle

Area of a Triangle

a c

C A
b
Given base b and altitude h,

1
Area = bh
2

Given two sides a and b and included angle

1
Area = ab sin
2

Given three sides a, b, and c (Heros Formula)

Area = s ( s - a ) ( s - b ) ( s - c )

a + b + c
s =
2

The area under this condition can also be solved by

finding one angle using cosine law and apply the
formula for two sides and an included angle.

Given three angles A, B, and C and one side a,

a2 sin B sin C
Area =
2 sin A
 The area under this condition can also be solved by
finding one side using sine law and apply the
formula for two sides and an included angle.

Median of a Triangle

The median of a triangle is the line drawn one

vertex to the midpoint of its opposite side. The
medians of a triangle intersect at a common point
called the centroid of the triangle.
Median A
to side a
Median
to side c
b
Centroid ma Median
c to side b
mb
mc
C B
a
With all sides and angles already known, the
median can be solved using cosine law or by the
following formula:

4ma 2 = 2b2 + 2c2 - a2

4mb 2 = 2a2 + 2c2 - b2

4mc 2 = 2a2 + 2b2 - c2

Altitudes of a Triangle

The altitude of the triangle is a line drawn from one

vertex perpendicular to its opposite side. The
altitudes of a triangle intersect at a point called the
orthocenter of the triangle.
A
Altitude
to side
Orthocenter b

Altitude
b
to side c Median
c to side
aa a
ac ab

C B
a

With all sides and angles already known, the

altitudes of the triangle can be solved from the right
triangles formed by these altitudes. If the area of the
triangle AT is known, the altitudes can be solved
using the following formulas:

2AT 2AT 2AT

aa = ; ab = ; ac =
a b c
Angle Bisectors of a Triangle

The angle bisector of a triangle is the line drawn

from one vertex to its opposite side bisecting the
angle included between the two other sides. The
angle bisectors of a triangle intersect at a point
called the incenter of the triangle.

Incente
A Angle
Angle bisector
bisector to to side a
side c
b
bc c Angle
bisector to
side b
bb
ba

C B
a

With all sides and angles already known, the angle

bisectors of a triangle can be solved using sine law
or using the following formulas:
 2
ba = bcs ( s - a )
b+c
2
bb = acs ( s - b )
a+c
2
bc = abs ( s - c )
a+b
a + b + c
s = (semi-perimeter)
2

Spherical Trigonometry

Spherical Triangle

a
C
a
B b b
c

c A

A spherical triangle is the triangle enclosed by arcs

of great circles of a sphere.
The sum of the interior angles of a spherical is
greater than 180 but less than 540.

Area of Spherical Triangle

540 ( A + B + C ) > 180

The area of a spherical triangle of a sphere of radius

R is

R2 E
A =
180

Where E is the spherical excess in degrees and is

given by the following equation

E = A + B + C - 180

Or
 E s s-a s-b s-c
tan = tan tan tan tan
4 2 2 2 2

Where

a + b + c
s = (semi-perimeter)
2

For an arc of a great circle of the earth, the distance

equivalent to 1 minute (01) of the arc is one (1)
nautical mile (6080 feet).

Right Spherical Triangle

B

c
B
c a

A b

C a
A b

NAPIERS CIRCLE
Napiers Rules

1. In the Napiers Circle, the sine of any

middle part is equal to the product of the
cosines of its opposite parts (SIN-COOP
RULE).

If we take b as the middle part, its

, then
opposite parts are c and B

sin b = cos c cos B

but cos c = cos (90-c) = sin c
and cos B = sin B
then sin b = sin c sin B

2. In the Napiers circle, the sine of any

middle part is equal to the product of the
tangents of the adjacent parts (SIN-
TAAD RULE).

If we take A as the middle part, its

adjacent parts are c and b, then

= tan c tan b
sin A
or cos A = cot c tan b
Oblique Spherical Triangles

Law of Sines

sin a sin b sin c

= =
sin A sin B sin C

Law of Cosines for Sides

cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A

cos b = cos a cos c + sin a sin c cos B

cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos C

Law of Cosines for Angles

cos A = - cos B cos C + sin B sin C cos a

cos B = - cos A cos C + sin A sin C cos b

cos C = - cos A cos B + sin A sin B cos c

Napiers Analogies

1 1
sin (A-B) tan (a-b)
2 = 2
1 1
sin (A+B) tan c
2 2
1 1
sin (a-b) tan (A-B)
2 = 2
1 1
sin (a+b) cot C
2 2
1 1
cos (A-B) tan (a+b)
2 = 2
1 1
cos (A+B) tan c
2 2
1 1
cos (a-b) tan (A+B)
2 = 2
1 1
cos (a+b) cot C
2 2
The Terrestrial Sphere

A Meridian is a great circle passing throughout the

North and South Poles.

The Equator is a great circle perpendicular to the

meridians.

The Parallels or Latitudes are small circles parallel

to the Equator. Its measure is from 0 to 90.

The Prime Meridian is the meridian passing through

Greenwich, England.
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
The earth rotates 360 in 24 hours or 15 every
hour. Therefore, every 15 interval of longitude has
a time difference of one hour.
The mean radius of the earth is 6373 Km (3959
miles), usually taken as 6400 Km (4000 miles).

One Nautical Mile is= 6080 feet. This is the length

of arc on the surface of the earth subtended by one
(1) minute of an arc of the great circle.

The Philippines (Manila) is located 123 05 E

Longitude and 64 36 N Latitude with time zone of
GMT +8:00.
CHAPTER 3: PLANE GEOMETRY

Definitions:

Altitude of a Triangle An altitude of a triangle is

perpendicular from any vertex to the side opposite
produced if necessary.

Angle A plane angle is the opening between two

straight lines drawn from the same point.

Apothem The apothem of a polygon is the radius

of the inscribed circle.

Area The area of a plane figure is the number

which expresses the ratio between its surface and
the surface of the unit square.

Center of Polygon The center of a regular polygon

is the common center of its inscribed and
circumscribed circles.

Circle A circle is a closed plane curve every point

of which is equally distant from a point in the plane
of the curve.

Complementary Angles Two angles are called

complementary when their sum is equal to a right
angle and each is called the complement of the
other.
Concurrent Lines Three or more lines which have
one point in common are said to be concurrent.

Definition of The number used in calculations

in the circle, is the number obtained by dividing the
circumference of a circle by its diameter, that is, =
C/D. Hence, C = D or C = 2r. = 3.1416 (to 4
decimal places).

Diagonal A diagonal of a polygon is a line joining

any two nonconsecutive vertices.

Hypotenuse the hypotenuse of a right triangle is

the side opposite the right angle.

Isosceles Triangle An isosceles triangle is a

triangle which has two equal sides.

Locus A locus is a figure containing all the points,

and only those points, which fulfill a given
requirement.

Parallel Lines Parallel Lines are lines that lie in

the same plane and do not meet however far they
are produced.

Parallelogram A parallelogram is a quadrilateral

whose opposite sides are parallel.
Perpendicular If one straight line cuts another so
as to make any two adjacent angles equal, each
line is perpendicular to each other.

Quadrilateral A quadrilateral is a portion of a plane

bounded by four straight lines.

Rectangle A rectangle is a parallelogram whose

angles are right angles.

Regular Polygon A regular polygon is a polygon

all of whose angles are equal and all of whose sides
are equal.

Similar Polygon Two polygons are similar if the

corresponding angles are equal and their
corresponding sides are proportional.

Supplementary Angles One angle is the

supplement of another if their sum of angles equals
to two right angles (or 180).

Tangent A tangent in a circle is a straight line

which however far it may be produced, has only one
point in common with the circle.

Trapezoid A trapezoid is a quadrilateral two and

only two of whose sides are parallel.

Triangle A triangle is a portion of a plane bounded

by three straight lines.
Vertical Angles When two angles have the same
vertex, and the sides of one are the prolongations
of the sides of the other, they are called vertical
angles.

Triangle

Theorems and Properties of a Triangle:

1. The sum of the three angles of a triangle

is equal to two right angles or 180.
2. The sum of the two sides of a triangle is
greater than the third side, and the
difference is less than the third side.
3. If two sides of the triangle are unequal,
the angles opposite are unequal, and the
greater angle is opposite the opposite
side, and conversely.
4. If two sides of the triangle are equal (an
isosceles triangle), the angles opposite
these sides are equal; and conversely.
5. The perpendicular bisectors of the sides,
and the bisectors of the angles of a
triangle, meet in points which are the
centers of the circumscribed circle and
the inscribed circle, respectively.
6. The altitudes of a triangle meet in a point
(called orthocenter).
7. The medians of a triangle are concurrent
at a point which is two-thirds of its
 distance from any vertex to the midpoint
of the opposite side. The point of
concurrency is the centroid of the
triangle.
8. Two triangles are congruent if two angles
and the included side of the one are
equal, respectively, to two angles and the
included side of the other.
9. Two triangles are congruent if two angles
and the included side of the one are
equal, respectively, to two sides and the
included side of the other.
10. Two triangles are congruent if the three
sides of the one are equal, respectively,
to the three sides of the other.

Right Triangles

1. Theorem of Pythagoras. In any right

triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is
equal to the sum of the squares of the
other sides.
2. Two right triangles are equal if a side and
the hypotenuse of the one are equal,
respectively, to a side and the
hypotenuse of the other.
3. Two right triangles are equal if a side and
the hypotenuse of the one are equal,
respectively, to the hypotenuse and the
adjacent angle of the other.
4. If a perpendicular is drawn from the
vertex of the right angle to the
hypotenuse of a right triangle: (1) the two
triangles formed are similar to each other
and to the given triangle; (2) the
perpendicular is a mean proportional
between the segments of the
hypotenuse; and (3) the square of either
side about the right angle equals the
product of the whole hypotenuse and the
segment adjacent to that side.
B D

A
C

(1) ABC, BDC, and ADC are

proportional.
(2) BD:CD = CD:AD or
(CD)2 = BD/AD
(3) (BC)2 = (AB)(BD)and (AC)2
= (AB)(AD)

Similar Triangles
1. Two triangles are similar if the
angles of one are respectively equal
to the angles of the other, or if two
angles of one are respectively equal
to two angles of the other.
 2. Two triangles are similar if an angle
of one equals an angle of the other
and the sides including these
angles are proportional.
3. Two triangles are similar if their
sides are in the same ratio.
4. If two triangles have their sides
respectively parallel, or respectively
perpendicular, each to each, they
are similar.

Area of a Triangle
B

c
h

C A
b

Given the base b and altitude h

1
Area = bh
2

Given two sides a and b and included angle

1
Area = ab sin
2
Given three sides a, b, and c (Heros Formula)

Area = s ( s - a ) ( s - b ) ( s - c )

a + b + c
Semi-perimeter, s =
2

The area under this condition can be solved by

finding one angle and using cosine law and apply
the formula for two sides and an included angle.

Given three angles A, B, and C and one side a:

a2 sin B sin C
Area =
2 sin A

The area under this condition can also be solved by

finding one angle using cosine law and apply the
formula for two sides and an included angle.

B B
Y
Y

A A
X C C
X

Area of ABC (AB)(AC)

=
Area of AXY (AX)(AY)
Rectangle

Area = ab
d a
Perimeter, P = 2(a + b)
Diagonal, d = a2 + b2
b

Square

Area = a2
d
a
Perimeter, A = 4a
Diagonal, d = 2
a

General Quadrilateral
C
b
B d

a
d2 d1 D
A c

Given diagonals d1 and d2 and included angle

1
Area = d d sin
2 1 2
Given four sides a, b, c, d and sum of two opposite
angles

Area = (s - a) (s - b) (s - c) (s - d) - abcd cos2

a+b+c+d
Semi-perimeter, s =
2
A + C B + D
= =
2 2

Given four sides a, b, c, d, and two opposite angles

B and D:

1 1
Area = ab sin B + cd sin D
2 2

Divide the area into two triangles, ABC and CAD:

Parallelogram

1. The opposite sides of a parallelogram are

equal, and so also are the opposite
angels.
2. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect
each other.
3. If two sides of a quadrilateral are equal
and parallel then the two other sides are
equal and parallel, and the figure is a
parallelogram.
 B C
d1
d2 b

A
a D

Area of a Parallelogram

Given diagonals d1 and d2 and included angle

1
Area = d d sin
2 1 2

Given two sides a and b and one angle A

Area = ab sin A

Rhombus
C D
d1
A rhombus is a parallelogram with
a
four equal sides. The diagonals of a d2
rhombus bisect each other at an 90
angle of 90. B A
a
Area of a Rhombus

Given diagonals d1 and d2:

1
A= d d
2 1 2

Given side a and one angle A:

A = a2 sin A

Trapezoid
a

A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with

two and only two whose sides h

are parallel.
b

a+b
Area = h
2

a
Length of the dividing
line parallel to the A1
c
h
two parallel sides.
A2

b
 ma2 + nb2 m A1
c = ; =
m+n n A2

Cyclic Quadrilateral

A cyclic quadrilateral is a quadrilateral whose

vertices lie on the circumference of a circle.
C
b

B c
d1

D
d2
a
d

A + C = 180 ; B + D = 180

Area = (s - a) (s - b) (s - c) (s - d) - abcd cos2

a+b+c+d
Semi-perimeter, s =
2
Ptolemys Theorem

For any cyclic quadrilateral, the product of the

diagonals equals the sum of the products of the
opposite sides.

d1 d2 = (a)(c) + (b)(d)

Polygons

There are two basic types of polygons, a convex

and a concave polygon. 4
A convex polygon is one 3
4

in which no side, when 5

5
3
extended, will pass 2

inside the polygon, 2 6

otherwise, it is called a
a
1
1 6

concave polygon. The

following figure is a convex polygon.

Polygons are classified according to the number of

sides. The following are some names of polygons.

No. of Sides Name

3 Triangle (trigon)
4 Quadrilateral (tetragon)
5 Pentagon
6 Hexagon
7 Heptagon
 8 Octagon
9 Nonagon (enneagon)
10 Decagon
11 Undecagon (hendecagon)
12 Dodecagon
13 Tridecagon (triskaidecagon)
14 Tetradecagon (tetrakaidecagon)
15 Pentadecagon (pentakaidecagon)
16 Hexadecagon (hexakaidecagon)
17 Heptadecagon (heptakaidecagon)
18 Octadecagon (octakaidecagon)
19 Enneadecagon (enneakaidecagon)
20 Icosagon
30 Triacontagon
40 Tetracontagon
50 Pentacontagon
60 Hexacontagon
70 Heptacontagon
80 Octacontagon
90 Enneacontagon
100 Hectogon
1000 Chilliagon
10000 Myriagon

Theorems in Polygons:

1. The sum of the angles of a convex

polygon of n sides is 2 (n - 2) right angles.
 2. The exterior angles of a polygon, made
by producing each of its sides in
succession, are together equal to 4 right
angles or 360
3. Homologous parts of congruent figures
are equal.

Sum of Interior Angles

The sum of interior angles of a polygon of n sides

is

Sum, = (n - 2) 180

Sum of Exterior Angles

The sum of exterior angles is equal to 360

= 360

Number of Diagonals, D

The diagonal of a polygon is the line segment

joining two non-adjacent sides. The number of
diagonals is given by

n
D= (n - 3)
2
Regular Polygons

Polygons whose sides are equal are called

equilateral polygons. Polygons with equal interior
angles are called equiangular polygons. Polygons
that are both equilateral and equiangular are called
regular polygons. The area of a regular polygon can
be found by considering one segment, which has
the form of an isosceles triangle.

Circumscribing Circle
x
Inscribed Circle

x R x
R
Apothem




x
x

x
x=side
=angle subtended by the side from the
center
R=radius of inscribed circle, also called
the apothem
n=number of sides
 360
=
n
n
Area = R2 sin
2
Perimeter = P = (n)(x)
n-2
Interior angle = = 180
n
360
Exterior angle = = =
n

Tangent
Circle
Secant

Chord
Radius

Diameter

Arc

Theorems:

1. Through three points not in a straight

line, one circle and only one can be
drawn.
2. A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to
the radius at the point of tangency and
conversely.

tangent
r

3. The tangents to a circle drawn from an

external point are equal and make equal
angles with the line joining the point to
the center.

L
r


r
L

4. An inscribed angle is measured by one-

half of the intercepted arc.
Inscribed Angle A Central Angle

Intercepted Arc

C O

B
 1
= or = 2
2

5. An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a

right angle.

90
90 90

Thus, if a right triangle is inscribed in a

circle, its hypotenuse is the diameter of
the circle.

6. An angle formed by two chords

intersecting within the circle is measured
by half the sum of the intercepted arcs.

7. If two chords intersect in a circle, the

product of the segment of one is equal
to the product of the segments of the
other.
 (AE)(BE) = (CE)(DE)
D 1
A = (ArcAC + ArcBD )


E
2
B ADC = ABC
C BAD = BCD

8. An angle included by a tangent and a

chord drawn from the point of contact is
measured by half the intercepted arc.

Chord Arc

=
Tangent

9. An angle formed by two secants, two

tangents, or a tangent and a secant,
drawn to a circle from an external point,
is measured by half the difference of the
intercepted arcs.

10. If from a point outside a circle a secant

and a tangent are drawn, the tangent is
the mean proportional between the whole
secant and its external segment.
Intersecting Secants

O C
D
B

(OA)(OB) = (OC)(OD)
1
= (ArcAC - ArcBD )
2
ADC = ABC; BAD = BCD

Intersecting Tangent and Secant

B

O
C

()2 = (OA)(OB)
1
= (ArcBC - ArcAc )
2
1
= ArcAC
2
 11. A perpendicular from a point on the
Circumference to a diameter of a circle is
a mean proportional between the
segments of the diameter.

Diameter
h
a b h2 =ab

12. The circumference of two circles are in

the same ratio as their radii, and the arcs
of two circles subtended by equal central
angles are in the same ratio as their radii.

Area of Circle

Circumference = 2r = d
r
D
Area = r2 = D2
4
Sector of a Circle

r
Length of arc, C = rradians =
180

r r 1 2 r2 1
O Area = r = = Cr
2 radians 360 2

Note: 1 radian is the angle such that C = r

Segment of a Circle
C
Area = Asector - Atriangle
1 1
A = r2 - r2 sin
r

r
2 2
1
O
A = r2 ( - sin )
2

= 360 -
Area = Asector + Atriangle
r r 1
A = r2 ( + sin )
2

Where and are angles in radians.

 Parabolic Segment

B 2
Area = bh
3
h b2
Length of ABC = [ me + ln (m + e)]
A C
8h
b 4h
m= , e = 1 + m2
b

Spandrel of a Parabola
B b

h
1
A= bh
3

h
F C

E
A
D

L
 Areashaded = AADB - AADE + ABFC + ACEF
2
Areashaded = (AC) (h)
3

a a
Ellipse

a
b
c
V2 V1
F2 c F1
b

Area = ab
2 + 2
Perimeter = 2
2

a2 = b 2 + c 2
d3 c
Eccentricity (first eccentricity), e = = > 1.0
d4 a
c
Second eccentricity, e' =
b
c
Angular eccentricity, =
a
a-b
Ellipse flatness, f =
a
a-b
Second flatness, f' =
b
Radius of Circles

Circle Circumscribed About a Triangle

(Circumcircle)

A circle is circumscribed about a triangle if it passes

through the vertices of the triangle.

Circumcenter
of the triangle
abc a
r
r= c
4AT b

Where AT = area of the triangle

Circle Inscribe in a Triangle [Incircle]

A circle is inscribed about a triangle if it is tangent

to the three sides of the triangle.
B

c r r a

r
A C
b

At a+b+c
r= ; s=
s 2
Circles Escribed about a Triangle [Excircles]

A circle is escribed about a triangle if it is tangent to

one side and to the prolongation of the other two
sides. A triangle has three escribed circles.

ra
c
rc rb
a

At At At
ra = ;r = ;r =
s-a b s-b c s-c

Circle Circumscribed about Quadrilateral

A circle is circumscribed about a quadrilateral if it

passes through the vertices of the quadrilateral.

b
r
c
a
d
 (ab + cd)(ac + bd)(ad + bc)
r=
4Aquad
Aquad = (s - a)(s - b)(s - c)(s - d)
a+b+c+d
Semi-perimeter, s =
2

Circle Inscribed in a Quadrilateral

b
A circle is inscribed in a quadrilateral
r
if it is tangent to the three sides of the a
quadrilateral. c

Aquad a+b+c+d
ra = ; Aquad = abcd ; s =
s 2

Area by Approximation

The area of any irregular plane figure (such as the

one shown) can be found approximately by dividing
it into a number of strips or panels by a series of
equidistant parallel chords (offsets) h1, h2, , hn the
common distance between the chords being d.
 h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7 h8
d
d d d d

Area by Trapezoidal Rule

Assume each strips as a trapezoid, then the area

is:

d
Area = [ h + 2(h2 + h3 + ) + hn ]
2 1

Area by Simpsons One-Third Rule

This method is more accurate than the previous

because it considers the curved side. Using this
rule, there must be an odd number of offsets, thus
n must be odd.

d
Area = [ h1 + 2hodd +4heven + hn ]
3
Area by Coordinates

The area of a planar (convex or concave) with

vertices (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), (xn, yn) is:

(x1,y1)
(x3,y3)

(x8,y8)
(x4,y4) (x2,y2)

(x6,y6)

(x5,y5) (x7,y7)

1 x1 x2 x3 xn - 1 xn x1
A= y y2 y3 yn - 1 yn y1
2 1

1
A= [x1 y2 + x2 y3 + - x2 y1 + x3 y2 + ]
2

The area of a polygon is defined to be positive if the

points are arranged in a counterclockwise order,
and negative in a clockwise order.
CHAPTER 4: SOLID GEOMETRY

Polyhedrons

Polyhedrons are solids whose faces are plane

polygons

Regular polyhedrons are those which have

identical faces. There are only five known regular
polyhedrons, namely tetrahedron, hexahedron,
octahedron, dodecahedron and icosahedrons.
These solids are known as Platonic solids.

Regular Polyhedrons

Regular Regular Regular

Tetrahedron Hexahedron Octahedron

Regular Regular
Dodecahedron Icosahedron
 Let m = number of polygons meeting at a vertex
n = number of vertices of each polygon
f = number of faces of the polyhedrons
e = number of edges of the polyhedron, and
v = number of vertices of the polyhedron

Name f e v m Surface Area Volume

2
3
Tetrahedron 4 4 4 3 3
62

Hexahedron 6 12 6 3 62 3

3 2
Octahedron 8 12 8 4 22 3
3

3 + 5 3 15 + 75
Dodecahedron 12 30 20 3 152
5 5 4

53 3 + 5
Icosahedron 20 30 12 5 52 3
12

Where a is the length of the edge

For any polyhedron:

nf
Number of edges, e=
2
nf
Number of vertices, v=
m
3V
Radius of circumscribing sphere, r=
As
Eulers Polyhedron Theorem

For all convex polyhedra:

f = 2f=2v
+e-v

Solids for which Volume = Base area X Height

Prism Cylinder Miscellaneous

Volume = Ab h

Prism

Prisms are polyhedron whose bases are equal

polygons in parallel planes and whose sides are
parallelograms.

