4.

CUT CHRYSANTHEMUMS

4.1. Materials and equipment for protected cultivation

Glass
Glass has a high light transmission rate and glasshouses are particularly suitable for temperate and cold
climates. The glasshouse climate is readily controlled and being able to manipulate the environmental
factors means that the quality of production is generally excellent. However, glasshouses are very
expensive.

Plastic
Plastic has a lower light transmission rate than glass and climate control under plastic is also more
difficult. Plastic structures are suitable for use in warmer areas with high light levels. For ventilation there
are several possibilities in the modern greenhouses. Plastic has to be replaced regularly because of
deterioration within 3 to 5 years.

Saran
It is practically impossible to control environmental conditions under saran. The material really is suitable
only for the reduction of high light levels. Rainfall and day length limit the use of saran for
chrysanthemum crops to certain seasons only. Saran is a useful protective material for short cropping
periods in warm areas with high light levels and little rainfall. The quality of the produce grown under
saran is good only during a limited period of the year when the external climatic conditions are ideal. The
relative atmospheric humidity in saran structures is often very low causing problems in the control of
various diseases. Saran is of course a cheap material.

4.2. Heating systems

Heater
One of the low-cost greenhouse heaters is the 'direct' hot air heater which uses paraffin, propane or
natural gas as a fuel. A big fan extracts the air from the greenhouse and feeds it through the combustion
chamber back into the greenhouse. When a good calculation of the number and type of heaters, in
combination with the dimensions of the greenhouse, is made, an even distribution of warm air is
guaranteed. The warm air may contain combustion gases and water vapour, which makes an accurate
measurement and control very important.

Warm air heater

An alternative is the indirectly fuelled warm air heater with a sealed combustion chamber which keeps
the combustion gases separate from the warm air emitted into the greenhouse. The quantity of warm air
generated is generally greater than that produced by a direct hot air heater. The warm air is emitted via
adjustable grids fitted to the heater or it may be distributed in the greenhouse through perforated
polythene sleeves. When the number of heaters is tuned to the dimensions of the greenhouses, accurate
control can be achieved.

Pipe heating
Several of the problems described above may be overcome by using a central heating installation in
which water is heated in a central boiler and circulated through a pipe system in the greenhouse. A
satisfactory temperature distribution pattern is achieved by fitting more or less pipes in different parts of the
greenhouse. The delays in heat transfer - inherent in a warm water heating system - can be
overcome by the installation of an efficient (computerized) control system.

(Additional) mobile pipe heating

Mobile pipe heating systems are widely used by chrysanthemum growers. In this system, the heating
pipes, together with the crop support netting and sometimes also the CO2 distribution pipes are
suspended from the greenhouse roof and adjustable for height. Various systems are available and the
advantage of all of them is that the heat is applied in the area where it is needed most. Another
advantage is that the raising of the crop support netting is no longer done manually. A disadvantage of the
mobile pipe heating system is their relative high capital cost.

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Twin crop heating
Some chrysanthemum growers have used so-called twin crop heating systems for several years now.
The system consists of tour tubylene or alkathene hoses per bed which are attached to the crop support
netting in a longitudinal direction, leaving the mesh of the netting open.

4.3. Cooling
The simplest way of cooling a greenhouse is by opening the ventilators. However, in many cases this is not
sufficient and the installation of electric fans which bring in cooler air form outside the greenhouse may
be necessary.
Adjustable fan speeds improve the accuracy of the system. The cooling effect can be improved further by
the installation of wet pads behind the fans which also help to maintain the atmospheric humidity levels in
the greenhouse. The excess heat is evacuated from the greenhouse through louvered ventilators
mounted in the greenhouse side opposite the fans. This way of cooling is called the pad-and-fan system
and is used in areas where the outside temperatures are frequently higher than the maximum allowed
level inside the greenhouse. The outside r.v. should not be higher than 70 %, because then the cooling
effect is too low.

4.4. Soil cultivation and soil disinfection

Uniform cultivation of the soil is necessary in order to ensure an even distribution of water in the soil.
Rotary cultivation before planting is a suitable treatment if the soil type allows it. Hard pans in the soil
should be broken up by the deeper cultivation at least once a year. After a crop has been harvested, the
leaf debris should be shredded and cleared from the greenhouse unless a steam sterilization is planned
before the next planting. At most nurseries the soil is steam sterilized once a year in order to prevent pest
and diseases.

Steam sterilization
The soil should be dry for steam disinfection, sandy and light loam soils should be left rough after
cultivation and soil pans must be broken up. Deep cultivation is necessary because the steam will only
penetrate loose soil. Steam is blown under a so called steaming sheet to build up a pressure that drives the
steam into the soil.
Deep steaming is necessary for an adequate control of soil borne pathogens. This is achieved by using the
negative pressure method of soil sterilization which makes it possible to reach temperatures of 70C to a
depth of 35 cm.
It is possible to create the negative pressure by sucking air out of the pipes of the land drainage system.
The drains should be clean and they should be located well above the water table. Where a separate
drainage system is installed, the pipes should be laid about 20 cm above the land drains. Three rows of
pipes per 6.40 metre wide greenhouse bay, each with a maximum drainage length of about 80 metres, are
generally installed.
However, it pays to consult a specialist in these matters. It is important that the whole installation is
checked through before steaming is started. The use of well insulated steam pipes is recommended.
Some 10 to13 kg of steam per square metre per hour are required at the start of steam sterilisation.

Chemical soil disinfection

The soil can also be disinfected with the aid of various chemical compounds of which methyl bromide
(mono-bromium methane) is the best known. Methyl bromide will be phased out in a couple of years and is
already not approved in many countries already.