Prisms are classifieds according to their bases.

Thus, a hexagonal prism is one whose base is a
hexagon, and a regular hexagonal prism has a
base of a regular hexagon.
The axis of a prism is the line joining the centroids
of the bases. A right prism is one whose axis is
perpendicular to the base. The altitude of h of a
prism is the distance between the bases.

Volume, V = Ab h = AR L
Lateral area, AL = PR

Where: AR= area of the section

L= lateral edge
Ab = area of the base
PR= perimeter of right section

Rectangular Parallelepiped

c
d2
d1
b
a
 Volume, V = Ab h = abc
Lateral area, AL = AR h=2(ac + bc)
Total surface area, As = At + 2Ab = 2(ab + bc + ac)
Face diagonal, d1 = a2 + c2
Space diagonal, d2 = a2 + b2 + c2

Cube (Regular hexahedron)

d2 c

d1
b
a

Volume, V = Ab h = a3
Truncated prism
Lateral area, AL = 4a2
Total surface area, A s = 6a2
Face diagonal, d1 = a2
Space diagonal, d2 = a3
Truncated Prism

AR =area of the right section

n=number of sides

h h1 +h2 + .+hn-1 +hn

Volume AR = AR
n n

Pyramids

Pyramids are polyhedron with a polygonal base

and triangular faces that meet at a common point
called the vertex.
Like prisms, pyramids are classified according to
their bases.

Where ; 1
Volume = Ab h
Ab = area of the base 3

H= altitude, perpendicular distance from the vertex

to the base

Frustum or Pyramid

Frustum of a pyramid is the portion of the pyramid

between the base and the cutting plane parallel to
the base.

h
Volume = (A +A +A1 A2 )
3 1 2

where:
A1 =lower base area;
A2 =upper base area
h=altitude
Cylinders

A cylinder is the surface generated by a straight

line intersecting and moving along a closed plane
curve, the directrix, while remaining parallel to the
plane of the directrix.

Like prisms, cylinders are classified according to

their bases
Directrix
Directrix

L 90

h=L h

Fixed Straight Fixed Straight

Axis Axis

Volume, V = Ab h = AR L
Lateral Area, AL = PR L

where: AR = area of right section

L = lateral edge
Ab = area of base
PR =perimeter of right section
Right Circular Cylinder

r
h

Volume, V = Ab h = r2 h
Lateral area = AL
AL = Base perimeter*h = 2rh

Cone

Cone is the surface generated by a straight line,

the generator, passing through a fixed point, the
vertex, and moving along a fixed curve, the
directrix.

Like pyramids, cones are classified according to

their bases

1
Volume, V= Ab h
3
where:
Ab =base area
h=altitude

Right Circular Cone

Slant height, L = r2 + h2
1 1
Volume, V = Ab h = rL
3 3
Lateral area = AL = rL

where:
r = base radius
h=altitude

Frustum of a Cone
 h
where: Volume, V = (A1 +A2 +A1 A2 )
3
A1 =lower base area
A2 =upper base area
h=altitude

Frustum of Right Circular Cone Sphere

r r
L

Slant height = Lh2 + (R - r)2

h 2 2
Volume, V = (R + r + Rr)
3
Lateral area, AL = (R + r)L

where:

R=lower base radius

r=upper base radius
h=altitude
Sphere

Surface Area = = 4r
4
Volume, V =
3

Spherical Segment of One base

Azone = 2rh
h2
Volume, V = (3r - h)
3

Spherical Segment of Two Bases

 Lateral area, As = 2rh
h
Volume, V = (3a2 + 3b2 + h2 )
6

Spherical Cone or Spherical sector

1
Volume = A r
3 zone
2 2
Volume = r h
3

Spherical Lune and Wedge

 Alune 4r2
=
360
Vwedge 4 r3
= ( )
3 360

Spherical Polygons

A spherical polygon is a polygon on the surface of

a sphere whose sides are arcs of great circles.

n = no. of sides
r = radius of sphere
E= spherical excess

r2 E
Area =
180
E = sum of angles - (n-2)180
Spherical Pyramid

B
A
D
C
r
r

r2 E
Volume =
540

Solids of Revolution (Pappus theorems)

First proposition of Pappus

The surface area generated by a surface of

revolution equals the product of the length of the
generating arc and the distance travelled by its
centroid.

As = L C
C = R (Angle of rotation in radians, )
If = 360, As = L (2R)
Second Proposition of Pappus

The volume area generated by a solid of

revolution equals the product of the generating
area and the distance travelled by its centroid.

Volume = AC = A (R )
If = 360, Volume = A(2R)

Ellipsoid

b a

4
Volume = abc
3
Prolate Spheroid

Prolate spheroid is formed by revolving the ellipse

about its major (X) axis. Thus, from the figure
above, c= b, then,

4
Volume = ab2
3

arcsin 2 2
As = 2b2 + 2ab ( ); =

Spheroid

Prolate spheroid is formed by revolving the ellipse

about its minor (Z) axis. Thus, from the figure
above, c = a, then,

4
Volume = a2 b
3
2
b 1+e
As = 2a2 + ( ln )
e 1-e
Paraboloid of Revolution

1
Volume = r2 h
2
3
4r r2 2 r 2
A= + h2 -
3h2 4 2

Prismatoid

General Prismatoid

A general prismatoid is a solid such that the area

of any section, say A parallel to and distant y from
a fixed plane can be expressed as a polynomial of
y of the degree not higher than the third.
 Ay = ay3 + by2 + cy + d

Where a, b, and c are constant which may be

positive, negative, or zero.

Prismoidal Formula

L
Volume = [ A1 + 4Am + A2 ]
6

One criteria of knowing if a certain solid is a

prismatoid is that all section parallel to a certain
base are all similar.

Prismatoid Theorem

The volume of a prismatoid is equal to the

algebraic sum of the volumes of a pyramid, a
wedge and a parallelepiped.
Volume of Some Prismatoid

Volume common to two equal cylinders with their

axis meeting at right angles.

16 3
Volume = r
3

Solid with circular base of radius r and every

cutting plane perpendicular to a certain diameter is
a SQUARE.

16 3
Volume = r
3
Solid with circular base of radius r and every
cutting plane perpendicular to a certain diameter is
an EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE.

4r3
Volume =
3

Solid with circular base of radius r and every

cutting plane perpendicular to a certain diameter is
an ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE with one leg in
the plane of the base

8 3
Volume = r
3
Solid with circular base of radius r and every
cutting plane perpendicular to a certain diameter is
an ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE with
hypotenuse on the plane of the base.

4 3
Volume = r
3
CHAPTER 5: PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Cartesian or Rectangular Coordinate System

Second Quadrant (-, +) First Quadrant (+, +)

Abscissa

Ordinate

Third Quadrant (-, -) Fourth Quadrant (+, -)

Distance Between Two Points

The distance between point P1(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2) is

2
d = (x2 - x1 )2 + y2 - y1

Straight Line

A straight line is a line that does not change in

direction. Thus, it has a uniform slope.
General Equation of a Line
Ax + By + C = 0
P2 (x2, y2) (0, b)
d
P1 (x1, y1) y2 y1

x2 x1
O
(a, 0)

The general equation of a straight line is

Ax + By + C = 0

To solve a line, either two points or one point and a

slope must be known.

Slope of the Line

The slope of the line passing through points P1(x1,

y1) and P2(x2, y2) is:

rise y2 - y1
Slope, m = =
run x2 - x2
Where:
m is positive if the line is inclined upwards to
the right.

m is negative if the line is inclined

downwards to the right.

m is zero for horizontal lines.

Standard Equations of Lines

1. Point-slope form
Given a point P1(x1, y1) and its slope m:

y - y1 = m(x - x1 )

2. Slope-intercept form
Given a slope m and y-intercept:

y = mx + b

3. Intercept form
Given x-intercept a and y-intercept b:

x y
+ =1
a b

4. Two-point form
Given two points P1(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2):
 y - y1 y -y
= 2 1 =m
x - x1 x2 - x2

Note: All these four standard equations can be

reduced into the point-slope form.

Angle Between Two Lines

The angle between two lines L1 and L2 is the angle

that L1 must be rotated in a counterclockwise
direction to make it coincide with L2.
Line 2, slope 2
1 = arctan m1
2 = arctan m2 2 Line 1, slope 1

= 2 - 1
m2 - m1
tan =
1 + m1 m2

Lines are parallel if m1 = m2

Lines are perpendicular if m2 = -1/ m1
Distance from a Point to the Line

Y Line = Ax + By +C = 0
d

(x1, y1)
O
X

The distance (nearest) from a point P1(x1,y1) to a

line Ax + By + C = 0 is:

Ax1 + By1 + C
d=
A2 + B2

Use of Sign:

(+) if B is a positive number

(-) if B is a negative number
(+) if the point is above the line or to the right of the
line for a vertical line
(-) if the point is below the line or to the left of the
line for a vertical line

That is,
If B is positive and the point is above the line, then
use (+) (+) = (+)
If B is positive and the point is below the line, then
use (+) (-) = (-)
If B is negative and the point is above the line, then
use (-) (+) = (-)
If B is negative and the point is below the line, then
use (-) (-) = (+)
If only the distance is required, use the absolute
value:

Ax1 + By1 + C
d=
A 2 + B 2

Distance between Two Parallel Lines

Y d Line = Ax + By + C1 = 0

O
X
Line = Ax + By +C2 = 0

C2 - C1
d=
A 2 + B 2
Division of Line Segment

P2 (x2, y2)
r2

L2
r1 r1 = L1 / L
P (xp, yp) r2 = L2 / L
L1
P1 (x1, y1)

x1 r2 + x2 r1
xp =
r1 + r2

y1 r2 + y2 r1
yp =
r1 + r2

Midpoint of a Line Segment

The midpoint Pm (xm, ym) of a line segment through

from P1(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2) is

x1 + x2
xm =
2
y1 + y2
ym =
2
Area of Polygon by Coordinates

Let (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3) (xn-1, yn-1), (xn, yn) be
the consecutive vertices of a polygon arranged in
counterclockwise sense. The area is:

1 x1 x2 x3 xn-1 xn x1
A= y y2 y3 yn-1 yn y1
2 1

1
A= [x1 y2 + x2 y3 + - x2 y1 + x3 y2 + ]
2

Conic Sections

Conic sections a locus (or path) of a point that

moves such that the ratio of its distance from a fixed
point (called the focus) and a fixed line (called the
directrix) is constant. This constant ratio is called
the eccentricity (e) of the conic.

The term conic section was based on the fact that

these are sections formed if a plane is made to pass
through a cone.

If the cutting plane is parallel to the base of the

cone, the section formed is a circle. If it is parallel
to the element (or generator) of the cone, the
section formed is a parabola. If it is perpendicular
to the base of the cone, the section formed is a
hyperbola. If it is oblique to the base or element of
the cone, the section formed is an ellipse.

General Equation of Conics

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

If B is not equal to 0, the axis of the conic is oblique

with the coordinate axes (i.e. not parallel to X or Y
axes). Thus if the axis is parallel to either X or Y
axes, the equation becomes

Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
From the foregoing equations:
If B2 < 4AC, the conic is an ellipse
If B2 = 4AC, the conic is an parabola
If B2 > 4AC, the conic is an hyperbola

Also, a conic is a circle if A = C, an ellipse if A C

but have the same sign, a parabola if either A = 0
or C = 0, and a hyperbola if A and C have different
signs.

Y Hyperbola, e > 1

Parabola, e = 1
Vertex of the cone
Circle, e = 0
F
X
Ellipse, e < 1
The parabola antenna
used in communication is
our example.

Other Important Properties of Conic Sections

Imagine that the surface of a conic is a mirror that

reflects light (or any material that reflects sound
beam). The following illustration shows how these
rays are reflected from its source.

Circle

Circle is the locus of a point that moves such that is

always equidistant from a fixed point called the
center. The constant distance is called the radius of
the circle.
Y

(h, k)

O X
r = radius
(h , k) = center

General Equation of Circle (A=C)

Ax2 + Ay2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 or
x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

To solve a circle, either one of the following two

conditions must be known.
a. Three points along the circle.
Solution: Use the general form
b. Center (h, k) and the radius r.
Solution: Use the standard equation.

Standard Equations of a Circle

Center at (h, k)

(x - h)2 + (y - k)2 = r2

Center at (0, 0)

x2 + y2 = r2
For circle Ax2 + Ay2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

-D -E D2 + E2 - 4AF
h= ;k= ;r=
2A 2A 4A2

Parabola

The locus of the point that moves such that its

distance from a fixed point called the focus is
always equal to its distance from a fixed line called
directrix.
Vertex

d1
Focus
d2
Latus Rectum =4A

a 2A
Directrix

2A

2A

a = distance from the vertex to the focus

LR = length of the latus rectum
General Equation of Parabola (A or C is zero)
C=0

Ax2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 or
x2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

A=0

Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 or
y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

To solve for the parabola, either one of the following

conditions must be known:
1. Three points along the parabola and an
axis (either horizontal or vertical)
Solution: use the general form
2. Vertex (h, k), distance from the vertex to
the focus a, and axis.
Solution: use the standard equation
3. Vertex and the location of the focus.
Solution: use the standard equation.

Eccentricity

The eccentricity of a conic is the ratio of its distance

from the focus (d2) and from the directrix (d1).
For a parabola, the eccentricity is equal to 1.

e=1

Latus Rectum, LR

Latus rectum is a chord passing through the focus

and parallel to the directrix or perpendicular to the
axis.

LR = 4A

Standard Equations of a Parabola

Vertex at (0, 0)

y2 = 4ax x2 = 4ay

y2 = - 4ax x2 = -4ay
Vertex at (h, k)

(y-k)2 = 4a(x-h) (x-h)2 = 4a(y-k)

(y-k)2 = - 4a(x-h) (x-h)2 = -4a(y-k)

For the parabola Ax2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 (axis

vertical)

-D D2 - 4AF -E
h= ;k= ;a=
2A 4AE 4A

For the parabola Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 (axis

horizontal)

E2 - 4CF -E -D
h= ;k= ;a=
4CD 2C 4C
Ellipse

The locus of the point that moves such that the sum
of its distances from two fixed points called the foci
is constant. The constant sum is the length of the
major axis, 2a. It can also be defined as the locus
of the point that moves such that the ratio of its
distance from a fixed point, called the focus and a
fixed line, called the directrix, is constant and is less
than one (1).
y
d d

Directrix
d4

b
Minor Axis, 2b

d3 a F1
V2 F2
Directrix

c V1
x
c LR
d1
d2

P(x, y)

a a

Major axis, 2a
Elements of an Ellipse

a2 = b2 + c 2
d3 c
Eccentricity (first eccentricity), e = = < 1.0
d4 a
a
Distance from the center to the directrix, d =
e
2b2
Length of Latus rectum, LR =
a
c
Second eccentricity, e' =
b
c
Angular eccentricity, =
a
a-b
Ellipse flatness, f =
a
a-b
Second flatness, f' =
b

General equation of an Ellipse ( A C but have

the same sign)

Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 or
x2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

To solve the parabola, either one of the following

conditions must be known:
 1. Four points along the ellipse
Solution: use the general form
2. Center (h, k), semi-major axis a, and
semi-minor axis b
Solution: use the standard equation

Standard Equations of an Ellipse

Center at (0, 0)

x2 y2 x2 y2
+ =1 + =1
a2 b2 2 a2
b

Center at (h, k)

(x - h)2 (y - k)2 (x - h)2 (y - k)2

+ =1 + =1
a2 b2 b2 a2
 Note: a > b
For the ellipse Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

-D -E
h= ;k=
2A 2C

Hyperbola

The locus of the point that moves such that the

difference of its distance between two fixed points
called the foci is constant. The constant difference
is the length of the transverse axis 2a. It may also
be defined as the locus of the point that moves such
that the ratio of its distance from a fixed point called
the focus, and a fixed line, called the directrix is
constant and is greater than one (1).
y
Directrix

Directrix

d4

d2
Conjugate axis, 2b

d3 d1
b

F2 V2 F1 LR
c V1 x
b b
a

d d
Transverse Axis, 2a
a a Asymptote
d2 - d1 = 2a c c
Elements of a Hyperbola

c 2 = a2 + b2
d3 c
Eccentricity (first eccentricity), e = = > 1.0
d4 a
a
Distance from the center to the directrix, d =
e
2b2
Length of Latus rectum, LR =
a

Equation of Asymptote

The asymptotes of a hyperbola has the following

equations:

y-k =m(x-h)

Where (h, k) is the center of the hyperbola and m is

the slope. Use (+) for upward asymptote and (-) for
downward asymptote.

m = ba (if the axis is horizontal)

m = ab (if the axis is vertical)
General Equation of Hyperbola (A and C have
opposite sign)

Ax2 - Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 or
x2 - Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Standard Equations of Hyperbola

Center at (0, 0)

x2 y2 x2 y2
- =1 - =1
a2 b2 b2 a2

(x - h)2 (y - k)2 (x - h)2 (y - k)2

- =1 - =1
a2 b2 b 2 a2

Note: a may be greater, equal, or less than b.

For the hyperbola Ax2 - Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

-D -E
h= ;k=
2A 2C

Variation of Problems in Conics

1. Given the equation of the conic, find the

elements (center, eccentricity, focus,
latus rectum, vertex, etc.)
Solution: Reduce the equation to
standard form and apply the necessary
formulas.
2. Find the equation of the conic through
given points (3 points for circle, 3 points
and axis for parabola, 4 points for ellipse
and hyperbola).
Solution: Substitute the points to the
general equation and solve for A, B, and
C, etc.
3. Find the equation of a conic, given the
elements (center and radius for circle,
vertex and a for parabola; center, a, b for
ellipse and hyperbola).
Solution: Reduce the equation to
standard from.
Tangents and Normals to Conics

Point of Tangency

Tangent
Y
(x2, y2)

Normal

Conic

O X

Unlike other curves, the tangent to any conic will

pass only through one point. To find the equation of
the tangent to a conic, we may use differential
calculus or make use of the following substitution
for the variables in the equation:

x2 replace with xx1

y2 replace with yy1
x replace with
x + x1
2
y replace with
y+y
1
2
Where (x1,y1) is the point of tangency and (x,y) is
any point on the line.

CASE I. Find the equation of the tangent through a

given point (x1,y1) on the conic.
 To find the equation of the tangent we
simply replace the variables in the conic
with the above expressions and
substitute for (x1,y1) the given point.
We can also use differential calculus to
solve for the slope = of the
curve at the given point (x1,y1), then use
the point-slope form of the line, y -
y1 = m (x - x1 ).

CASE II. Find the equation of the tangent that

passes through a given point (x2,y2) outside the
conic.
To find the equation of the tangent, we
apply the necessary replacements of
variables leaving x1 and y1. Another
equation relating x1 and y1 can be found
by substituting (x1,y1) to the equation of
the conic. By expressing y1 in terms of x1
in either equation and substituting the
other equation, a quadratic equation is
derived in the form Ax21 + Bx1 + C = 0.
With (x1,y1) known, the tangent can now
be solved.

CASE III. Find the equation of the tangent, given

the slope m of the tangent.
 To find the equation of the tangent, we
use the slope-intercept form y = mx + b
for the tangent line with m and b
unknown. Since the line and the conic
process, we can substitute this value of y
in the conic resulting to a quadratic
equation in the form Ax2 + Bx + C = 0 with
A, B, and C as a function of m and b.
Since the tangent passes through one
point only, we set B2 = 4AC and solve for
b. With b known and m given, the tangent
can now be solved.
Or, for this case, the value of (x1, y1) can
be found by differential calculus knowing
that dy / dx = slope = m. After solving m,
the equation of the line can be found
using the point slope form y, y1 = m(x,
x1)

POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM

In this system, the location of a point is expressed

by its distance r from a fixed point called the pole
and its angle from a fixed line Ox.
(r, )

Pole Axis
Sign Convention
is positive (+) if measured
counterclockwise.
is negative ( - ) if measure clockwise.
r is positive ( + ) if laid off at the terminal
side of .
r is negative ( - ) if laid off prolongation
through O from the terminal side of .

Distance between Two Points

The distance between two points (r1, 1) and (r2,

2) can be found using cosine law.

(r1, 1)
d
r1
(r2, 2)
= 2 - 1
r2

O X
Pole

d = r1 2 + r2 2 - 2r1 r2 cos ( 2 - 1 )
Relationship between Polar and Cartesian
Coordinate Systems

Equations in rectangular form may be converted to

polar form or vice versa. The following relationships
can be found from the figure shown.

x (r, )

y r

Pole Axis

r2 = x2 + y2
y
x = r cos ; y = r sin ; tan =
x

Polar Curves

Cardioid

r=a (1 - sin )
y=1/x y =| 1 / x| y = ax3 y3 = ax2
SPACE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

SPACE COORDINATE SYSTEMS

There are three coordinate systems used in space

analytic geometry. The rectangular, cylindrical, and
spherical coordinate systems.
Rectangular Coordinate System in Space

In rectangular coordinate systems, a point P(x, y, z)

in space fixed by its three distance x, y, and z from
the three coordinate planes.
 d = (x2 - x1 )2 + (y2 - y1 )2 + (z2 - z1 )2

Cylindrical Coordinate System

A point P in space may be imagined as being on the

surface of a cylinder perpendicular to the XY
plane. P(r, , z) is fixed by its distance z from the
XY plane and by the polar coordinate(r,) of the
projection of P on the XY plane.

P (r, , z)

X
r
Y
Relations between Rectangular and Cylindrical
Coordinates System

The relations between rectangular coordinates (x,

y, z) and cylindrical coordinates (r, , z) are:
 x = r cos
y
= arctan
x
r2 = x2 + y2 , z = z
y = r sin

Spherical Coordinates System

Z

A point P in space may be

imagined as being on the P(r, , )

surface of a sphere with r

center at the origin O and O
X
radius r. P(r, , ) is fixed
Y

by its distance r from O,
the angle between OP Y
and the Z axis and angle
which is the angle between
the X axis and the projection of OP on the XY
plane.

Relations between Rectangular and Spherical

Coordinates Systems

The relations between rectangular coordinates (x,

y, z) and spherical coordinates (r, , ) are:
x = r sin cos ; y= r sin sin
r2 = x2 + y2 + 2
x2 + y2 y
= arctan ; = arctan
z x
z=r cos
CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Limits

Theorems of Limits

1. If f(x) = c, a constant, then lim f(x) = c

xa
Let lim f(x) = A and lim g(x) = B, then;
xa xa
2. lim k f(x) = kA, k being constant.
xa
3. lim [f(x) g(x)] = lim f(x) lim g(x) = A B
xa xa xa
4. lim [f(x) g(x)] = lim f(x) lim g(x) = A B
xa xa xa
f(x) lim f(x) A
5. lim = xa
= , provided B 0
xa g(x) lim g(x)
xa
B

n
lim f(x)= lim f(x) = A , provided
n n
6.
xa xa
n
A is a real number
L Hospitals Rule (Intermediate type 0/0)

If a is a number, if f(x) and g(x) are differentiable

and g(x) 0 for all x on some interval 0 < | x - a | <
, and if lim f(x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then, when
xa xa
f'(x)
lim exists or is infinite,
xa g'(x)

f(x) lim f'(x)

xa
lim =
xa g(x) lim g'(x)
xa
Short Technique on Limits

To evaluate the lim f(x), substitute for x a value

xa
that is very close to a and use your calculator

That is;

For x 2, substitute x = 1.9999 or x = 2.0001

For x -5, substitute x = -4.9999 or -5.0001
For x 0, substitute x = 0.00001
For x , substitute x = 99999

Consider the following examples:

x4 - 81
Example 6-1: lim ; Substitute x = 2.9999
x3 x - 3

(2.9999)4 - 81
(2.9999) - 3
= 107.99 108

1 1
Example 6-2: lim - ;
x0 x ex - 1
Substitute x = 0.0001

1 1
- = 0.49999 0.5
0.0001 e0.0001 - 1

cotx
Example 6-3: lim ; Substitute x = 0.0001
x0 cot2x

cot ( 0.0001 )
=2
cot [2 (0.0001)]
 ex + e-x - x2 - 2
Example 6-4: lim ;
x0 sin2 x- x2
Substitute x = 0.0001 radian
Note: set your calculator to radian mode
e0.0001 + e-0.0001 - ( 0.0001 )2 - 2
2 = 0.25
sin2 ( 0.0001 ) ( 0.0001 )

Differential Formulas
In the following formulas u, v, and w are
differentiable functions of x and a and n are
constants.

Algebraic Functions
d
1. (c)=0
dx
d d(u)
2. ( cu ) = c
dx dx
d d(u) d(v)
3. (u+v)= +
dx dx dx
d d(v) d(u)
4. ( uv ) = u +v
dx dx dx
d d(u)
5. (u )=n
nun - 1
dx dx
d(u)
d
6. u = dx
;u0
dx u
d(u) d(v)
u v -u
7. d = dx
2
dx
;v0
v v
 d(v)
c -c dx
8. d =
v v2

Logarithmic & Exponential Functions

d(u)
d
9. loga u = dx
dx u ln a
d(u) d(u)
d dx dx
10. ( log10 u) = log10 e = 0.43429
dx u u
d(u)
d
11. ( ln u) = dx
;u0
dx u
d d(u)
12. (au ) = au ln a
dx dx
d d(u)
13. (eu ) = eu
dx dx
d d(u) d(v)
14. (uv ) = vuv - 1 + uv ln u
dx dx dx

Trigonometric Functions
d d(u)
15. ( sin u) = cos u
dx dx
d d(u)
16. ( cos u) = -sin u
dx dx
d 2 d(u)
17. ( tan u) = sec u
dx dx
d 2 d(u)
18. ( cot u) = -csc u
dx dx
 d d(u)
19. ( sec u) = sec u tan u
dx dx
d d(u)
20. ( csc u) = -csc u cot u
dx dx

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

d(u)
d dx
21. ( arcsin u) =
dx 1 - u2

d(u)
d dx
22. ( arccos u) = -
dx 1 - u2

d(u)
d dx
23. ( arctan u) =
dx 1 + u2
d(u)
d dx
24. ( arccot u) = -
dx 1 + u2
d(u)
d dx
25. ( arcsec u) =
dx
uu2 - 1

d(u)
d dx
26. ( arccsc u) = -
dx
uu2 - 1

Hyperbolic Functions
d d(u)
27. ( sinh u) = cosh u
dx dx
d d(u)
28. ( cosh u) = sinh u
dx dx
 d d(u)
29. ( tanh u) = sech2 u
dx dx
d 2 d(u)
30. ( coth u) = -csch u
dx dx
d d(u)
31. ( sech u) = - sech u tanh u
dx dx
d d(u)
32. ( csch u) = - csch u coth u
dx dx

Where:
ex - e-x ex + e-x
sinh x = cosh x=
2 2
sinh x 1
tanh x= coth x=
cosh x tanh x
1 1
sech x= csch x=
cosh x sinh x

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

d(u)
d dx
33. ( arcsinh u)=
dx u2 + 1
d(u)
d dx
34. ( arccosh u) = -
dx u2 - 1

d(u)
d dx
35. ( arctanh u) =
dx 1 - u2
d(u) d(u)
d -
dx dx
36. ( arccoth u) = = 2
dx u2 - 1 1- u
 d(u)
d -
dx
37. ( arcsech u) =
dx 2
u1 - u

d(u)
d -
dx
38. ( arccsc u) =
dx u1 + u2

Where:
arcsinh x = lnx+ x2 + 1

arccosh x = ln x+ x2 - 1

1 1+x
arctanh x = ln
2 1-x
1 x+1
arccoth x = ln
2 x-1
1 + 1 - x2
arcsech x = ln
x
1 + 1 + x2
arcsech x = ln x >0
x

Slope of the Curve

The slope of the curve y=f(x) at any point is
dy
identical to the derivative of the function or y.
dx

dy
Slope at any point = y =
dx
Rate of Change

The derivative of a function is identical to its rate of

change. Thus, the rate of change of the volume
dV
(V) of a sphere with respect to its radius (r) is .
dr

Curvature and Radius of Curvature

Curvature
Curvature refers to the rate of change of the
direction of the curve. Thus, a circle with a smaller
radius has great curvature, or is sharply curved.

The curvature, K, of the curve y = f(x) is:

y"
K= 3
[1 + (y')2 ] 2

Where y is the second derivative of the function.

Radius of Curvature
The radius of curvature, , is the reciprocal of the
curvature, k, or:

3
1 1 + (y')2 2
= =
k | y" |
Circle of Curvature
At any point on a curve y = f(x), where y and y
exist and y 0, there is associated with the curve
a circle, which is called the circle of curvature with
the following equation:

( x h )2 + ( y k )2 =

The center (h, k) and radius of the curve is:

y' 1 + (y')2
h=x-
y"

1 + (y')2
k=y+
y"

3
1 + (y')2 2
=
| y" |

Graph of a Function y = f(x)

The graph of a function y = f(x) may be plotted
using calculus. Consider the graph shown below:
 y

B y = f(x)
C E
A
D
x

As x increases, the curve rises if the slope is

positive, as of arc AB; it falls if the slope is
negative, as of arc BC.

Relative Maximum and Minimum Points

At a point such as B, where the function is
algebraically greater than that at any neighboring
point, the point is said to have a maximum value,
and the point is called a maximum point (relative
to adjacent points). Similarly, at D the function has
a minimum value (relative to adjacent points). At
maximum or minimum points, the tangent is
horizontal or the slope is zero.

dy
= y' = 0
dx

This does not necessarily mean that at these

points the function is maximum or minimum. It
does only mean that the tangent is parallel to the
x-axis, or the curve is either concave up or
dy
concave down. The points at which = 0 are
dx
called critical points, and the corresponding values
of x are critical values.

The second derivative of a function is the rate of

change of the first derivative or slope. It follows
that as x increases and y is positive, y is
increasing and the tangent turns in a
counterclockwise direction and the curve Is
concave upward. When y is negative, y is
decreases and the tangent turns in a clockwise
direction and the curve is concave downward.

If y = 0 and y is negative (i.e. y < 0), the point is

a maximum point (concave downward).

If y = 0 and y is positive (y > 0), the point is a

minimum point (concave upward).

Points of Inflection
A point of inflection is a point at which the curve
changes from concave upward to concave
downward or vice verse (see point E from the
figure). At these points, the tangent changes its
rotation from clockwise to counterclockwise or vice
versa.

At points of inflection, the second derivative of y is

zero (y = 0).
Applications of Maxima and Minima

As an example, the area of a rectangular lot,

expresses in terms of its length and width, may
also be expressed in terms of cost of fencing.
Thus, the area can be expressed as A = f(x). The
common task here is to find the value of x that will
give a maximum value of A. to find this value, we
set dAdx = 0.

Steps in Solving Maxima Minima Problems:

1. Identify the variable to be maximized or
minimized, say
2. Express this variable in terms of the other
relevant variable(s), say A = f(x, y).
3. If the function shall consist of more than one
variable, expressed it in terms of one variable
(if possible) using the conditions in the
problem, say A = f(x).
4. Differentiate and equation to zero, dAdx = 0.
Common Variable Relationships for Maximum
or Minimum Values

Minimum length of ladder leaning

against a wall with one end on
the ground outside the wall

2 2 2 L
L 3 =h 3 +x 3
h

x
For maximum area (to admit the
most light) of a Norman window r
of given perimeter

x x y
y= ;r=
2 2
h=x
x

For maximum area of a rectangular

window surrounded by a right y y
isosceles triangle of known
perimeter

h=y h

For maximum viewing angle of an

object

x = ab b

x
Minimum length L of a line
tangent to an ellipse
L
b
L=a+b a a
b

For the minimum perimeter

of a rectangular lot of
y y
known area to be fenced on
three sides only
x

x = 2y

For minimum perimeter of a

rectangle of known area or
y
for maximum area for known
perimeter x

x = y (a square)

For a given area of a rectangle, the square has the

least perimeter, OR for a given perimeter of
rectangle, the square has the largest area.
Maximum volume of a
CLOSED (both ends)
cylindrical tank of given
surface area, or minimum h

surface area for given volume

Diameter = 2 height D

D = 2h
Maximum volume of an OPEN (one end)
cylindrical tank of given surface area, or minimum
surface area for given volume

Diameter = 2 height
D = 2h
For maximum volume of a
closed rectangular box with
given sum of all edges or given z

total area y
x
x = y = z (a cube)
Maximum volume of open (one end)
rectangular box of square base and
h
given surface area, or minimum
surface area for given volume. y
x
x = 2y
For a rectangle of maximum
area or perimeter that can be cut
r
from a circle of radius r
y
x = y (a square)

For the strongest rectangular

beam that can cut from log of
radius r 2r
d

2r = b 3
b
For maximum capacity of a
trapezoidal gutter or canal of x

known perimeter, or minimum y y

perimeter of known capacity
60 60
y

x = 2y (a half-rectangular hexagon)

For maximum volume of a

right circular cone with known
L
lateral area, or minimum h
lateral area for known volume
r
h = r 2
For the largest rectangle that
y b
can be inscribed in an ellipse a
y
x x
x = a
2

y = b
2

Strongest beam that can be cut

x
from an elliptical section
y
2b a
x=
3 b

22a
y=
3

Weight of heaviest cylinder that

can be cut from a sphere of
weight W, or largest cylinder that
can be cut from a sphere of
volume V

Wcyl = W
3

Vcyl = V
3
Largest rectangle that
can be cut from a h
given triangle x

x = b2
b

y = h2

Largest beam that can pass

through a corridor L
y

2 2 2
L 3 =x 3 +y 3 x

Smallest cone that can inscribe

a sphere of radius r

h
sin = 13 r

Largest cylinder that can be

inscribed in a given cone

h
y=
3
For a minimum cost of closed
cylindrical tank of known volume or h

maximum volume for known cost

D
Cost of ends
Height= x Base Diameter
Cost of sides

Largest rectangle that can be

inscribed in a semi-circle
b
h
b = 2h

For a minimum length of wire

running from the top of one post L2
a L1 b
to the stake on the ground and to
the top of another post x

x d
= b
a a+b
d

For maximum product of n numbers whose sum

A
is A, each number is and the maximum product
n
n
is An
 For maximum product xn ym where x + y = K

K
x= n
m+n

K
y= m
m+n

Time Rates

If a quantity x is a function of time t, the time rate

dy
of change of x is given by .
dx

When two or more quantities, all functions of t, are

relates by an equation, the relation between their
rates of change may be obtained by differentiating
both sides of the equation with respect to t.

Basic Time Rates

dS
Velocity, v =
dt

Where S is the distance

 dv
Acceleration, a =
dt

dV
Discharge, Q =
dt

Where V is the volume at any time

d
Angular Speed, =
dt

Where is the angle at any time

CHAPTER 7: INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Integration Formulas

Algebraic, Exponential and Logarithmic

Functions:
1. adu = a du = au + C
au
2. au du = + C, a > 1, a 1
ln a
1
3. un du = un+1 + C for n -1
n+1
4. eu du = eu + C
du
5. u-1 du = = ln|u| + C
u
6. ln udu = u ln|u|- u + C

Trigonometric Functions
7. sin u du = - cos u + C

8. cos u du = sin u + C

9. tan u du = ln|sec u| + C

10. cot u du = ln|sin u| + C

11. sec u du = ln|sec u + tan u| + C

12. csc u du = ln|csc u- cot u| + C

= - ln|csc u+ cot u| + C
13. sec u tan u du = sec u + C

14. csc u cot u du = - csc u + C

15. sec2 u du = tan u + C

16. csc2 udu = - cot u + C

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

du u
17. = arcsin + C
a2 -u2 a
du 1 u
18. 2 2 = arctan + C
a +u a a
du 1 u
19. = arcsec + C
2
uu -a 2 a a
20. arcsin u du = u arcsin u + 1-u2 + C

21. arctan u du=u arctan u- ln 1+u2

Hyperbolic Functions

22. sinh u du = cosh u + C

23. cosh u du = sinh u + C

24. tanh u du = ln cosh u + C

25. coth u du = ln |sinh u| + C

26. sech2 u du = tanh u + C

27. csch2 u du = -coth u + C

28. sech u tanh u du = -sech u + C

29. csch u coth u du = -csch u + C

du u
30. = sinh-1 + C
u2 +a2 z
du -1 u
31. = cosh + C, u>a>0
u2 -a2 a
du 1 u
32. 2 2 = tanh-1 + C, u2 < a2
a +u a a
du 1 -1 u
33. 2 2 = - coth + C, x2 > a2
a -u a a
Other functions

du
34. - = ln u+ u2 a2 + C
u2 a2
du 1 a+u
35. 2 2 = ln + C, u2 < a 2
a -u 2a a-u
du 1 ua
36. 2 2 = ln + C, u2 < a2
u -a 2a u + a
u a2 u
37. a2 -u2 du = a2 -u2 + arcsin + C
a 2 a
2 u+
u a
38. u2 a2 du = u2 a2 + ln 2 2 + C
2 2 u +a
39. udv = uv- vdu

Trigonometric Substitution

Some integrations may be simplified with the

following substitutions:

1. If an integrand contain a-x2 ,

Substitute x2 = asin2
2. If an integrand contain a+x2 ,
Substitute x2 = atan2

3. If an integrand contain x2 -a,

 Substitute x2 = asec2

More generally, an integrand that contains one of

the forms a-bx2 , a+bx2 or bx2 -a but no

other irrational factor may be transform into
another involving trigonometric functions of a new
variable as follows.

Use To obtain
a 2
a-bx2 x2 = sin a1-sin = a cos
2
b
a
a+bx2 x2 = tan2 11+tan2 = a sec
b
a
bx2 -a x = sec2
2
asec2 -1 = a tan
b

Wallis Formula

/2
[(m-1)(m-3)(2 or 1)][(n-1)(n-3)(2 or 1)]
sinm cosn d=
(m+n)(m+n-2)(2 or 1)
0

Where:
= /2 when both m and n are even
= 1 if otherwise
m & n = positive integer, not equal to 1
Examples

Wallis Formula
/2 (4)(2) 8
Ex.7-1: sin5 xdx = 1 =
0 (5)(3)(1) 15
Double Integration
1 3x 1 4
y 3x
Ex.7-2: y3 dydx = dx
0 0 0 4 0
1 (3x)4 1
81 4
= dx = x dx
0 4 0 4
81x5 1 81
= =
4(5) 0 20

Triple Integration
3 2 y 3 2
y
Ex. 7-3: dxdydz = [x] dydx
0 0 0 0 0 0
3 2 3 2
y 2
= ydydx = dx
0 0 0 2 0
3
3
= 2dx = 2x| = 6
0 0

Integration By Parts
Ex.7-4: xsin xdx

Let u = x, du = dx
dv = sinxdx,v = -cos x

udv = uv- vdu

xsin xdx = x(-cos x) - cos xdx

= -xcos x + sin x + C

Algebraic Substitution
1
xdx
Ex. 7-5:
0 (x+1)
8

Let z=x+1 x=z-1

dx=dz

Change the limits

When x = 0; z = 1
When x = 1; z = 2

2 (z-1)dz 2
= z-7 -z-8 dz
1 z8 1
1 -6 1 -7 2
= z - z =0.0223
-6 -7 1
Trigonometric Substitution

dx
Ex.7-6 : Find -
x2 4+x2

let x2 = 4tan2
x = 2tan
dx=2sec2 d

dx 2sec2 d
=
x2 4+x2 4tan2 4+4tan2
1 sec
= d
4 tan2
1 1
= sin-2 cosd= - +C
4 4sin

From the right triangle:

c = 22 +x2
x x c
sin = = x
c 4+x2
2

dx 1 1
= - +C = -
x2 4+x2 4sin 4
x
4+x2
 dx 4+x2
=- +C
x2 4+x2 4x

Plane Areas

Using Vertical Strip

y = f(x)

y = g(x)

Yu

yL

x2

A = yu - yL dx
x1
yU = f(x) ; yL = g(x)
Using Horizontal Strip

y = g(x)

XL

XU
y = f(x)

y2

A = (xR - xL )dy
y1

xR = g(y); xL = f(y)

By Polar Coordinates

1
 2
1
A= r2 d
2
1

Length of arc

ds
1 dy
dx

(ds)2 = (dx)2 +(dy)2

x2
dx 2 y2
dx 2
s = 1 + dx or s = 1 + dy
x1 dy y dy
1
Centroid of Plane Areas
x

dA
xG cg

xC yc
yG y

Using Horizontal Strip

x2 y2
A XG = xc dA A YG = ydA
x1 y1

Using Vertical Strip

x2 y2
A XG = xdA A YG = yc dA
x1 y1
Centroid of Parabolic Segment and Spandrel

x1

y1
Parabolic
Segment

h
hbx
Spandrel
Spandrel

3 2
x= b y = h
8 5
1 3
x1 = b y1 = h
4 10
2 1
Aparabola = bh Aspandrel = bh
3 3

Moment of Inertia for Plane Areas

First Moment of Area

dA

dA

y
 y2 x2
Ix = y2 dA Iy = x2 dA
y1 x1

Polar Moment of Inertia

J = Ix +Iy

Product of Inertia

Ixy = xydx

Mass Moment of Inertia

Problems concerned with the rotation of solid

bodies involve the mathematical expression
dW
2 g
, which is known as the moment inertia of
thr body, also called the mass moment of inertia
because the ratio W/g is widely known as the
mass of the body.
Solid Right Circular Cylinder

1
I= Mr2
2
M = mass; r = radius

Hallow Right Circular Cylinder

1
I= M(R2 - r2 )
2
R = outer radius
r = inner radius

Uniform Slender Rod

1
Iy = M L2 y L/2 y L/2
3
1 2
Iy' = ML
12

Solid Sphere
2
I = M r2
5

Spherical Shell
2
I= M r2
3
r = mean radius
Right Circular Cone

3
I= M r2
10

r = base radius

Right Elliptical Cylinder

1
I= Ma2 + b2
4
b
a

Properties of Common Shapes

Triangle

a+b h
y a xc = yc =
3 3
1
Area= b h
xc
h 2
cg
bh3 bh3
yc Ix = Igx =
12 36
b/2 b/2
 Rectangle
y Area = bd
bd3 db3
Ix = Iy =
d 3 3
cg

bd3 db3
Igx = Igy =
x 12 12
b

Circle
y
1 2
r Area = r2 = D
4
cg
r D4
x 4
Igx = Igy = =
4 64
D

Quarter Circle 1 2
Area = r
4
y 4r
xc = yc =
3
r
xc
r4
cg Ix = Iy =
yc 16
r x
Igx = Igy = 0.055r4
Semi - Circle
1 2
Area = r
2
4r
yc =
y 3
r4
Ix = Igy =
8
cg
yc x
Igx = 0.11r4
r r

Ellipse

Area = ab
y
ab3
Igx =
a
b 4
cg
a
x
ba3
b Igy =
4
 Half Ellipse
1
Area = ab
2
4b
y yc =
3
ab3
b
cg
yc Ix = Igx = 0.11ab3
a a x 8
ba3
Igy =
8

Quarter Ellipse
1
Area = ab
y
4
4a 4b
xc = yc =
3 3
b xc cg ab3 ba3
yc Ix = Iy =
a x 16 16
Igx = 0.055ab3
Igy = 0.055ba3
Sector of a Circle
1 2
Area = r (2) = r2
y 2
r
2 rsin
xc =

x
3
r4 1
r Ix = - sin2
4 2
xc r4 1
Iy = + sin2
4 2
Parabolic Segment
2
y x = ky2
Area = bh
3
2 3
xc = h yc =
b
5 8
2 2
cg
xc
Ix = hb3 Iy = bh3
yc 15 7
x
h

Spandrel
1
y Area = bh
n+1
1
y = kxn xc = b
h
n+2
xc
n+1
yc = h
yc 4n + 2
x
b

Segment of an Arc
length of arc = 2r
y

r rsin
xc =

cg x

When
= 90(semicircle)
xc 2r
xc =

Solids of Revolution
Volume

xR

xL

yL

yR

Using Circular Disk

y2

V = xR 2 -xL 2 dy
y1
x2

or V = yR 2 -yL 2 dx
x1

Using Hollow Cylindrical Shell

dx xR xL
xL
yu yL

dy
 y2

V = 2y(xR - xL ) dy
y1
x2

or V = 2xyR - yL dx
x1

Surface Area
r

ds

d2
As = 2rds
d1

ds = 1 + (dx/dy)2 or ds = 1 + (dy/dx)2

Volume of other Solids known Cross- Sections

y2
V = Ady
y1
Centroid of Volume

y2
VYG = ydV
y1

Where V = Total volume of the body

dV = Ady
A = f(y)
Work

Constant Force

The work done by a constant force F acting over a

directed distance s along a straight line is:

Work = Force Distance = F s

Work under Variable Force

x2 x2
Work = (dF)(x) or Work= F(x)dx
x1 x1
Work required to stretch a spring

The work done in stretching a spring of natural

length L from x1 to x2 is:

1
Work = kx2 2 - x1 2
2
Where, k = spring constant or stiffness in N/m

Work in winding up a load

If a load P is to be wind up by a flexible rope or

cable having a uniform mass and length L, the
work done is:
Work = PL + W(L/2)

W = weight of the rope or cable

P = load at the end of the rope
or cable
CHAPTER 8 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Differential equations are an equations that

contain differential coefficients. Example "dy" "dx"
" = 12x" and "y\" + 2xy' y = 0" .

Differential equations are classified according to

the highest derivative that occurs in them. The
differential equation "dy" "dx" " = 12x" is a first
order differential equation and the equation ("d"
^"2" "y" )("d" ^"2" "x" ) " + " "4dy" "dx " "- 3y =
0" is a second order differential equation.

A solution to a differential equation that contains

one or more arbitrary constants of integration is
called general solution. When additional
information is given so that these constants may
be calculated the particular solution of differential
equation is obtained. The additional information is
called boundary condition.

Variable Separable

dy
A. Differential equations of type dx = f(x)
dy
Differential equations of type dx = f(x) can
be solved direct integration by writing it in the
form

dy = f(x) dx
Example 8-1
Solve the differential equation dydx = 2x + sin 3x

Solution
dy = (2x + 3 sin x) dx
y = x2 (1/3) cos 3x + C (general solution)

dy
B. Differential equations of type dx = f(y)
dy
Differential equations of type dx = f(y) can
be solved direct integration by writing it in the
form

dy
dx =
f(y)

Example 8-2
Solve the equation (y2 1) dy/dx = 3y,
given that y = 1 when x = 13/6.

Solution
y2 - 1 y 1
Rearrange dx = dy = - dy
3y 3 3y
1 1
x= y2 - ln y + C (general solution)
6 3
13
When x = , y = 1 then:
16
13 (1)2 1
= - ln(1) + C ; C=2
16 6 3
1 1
x= y2 - ln y + 2 (particular solution)
6 3
 C. Differential equation of type
dy
dx = f(x) g(y)
dy
Differential equations of type dx = f(x) g(y)
can be solved direct integration by writing it in
the form

dy
= f(x)dx
g(y)

D. Differential equations of type dQdt = kQ

The general solution of an equation of the
form dQdt = kQ is

Q = C ekt

Where C is constant

Example 8-3
Solve the equation dydx = 3y

Solution
Q=y dQ = dy,
t=x k=3
then y = Ce3x
Homogeneous First Order Differential Equation

Some first order differential equation are not of the

variable-separable type but can be made
separable by changing the variable. Differential
equations in the form of P dy/dx = Q, where P and
Q are functions of both x and y of the same
degree throughout, is said to be homogeneous in
x and y.

To solve these types of equation, the following

procedures may be done:
1. Rearrange the equation into the form
dy Q
=
dx P
2. Substitute y = vx from where
dy = vdx + xdv
3. Substitute both y and dy to the original
equation and separable variables.
4. Solve using the previous methods and
substitute v = y / x to solve in terms of
the original variables.

Example 8-4
Solve the equation; x2 xy + y2 dx - xy dy = 0

Solution
The coefficients are of the second degree.
Let y = vx
dy = v dx + x dv
then x2 - x2 v + v2 x2 dx - x2 v (v dx + x dv) = 0

Removing x2
(1 v + v2) dx v (v dx + x dv) = 0
dx v dx + v2dx v2dx vx dv = 0
(1 v) dx vx dv = 0

Separating variables
dx vdv
+ =0
x v-1

dx 1
Or + 1 + dv = 0
x v-1

Integrating:
ln x + v + ln(v - 1) = ln C
C
ln =v
x(v - 1)
c
= ev
x(v - 1)

Finally, substituting v = y / x
y y
x - 1 ey/x = C or (y - x)ex = C
x
Linear First Order Differential Equation

The equation in the form dy / dx + Py = Q where P

and Q are functions of x only is called linear
differential equation since y and its derivatives are
of the first degree.

The solution for dy / dx + Py = Q is obtained by

multiplying throughout by integrating factor e Pdx
to become

y e Pdx = e Pdx Q dx

Example 8-5
Solve the equation dy + 4xy dx = 2x dx

Solution
Rearranging:
dy / dx + 4xy = 2x
P = 4x and Q = 2x

Integrating factor = e Pdx

= e 4xdx = e2x

Then from y e Pdx = e Pdx Q dx

2 2
y e2x = e2x 2x dx
Integrate the right side to get
2
2 1 2x
y e2x = e +C
2

Linear Second Order Differential Equation

Equation is in the function a(d2y / dx2) + b(dy / dx)

+ cy = 0 where a, b, and c are constants, is called
a linear second differential equation with constant
coefficients.

Setting D = d / dx and D2 = d2 / dx2, the following

procedures may be followed:
1. Write the equation in D-operation form
(aD2 + bD + c)y = 0, substitute m for D and
solve the auxiliary equation am2 + bm + c =
0 for m.
A. If the roots are real and different
b2 > 4ac say m = and m = , then
the general solution is

y = A ex + B ex

Where A and B are constants.

B. If the roots are real and equal (b2 =
4ac), say m = twice, the general
solution is

y = (Ax+B)ex

C. If the roots are imaginary b2 < 4ac,

say m = i, the general solution is

y = ex [ C cos x + Dsinx ]

Example 8-6

d2 y dy
Solve the equation 2 + 5 - 3y = 0
dx2 dx

Solution
Writing in D-operator form:
2D2 + 5D - 3y = 0

Substituting m for D gives the auxiliary

equation 2m2 + 5m 3 = 0 which can be
factored as (2m -1)(m +3) = 0, and the
roots are m = 12 and m = -3.
 Since the roots are real and different the
general solution is y = A ex + B ex with
= 12 and = -3 then the general solution
is y = A ex2 + B e-3x

Exact Differential Equation

Differential equations of form
M(x, y)dx + N(x, y)dy = 0 are said to be exact if

M N
=
y x

Example 8-7
Solve the equation (2x + 4y + 6)dx +
4x - 2y - 5dy = 0

Solution
Check for exactness
M = 2x + 4y +6 N = 4x -2y 5

M N
=4 =4
y x
M N
Since = , the equation is exact
y x

(2x + 4y + 6)dx + (4x 2y 5) dy = 0

2x dx + 4y dy + 6 dx + 4x dy 2y dy 5 dy = 0
2x dx 2y dy + 6 dx 5 dy + 4(y dx + x dy) = 0
 Note: y dx + x dy = d(xy)

Integrate:
x2 - y2 + 6 5 + 4 xy = C

Bernoullis Equation Type

dy
Equation of type + P(x) y = Q(x) y" has a
dx
general solution of

ve(1 - n) pdx = (1 - n) Q e(1 - n) pdx dx

Where v = y1 n

If n = 1, the solution is:

ln y = (Q - P) dx + C

Finding the Differential Equation from a

General Solution
To find the differential equation when the general
solution is given, differentiate the general solution,
differentiate the derived solution, differentiate the
second derived solution, etc.
Example 8-8
Find the differential equation of x2 + y2 = cx.

Solution
x2 + y2 y2
Isolate c: c = = x+
x x

Differentiate with respect to x:

x 2yy' - y2
0=1+
x2
0 = x2 + 2yy y2; 2xyy = y2 x2

Basic Law of Natural Numbers

Let a, b, and c be any number.
1. Law of closure for addition
a+b
2. Commutative law for addition
a+b=b+a
3. Associative law for addition
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
4. Law of closure for multiplication
ab
5. Commutative law for multiplication
ab=ba
6. Associative law for multiplication
a(bc) = (ab)c
7. Distributive law
a( b + c ) = ab + ac
Basic Law of Equality

1. Reflexive property
a=a
2. Symmetric property
If a = b, then b = a
3. Transitive property
If a = b and b = c, then a = c. that is, things
equal to the same thing are equal to each
other.
4. If a = b and c = d, then a + c = b + d. That is, if
equals are added to equals, the results are
equal.

Some Applications of Differential Equation

Population Growth

The rate of population growth is proportional to the

present population P.

dP
=kP
dt

P = Po ekt

Where Po is the population at time t = 0, k is

constant.
Exponential Growth and Decay

dQ
=kQ
dt

Q = Qo ekt

Cooling and Heating Problems

Newtons Law of Cooling: The surface
temperature of a cooling body changes at the rate
proportional to the difference between the surface
and ambient temperatures.

dT
= k (T - ts )
dt

T = ts + (To - ts )e-kt

Where T = temperature of the body at any time

Ts = ambient temperature

Flow Problems
Qin

h1
h2
Qout
 dQ
= Rate of inflow - Rate of outflow
dt

t2 h2
dQ
dt =
t1 h1 Qin - Qout

Where Q = Concentration or volume of liquid in the

tank at any time

Continuous Compound Interest

dP
=rP
dt

P = Po ert

Motion Problems

ds
Velocity, v =
dt

dv
Acceleration, a =
dt

v dv = a ds
Newtons Second Law of Motion

dv
F=M
dt
CHAPTER 9 ENGINEERING MECHANICS
(PHYSICS)

Engineering Mechanics is the science which

considers the effects of forces on rigid bodies. The
subject is divided into two parts: statics and
dynamics. In statics we consider the effects and
distribution of forces on rigid bodies which are and
remain at rest. In dynamics we consider the motion
of rigid bodies caused by the forces acting upon
them.

Outline of Engineering Mechanics

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

STATICS DYNAMICS

Force
Applications Kinematics Kinetics
System

Concurrent Trusses Translation Translation

Parallel Centroids Rotation Rotation

Non- Plane Plane

Friction
Concurrent Motion Motion
Statics

Statics is a branch of mechanics which studies the

effects and distribution of forces of rigid bodies
which are and remain at rest.

Force System
A force system is any arrangement where two or
more forces act on a body or on a group of related
bodies.

Resultant of Two Concurrent Coplanar Forces

Parallelogram Law

Resultant, R F2

F2
F1

R2 = F1 2 + F2 2 - 2F1 F2 cos

F2 R
=
sin sin
Resultant of Two or More Concurrent Coplanar
Forces

Resultant, R

F2

F1

Analytical Solution

Rx = Fx = F1 x + F2 x +

Ry = Fy = F1 y + F2 y +

Ry
R = Rx 2 + Ry 2 ; tan x =
Rx
Resultant of Concurrent Forces in Space

F2
F1

F2z
F1z
z
F2y
F1x
F2x
F1y
y
F3y x
F3x
F3z R
F3 x
y

Rx = Fx = F1 x + F2 x + F3 x +

Ry = Fy = F1 y + F2 y + F3 y +

Rz = Fz = F1 z + F2 z + F3 z +

R = Rx 2 + Ry 2 + Rz 2

Rx Ry Rz
cos x = cos y = cos z =
R R R
Example 9-1
Given the three concurrent forces which pass
through (1, -3, 4) and the indicated points:

F1 = 150 N (5, -6, 2)

F2 = 340 N (4, 0, -3)
F3 = 280 N (-1, 2,6)

Determine the magnitude of the resultant force.

Solution
2 2 2
F1 = 150 N, L1 = (5 - 1) + (-6 + 3) + (2 - 4) = 5.385
2 2
F2 = 340 N, L2 = (4 - 1) + (0 + 3)2 + (-3 - 4) = 8.185
2 2
F3 = 280 N, L3 = (-1 - 1) + (2 + 3)2 + (6 - 4) = 5.745

Rx = Fx = F1 x + F2 x + F3 x
5-1 4-1 -1 - 1
Rx = 150 + 340 + 280 = 138.56 N
5.835 8.185 5.745

Ry = Fy = F1 y + F2 y + F3 y
-6 + 3 0+3 2+3
Ry = 150 + 340 + 280 = 284.76 N
5.835 8.185 5.745
Rz = Fz = F1 z + F2 z + F3 z
2-4 -3 - 4 6-4
Rz = 150 + 340 + 280 = -248.99 N
5.835 8.185 5.745

R = Rx 2 + Ry 2 + Rz 2 = 402.84 N

Resultant of Parallel Forces

x4

x3

x2
F2

x1 F1
F3 F4

R = F = F1 + F2 + F3 +

R x = F x = F1 x1 + F2 x2 + F3 x3 +
Resultant of Non-Concurrent Forces
P1

P2
P5
O
d
P4

R P3

Rx = Px Ry = Py

R = Rx 2 + Ry 2

Equilibrium of Forces

General Conditions of Equilibrium

Fx = 0 Fy = 0

Mo = 0
Equilibrium of Two Forces
Two forces are in equilibrium
if they are equal, collinear,
and oppositely directed.

Equilibrium of Two or More Concurrent Forces

If two or more coplanar forces are in equilibrium,
they must form a closed polygon.

P Q Q

R
Force Polygon

R
P Q
S
Q
R

T
P T
S
Equilibrium of Three Coplanar Forces

If a flexible wire cable is suspended over two

supports and where most of the loads are
distributed horizontally as in a suspension bridge,
the cable assumes the shape of a parabolic
segment.

x1 x2
T1 A B T2

y1 y2
C

w (N/m)

x1 2 x2 2
=
y1 y2
The solution is to cut a segment from the support to
the lowest point of the cable.

Cutting segment AC:

x/2 x/2
T
A
T
W W
y

H
H
C

w (N/m)

W=wx

MA = 0

x
Hy=W
2
From the force polygon;

T2 = W2 + H2
W y
tan = =
H x2
T sin = W
Symmetrical Cable
L

L/2 L/2
T A B T

d
C

w (N/m)

w L2
Tension at C = H =
8d
wL 2
Tension at A = T = H2 +
2

Length of Cable S:

L2
Exact S = [ m k + ln( m + k ) ]
8d

4d
m= ; k = 1 + m 2
L
8d2 32d4
Approximate S = L + -
3L 5L3
Catenary

When the cable sags due to its own weight, the

cable assumes the shape of a catenary which is the
graph of the equation y = cosh x.

T2

T1

S2
S1
y2
y1 w (N/m)

c y

x
x1 O x2

Tension at lowest point, H = w c

T1 = w y1 T2 = w y2

T1 = H2 + (w S1 )2 T2 = H2 + (w S2 )2
y1 2 = S1 2 + c2 y2 2 = S2 2 + c2
S1 + y1 S2 + y2
x1 = c ln x2 = c ln
c c
Friction

Friction is the contact W

F
resistance by one body when
the second body moves or
f=N
tends to move past the first

body. Friction force always N R

acts opposite to the motion or

to the tendency to move.

Elements

N = total normal reaction

The sum of all forces perpendicular to the
surface
f = friction force (maximum available friction)
= coefficient of friction = tan
R = total surface reaction
The resultant of f and R
= angle of friction = arctan

f
tan = =
N
The maximum angle that a plane may be inclined
without causing the body to slide down is:

= = arctan

Belt Friction

T1

T2

T1
= ef
T2

T1
ln =f
T2
Where:
f = coefficient of friction
= angle of contact in radius
e = 2.71828
T1 = tension in the tight side
T2 = tension in the slack side

Properties of Sections

*see Chapter 7 for properties of common geometric

shapes

Centroid of Plane Area

x3
XG

x1

1
G 3
y1
YG y3
2
y2
O
x2

A XG = a x = a1 x1 + a2 x2 +

A YG = a y = a1 y1 + a2 y2 +
Center of Gravity of Flat Plates

z y W
w1
w2

XG w3
cg

O YG

W XG = w x = w1 x1 + w2 x2 +

W YG = w y = w1 y1 + wy2 +

Centroid of Composite Figures

z y W
w1

XG w2
cg

O YG

x
 W XG = w x = w1 x1 - w2 x2

W YG = w y = w1 y1 - wy2

Moment of Inertia (first moment of area)

dA
x

r
y

Ix = y2 dA Iy = x2 dA

Polar Moment of Inertia

*referring to the figure above:

J = r2 dA = Ix + Iy
Radius of Gyration

I I
x rx = x ry = y
A A

Transfer Formula for Moment of Inertia

XO
cg

Ix = Ig + Ad2

Where Ig = centroidal moment of inertia

Moment of Inertia with Respect to an Inclined

Axis
In some cases, it is necessary to determine the
moment of inertia with respect to axes, which are
inclined to the usual axes. The moment of inertia of
such cases can be found by the use of a formula
and more conveniently by graphical solution using
Mohrs Circle especially if the principal moments of
inertia are known.

V U

O x

Mohrs Circle for Moment of Inertia

The following procedures apply to moments of
inertia using Mohrs Circle:
1. On a set of rectangular coordinate axes
choose one axis on which to plot values
of Ix and Iy and the other on which to plot
Ixy. These axes area called principal axes.
2. With Ix, Iy, and Ixy known plot (Ix, Ixy) and
(Iy, Ixy) with Ix and Iy along the horizontal
and Ixy along the vertical.
3. Join the points plotted with a straight line.
This line is the diameter of the Mohrs
Circle having its center on the principal
axis.
 4. The angle between any two radii on the
Mohrs Circle is double the actual angle
between the usual axes. The rotational
sense of this angle corresponds to the
rotational sense of the actual angle
between the axes.

Ix

Imin

R Ixy
C 2
Ix - C
Iyx R

Iy

Imax

The following relationships can be derived from the

above procedures:

Iyx = Ixy
Ix + Iy Imax + Imin
C= =
2 2
R = Imax C
2
R = Ixy + (Ix - C)2
Imax = C + R
Imin = C - R
Dynamics

The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies in

motion

BRANCHES OF DYNAMICS

Kinematics
The geometry of motion. This term is used to
define the motion of a particle or body without
consideration of the forces causing the motion.

Kinetics
The branch of mechanics that relates the force
acting on the body to its mass and
acceleration

KINEMATICS

Motion of Particles

I. Translation
The motion of a rigid body in which a straight line
passing through any two of its particle always
remain to be parallel to its initial position
 II. Rotation
The motion of a rigid body in which the particles
move in circular paths with their centers on a fixed
straight line called the axis of rotation.
III. Plane Motion
The motion of a rigid body in which all particles in
the body remain at a constant distance from a fied
reference plane

Notations
s = distance
x = horizontal displacement
y = vertical displacement
v = velocity at any time (final velocity)
vo = initial velocity (velocity at time = 0)
a = acceleration
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2, 32.2
ft/s2)
t = time

TRANSLATION

Rectilinear Translation
Motion along a straight line.

A. Uniform Motion (constant velocity)

s=vt
B. Variable acceleration
dv ds
a= v=
dt dt

v dv = a ds

Where a may either be a function of v, t, or s, and v

may either be a function of d or s.

C. Constant acceleration

v = vo + at

1 2
s = vo t + at
2

v2 = vo 2 + 2as

D. Free-falling body (vo = 0, s = h)

v = gt

1 2
s= gt
2

v2 = 2gh
Curvilinear Translation (Projectile Motion)
Resolve the motion into x and y-components and
use the formulas in rectilinear translation.

vy = 0, v = vx

A
B vx

vo vy
H v
y
voy

vy = -voy
O vox x C
R D

At any point B:
x-component of motion (ax = 0)

vx = vox x = voxt

y-component of motion (ay = -g)

vy = voy - gt
1
y = voy t - gt2
2
vy 2 = voy 2 - 2gy
gx2
y = x tan -
2vo 2 cos2
At the summit A: (vy = 0)

voy 2
H=
2g
voy
t=
g

At point C:

y=0 vy = -voy v = vo
2
vo sin 2
R=
g
2voy 2vo sin
t= =
g g

Note: is positive if the projectile directed upward

and negative if directed downward

At any point D below the origin O, the sign of y

is negative.
vy is positive if directed upward and negative if
directed downward

Motion Curves

Motion curves are plot of distance s, velocity v, and

acceleration a versus time.
 a

zero acceleration
a-t
diagram

A1

zero slope

v-t
diagram zero velocity
A1
A2
t

s
zero slope

s-t
diagram

A2
t
The relationships between these curves are:

ds
v=
dt

Which means that the velocity is the slope of the s-t

diagram and,
dv
a=
dt
which means that the acceleration is the slope of
the v-t diagram

Note: The relationship between these curves is the

same as the load, shear, and moment diagrams.

The velocity and distance may be computed from

the a-t diagram as follows:

Pnet
Pnet

t
Net force diagram
xG
a = Pnet/M Time where the v
and s are required

Area
cg
t
Acceleration diagram
 v = vo + area
S = vo t1 + area xG

ROTATION

Notation
= angular displacement, radians
= angular speed, rad/sec
= angular acceleration, rad/sec2
t = time

Uniform Motion

=t
Uniform Acceleration

= o + t
1
= o t + t2
2
2 = o 2 + 2

Relationship between Translation and Rotation

r
a

r
v
r

s=r
v=r
a=r
KINETICS

Newtons Laws of Motion

1. A body at rest will remain at rest or in motion
will remain in motion along a straight path
unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
2. A particle acted upon by an unbalanced force
system has an acceleration in line with and
directly proportional to the resultant of the
force system and inversely proportional to its
mass.

F F
a or a = k (where k = 1)
M M
F=ma

3. In every action there is always an equal and

opposite reaction.

DAlemberts Principle
W
The resultant of the external a

forces applied to a body (rigid or P REF

non-rigid) composed of a system f
of particles is equivalent to the
N
vector summation of the effective
forces acting on all particles.
 REF = P - f
W
REF = M a = a
g

Where M is the mass and W is the weight

Problems Involving DAlemberts Principle

Friction pulley

w1 + w2
a = w2 - w1 a
g a

W1

W2

w1 < w2

y
y
W 1x x x
a

W1 a
W2
f

w1 + w2
- Forces
a = Forces = W2 f - W1x
g
Centrifugal Force (Reverse Normal Effective
Force)

Whenever a body rotates about its axis at a speed

, there exists a force called centrifugal inertia
force directed away from the axis of rotation.

r W

an

CF
T

Normal acceleration, an = 2 r = v2 / r
CF = M an = M 2 r
W 2 W v2
CF = r=
g gr

The tangential inertia force (centripetal force), also

known as reversed tangential effective force is
given by the formula:

W
T = M at = r
g
Conical Pendulum

T W
L
h

CF
r T

W CF
v

CF 2 r v2
tan = = =
W g gr
g g
cos = 2 for >
L L
W
T=
cos
h
Time to complete one revolution, t = 2
g

As the value of decreases, the value of h

approaches the limiting value L so that the
maximum time for a revolution is:

L
t max = 2
g
Rod uniform mass of length L rotated about one
end:

2g
cos = for > 2g/L
2 L
L

Banking of Curves

The maximum speed v that a car can round a

highway curve without skidding is given by the
relationship:

v2
tan ( + ) =
gR

v2
The ratio is also known as the impact factor or
gR
centrifugal ration.
Horizontal Rotating Platform

The maximum speed that the platform may be

rotated so that the block will not slide is given by the
formula:

2 R v2
tan = =
g gR

WORK AND ENERGY

Work-energy method is used particularly for solving

problems involving force, displacement, and
velocity.

Work = Force distance

1 1 W 2
Kinetic energy, KE = Mv2 = v
2 2 g
Potential energy, PE = Mgh = W h

Work-energy Equation for Constant Forces

If the forces acting on a body are constant

KEA Work Wh = KEB

IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
Problems involving force, velocity, and time are
conveniently solved by means of the impulse-
momentum method.

Impulse = Force time

W
Momentum = Mv = v
g

Impulse-momentum Equation
When a body of weight W moving with an initial
velocity vo changes its velocity to vf over a period of
t along a straight line,

W
(+) Impulse - (-) Impulse = (vf - vo )
g

(+) Impulse = impulse in the same direction with the

motion
(-) Impulse = impulse in the opposite direction with
the motion

Law of Conservation of Momentum

If a system is composed of particles of mass M1,

M2, etc., having velocities v1, v2, etc., and after
mutual reaction between the particles they possess
new velocities v1, v2, etc., the condition that the
momentum of the system be constant may be
expressed as:

V1 V2 V1 V2

M1 M2 M1 M2

Before impact After impact

+ M1v1 + M2v2 = M1v1 + M2v2

Coefficient of Restitution

The coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio

of the relative velocities of colliding bodies after
impact to their relative velocities before impact. e is
always positive.

Relative velocity after impact

Coefficient of restitution, e =
Relative velocity before impact
v'2 v'1 vseparation
e= =
v1 v2 vapproach

Note: denotes vectorial subtraction

Where 0 > e < 1 for elastic or inelastic collision
e = 0 for perfectly inelastic collision
 e = 1 for perfectly elastic collision
If a ball is dropped from a height h upon a
pavement and rebounds to a height of h, the
coefficient of restitution between the ball and the
pavement is:

h'
e=
h

If a ball is thrown at an angle with the normal to a

smooth surface and rebounds at an angle ,

tan
e=
tan '

If two masses M1 and M2 moving opposite

directions with velocities v1 and v2 collide, the
energy loss in direct central impact is:

1 M1 M2
Loss in KE = 1 - e2 (v1 - v2 )2
2 M1 + M2
CHAPTER 10 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

SIMPLE STRESS
Normal Stress
Stress is defined as the strength of a material per
unit area or unit strength. It is the force on a
member divided by the area, which carries the
force, formerly expressed as psi, now in N/mm2 or
MPa.

P
=
A
Where P is the applied normal load in Newton and
A is the area in mm2. The maximum stress in
tension or compression occurs over a section
normal to the load.

P
Bar in Compression

Bar in Tension
P
P
Shearing Stress

Forces parallel to the area resisting the force

cause shearing stress. It differs to tensile and
compressive stresses, which are caused by forces
perpendicular to the area on which they act.
Shearing stress is known as tangential stress.

V
=
A

Where V is the resultant shearing force which

passes through the centroid of the area A being
sheared.

Single Shear
P
P

Double Shear
P
P
P

Bearing Stress
Bearing stress is the contact pressure between
separate bodies. It differs from compressive
stress, as it is internal stress caused by
compressive forces.

Pb Pb

Ab

Pb
b =
Ab

THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS

Thin-Walled Cylindrical Vessel

A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a
pressure is subjected to tensile forces, which
resist bursting, developed across longitudinal and
transverse sections.

ST
pressure SL SL
p
ST
 pD
Tangential stress, ST =
2t
pD
Longitudinal stress. SL =
4t
p = internal pressure - external pressure

Spherical Shell
If a spherical tank of diameter D and thickness t
contains a gas under a pressure of p, the stress at
the wall can be expressed as:

pD
Wall stress, S =
4t

THICK-WALLED CYLINDER
In thin-walled cylinders,
the thickness of the
wall is very small po
compared to the tank b
diameter. If in the case pi

of thick-walled a r
cylinders, the
tangential stress ST
and radial stress SR at
any distance r from the
center is given by the following equations:

a2 pi - b2 po a2 b2 ( pi - po )
SR = 2
- 2
b - a2 (b - a2 ) r2
a2 pi - b2 po a2 b2 ( pi - po )
ST = 2
+ 2
b - a2 (b - a2 ) r2

Simple Strain
Also known as a unit deformation, strain is the
ratio of the change in length caused by an applied
force, to the original length.

L P

=
L

Where is the elongation and L is the original

length, thus is dimensionless.
Stress-Strain Diagram

Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in a

tension-compression-testing machine. As axial
load is gradually increased in increments, the total
elongation over the gage length is measured at
each increment of the load and this is continued
until failure of the specimen takes place. Knowing
the original cross-sectional area and length of the
specimen, the normal stress and the strain can
be obtained. The graph of these quantities with the
stress along the y-axis and the strain along the
x-axis is called the stress-strain diagram. The
stress-strain diagram differs in form for various
materials. The diagram shown below is that for the
medium-carbon structural steel.

Metallic engineering materials are classified as

either ductile or brittle materials. A ductile material
is one having relatively large tensile strains up to
the point of rapture like structural steel and
aluminium, whereas brittle materials has a
relatively small strain up to the point of rapture like
cast iron and concrete. An arbitrary strain of 0.05
mm/mm is frequently taken as the dividing line
between these two classes.
 Ultimate strength
Rapture strength
U
Stress,

R
Y
E
P

Yield point
Elastic limit
Proportional limit

O Strain,

Proportional Limit (Hookes Law)

From the origin, O to a point called proportional
limit, the stress-strain curve is a straight line. This
linear relation between elongation and the axial
force causing it was first noticed by Sir Robert
Hooke in 1678 and is called Hookes Law that
within the proportional limit, the stress is directly
proportional to strain or

or = K

The constant of proportionality K is called the

Modulus of Elasticity or Youngs Modulus and is
equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram
from O to P.

=E
Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the
material will no longer go back to its original shape
when the load is removed, or it is the maximum
stress that may be developed such that there is no
permanent or residual deformation when the load
is entirely removed.
Elastic and Plastic Ranges
The region in the stress-strain diagram from O to
P is called the elastic range. The region from P to
R is called the plastic range.
Yield Point
The point at which the material will have an
appreciable elongation or yielding without any
increase of load.
Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain
diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.
Rapture Strength
The strength of the material at rapture. This is also
known as the breaking strength.
Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit
volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to P, in N-m/m3. This may be
calculated as the area under stress-strain curve
from the origin O up to the elastic limit E. The
resilience of a material is its ability to absorb
energy without creating a permanent distortion.
Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit
volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to R, in N-m/m3. This may be
calculated as the area under the entire stress-
strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a
material is its ability to absorb energy without
causing it to break.
Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor
of Safety
Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a
material under a given loading. The maximum safe
stress that a material can carry is termed as the
allowable stress. The allowable stress should be
limited to values not exceeding the proportional
limit. However, since proportional limit is difficult to
determine accurately, the allowable stress is taken
as either the yield point or ultimate strength
divided by a factor of safety. The ratio of this
strength (ultimate or yield strength) to the
allowable strength is called the factor of safety.
Axial Deformation
In the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram,
the stress is proportional to strain and is given by
= E . Since = P / A and = / L, then P / A = E
/ L, or

PL L
= =
AE E

To use this formula, the load must be axial, the bar

must have a uniform cross-sectional area, and the
stress must not exceed the proportional limit.

If however, the cross-sectional area in not uniform,

the axial deformation can be determined by
considering a differential length and applying
integration.
 L

P
y y

t
dx

x dx

P L dx
=
E O A

Where A = t y and y and t, if variable, must be

expressed in terms of x.

For rod of unit mass suspended vertically from

one end, the total elongation of due to its own
weight is:

g L2 M g L
= =
2E 2AE

Where is in kg/m3, l is the length of the rod in

mm, m is the total mass of the rod in kg, A is the
cross-sectional area of the rod in mm2, and g =
9.81 m/s2.
Stiffness, k
Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force acting on
an elastic body to the resulting displacement. It
has the unit of N/mm.

P
k=

Shearing Deformation

Shearing force cause shearing deformation. An

element subject to shear does not change in
length but undergoes a change in shape.

s

L

The change in angle at the corner of an original

rectangular element is called the shear strain and
is expressed as:
 s
=
L

The ratio of the shear stress and the shear strain

is called the modulus of elasticity in shear or
modulus of rigidity and is denoted as G, in MPa.

G=

The relationship between the shearing

deformation and the applied shearing force is:

VL L
s = =
As G G

Where V is the shearing force acting over an area

Aa.

Poissons Ratio
When a bar is subjected to a tensile loading there
is an increase in length of the bar in the direction
of the applied load, but there is also a decrease in
the lateral dimension perpendicular to the load.
The ratio of the sidewise deformation (or strain) to
the longitudinal deformation (or strain) is called the
Poissons and is denoted by . For most steel, it
lays in the range 0.25 to 0.3, and 0.20 for
concrete.

x
y

P
P

y z
=- =-
x x

Where x is the strain in the X-direction and y and

z are the strains in the perpendicular direction.
The negative sign indicates a decrease in the
transverse dimension when x is positive.
Biaxial Deformation
If an element is subjected simultaneously by
tensile stresses, x and y, in the X and Y
directions, the strain in the X direction is x / E and
the strain in the Y direction is y / E.
Simultaneously, the stress in the Y direction will
produce a lateral contraction on the X direction of
the amount y or y / E. The resulting strain
in the X-direction will be:

x y x + y E
x = - or x =
E E 1 - 2

And

y x y + x E
y = - or y =
E E 1 - 2

Triaxial Deformation
If an element is subjected simultaneously by three
mutually perpendicular normal stresses x, y, and
z, which are accompanied by strains x, y, and z,
respectively.
 1
x = - y + z
E x
1
y = - (x + z )
E y
1
z = - x + y
E z

Tensile stresses and elongation are taken as

positive. Compressive stresses and contractions
are taken as negative.

Relationship between E, G, and

The relationship between modulus of elasticity E,
shear modulus G and Poissons ratio is:

E
G=
2 ( 1 + )

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of

Volume Expansion, K
The bulk modulus of elasticity K is a measure of a
resistance of a material to change in volume
without change in shape or form. It is given as:

E
K= =
3 ( 1 2 ) V / V
Where V is the volume and V is change in
volume. The ratio V/V is called volumetric strain
and can be expressed as:

V 3 ( 1 2 )
= =
V K E

Thermal Stress
Temperature changes cause the body to expand
or contract. The amount of linear deformation, T,
is given by:

T = L ( Tf - Ti )= L T

Where is the coefficient of thermal expansion in

m/m-C, L is the length in meter, Ti & Tf is the
initial and final temperatures, respectively in C.
For steel = 11.25 x 10-6 / C.

If temperature deformation is permitted to occur

freely, no load or stress will be induced in the
structure. In some cases where temperature
deformation is not permitted, an internal stress is
created. The internal stress created is termed as
thermal stress.
For a homogeneous rod mounted between
unyielding supports as shown, the thermal stress
is computed as:

Thermal stress, = E T = E (Ti - Tf )

If the wall yields a distance of a, the following

calculations will be made:

a
 L
L T = a +
E

Where is the thermal stress

Take note that if the temperature rises above the

normal, the stress in the rod is compression, and if
the temperature drops below the normal, the rod is
in tension.

Torsion
Consider a bar to be rigidly attached at one end
and twisted at the other end by a torque or twisting
moment T equivalent to F x d, which is applied
perpendicular to the axis of the bar, as shown in
the figure. Such a bar is said to be in torsion.

F
d

r

T L
T
Torsional Shearing Stress
For a solid or hallow circular shaft subject to a
twisting moment T the torsional shearing stress Ss
at a distance from the center of the shaft is:

T Tr
Ss = and Ss max =
J J

Where J is the polar moment of inertia of the

section and r is the outer radius.

For solid cylindrical shaft

4
J= D
32 D
16 T
Ss =
D3

For hallow cylindrical shaft

J= (D4 - d4 )
32 D d
16 TD
Ss =
(D - d4 )
4
Angle of Twist
The angle through which the bar of length L will
twist is:

TL
= in radians
JG

Where T is the torque in N-mm, L is the length of

shaft in mm, G is hear modulus in MPa, J is the
polar moment of inertia in mm4, D and d are
diameter in mm, and r is the radius in mm.

Power Transmitted by the Shaft

A shaft rotating with a constant angular velocity
(in radians per second) is being acted on by a
twisting moment T.
Torsion on Thin-Walled Tubes

Centerline of wall
The torque applied in thin-walled tubes is
expressed as:

T=2Aq

Where T is the torque in N-mm, A is the area

enclosed by the centreline of the tube (as shown
in the stripe-filled portion) in mm2, and q is the
shear flow in N/mm.

The average shearing stress across any thickness

t is:

q T
Ss = =
t 2At

Helical Springs
When close-coiled helical spring, composed of a
wire of round rod diameter d wound into a helix of
mean radius R with n number of turns, is
subjected to an axial load P gives the following
stresses and elongation:
 16 PR d
Ss = 1 +
d3 4R

This formula neglects the curvature of the spring.

This is used for light springs where the ratio d / 4R
are small.

For heavy springs and considering the curvature

of the spring, a more precise formula is given by
(A.M. Wahl Formula).

16 PR 4m - 1 0.615
Ss = +
d3 4m - 4 m

Where m is called the spring index and (4m 1) /

(4m 4) is the Wahl factor
The elongation of the bar is

64 P R3 n
=
G d4

Notice that the deformation is directly

proportional to the applied load P. The ratio of P to
is called the spring constant k is equal to

P G d4
k= = in N/mm
64 R3 n

Springs in Series

For two or more springs with spring laid in series,

the resulting spring constant k is given by

1 1 1
= + +
k k1 k2
Where k1, k2 are the spring constants for
different springs.

Springs in Parallel

k = k1 + k2 +

SHEAR AND MOMENT IN BEAMS

Definition of Beam
A beam is a bar subject to forces or couples that
lie in a plane containing the longitudinal of the bar.
According to determinacy, a beam may be
determinate or indeterminate.
Statically Determinate Beam
Statically determinate beams are those beams in
which the reactions of the supports may be
determined by the use of the equations of static
equilibrium. The beams shown below are
examples of statically determinate beams.

Cantilever Beam

Simple Beam

Overhang Beam

Statically Indeterminate Beams

If the number of reactions exerted upon a beam
exceeds the number of equations in static
equilibrium, the beam is said to be statically
indeterminate. In order to solve the reactions of
the beam, the statics equation must be
supplemented by equations based upon the
elastic deformations of the beam.
The degree of indeterminacy is taken as the
difference between the numbers of reactions to
the number of equations in static equilibrium that
can be applied. In the case of the propped beam
shown, there are four unknown reactions R1, R2,
R3, and M and three static equilibrium equations
(M, FH, and Fv) can be applied, thus the beam
is indeterminate to the first degree (4 3 = 1).

R3 Propped Beam
M
R2
R1

Restrained Beam

Constinuous Beam

Types of Loading
Loads applied to a beam may consist of a
concentrated load (load applied at a point),
uniform load, uniformly varying load, or an applied
couple or moment. These loads are shown in the
following figures:
 Concentrated Loads Uniformly Distributed
Load

Varying load Applied couple

Shear and Moment Diagrams

Consider the simple beam shown of length L that
carries a uniform load of w (N/m) throughout its
length and is held in equilibrium by reactions R1
and R2. Assume that the beam is cut at point C a
distance of x from the left support and the portion

x x

M
w (N/m) w (N/m)
A B A
C CV
R1 L R2
R1

R1 = R2 = wL/2
of the beam to the right of C be removed. The
portion removed must then be replaced by a
vertical shearing force V together with a couple m,
to hold the left portion of the bar in equilibrium
under the action of the force R1 and wx.
The couple M is called the resisting moment or
moment and the force V is called the resisting
shear or shear. The sign of V and M are taken to
be positive if they have the senses indicated
above.

Relationship between Load, Shear, and

Moment
From the figure shown above, the shear and
moment at point C is as follows:
wL
V= -wx
2
wL x2
M= x-w
2 2
If we differentiate M with respect to x,

dM wL
= - w x = V (shear)
dx 2
Therefore, the rate of change of the moment with
respect to x is the shearing force, or the shear is
the slope of the moment diagram.

If we differentiate V with respect to x,

dV
= - w (load)
dx

Therefore, the rate of change of the shear with

respect to x is the load, or the load is the slope of
the shear diagram.

Properties of Shear and Moment Diagrams

The following are some important properties of
shear and moment diagrams:
1. The area of the shear diagram to the left or to
the right of the section is equal to the moment
at that section.
2. The slope of the moment diagram at a given
point is the shear at that point.
3. The slope of the shear diagram at a given
point equals the load at that point.
4. The relative maximum moment occurs at the
point of zero shears. This is in reference to
property number 2, that when the shear (also
 the slope of the moment diagram) is zero, the
tangent drawn to the moment diagram is
horizontal.
5. When the shear diagram is increasing, the
moment diagram is concave up.
6. When the shear diagram is decreasing, the
moment diagram is concave down.

Sign Conventions
The customary sign conventions for shearing force
and bending moment are represented by the
figures below. A force that tends to bend the beam
downward is said to produce a positive bending
moment. A force that tends to shear the left
portion of the beam upward with respect to the
right portion is said to produce a positive shearing
force.
An easier way for determining the sign of the
bending moment at any section is that upward
forces always cause positive bending moments
regardless of whether they act to the left or to the
right of the exploratory section.

Load

Shear Diagram Shear Diagram

Moment Diagram Moment Diagram

Load

Shear Diagram

Moment Diagram

Figure: Shear and moment diagrams of beams

Moving Loads

Beams or girders such as in a bridge or an

overhead crane are subject to moving
concentrated loads, which are at fixed distance
with each other. The problem here is to determine
the moment under each load when each load is in
a position to cause a maximum moment. The
largest value of these moments governs the
design of the beam.
Single Moving Load
For a single moving load, the maximum moment
occurs when the load is at the midspan and the
maximum shear occurs when the load is very near
the support (usually assumed to lie over the
support).
Two Moving Loads
For two moving loads, the maximum shear occurs
at the reaction when the larger load is over that
support. The maximum moment is given by:

(PL - Ps d)2
Mmax =
4PL

P = Ps + Pb

Where Ps is the smaller load, Pb is the bigger load,

and P is the total load, (P = Ps + Pb). This formula
is valid only if both loads are within the beam
when this condition occurs.
Two or More Moving Loads
In general, the bending moment under a particular
load is a maximum when the center of the beam is
midway between that load and the resultant of all
the loads then on the span. With this rule, we
compute the maximum moment under each load,
and use the biggest of these moments for the
design. Usually the biggest of these moments
occurs under the biggest load.
The maximum shear occurs at the reaction where
the resultant load is nearest. Usually, it happens if
the biggest load is over that support and as many
as possible of the remaining loads are still on the
span.
In determining the largest moment and shear, it is
important to check the condition when the bigger
loads are on the span and the rest of the smaller
loads are outside.
Stresses in Beams
Forces and couples acting on a beam cause
bending (flexural stresses) and shearing stresses
on any cross section of the beam and deflection
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam.
If couples are applied to the ends of the beam and
no forces act on it, the bending is said to be pure
bending. If forces produce the bending, the
bending is called ordinary bending.
Assumptions
In using the following formulas for flexural and
shearing stresses, it is assumed that a plane
section of the beam normal to its longitudinal axis
prior to loading remains plane after the forces and
couples have been applied, and that the beam is
initially straight and of uniform cross section and
that the moduli of elasticity in tension and
compression are equal.
Notations
M = bending moment
fb = bending stress
I = moment of inertia
S = section modulus
fv = shearing stress
Q = static moment of area
Radius of Curvature

E I Ec
= =
M fb

Flexure Formula
The stresses caused by bending moment are
known as bending or flexural stresses, and the
relation between these stresses and the bending
moment is expressed by the flexure formula.
At any fiber at distance y from the neutral axis, the
bending (flexural) stress is:

My
fb =
I

The maximum flexural stress occurs at the

outermost fiber whose distance from the neutral
axis is denoted as c.

Mc M
fb max = =
I S
I
Section modulus, S =
c
Shearing Stress Formula

VQ
fv =
It
Q = A y

Shear Flow
If the shearing stress fv is multiplied by the width t,
we obtain a quantity q, known as the shear flow,
which represents the longitudinal force per unit
length transmitted across a section at a level y1
from the neutral axis.

VQ
q = fv t =
I
Application of Flexural and Shearing Stresses
to Rectangular Section
For rectangular beam of width b and depth d:

6M
fb max =
bd2
3V 3V
fv max = =
2bd 2A

Superimposed Beams
If a beam is composed of two or more thin layers
placed on each other without any attachment, the
separate layers would slide past each other and
the total strength of the beam would be the sum of
the strengths of the various layers. The strength of
this beam is lesser than a solid beam having the
same cross-sectional area.
Neglecting friction between any two adjacent
layers, the following relationships may be used:

M = M1 + M2 + M3
I = I1 + I2 + I3
M
Curvature, = constant
EI
M M1 M2 M3
= = =
E I E I1 E I2 E I3
Spacing of Rivets or Bolt in built-Up Beam
When two or more thin layers of beams are
fastened together with a bolt or a rivet so that they
act as a unit to gain more strength, it is necessary
to design the two sizes or spacing of these bolts or
rivets so that it can carry the shearing force acting
between each adjacent layers.
Consider the beams shown in the figure

RI
s=
VQ
Where R is the total shearing force to be resisted
by the bolts and is equal to the allowable shearing
stress x area x number of bolts in the group. R
may also be taken as the bearing capacity at the
section.
Economic Sections
From the flexure formula fb = M y / I, it can be seen
that the bending stress at the neutral axis, where y
= 0, is zero and increases linearly outwards. This
means that for a rectangular or circular section a
large portion of the cross section near the middle
section is under stressed.
For steel beams or composite beams, instead of
adopting the rectangular shape, the area may be
arranged to give more area on the outer fiber and
maintaining the same overall depth, and saving a
lot of weight.
When using a wide flange or I-beam section for
long beams, the compression flanges tend to
buckle horizontally sidewise. This buckling is a
column effect, which may be prevented by
providing lateral support such as a floor system so
that the full allowable stresses may be used,
otherwise the stress should be reduced. The
reduction of stresses for these beams will be
discussed in steel design.

Combined Stresses
In the previous sections, we studied the three
basic types of stresses; the axial or normal stress,
torsional shearing stress, and flexural stress, in
which we assume that only one of these stresses
acts on a member. However, these stresses may
act simultaneously and there are four possible
combinations of these stresses: (1) axial and
flexure; (2) axial and torsional; (3) torsional and
flexural; and (4) axial, torsional, and flexural.
Combined Axial and Flexure
The simplest of the four combinations is the axial
and flexural because it combines only normal
stresses, which can be added arithmetically.
A member subject to bending moment M and an
axial load P causes a flexural stress of fb = M y / I
at any point from its neutral axis, and a normal
stress of P / A which is uniformly distributed over
its entire area, respectively. The combination of
these stresses results if the member is
eccentrically loaded as in a column or a
prestressed beam. The combined stress
developed is:

1 = +

P My
f=
A I
Where m = Pe, e is the eccentricity of P from the
neutral axis

Note that the axial stress may be pure tensile or

compressive, this is the reason for the (+) and (-)
signs before P / A because axial stress is uniform
over the section while flexural stress vary with
position.

Kern of a Section

When a member is eccentrically loaded so that the

maximum flexural stress Me / I is larger than the
compressive stress P / A, the resulting stress
diagram will be as shown.
The point of zero stress A can be found by
computing a at which the direct compressive
stress equals the tensile stress

I
a=
Ae

If the maximum flexural stress in tension just

equals the direct compressive stress, there would
be no tensile stress in any section of the member.

If p is applied at any point with respect the

principal axes X and Y, there would be a certain
area in which P should act so that there will be no
tensile stress in the section. The stress at any
section whose coordinates are x and y is
 P Mx y My x
f=
A I I
P P ey y (P ex ) x
f=
A I I

For rectangular section of dimension b and h, the

kern region is within a diamond-shaped area as
shown.
The kern of a circular section of diameter D is a
circle whose diameter is D / 4

Combined Axial and Shearing Stress

In general when a body is subject to combined
loadings, every element will be subject to
combined stresses fx, fy together with the shearing
stress sxy as shown. For normal stresses, tensile
stresses are considered positive, compressive
stresses negative, and shearing stresses positive
if it creates clockwise rotation about the center.
Stresses on an Inclined Plane
If the stresses fx, fy, and sxy are known, the normal
and shearing stresses on a plane inclined at an
angle to the x-axis can be determined using the
following formulas or by Mohrs Circle.

fx + fy fx - fy
f= - cos 2 + sxy sin 2
2 2
sx - sy
s= sin 2 + sxy cos 2
2

Principal Stresses

There are certain values of the angle that will

lead to maximum and minimum values of f for a
given set of stress fx, fy, and sxy. These maximum
and minimum values that f may assume are
termed principal stresses and are given by

2
fx + fy fx - fy 2
fmax = + + sxy
2 2

2
fx + fy fx - fy 2
fmin = - + sxy
2 2

Principal Planes

The angle p between the x-axis and the planes on

which the principal stresses occur are given by the
equation

- 2sxy
tan 2p =
fx - fy
There are always two values of p that will satisfy
this equation. The maximum stress occurs on one
of these planes, and the minimum stress occurs
on the other. The planes defined by the angle p
are known as principal planes.

The shearing stress on the principal planes is

always zero.

Maximum Shearing Stress

The maximum and minimum values of searing

stress are given by

2
fx - fy 2
smax = + sxy
min 2
The angle between the x-axis and the planes on
which the maximum and minimum shearing
stresses occur are given by the equation

fx - fy
tan 2s =
2sxy

Mohrs Circle
A visual interpretation of the formulas in the
preceding sections, devised by the German
engineer Otto Mohr in 1882, eliminates the
necessity of remembering them. In this
interpretation, a circle is used; accordingly, the
construction is called Mohrs Circle.
The following are the rules for applying Mohrs
circle to combined stresses, given fx, fy, and sxy.
1. On the rectangular f-s axes (f along x-axis
and s along y-axis), plot points having the
coordinates (fx, sxy) and (fy,syx). In plotting
these points, assume tension as plus,
compression as minus, and shearing stress
as plus when its moment about the center of
the element is clockwise.

Note that syx = -sxy

2. Join the points plotted by a straight line. This

lie is the diameter of the circle whose center
is on the -axis.
3. The radius of the circle to any point on its
circumference represents the axis directed
normal to the plane whose stress
components are given by the coordinates of
that point.
4. The angle between the radii to selected
points on Mohrs circle is twice thr angle
between the normals to the actual planes
represented by these points, or twice the
space angularity between the planes so
represented. The rotational sense of the
angle corresponds to the rotational sense of
the actual angle between the normals to the
planes. i.e. if N axis is actually at a
 counterclockwise angle from the X axis,
then on Mohrs circle the N radius is laid off at
a counterclockwise angle 2 from the X-
radius.

Combined Torsional and Flexural Stresses

A shaft as shown is subject to combined torsional

and flexural stresses.

The equivalent bending moment M, and torque T,

due to applied loads is given by

Te = M2 + T2
1
Me = (M + Te )
2
Where M is the actual bending moment and T is
the actual torque. Once Me and Te is computed,
the formulas for flexural and torsional stresses can
be used

Me c 4Me
Max fb = =
I r3
T 16 Te
Max s = =
J d3

SIMPLE AND CANTILEVER BEAM FORMULAS

w (N/m)

A
B
C

wL2
Mmax = Mmid =
8

5wL4
max = mid =
384 EI
wL3
A = B =
24 EI
 P

L/2 L/2

B
A
L

PL
Mmax = Mmid =
4

PL3
max = mid =
48 EI
PL2
A = B =
16 EI

a b

B
A C L

Pab
Mmax = Mp =
L
 L 2 - b2
x=
3
3
Pb L2 - b2 2
max = C =
93 E I L
Pb
mid = 3L2 - 4b2 when a > b
48 EI

w (N/m)
y

B
A C L

2.5wL4
mid =
384 EI

Location of max = 0.481 L

8wL3 7wL3
B = ; =
360 EI A 360 EI
wx
EI y = 7L4 - 10L2 x2 + 3x4
360L
 y
w (N/m)

A B
L

wL2
Mmax =
12

wL4
max = mid =
120 EI
5wL3
A = B =
192 EI
wx
EI y = 25L4 - 40L2 x2 + 16x4
960 L
for 0 < x < L/2

0.577L
M
x

A B
L
 Mmax = M

ML3
max = at x = 0.577L
93 EI
ML ML
A = ; =
6 EI B 3 EI
Mx
EI y = (L - x)(2L - x)
6L
y

A L

Mmax = MA = - PI

PL3
max = B =
3 EI
PL2
B =
2 EI
Px2
EI y = (3L - x)
6
 y

a b
x

A L

Mmax = MA = - Pa

Pa2
max = B = (3L - a)
6 EI

Pa2
B =
2 EI
Px2
EI y = (3a - x) for 0 < x < a
6

Pa2
EI y = (3x - a) for a < x < 1
6
 y

w (N/m)

x
L
A

wL2
Mmax = MA = -
2

wL4
max = B =
8 EI

wL3
B =
6 EI

wx2
EI y = 256 - 4Lx + x2
24
 y
w (N/m)

x
L
A

wL2
Mmax = MA = -
6

wL4
max = B =
30 EI

wL3
B =
24 EI

Mx2
EI y =
2
PROPPED BEAM FORMULAS

M
x
L
A

Pa2 3L - a
R=
2L3

P a2 b
MA = - 2
b2 a +
L 2

a b

A B
L
R

5P
R=
16

3PL
MA = -
16
 w (N/m)

A B

L R

7wL
R=
16

wL2
MA = -
8

w (N/m)

A B

L R

7wL
R=
128
9wL2
MA = -
128
 w (N/m)

A B
a b
L R

3
wb
R= (4L - b)
8L3
wa2
MA = RL -
2

w (N/m)

A B
L
R

wL
R=
10

wL2
MA = -
15
 w (N/m)

A B
L
R

11wL
R=
40
7wL2
MA = -
120
w (N/m)

L
R

11wL
R=
64

5wL2
MA = -
64
 3 EI
MA =
L2

FULLY RESTRAINED BEAM FORMULAS

a b

A B
L

Pab2
MA = -
L
 Pba2
MB = -
L
Pb2
mid = (3L - 4b)
48 EI
 P

L/2 L/2

A B
L

PL
MA = M B = -
8
PL3
max =
192 EI

w (N/m)

A B
L

wL2
MA = M B = -
12

4
wL
max =
384 EI
 w (N/m)

A B
L/2 L/2

5wL2
MA = -
192
11wL2
MB = -
192
w (N/m)

A B
L

wL4 wL2
max = MA = -
768 EI 30

2
wL
MB = -
30
wL4
mid =
768 EI
 w (N/m)

A B
L

5wL2
MA = M B = -
96

4
7wL
max =
3840 EI

M
a b

A B
L

Mb 3a
MA = - 1
L L
Ma 3b
MB = - - 1
L L
 6 EI
MA = -
L2
6 EI
MB =
L2
P = y dx

Any loading

a b
A B

x2
Pab2
MA = -
x1 L2
x2
Pba2
MB = -
x1 L2
 a=x;b=L-x
P = y dx
For varying load, y = f(x)

For uniform load, y = w (N/m)

Dynamic (Impact) Loading
The deformation produced in elastic bodies by
impact loads caused them to act as spring,
although that is not their designed function.
The spring constant of a beam can be calculated
from the following formula:

P
k= (N/mm or kN/mm)

Where is the deformation due to static load P

Consider the cantilever beam shown

PL3 3 EI
Static deformation, st = ,k= 3
3 EI L
If a load P is dropped from a height of h, the
resulting deformation can be computed from:

2h
=1+ 1+
st st

Impact Stress

2h
=1+ 1+
st st

Where st = stress under static load

CHAPTER 11 FLUID MECHANICS AND
HYDRAULICS

Properties of Fluid

Unit Weight or Specific Weight,

The weight per unit of a volume of a fluid.

Weight of Fluid
=
Volume

For water , = 9810 N/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3

Mass Density or Density,

The mass of fluid per unit volume

Mass of Fluid
=
Volume

For water, = 1000 kg/m3

Density of Gases

p
=
RT
where:
p = absolute pressure of gas in Kpa
R = gas constant in joule/ kg-K
For air, R = 287 joule/ kg-K
T = absolute temperature in degree
Kelvin K = C +273

Specific Volume, Vs

1
VS =

Specific Gravity, s

fluid fluid
s = =
water water

Viscosity
The property of a fluid which determines the
amount of its resistance to shearing force. A
perfect would have no viscosity.

Dynamic or Absolute Viscosity, (mu)

= (Pascal-second or poise)
dV/dy
Note: 1 poise = 0.01 Pa/s

Kinematic Viscosity, (nu)

= (m2 /s or stokes)

Note: 1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001 m2/s

Surface tension (sigma)

The surface tension of a fluid is the work that must

be done to bring enough molecules from inside the
liquid to the surface to form a new unit area of that
surface in ft-lb/ft2 or N-m/m2.

Pressure inside a droplet of a liquid

4
p=
d

where:
= surface tension in N/ m
d = diameter of the droplet in m
p = gage pressure in Pascal
Capillarity

The rise or fall of a fluid in a capillary tube which is

caused by surface tension and depend on the
relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid
and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the
containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they
wet( adhesion >cohesion) and fall in tubes they do
not wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillarity is
important when using tubes smaller than about 3/8
inch ( 9.5 mm) in diameter.
d d

4 cos
h=
d

Use = 140 for mercury on clean glass

 For complete wetting, as with water on clean
glass, the angle is 0. Hence the formula
becomes

4
h=
d

where:
h = capillary rise or depression
d = diameter of the tube
= unit weight
= surface tension

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, E

The bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid
expresses the compressibility of the fluid. It is the
ratio of the change in unit pressure to the
corresponding volume change per unit volume.

dp'
E= ( lb /in2 or Pa)
-dv/v

where:
dp = change in pressure
dv = change in volume
v = volume
Compression of Gases

For perfect gas:

pvn = p1 v1 n = constant

where p is the absolute, v is the specific volume

infinity; depending upon the process to which the
gas is subjected. If the process is at constant
temperature (isothermal), n=1

pv = p1 v1

If there is no heat transfer to and from the gas, the

process is known as adiabatic.

p1 v 1 k = p2 v 2 k

A frictionless adiabatic process is called an

isentropic process and n is denoted by k, where
k = Cp/Cv, the ratio of the specific heat at constant
pressure to that at constant volume.

Boyles Law (perfect gas)

If the temperature of a given mass of gas remains
constant, the absolute pressure of the gas varies
inversely with the volume.
 k
p= or pV = k
V
p1 V 1 = p 2 V 2

Charles or Gay-Lussacs Law (perfect gas)

If the given mass of gas can expand or contract

with the pressure remaining constant, the volume
V of the gas varies directly as the absolute
temperature T. i.e. V/T is constant.

Pressure Disturbances

Pressure disturbance imposed on a fluid moves in

waves. The velocity or celerity is expressed as:

EB
c= (m/s or ft /s)

where:
c = celerity or velocity of pressure wave
in m/s or ft/s
EB = bulk modulus of elasticity if the fluid
in Pa or lb/ft2
Unit Pressure

Variations in Pressure

The difference in pressure between any two points

in a homogeneous fluid at rest is equal to the
product of the unit weight of the fluid and the
vertical distance between the points.

p2 - p1 = h

The pressure at any point below the free surface

of a liquid equals the product of the unit weight of
the liquid and the depth of the point.

h
 p = h

Pressure below layers of different liquids

Air Pressure = p

h1 Liquid 1

Liquid 2
h2

h3 Liquid 3

pbottom = h +p
pbottom = 1 h + 2 h2 + 3 h3
1
Total Hydrostatic Pressure

Total Pressure on Plane Surface

Free Liquid Surface

cg

cp

F = pcg A or F = hA
Ig h
e= y=
AY sin

where :
pcg = pressure at the centroid of the
plane
Ig = centroidal moment of inertia of the
plane
 A = area of the plane surface
= angle that the plane makes with the
horizontal

Total Pressure on Curved Surface

D C

FV

cg

FH

FH = pcg A
Fv = VABCD

F = FH 2 + Fv 2
FV
tan =
FH
where:
FH = total force acting on the vertical
projection of the curved surface.
Fv = weight of imaginary or real fluid
directly above the curved surfaces.

Note: For cylindrical and spherical surfaces, the

total force F always passes to the center of the
circle defined by its surface.

Bouyancy

Archimedes Principle - Any body immersed in a

fluid is acted upon by an unbalanced upward force
called the buoyant force, which is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced.

VD

VD

BF
BF
For a homogenous body floating on a
homogeneous liquid, the volume displaced is:

body Sbody
VD = Vbody = V
liquid Sliquid body

Statical Stability of Floating Bodies

S
MBo =
VD sin
RM or OM = W(x) = W ( Mg sin )

Where:
= volume of the wedge of immersion
s = horizontal distance between the
centroid of the wedges
VD = volume displaced
= angle of tilting

If the body has the shape of the rectangular

parallelepiped

B2 tan2
MBo = 1 +
12D 2
where: B = width D = draft

Metacentric Height

Metacentric height is the distance from the

metacenter to the center of gravity of the body
measured along the axis of the body.

MG= MBo GBo

Value of MBo in the Upright Position (Initial

Value)

I
MBo =
VD

Where: I = moment of inertia of the body

along the water section

Horizontal Acceleration

a

 a
tan =
g

Inclined Acceleration

ah
tan =
g + av
aH = a cos
aV = a sin

Use (+) if the acceleration is upward and (-) if

downwards

Vertical Acceleration

a
p = h 1
g
Rotation

2 x2
y=
2g
dy
tan =
dx
2 x
tan =
g

Volume of Paraboloid

V = 1/2r2 h

Flow rate

Volume Flow Rate, Q = A

Mass Flow Rate, M = Q
Weight Flow Rate, W = Q
Continuity Equation

Q
1
3
2 Q

Incompressible Fluid

Q1 = Q2 = Q3
A1 V1 = A2 V2 = A3 V3..

Compressible Fluid

1 Q1 = 2 Q2

Where: A = cross- sectional area of flow

= mean velocity of flow

Reynolds Number

Reynolds Number R is the ratio of inertia forces to

viscous forces
D D
R= =
v
Where: v = mean velocity of flow, m/s
D = pipe diameter, m
= (mu) dynamic viscosity (Pa-sec)
= (nu) kinematic viscosity (m2/s) = /
= density, kg/m3

For non-circular pipes, use D = 4R, where R is the

hydraulic radius, R= A/P

For R< 2000, the flow is laminar.

Laminar flow in circular pipes can be maintained

up to values of R as high as 50, 000. However, in
such cases this type is inherently unstable, and
the least disturbance will transform it instantly into
turbulent flow. On the other hand, it is practically
impossible for turbulent flow in a straight pipe to
resist at all values of R much below 2000,
because any turbulence that is set up will be
damped out by the viscous friction.

Energy Equation

Total Energy of Flow

E=Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy

v2 p
E= + +z
2g
v2
= velocity head ( K.E.)
2g
p
= pressure head (P.E.)

z = elevation head (P.E.)

Bernoullis Energy Theorem

Between any two points (1 and 2) along the

stream:

ZB

A
ZA
Datum

E1 + HA HE HL = E2

Where: E1 = Total Energy (head) at section 1

HA = head added (by the pump)
HE = head extracted (by the turbine or
any other device)
HL = total head lost
Head Lost in Pipe Flow

Major Head Lost (Friction at Losses)

Darcy-Weisbach Formula

fL v2
hf = in ft or meter
D 2g

64
For Laminar Flow, f=
R
For non-circular pipe, use D=4R

For circular pipes ( S.I.)

v2 8Q2 fL 8Q2
= hf =
2g 2 gD4 D 2 gD4
0.0826fLQ2
For S.I. units, hf = a
D5

Mannings Formula (S.I.)

1 2/3 1/2
v= R S
n

where R = hydraulic radius = A/P

S = slope of EGL = hf/L
 6.35n2 Lv2
hf =
D4/3
Use D = 4R for non- circular pipes

For circular pipes (S.I.)

10.29n2 LQ2
hf =
D16/3

Hazen- Williams Formula (S.I.)

Q = 0.2785C1 D2.63 S0.54

where C1 = Hazen Williams coefficient

S = slope of EGL = hf/L

10.67LQ1.85
hf = 1.85
C1 D4.87

Minor Head Lost

Minor losses are due to changes in direction and
velocity of flow, and is expressed in terms of the
velocity head at the smaller section of the pipe in
case of constrictions.
 v2
hm = K
2g

where K = coefficient of minor loss

Head Lost through Nozzles

1 vn 2
hn = 2 - 1
Cv 2g

For a horizontal pipe with uniform diameter, the

head lost between any two points is equal to the
difference in pressure head between the points.

p2 -p1
HL =

For a pipe or system of pipes connecting two

reservoirs, the total head lost is equal to the
difference in water surface elevation of the
reservoirs.

H
 HL = H

Pipes in Series

A 1 B 2 C 3 D

Q1 Q2 Q3

Q1 = Q2 = Q3
HL = hL1 + hL2 + hL3

Pipes in parallel
1 Q1
2 Q2
3 Q3

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
HL = hL1 = hL2 = hL3

Equivalent pipe
For a pipe or system of pipes (O), the equivalent
single pipe (E) is must satisfy the following
conditions.
 QE = Qo
and HLE = HLo

Orifice and Tubes

An orifice is an opening with a closed perimeter

through which fluid flows.

The velocity and discharge through an orifice is

given by:

v = Cv 2gH Q = CAo 2gH

C = Cc Cv

Where: Cv = coefficient of velocity

C = coefficient of discharge
CC = coefficient of contraction
H = total head in meter or feet of the
fluid flowing
Value of H
 H=head upstream-head downstream
v a 2 pu p
H = hu + + - hD - D
2g

Where va = velocity of approach

pu= pressure at the upstream side
pD= pressure at the downstream side

Unsteady Flow(Variable head)

If water flows into a tank at the rate of Q and at

the same time leave: at Q the time for the level to
the change from h1 to h2 is:

h2
As dh
t=
Qi -Qo
h1

If Qi = 0

h1
As dh
t=
Qo
h2
If the flow is through an orifice under a variable
head H:

Qo = CAo 2gH

If the cross-sectional area As is constant and the

flow is through an orifice, the formula becomes

2As
t= H1 - H2
CAo 2g

where H1 = initial head (at level 1)

H2 = final head (at level 2)

If the water flows through the pipe connecting the

two tanks shown, the time for the head to change
from H1 to H2 is:
 As1 As2 2
t= H1 - H2
As1 + As2 CAo 2g

Weir

Weirs are structures built across an open channel

or on top of a reservoir for the purpose of
measuring or controlling the flow of water.

Rectangular Weir (Suppressed)

General Formula
2
Q = C2gL(H + hv )3/2 - hv 3/2
3
or Q = Cw L(H + hv )3/2 - hv 3/2

Va 2
where hv = velocity head of approach
2g
 C = coefficient of discharge
Cw = weir factor

Neglecting va:

2
Q= C2gLH3/2 or Q = Cw LH3/2
3

Francis Formula (Cw =1.84) S.I.

Considering va:

Q=1.84L(H + hv )3/2 - hv 3/2

Neglecting va:

Q=1.84LH3/2

Cipolleti weir

Q = 1.859 L H3/2
= 75.9637 = 7557' 50"
= 14.0363 =142'10"
Triangular V-notch Weir

8
Q= C2gtan H5/2
15 2

Suttro Weir (Proportional Flow weir)

X
H
Y

q = CK2gH
K = x y
Unsteady flow weir (Variable Head)

H1
As dH
t=
Qo
H2

If the flow through a suppressed rectangular

weir:

2As 1 1
t= -
Cw L H2 H1

Where Cw = weir factor, H1 = initial head, H2 =

final head
When H2 = 0

2As 1
t=
Cw L H1

Hydrodynamics
Force against a fixed flat plate held normal to
the jet

Q
F= v = Qv
g

Force against a fixed curved vane

V2
R RY

RX

V1

Q
Fx = (v - v )
g 1x 2x
Q
Fy = v - v
g 1y 2y

F = Fx 2 + Fy 2
where:
v1 = velocity of the jet before hitting the
vane
v2 = velocity of the jet as it leaves the
vane

Force against the Moving Vane

u v
RY

v
RX v
'
u
u v
y
v1
v'
v
2x
v'

Q' Q'
Fx = (v1x -v2x ) Fy = v1y -v2y
g g
Q' = Au
u = v1 -v'

u = relative velocity of the jet as it moves along the

vane
Q = amount of fluid deflected by the vane
Force on Bends and Pressure Conduits

Dynamic Force

Q' Q'
Fx = (v1x - v2x ) Fy = v1y - v2y
g g

Total Force

Q'
Fx = (v1x - v2x ) = F1x + Rx - F2x
g
Q'
Fy = v1y - v2y = F1y + Ry - F2y
g

Drag Force

2 2
DF = =
2 2

Where:
= Drag Coefficient
= Density of the Fluid
A = Area normal to the direction of motion
Chapter Twelve

Engineering Economics

Interest

Interest is the amount of money earned by a given

capital. From the borrowers viewpoint, interest is
the amount of money paid for the use of a
borrowed capital. From the lenders viewpoint, it is
the income generated by the capital that was lent.

Cash Flow Diagrams

Cash flow diagrams may be drawn to help

visualize and simplify problems having diverse
receipts and disbursements.

Conventions used in cash flow diagram:

The horizontal (time) axis is marked off

in equal increments, one per period, up
to the duration or horizon of the project.
All disbursement and receipts (cash flow)
are assumed to take place at the end of
the year in which they occur. This is
known as the year-end convention. The
exception of the year-end convention is
 the initial cost(purchase cost) which
occur at t = 0
To or more transfers in the same period
placed end-to-end may be combined
into one.
Expenses incurred before t = 0 are
called sunk cost and are not relevant to
the problem.
Receipts and disbursements are
represented by arrows on the opposite
sides of the horizontal time axis.

Consider the following example: An electronic

equipment costs P30,000. Maintenance cost is
P3,000 each year. The device will generate
revenues of P15,000 each year for 5 years after
which the salvage value is expected to be P12,000

The following shows the cash flow diagram for

each transaction:
P12T

P15T P15T P15T P15T P15T

0 1 2 3 4 5

P3T P3T P3T P3T P3T

P30T
The simplified cash flow diagram is as follows

P12T P12T P12T P12T P24T

0 1 2 3 4 5

P30T

Simple Interest

In simple interest, the interest earned by the

principal is computed at the end of the investment
period , and thus, it varies directly with time.

Ordinary and Exact Simple Interest

In ordinary simple interest, the interest is

computed on the basis of one bankers year

1 bankers year = 12 months

(30 days each month) = 360 days

In exact simple interest, the interest is based on

the exact number of days in a year , where there
are 365 days for an ordinary year and 366 days for
leap years.
Leap years occurs every four years for years that
is exactly divisible by four, except century marks
(1800, 1900, etc.) but not including those are
exactly divisible by 400(2000, 2400, etc.)

Elements of Simple Interest

P = principal or present worth

I = interest earned
F = future worth

F=P+I

r = simple interest rate(per year)

t = time in years or fraction of the year

Note: P may stand for the amount borrowed or

invested while F may stand for the amount
accumulated.

I = Prt

F = P +I = P+ Prt
F = P(1 + rt)

Value of t

Example:
4 years; t=4
 3 months; t=3/12 or
90 days
Ordinary simple interest, t= 90/360
Exact simple interest, t=90/365 or
90/360 for leap years
2 years and 4 months; t=2+4/12
=2.3333

Compound Interest

In compound Interest , then interest is computed

every end of each interest period (compounding
period) and the interest earned for that period is
added to the principal( interest plus principal).

To demonstrate this, consider an investment of

1000 pesos to earn 10 percent per year for two
years. The following diagram shows how the
money grows.
0 1 2 3

P1000

P1100 P1210 P1331

I = 1000 x 0.1 I = 1100 x 0.1 I = 1210 x 0.1
I= P100 I= P110 I= P121

Elements of Compound Interest

P = present worth or principal

F = future worth or compound amount
i = effective interest per compounding period
(per interest period)

i = r/m

n = total number of compounding

n=tm

I = interest earned
I=F-P

r = nominal interest rate

ER = effective interest
t = no. of years of investment
m = no. of compoundings per year

After n periods, the compound amount F is:

F = P(1 + i)n

The term (1+ i)n, also denoted as (F/P,I,n) is called

the single payment compound-amount factor

The present worth of F is:

F
P=
(1 + i)n
 1
The term , also denoted as (P/F, i, n) is called
(1 + i)n
the single payment present-worth factor.

Values of i and n

The following examples show how to get the

values of i and n.

Nominal Interest rate, r = 12%

Number of years of investment, t = 5 years

Compounded annually ( m = 1)
i = 0.12/1= 0.12
n = 5(1) = 5

Compounded semi-annually (m = 2)
i = 0.12/2 = 0.06
n = 5(2) = 10
Compound quarterly (m = 4)
I =0.12/4 = 0.03
n = 5(4) = 20
Compounded monthly (m = 12)
i = 0.12/12 = 0.01
n = 5(12) = 60
Compounded bi-monthly
i = 0.12/6 = 0.02
n = 5(6) =30
Continuous Compounding (m )

Interest may be compounded daily, hourly, per

minute, etc. As a limit, interest may be considered
to be compounded an infinite number of times per
year (m=).

The future worth of P at an interest rate of r

compounded continuously for t years is:

F = Pert

Nominative and Effective Rates of Interest

Nominal rate is the rate quoted in describing a

given variety of compound interest. Consider a
bank deposit of P1000 to earn 6% compounded
quarterly. After one year, the compound amount of
F is:

F = P(1 + i)n = 1000(1 + 0.06/4)1/4

F = P 1061.36

Notice that the interest earned is P61.36

representing 6.136% of P1000 (not 6% of P1000).
For this case, 6% (compounded quarterly) is
called the nominal rate and 6.136% is the effective
rate.
Thus the effective rate of interest(ER) is the actual
interest earned in one year period. This can be
computed by either of the following:

Interest earned in one year

ER =
Principal at the beginning of the year
r m
ER = 1 + - 1
m

Thus, the effective rate of 6% compounded

quarterly is, ER=(1+0.06/4)4-1= 0.06136 or 6.136%
as computed previously

The effective rate r(%) compounded continuously

is:
ER = er - 1

Equivalent Nominal Rates

From the previous discussion we see that 6%

compounded quarterly is not the same as 6%
compounded monthly, for the reason that they
have different effective rates.

Two nominal rates are equal if they have the same

effective rates.

Consider a nominal interest rate of 10%

compounded quarterly. The equivalent nominal
rate compounded monthly is:
ERM = ERO
(1 + r/12)12 - 1 = (1 + 0.10/4)4 - 1
r = 0.09918 = 9.918 %

Thus, 10% compounded quarterly will have the

same interest as 9.918% compounded monthly.

Annuity

Annuity is a series of uniform payments made at

equal intervals or time.

Annuities are established for the following

purposes:
1. As payment of a debt by a series of equal
payment at equal time intervals, also known as
amortization.
2. To accumulate a certain amount in the future by
depositing equal amounts at equal intervals.
These amounts are called sinking funds.
3. As a substitute periodic payment for a future
lump sum payment.

Elements of Annuity

A=periodic payment
P= present worth of all periodic payments
F or S= future worth or sum of all periodic
payments after the last payment is made
i= interest rate per payment
n=number of payments

Types of Annuity

A. Ordinary Annuity

In ordinary annuity, the payment is made at the

end of each period starting from the first period, as
in the diagram shows below
0 1 2 3 4 n

A A A A A

The future worth if A is:

A[(1 + i)n - 1]
F=
i

(1 + i)n - 1
The factor is called equal-payment-series-
i
compound-amount factor and is denoted as (F/A, i,
n)
The value of A if F is known is:

Fi
A=
(1 + i)n - 1

i
The factor (1 + i)n - 1
is known as equal- payment
sinking- fund factor and is denoted as (A/F, i, n)

The present worth of A is:

F A[(1 + i)n - 1]
P= =
(1 + i)n (1 + i) n i

(1 + i)n - 1
The factor (1 + i)n i
, is known as equal- payment-
series- present- worth factor and is designated as
(P/A, i, n)

The value of A with known P is:

P(1 + i)n i
A=
(1 + i)n - 1

(1 + i)n i
The factor (1 + i)n - 1
, is known as the equal-
payment- series- capital- recovery factor and is
designated as (A/P, i, n)
 B. Deferred annuity

In this type , the first payment is deferred a certain

number of periods after the first. Consider the
cash flow diagram below

0 1 2 3 4 5

A A A A

P n=5

For the cash flow diagram shown above, the

following calculations can be made for solving P
and F

So solve for the future worth F:

A(1 + i)4 - 1
F=
i
To solve for the present worth P
F A(1 + i)4 - 1
P= =
(1 + i) 5 (1 + i)5

C. Annuity due

If the payment is made at the beginning of each

period starting from the first period, the annuity is
called annuity due.
 0 1 2 3 4 c

A A A A A A
S
F
n=6

P
n=5

From the diagram shown:

A(1 + i)6 -1
F=
i
F A(1 + i)6 - 1
P= =
(1 + i)5 (1 + i)5 i
From the previous examples, the formula of P can
be generalized as :

A[(1 + i)n - 1]
P=
(1 + i)n i

Where n is the number payments and n1is the

number of periods from zero (0) period up to the
last payment.

Perpetuity

Perpetuity is an annuity where the payment

periods extend forever or the periodic payments
continue indefinitely.
If the payment is made at the end of each period
starting from the first period, the present worth of
perpetuity is:

A
P=
i

Uniform gradient

Arithmetic Gradient

0 1 2 3 4 5 n

A
A+G
A+2G
A+3G
A+4G
A+nG

The present worth is:

A[(1 + i)n -1] G (1 + i)n - 1 n

P= + -
(1 + i)n i i i(1 + i)n (1 + i)n

The future worth is:

A[(1 + i)n - 1] G (1 + i)n - 1

F = P(1 + i)n = + - n
i i i
Geometric Gradient
0 1 2 3 4 n

A+G
A+G(1+r)
A+G(1+r)2
A+G(1+r)3
A+G(1+r)n
1+
Let =
1+

Present worth
If w 1

A[(1 + i)n - 1] G 1 - wn
P= +
(1 + i)n i 1+i 1-w

If w = 1(for r = i)

A[(1 + i)n - 1] Gn
P= +
(1 + i)n i 1+r

The future worth is :

F = P(1 + i)n

Capitalized Cost and Annual Cost

Capitalized cost is an application of perpetuity.

The capitalized cost of a project or structure is the
sum of the first cost (FC) and the present worth of
all future payments and replacements which is
assumed to continue forever.

If a project requires a first cost of FC, annual

operation and maintenance of OM for n years a
salvage value of SV after every n years, and a
replacement cost of RC after every end of n
years , then the capitalized cost is:
SV

0 1 2 3 4 5 n

OM OM OM OM OM OM
FC
RC

Capitalized cost, K

OM RC - SV
K = FC + +
i (1 + i)n - 1

If RC is not specified, use RC = FC

Capitalized cost may also be defined as the first

cost plus the present worth of annual maintenance
and operation cost plus the present worth of
depreciation assumed to continue forever.
Annual Cost, AC

The annual cost (AC) of a project is:

AC = Annual interest on investment + Annual
operation and maintenance +Annual
In relation to capitalized
depreciationcost,
costAC is:

Annual Cost, AC = K i
(RC -SV)i
AC = (FC)i + OM + n
(1 + i) - 1

Example 12-1

A machine costs P300, 000 new, and must be

replaced at the end of each 15 years. If the annual
maintenance required is P5, 000, find the
capitalized cost, if money is worth 5% and the final
salvage value is P50, 000

Solution:
OM RC-SV
K = FC + + n
i (1-i) -1
5,000 300,000 - 5,000
K = 300,000 + + 15
0.05 (1+0.05) -1
K = P 631,711.44
Cost Comparison of different alternatives

If two or more different articles are available for

the same purpose, they are equally economical if
the corresponding present worth, annual cost or
capitalized costs are the same.

Example 12-2

A certain equipment costs P150, 000.00, lasts for

6 years, and has a salvage value of P30, 000.
How much could an investor afford to pay for
another machine for the same purpose, whose life
is 10 years and salvage value is 40,000.00, if
money is worth 5%?

Solution: (Capitalized cost method)

For the first machine:
OM RC - SV
K = FC + + n
i (1 + i) - 1
150,000 - 30,000
K = 150,000 + 6
(1 + 0.05) - 1
K = P502,841.92

For the other machine

FC - 40000
K = FC + 10
= 502,841.92
(1 + 0.05) - 1
FC = 218,696.41
Depreciation

Depreciation refers to the decrease in the value of

an asset, due to usage or passage of time. An
asset may depreciate physically or functionally.

Elements of Depreciation
FC = first cost
SV = salvage value or trade-in value
d = depreciation charge
n = economic life of the property in years
m = any time before n
BVm = book value after m years
Dm = total depreciation for m years

The following diagram shows the cost of the

property plotted versus time.
Cost

Dm

Cost D
Curved

FC
BVm

SV
m

time

n
The book value of the property at any time m is:

BVm = FC - Dm

Methods of Computing Depreciation

A. Straight Line Depreciation (SLD)

This is the most common method used in

computing depreciation. In this method, the cost of
the property is assumed to vary linearly with time.
The following formulas are used.
FC - SV
d=
n
Dm = d m

B. Sinking Fund Method

(FC + SV)i
d= n
(1 + i) - 1
d[(1 + i)m - 1]
Dm =
i

C. Sum of the Years Digit Method

n
Sum of the year' s digit, SUM = (1 + n)
2
n-m+1
dm = (FC - SV)
SUM
m(2n - m + 1)
Dm = (FC - SV)
2 SUM
 D. Declining Balance Method (Constant
percentage method)

n SV
Constant Percentage, K = 1-
FC
BVm = FC(1 + K)m
dm = FC(1 - K)m - 1 K

E. Double Declining Balance Method

2
Depreciation charge to date = BV at the
n
beginning of the year
2 m
BVm = FC 1 - SV
n
2
dm = BVm - 1 and BVn = SV
n

Capital Recovery Method

If you invest FC now and desires a rate of return r

for n periods, and if you can deposit to an account
earning an interest of I for n periods to recover an
amount of RC, and will also receive salvage value
of SV from your invested property at the end of n
periods, then the periodic dividend or income D
required is:
(RC - SV)i
D = (FC)r + n
(1 + i) - 1
Note: If RC is not specified, RC = FC

Example 12-3
A mine costs P21M, and will last for 20 years. Its
plant has a salvage value of P1M, at the end of
the time. The mine will yield an equal dividend at
the end of each year. What is the annual dividend,
if it is sufficient to pay interest annually at the rate
of 6% on the original investment and to
accumulate a replacement fund, invested at 4%?

(RC - SV)i
D = (FC)r + n
(1 + i) - 1
(21,000,000-1,000,000)(0.04)
D = (21,000,000)(0.06) +
(1 + 0.04)20 - 1
D = P1,931,635.00

Bond

A bond is a written contract to pay a certain

redemption value C on a specified redemption
date and to pay equal dividends D periodically.

Elements
F = face value or par value of the bond
C = redemption value on a specified redemption
date
r = bond rate or dividend rate
D = periodic dividend
 D=Fr

i = investors interest rate of return

P = price of the bond at a given interest i
A bond is said to be redeemable at par if
the redemption value C equals the face
value F.
A bond is said to be redeemable at a
premium if C > F.
A bond is said to be redeemable at a
discount if C < F.

Price of a bond at given i:

C D[(1 + i)n - 1]
P= n = n
(1 + i) (1 + i) i

Example 12-4
A P100, 000.00, 6% bond, pays dividends semi-
annually and will be redeemed at 110 % on July
19, 1999. Find its price if bought on July 1, 1996,
to yield an investor 4%, compounded semi-
annually.

Solution:
Face value of the bond, F = P100, 000.00
Redemption Value, C = 10 %( 100,000) = P110,
000.00
Bond Rate, r = 0.06/2 = 0.03
Periodic Dividend, D=F x r=100,000(0.03)
= P3, 000.00
Investors rate of return (per semi- annual),
I = 0.04/2 = 0.02
Number of dividends, n = 3(2) = 6
C D[(1 + i)n - 1]
P= +
(1 + i)n (1 + i)n i
110,000 3000(1 + 0.02)6 - 1
P= +
(1 + 0.02)6 (1 + 0.02)6 (0.02)
P=P114,481.14

Break Even Analysis

Break even Analysis is a method of determining

when costs exactly equal revenue. If the
manufactured quantity is less than the break- even
quantity, a loss is incurred. If the manufactured
quantity is greater than the break-
even quantity, a profit is incurred.

Elements

f = fixed cost which does not vary with production

a = an incremental cost which is the cost to
produce one additional item. It may also be called
the marginal cost or differential cost.
N = break-even point or quantity produced and
sold for break-even
 P = incremental revenue or selling price per unit
R = total revenue

R = pN

C=total cost

C = f + aN

Assuming there is no change in inventory, the

break-even point can be found from:
Cost, C = Revenue, R
f + aN = pN
f
N=
p-a
Amount

Revenue =pN Profit

Cost = f + aN
Break-even Point

Loss

Break-even
Quantity
Example 12-5

The cost of producing a computer diskette is as

follows: Material cost is P7.00 each, labor cost is
P2.00 each, and other expense is P1.50 each. If
the fixed expenses is P69, 000.00 per month, how
many diskettes must be produced each month for
break- even if each diskettes is worth P45.00?

Solution:
Given f = fixed cost = P69, 000 per month
a = marginal cost = P7.00 +P2.00 + P1.50
a = P10.50
p = marginal revenue = P45.00
f
N=
p-a
69, 000
N=
45-10.5

N=2000 diskettes per month

CHAPTER 13

Commonly Used Conversion Factors

To convert from To Multiply by

Square foot Square meter 9.290304 x 10-2

Foot per second2 Meter per sec2 3.048 x 10-1
Cubic foot Cubic meter 2.831685 x 10-2
Pound per in3 Kilogram per m3 2.76799 x 104
Gallon per in2 Liter per sec 6.309 x 10-2
Pound force KPa 6.894757
Acre foot per day Newton, N 4.448222
Kip per foot2 Pascal, Pa 4.788026 x 101
Acre foot per day m3 per sec 1.427541 x 10 -2
Acre Square meter 4,046.873
Cubic foot per sec m3 per sec 2.831685 x 10-2
Inches Millimetre 25.4
Foot Meter 0.3048
Meter Foot 3.28

Commonly Used Constants

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2 (32.166 ft/s2)

Atmospheric pressure (standard) = 101.325 KPa (14.7 psi)

Density of water, p = 1000 kg/m3 (62.4 lb/ft3)

Speed of light in Aircraft STP, v = 340 m/s

Unit weight of water, y = 9.81 kN/m3 (62.4 lb/ft3

Constant in Physics and Mathematics

Name Symbol Value

Absolute Entropy So/R -1.1517048 (44, -

Constant 1.1648678,44)
Absolute Zero -273.15 0C
Acceleration of free g
fall on earth 9.80665 m / s2
(acceleration due to 32.1740 ft / s2
gravity)
Acre 4046.85642240 m2
Air, Critical -190 0C
Temperature 183K
Air, Density 0.7734 m3 k-1
Air, viscosity of o
1.8 x 10-5 N s m
(200C)
Allandi Grinstead
0.809394020534
Constant
Angstrom 10-10 m
Annee Lumiere ly- 9.46052973 x 1015 m
Asperys Constant (3) 1.202056903
Aposthecariess Oz(apot
ounce h) 3.110347680 x 10-10 kg
Oz(ap.)
Archimedes 3.141592653589793
constant 2384626433832795

Atsronomical Unit AU 1.4959787 x 10 11 m

Atmospheric 1.010325 x 105 N m2
Pressure 1.01325 bar
 14.7 lbf in2
Atomic Mass Unit amu 1.66053873(13) x 10-27 kg
mu 931.494013(37) MeV
u 1.49241778(12) x 10-10 J
Avogrado constant Na 6.02214199(47) x 1023 mol

Avoirdupois Ounce oz avdp 2.834952313 x 10-2 kg

oz (av.) 0.0625 lb (av.)
oz 16 drachms (av.)
Backhouses 1.456074948582689671399
Constants 59535111654356
Base of Natural E 2.718281828459045235360
Logarithms 2874713526
Bernsteinss
0.2801694990
Constant
Board foot (timber) fbm 2.359737216 x 10-3 m3
Bohr Magnetron uB 9.27400899(37) x 10-24 JT4
5.788381749(43) x 10-5 eVT
1.39964624(56) x 1010 HzT
Bohr Raduis ao 5.291772083(19) x 10-11 m
Boltzmann Constant K 1.3806503(24) x 10-23 J K-1
Briggsian (common) lcg102
0.30102999566398119521
Logarithm of 2
Bruns Constant B 1.9021605824
Cahens Constant 0.6294650204
Carbon 14 half-life of T 5570 years
Catalans Constant G 0.915965594
Chain ch 20.1168
Characteristics Z0
Impedence of 376.730313461 ohms
Vacuum
Charge to mass -e/me -1.758820174(71) x 107 C
Quotient, electron kg-4
Charge to mass e/me
9.57883408(38) x 107 C kg-1
Quotient, proton
 E 1.602176462(63) x 10-19 C
Charge Electron
e/h 2.417989491(95) x 1014 A J-1
Charge Electron -e/h
-1.758819(62) x 1011 C kg-1
Specific
E 1.602176462(63) x 10-19 C
Charge, Elementary
e/h 2.417989491(95) x 1014 A J-1
Circulation, h/2me 3.636947516(27) x 10-4 m2-s-1
Quantum of h/me 7.273895032(53) x 10-4 m2-s-1
Classical Electron re
2.817940285(31) x 10-15 m
Radius
Common logarithm lcg102
0.301029999566398119521
of 2
Compton Wave e
2.426310215(18) x 10-12 m
length of electron
Compton Wave ceu
11.73444197(35) x 10-15 m
length, Muon
Compton Wave cen
length Neutron, 1.319590898(10) x 10-15 m
h/mnc
Compton Wave cep
1.326409847(10) x 10-15 m
length Proton, h/mpc
Compton Wave cu
0.69770(11) x 10-15 m
length Tau
Conductance G0
7.748091696(28) x 10-5 S
Quantum 2e2/h
Conductance,
3.87404614 x 10 -5 S
Quantized Hall
Constant, Absolute -1.1517048(44)
Entropy -1.1648678(44)
Constant, Aperys 1.202056903
1.3806503(24) x 10 -23 J K-1
Constant,
8.6177342(15) x 10 -5 eV K-1
Boltzmann
2.0836644(36) x 10 10 Hz K-1
Constant, Catalans 0.915965594
1.054571596(82) x 10 -34 J s
Constant, Diracs
6.58211899(26) x 10 -16 eV s
Constant, Electric
8.854187817 x 10 -12 F m-1
(1/0c2)
Constant, Eulerss 0.57721566490153286061
Constant, Faraday F 96485.3415(39) C mol-1
Constant,
4.669210609102990
Feigenbaums
Constant, Fermi 1.4 x 10-50 J m-3
Constant, Fermi Gf / (hc)3
1.16639(1) x 10-5 GeV-2
Coupling
Constant, Fine
7.297352533(27) x 10-3
Structure
Constant, First c1
3.74177107(29) x 10-16 W m2
Radiation 2hc2
Constant, Gas R 8.314 J K-1 mol-1
Constant, G
6.673(10) x0-11 N m2 kg 2
Gravitational
Constant, Inverse
137 03599976(50) x 10-3
Fine Structure
Constant, K
2.685452001
Khintchines
Constant, Loschmidt o 2.6867775(47) x 1025 m-3
Constant, Loschmidt Vm
22.710981(40) X 10-4 m3
(T=273.15K p=
mol4
100kPa)
0 4 x 10-7 N A-2
Constant, Magnetic
12.566370614 X 10-7 N A
H 6.626068776(52) x 10-34 J s
Constant, Planck (h)
4.13566727(16) x 10-15 e V s
Constant,
1.4142135624
Pythagoras
Constant, Sackur So / R -1.1517048(44)
Tetrode -1.1648678(44)
Constant, Solar O 1400 W m-2
Constant, Stefan 5.670400(40) x 10-8 W m-2
Boltzmann (2/60) K-1
k4/h3c2
Constant, Verdets Rk
(light at 589 mm at 0.000477 rad A-1
water)
Constant, von B
25812.807572(95) ohms
Klitzing
Constant, Wien H
2.8977686(51) x 10-4 m K
Displacement law (h bar)
Constant, Planck R, R,c 1.054571596(82) x 10-34 J s
(h/2 ) R,hc 6.58211889(26) x 10-16 e V s
10973731.568549(83) m-1
Constant, Rydberg 3.289841960368(25) x 1015 Hz
2.179877190(17) x 10-18 J
Constant, Linear C
1.7 x 10-5 K-1
Expansivity of
Copper, Specific K
885 J kg-1 K-1
Heat Capacity of
Copper, Thermal E
885 W m-1 K-1
Conductivity of
Copper, Young cd (UK)
1.8 x 1011 Pa
Modulus for
Cord (timber) 3.624556364 m3
-190 oC
Critical Temp of Air
183 K
Cross Section,
0.665245854(15) x 10-28 m2
Thomson
ft3, 2.8316846592 x 10-2 m3
Cube Foot
cu. Ft. 1728 in3
in3
Cube Inch 1.6387064 x 10-5 m3
cu. in.
yd3 7.64554858 x 10-5 m3
Cube Yard cu. yd 27 ft3
46656 in3
Curie Ci 3.7 x 1010 Bq
amu 1.66053873(13) x 10-27 kg
Dalton m 931.494013(37) MeV
u 1.49241778(12) x 10-10 J
Daniel Cell, emf of 1.08 V
Density of Air (at 0.7734 m3 kg-1
stp) 1.2929 kg m-3
Density, Earths Ave 5.517 x 103 kg m-3
d 0.43307375(15) x 10-26 J T-1
Deuteron Magnetic
0.4669754479 x 10-3
Moment
0.857438230(24) N
Md 3.3435869(20) x 10-27 kg
Deuteron Molar
2.103553214(24) u
Mass
1875.61339(57) MeV e-2
Deuteron Electron d/ e
Magnetic Moment 0.4664345460(91) x 10-3
Ratio
Deuteron Electron md/me
3670.483014(75)
Rest Mass Ratio
Deuteron Proton d/ p
Magnetic Mass 0.3070122035(51)
Ratio
Deuteron Proton md/mp
1.999007496(6)
Rest Mass Ratio
H 1.054571596(82) x 1034 J s
Diracs Constant
(h bar) 6.58211889(26) x 10-16 eVs
dr 1.771845195 x 10-3 kg
Drachm
(avdp) 0.00390625 lb
(Avoirdupois)
dr. (av.) 0.0625 oz
dr 1.771845195 x 10-3 kg
Dram (Avoirdupois) (avdp) 0.00390625 lb
dr. (av.) 0.0625 oz
pt (US,
Dry Pint 5.500610469 x 10-4 m3
dry)
E 2.718281828459045235602
e
874713526
Earths Average
5.517 x 103 kg m-3
Density
Earths Average R
6.37 x 106 m
Radius
Earths Magnetic Bo
1.8 x 10-5 T
Field, Horizontal
Earths Mass M 5.972 x 1024 kg
Earth Moon Mean
3844 x 108 m
Distance
Electric Constant o 8,854187817 x 10-12 F m-3
Electrical Power
230 V ac, 50Hz
Specification (UK)
Electrical Power
115V ac, 50Hz
Specification (US)
E 1.602176462(63) x 10-19 C
Electron Charge
e/h 2.417989491(95) x 1014 A J1
Electron Charge to -e/me -1.758820174(71) x 1011 C
Mass Quotient kg-19
Electron Factor ge 2.0023193043737(82)
Electron Ye 1.760859794(71) x 1011 s-1
Gyromagnetic Ratio Ye/2 T-1 , 28024.954(11) MHz T-1
e -928.476362(37) x 10-26 J T-1
Electron Magnetic
e/ -1.0011596521869(41)
Moment
e/ N -1838.2819660(39)
Electron Magnetic ae
1.1596521869(41) x 10-3
Moment Anomaly
me 9.10938188(72) x 10-31 kg
Electron Mass 5.485799110(12) x 10-4 u
0.510998902(21) MeV
M(e) Me 5.48579911(12) x 10-7 kg
Electron Molar Mass
mol-1
Electron Radius, re
2.817940285(31) x 10-15 m
Classical
Electron Specific -e/mo
-1.758819(62) x 1011 c kg-1
Charge
Electron to Shielded e/h
Helion Magnetic 864.058255(10)
Moment Ratio
Electron to Shielded e/p
-658.2275954(71)
Proton Magnetic
Moment Ratio
Electron me/md
1.3709335611(29) x 10-4
Particle Mass Ratio
Electron Deuteron e/ d
Magnetic Moment -2143.923498(23)
Ratio
Electron Deuteron me/md
2.7244371170(58) x 10-4
Mass Ratio
Electron Muon e/ d
Magnetic Moment 206.7669720(63)
Ratio
Electron Neutron me/md
4.83633210(15) x 10-3
Mass Ratio
Electron Proton e/ p
Magnetic Moment 960.92050(23)
Ratio
Electron Proton me / m0
5.438673462(12) x 10-4
Mass Ratio
Electron Proton e/ p
-658.2106875(66)
Moment Ratio
Electron Proton me/mp
5.446170232(12) x 10-4
Ration
Electron Tau Mass me / m1
2.87555(47) x 10-4
Ratio
Electronvolt MeV 1.60217733 x 10-19 J
Electronvolt, Million eV 1.6 x 10-13 J
E 1.602176462(63) x 10-19 C
Elementary Charge
e/h 2.41798949(95) x 1014 A J-1
emf of Daniell Cell 1.08V
emf of Lechlanche
1.46V
Cell
emf of Nife Cell 1.40V
emf of Weston Cell 1.0186V
Energy Production,
3.90 x 1026 W
Suns
 Eh 4.35974381(34) x 10-18 J
Energy, Hartree
27.2113834(11) eV
Eulers Constant YC 0.5772156690153286061
Faraday Constant F 96485.3415(39) C mol-1
fath 1.3288 m
Fathom 72 in
6 ft
Feigenbaums
4.6692106091012990
Constant
Fermi Constant 1.4 x 10-50 J m-3
Fermi Coupling Gf/(hc)3
1.16639(1) x 10-5 GeV-2
Constant
Fire Structure
7.297352533(27) x 10-3
Constant
First Radiation c1 3.74177107(29) x 10-16 W
Constant m2
First Radiation cu
1.191042722(93) x 10-16 W
Constant for
m2 sr-1
Spectral Radiance
Fluid Ounce, UK floz 2.841 x 10-5 m3
Fluid Ounce, US floz 2.957 x 10-5 m3
Foot ft 0.3048 m
Foot Board (Timber) ftm 2.359737216 x 10-3 m3
Fransen Robinson
2.8077702420
Constant
Free Nuetron, Half T 650 s
Life
Free Space, uo 4 x 10-7 N A-2
Permeability of 12.566370614 x 10-7 N A-2
Free Space, 0 8.8541187817 x 10-12 F m-4
Permeability of
g factor, Electron ge -2.00231930437337(82)
g factor, Muon gu -2.00023318320(13)
g Factor, Neutron gn -3.82698548(90)
g Factor, Proton gp 5.585694675(57)
4.546 x 10-3 m3
Gallon, UK
1.201 US Gallon
3.785 x 103 m3
Gallon, US
0.833 UK gallon
Gas Constant R 8.314 J K-1 mol-1
Gas Constant, Molar R 8.314472(15) J K-1 mol-1
Gee pound 14.59390294 kg
Glass, Refractive ng 1.50
Index of
Glass, Thermal kg 1.0 W m-1K-1
Conductivity of
Golden Number 1.6180339887498948420
Golden Mean 1.6180339887498948420
Golomb Dickman 0.6243299885
Constant
Grain 0/06479 g
Gravitational, G 6.673(10) x 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-1
Newtonian Constant G/hc 6.707(10) x 10-39 (GeV/c2)-2
of
Gravitational, 1.619 m s-2
Acceleration,
Moons
Gravitational G 6.673(10) x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
Constant
Gravity, Acceleration g 9.80665 m s-2
due to 32.1740 ft s-2
Gunters Chain ch 20.1168 m
Gyromagnetic Ratio, ye 1.760859794(71) x 1011 s-1 T-1
Electron ye/2 20024.9540(11) MHz T-1
Gyromagnetic Ratio, yn 1.83247188(44) x 108 s-1 T-1
Neutron yn/2 29.1646958(70) MHz T-1
Gyromagnetic Ratio, yp 2.675222121(11) x 108 s-1T-1
Proton yp/2 42.5774825(18) MHz T-1
Gyromagnetic Ratio, yp 2.67515341(11) x 108 s-1 T-1
shielded proton yp/2 42.57638888(18) MHz T-1
Hafner Sarnak 0.3532363719
McCurley Constant
Half Life of Carbon T 5570 years
14
Half Life of Free T 650 s
Neutron
Hard Square k 1.503048082
Entropy constant
Eh 4.35974381(34) x 10-18 J
Hartee Energy
27.2113834(11) eV
Hectare ha 10,000 m2
Horizontal B0 1.8 x 10-5 T
Component of
Earths Magnetic
Field
Hundredweight (UK) cwt 5.08 x 104 g
Hundredweight short short 4.535 x 104 g
(Us) cwt
Hydrogen Rydberg RH 1.0967758 x 107 m-1
number
Impedence of Zo 376.73031461 ohms
Vacuum,
Characteristic
Imperial Pint 5.682 x 10-4 m3
inch in 0.254 m
International 1852 m
Nautical Mile
Inverse Go-1 12906.403786(47) ohms
Conductance
Quantum
Inverse Fine 137.03599976(50) x 10-3
Structure Constant
Josephson Ki 4.83597898(19) x 1014 Hz V-
1
Frequency Voltage 2e/h
Quotient
Khintchines K 2.68542001
Constant
Landau K 0.764223653
Ramanujan
Constant
Laplace Limit 0.6627434193
Constant
Lechlanche Cell, 1.46 V
emf of
Length, Planck lp 1.6160(12) x 10-35 m
Lengyels Constant 1.0986858055
Liebs Square Ice 1.5396007178
Constant
Light year ly 9.46052974 x 1015 m
Light, Speed of c 299792458 m s-1
Linear Expansivity of 1.7 x 10-5 K-1
Copper
Linear Expansivity of 1.2 x 10-5 K-1
Steel
Loschmidt constant no 2.6867775(47) x 1025 m-3
Vm 22.710981(40) x 10-3 m3
Loschmidt constant
mol-1
Madelungs M2 -1.6155426267
Constant
uo 4 x 10-7 N A-2
Magnetic Constant
12.566370614 x 10-7 N A-2
Magnetic Flux 2.067833636(81) x 10-15 Wb
Quantum
Magnetic Moment ae 1.1596521869(41) x 10-3
Anomaly, Electron
Magnetic Moment au 1.16591602(64) x 10-3
Anomaly, Muon
Magnetic Moment ud/ue 0.45554345460(91) x 10-3
Ratio Deuteron
Electron
Magnetic Moment ud/up 0.3070122035(51)
Ratio, Deuteron
Proton
Magnetic Moment ue/uh 864.058255(10)
Ratio, Electron to
Shilded Helion
Magnetic Moment ue/up -658.2275954(71)
Ratio, Electron to
Shilded Proton
Magnetic Moment u/ud -21.43.923498(23)
Ratio, Electron
Deuteron
Magnetic Moment ue/un 206.7669720(63)
Ratio Electron
Muon
Magnetic Moment ue/un 960.92050(23)
Ratio, Electron
Neutron
Magnetic Moment uu/up -658.2106875(66)
Ratio, Muon
Proton
Magnetic Moment un/up -/068499694(16)
Ratio, Neutron to
Shielded Proton
Magnetic Moment un/ue 1.04066882(25) x 10-3
Ratio Neutron
Electron
Magnetic Moment up/un -1.45989805(34)
Ratio, Proton
Neutron
ud 0.43307375(15) x 10-26 J T-1
Magnetic Moment
0.4669754479 x 10-3 uB
Deuteron
0/857438230(24) un
ue -928.476362(37) x 10-36 J T-1
Magnetic Moment
-1.0011596521869(41)
Electron
-1.838.2819660(39)
Magnetic Moment, uu -4.49044813(22) x 10-26 J T-1
Muon -4.84197085(15) x 10-3
-8.89059770(27)
un -0.9662364(23) x 10-26 J T-1
Magnetic Moment,
-1.04187563(25) x 10-3
Neutron
-1.91304272(45)
up 1.41060663(58) x 10-26 J T-1
Magnetic Moment,
1.521032203(15) x 10-3
Proton
2.792847337(29)
uB 9.27400899(37) x 10-26 J T-1
Magneton, Bohr 5.788381749(43) x 10-5 eV T-1
1.399624624(56) x 1010 Hz T-1
un 5.05078317(20) x 10-27 J T-1
Magneton, Nuclear 3.1524541238(24) x 10-8 eV T-1
7.62259396(31) MHz T-1
Mass Ratio, md/me 3670.483014(75)
Deuteron Electron
Rest
Mass Ratio, md/mp 1.999007469(6)
Deuteron Proton
Mass Ratio Electron me/ma 1.3709335611
Particle
Mass Ratio Electron me/md 2.724437117(58) x 10-4
Deuteron
Mass Ratio Electron me/mp 4.83633219(15) x 10-4
Proton
Mass Ratio Electron me/mt 2.87555(47) x 10-4
tau
Mass Ratio, Muon mu/me 206.7682657(63)
Electron
Mass Ratio, Muon mu/mn 0.1124545079(34)
Neutron
Mass Ratio, Muon mu/mp 0.1126095173(34)
Proton
Mass Ratio, Muon mu/mt 5.94572(97) x 10-2
Tau
Mass Ratio, Neutron mn/mu 1.8386836550(40)
Muon
Mass Ratio, Neutron mn/mp 8.89248278(27)
Proton
Mass Ratio, mn/mt 0.528722(86)
Neutron- Tau
Mass Ratio, Proton mp/me 1836.1526675(39)
electron
Mass Ratio, Proton mp/mu 8.88024408(27)
Muon
Mass Ratio, Proton mp/mn 0.99862347855(58)
Neutron
Mass Ratio Proton mp/mt 0.527994(86)
Tau
Mass Ratio Tau mt/me 3.47760(57)
Electron
Mass Ratio Tau mt/mu 16.8188(27)
Muon
Mass Ratio Tau mt/mn 1.89135(31)
Neutron
Mass Ratio Tau mt/mp 1.89396(31)
Proton
md 8.34358360(29) x 10-27 kg
Mass, Deuteron
2.013553214(24) u
Mass, Earths M 5.972 x 1024 kg
Mass, Electron me 9.10938188(72) x 10-33 kg
Mass Muon mu 1.8835109(16) x 10-28 kg
Mass Neutron mn 1.67492716(13) x 10-27 kg
Mass Planck mp 2.1767(16) x 10-8 kg
Mass Proton mp 1.6726158(13) x 10-27 kg
Mass, Suns 1.99 x 1030 kg
Mass Tau mt 3.16788(52) x 10-27 kg
Mile 1609.344 m
mile, square 2.589 x 106 m2
Million Electronvolts MeV 1.6 x 10-13 J
Mills Constant 1.3063778838
Molar Gas Constant R 8.314472(15) J mol-1 K-1
Molar Mass Md 2.013553214(24) u
Deuteron
Me 5.48579911(12) x 107 kg
Molar Mass Electron
mol-1
Mu 0.113428917(34) x 10-3 kg
Molar Mass Muon
mol-1
Mn 1.0066491578(55) x 10-3 kg
Molar Mass Neutron
mol-1
Mp 1.00727646688(13) x 10-3
Molar Mass Proton
kg mol-1
Molar Mass Tau Mt 1.90774(31) x 10-3 kg mol-1
Molar Planck NAh 3.990312689(30) x 10-10 J s
Constant Na hc mol-1
Molar Volume Vm 22.413996 x 10-3 m3 mol-1
Moons Gravitational 3.33 x 103 kg m-3
Accelration
Moons Mean 3.844 x 108 m
Distance From Earth
Moons Mean Mass 7.33 x 1022 kg
Moons Mean 1.738 x 106 m
Radius
Muon Compton cu 11.73444197(35) x 10-15 m
Wave lenght
Muon g Factor gu -2.0023318320(13)
Muon Magnetic uu -4.49044813(22) x 1026 J T-1
Moment
Muon Magnetic au 1.116591602(64) x 10-3
Moment Anomaly
Muon Mass mu 1.883353109(16) x 10-28 kg
Mu 0.113428916(34) x 10-3 kg
Muon Molar Mass
mol-1
Naperian (natural) ln 10 2.3025809299404568404
logarithm of 10
Naperian (natural) ln 2 0.69314718055994530942
logarithm of 2
natural logarithm of ln 10 2.3025809299404568404
10
natural logarithm of ln 2 0.69314718055994530942
2
Number Gold 1.618033988874989484820
ounce troy oz 31.103 g
Paraffin, refrective np 1.42
Index of
3.141592653589793238462
Pi
6433832795
Porters Constant C 1.4670780794
lb acre- 0.112 g m-2
Pounds per acre 1

Pounds per Foot lb ft-1 1.488 kg m-1

Pounds per Inch lb in-1 17.85 kg m-1
Pounds per Square lb ft-2 4.882 x 103 g m-2
Foot
Pounds per Square lb in-2 7.03 x 105 g m-2
Inch
Pounds per yard lb yd-1 0.496 kg m-1
Pythagoras 1.412135624
Constant
Quantized Hall e2/h 3.87404614 x 10-5 S
Conductance
Quantized Hall RH 25812.8056 ohms
Resistance
Quantum of h/2me 3.63947516(27) x 10-4 m2 s-1
circulation
Quantum Go1 12906.403786(47) ohms
Conductance
Short ton 2000lb
Siegbahn Unit UX 1.0002077897 x 10-13 m
Sierpinskis K 2.5849817596
Constant
Sigma 1 x 1012 m
Siriometre 1.49597870 x 1015 m
Siriusweit 1.5428387847 x 1017 m
Slug 14.59390294 kg
Solar Constant 1400 W m-2
Specific Heat cc 385 J kg-1 K-1
Capacity of Copper
Specific Latent Heat cw 4200 J kg-1 K-1
of Fusion of Water
Specific Latent Heat 2.28 x 106 J kg-1
of Vapourisation of
Water
Ton 106 kg
Van der Corputs m 3.3643175781
Constant
Verdets Constant 0.000477 rad A-1
Viscosity of Air at 1.8 x 10-3 N s m-2
20oC
Viscosity of Water at 1.002 x 10-3 N s m-2
20oC
Weak Mixing Angle sin2 w 0.2224(19)

FACTORS FOR CONVERSION TO S.I. UNITS OF

MEASUREMENTS

To convert from To Multiply by

acre foot m3 1,233489

acre m2 4,046.873
angstrom meter, m 1 x 10-10
atm (standard) Pascal, Pa 1.013250 x 105
atm (technical) Pa 9.80665 x 104
bar Pa 1 x 105
barrel m3 1.589873 x 10-1
board ft m3 2.359737 x 10-3
Btu Joule, J 1,055.87
Btu (British W/(m-K) 1.442279 x 10-1
Thermal Unit) (k
intl)
Btu ( intl table) h Watt, W 2.930711 x 104
Btu (C, Thermal W/(m2-k) 5.678263
Conductance)
Btu J/kg 2,326
Btu J/m3 3.725895 x 104
bushel (U.S.) m3 3.523907 X 10-2
Calorie J 4.19002
cm of hg (0oC) Pa 98.0638
cm of hg (4oC) Pa 20.11684
chain m 20.11684
circular mil m2 5.067075 x 10-10
Cubit m 4.57 x 10-4
Day Second, s 8.64 x 104
day (sidereal) s 8.616409 x 104
degree (angle) rad 1.745329 x 10-2
degree Celsius K Tk = tc + 273.15
o
degree C tc = (tf-32)/1.8
Fahrenheit
degree K Tk = (tf +
Fahrenheit 459.67)11.8
degree Rankine K Tk = TR / 1.8
Dyne N 1 x 10-5
Fathom m 1.828804
Foot m 3.048006 x 10-1
foot, ft, of water Pa 2,988.98
ft2 m2 9.290304 x 10-2
ft3 m3 2.831685 x 10-2
footcandle, fc lux, lx 10.76391
footlambert, fL cd/m2 3.426259
ft lbf J 1.355818
ft lbf / min W 2.259697 x 10-2
ft pundal J 4.214011 x 10-2
gallon UK m3 4.546092 x 10-3
gallon US (dry) m3 4.404884 x 10-3
gallon US (liquid) m3 3.785412 x 10-3
Grad 2 0.09
Grad Rad 1.570796 x 10-2
grain, gr Kg 6.479891 x 10-5
gram, g Kg 0.001
hectare, ha m2 0.0001
Hp W 745.69999
hp (boiler) W 9,809.5
hp(electric) W 746
hp (water) W 746.043
hp (UK) W 745.70
hour, h second, s 3600
Inch M 0.00254
inch squared m2 0.00064516
inch cube m3 1.638706 x 10-5
in/s m/s 2.54 x 10-2
Kgf N 9.80665
kgf-s2/m Kg 9.80665
kg m Nm 9.80665
kgf/cm2 Pa 9.80665 x 10-4
kgf/m2 Pa 9.80665
kWh J 3600000
kip N 4,448.22
Ksi Pa 6.894757 x 106
knot, kn m/s 5.1444444 x 104
lambert, L cd/m2 3,183.099
Liter m3 0.001
maxwell weber, Wb 1 x 10-8
Mho S 1
micro inch M 2.54 x 10-8
Micron M 0.000001
mil, mi M 2.54 x 10-5
mile, mi (intl) M 1.609344 x 10-3
mi (US) M 1,609.347
mi (intl nautical) M 1,852
mi (US nautical) M 1,852.00
mi2 m2 2.589988 x 106
mi2 (US) m2 2.589988 x 106
mi/hr m/s 4.474 x 106
mi/hr (US) m/h 1.609344
Mbar Pa 100
mm of Hg Pa 133.322
minute (angle) Rad 2.908882 x 10-4
minute Sec 60
minute (sidereal) Sec 59.83617
Oz Kg 2.834952 x 10-2
oz (troy) Kg 3.110348 x 10-2
oz (UK fluid) m3 2.841307 x 10-5
oz (US fluid) m3 2.957353 X 10-5
Ozf N 2.780139 x 10-1
ozf in Nm 7.061552 x 10-3
poise p Pa s 0.01
pound, lb Kg 4.535924 x 10-1
Rod M 5.02921
Second Rad 4.848137 x 10-6
second (sidereal) S 9.972696 x 10-1
square foot m2 9.290304
(100ft2)
Ton Kg 2.916667 x 10-2
ton(long) Kg 1,016.047
ton(metric) Kg 1,000
ton force (200 lbf) N 8,896.444
tonne, t Kg 1,000
Vara M 8.38 x 10-4
Wh J 3,600
yard, yd M 9.144 x 10-4
yd2 m2 8.361274 x 10-4
yd3 m3 7.645549 x 10-4
year (365 days) second, s 3.153600 x 107
year (sidereal) S 3.155815 x 107

Prefixes
 Yocto (y) .10-24
Zepto (z) .10-21
Atto (a) ....10-18
Femto (f) 10-15
Pico (p)....10-12
Nano (n)..10-9
Mirco (u)..10-6
Centimilli (cm).10-5
Decimille (dm).10-4
Milli (m).10-3
Centi (c)10-2
Deci (d).10-1
Deca (D)...101
Hecto (h)...102
Kilo (K)..103
Mega (M)..106
Giga (G)109
Tera (T).1012
Peta (P).1015
Exa (E)..1018
Zetta (Z)1021
Yotta (Y)...1024