4.5. Plant density and production capacity

There are no hard and fast rules for plant densities and plant arrangements as various factors are
involved. Variety, growing season, type of greenhouse, technical equipment, type of crop required and the
cropping speed are just a few of the main considerations which must be taken into account. In
practice, the average plant density varies between 52 and 70 plants per square metre bed area. The
average annual yields in Holland range from 240 to 285 flower stems per square metre greenhouse area
gross. See Addendum 2 for planting layout and density.

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4.6. Long day and short day treatments
During the first few weeks - usually two to four weeks - after planting the crop is given a long day
treatment to encourage vegetative growth. The exact method and duration depend on the variety, the
growing season and growing conditions, the technical equipment and greenhouse available, the plant
shape required and the plant density. After the long day period, the crop is given a short day treatment in
order to induce flower bud initiation and to achieve a uniformly flowering crop.
The short day treatment is sometimes interrupted for a few days to improve the habit of the flower stems. In
this case the flower bud development is stopped or slowed down temporarily in order to give the crop an
extra push in its vegetative growth. The result is that the flower sprays become bigger and fuller which
increases its decorative value. The exact time and duration of the interruption depend very much on the
variety, the growing season, the stage of development of the crop, and so on. Hard and fast rules do not
exist and there is always a risk of vegetative regrowth. Any recommendations should therefore be
tailored to the specific crop and its growing conditions.

4.6.1. Lighting equipment

For long day treatment photoperiodic lighting is used when the dark period is more than 8 hours per
day.Usually, one 150 Watt (e.g. Super Argenta incandescent lamp) per 9 square metres is used for
photoperiodic lighting. Under normal conditions, the light emitted by such a lamp is about 70 lux,
measured at crop height with the lamps suspended at a height of about 2.5 - 3 metres above the ground.
Care must be taken that the two ends of the beds receive sufficient light.
It is obvious that the light should not be interrupted by extraneous objects like heating and irrigation
pipes, etc. Also important is the regularly cleaning of the lamps.
A cyclic lighting installation generally operates on the basis of half hourly cycles. Light should be given for at
least 7.5 minutes out of every 30 minutes.
For vegetative growth some nurseries have installed high pressure sodium lamps to light levels
especially during mid-winter. The vegetative period can be shortened and plant quality increased. For
this reason usually 600 Watt lamps are installed at 1 lamp per 12 to 15 m2 (resulting in 6.000 - 4.500
lux). With those lamps a long day treatment will be achieved by leaving them on for 20 hours
continuously.

Checking the lighting installation

At an increasing number of nurseries the lighting installation is being used throughout the year, also on
newly planted crops in the vegetative period. In that case it is necessary to give photoperiodic lighting
under the blackout screen from the date of planting out until the start of the SD period. If the lighting
installation becomes defective, the result may be premature bud initiation, even during the summer
months. In order to avoid this risk, the lighting installation should be checked regularly and at least twice
a week.

4.6.2.Blackout screen and thermal screen

Blackout treatment
Dependent on the latitude, blackout installations can be necessary. The cultural aspects have to be taken
into account in the choice of blackout material. Black plastic film attracts a lot of condensation which is
shed on the crop in the form of a shower when the screen is opened. In sunny areas, the temperature
under the screen also rises appreciably. The materials which have been specially developed for the
chrysanthemum crop are much better but also more expensive. One of the most advanced blackout
screen materials has aluminium foil on the outside and black textile on the inside woven in such a way
that the screen is absolutely light proof, but at the same time permeable to water vapour, whilst reducing
heat and cold radiation.
Blackout installations or blackout screens are used as a means of controlling the factor light in the
greenhouse climate. They serve to achieve a short day effect. Black plastic screens are more or less air
tight, trapping water vapour. The plastic can become very warm through absorption of light. This heat is
radiated to the crop under the screen with the result that the air temperature under the screen can
increase to unacceptable levels.
If a newly planted crop adjoins an older crop which is receiving blackout treatment and both crops are
covered by the same blackout screen, a movable vertical should be placed between the two crops. The
newly planted crop is given supplementary lighting starting three hours after the blackout screen is
closed.

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Shading
Besides the blackout screen there is also the thermal screen which is used mainly to reduce heat loss
from the greenhouse. A thermal screen can save a large amount of energy, particularly during the nights in
the colder part of the year.
The thermal screen used as a blackout screen is generally ineffective because it does not block light
penetration adequately. The use of a blackout screen as a means of saving energy is partially effective,
but no way is it as effective as a thermal screen. The blackout screen of course cannot be used as an
energy saver during the day. The screen can be operated manually or automatically.
The blackout screen is sometimes used to limit radiation on newly planted cuttings during warm and
sunny weather. Growers may also close the screen partially during flower harvest to give some
protection to the crop and to improve the working climate. However, this should not be carried too far.
The crops covered by the screen receive less light which will be reflected by reduced growth in the long
term. The greenhouse area covered by the screen is often larger than the area to be harvested or the
newly planted area. Besides the effect on growth, one should also consider the effect on flower colour.
Flowers with an intense colour like red, lilac, purple and so on, develop a deeper colour when the plant
produces an excess of sugars. The sugars are converted into colouring matter (anthocyanins).
Therefore, high radiation levels, and also lower temperatures are desired.
For maintaining the bicolour characteristics of a white-edged variety lower radiation levels at daytime and
also higher temperatures during the night are required.

4.7. Micro climate

A minimum day temperature of 17 oC should be maintained, with a maximum temperature of 28 to 30 oC.
The night temperature must be higher than 16 oC and it may even be allowed to increase to 26 or 21oC
as for example under the blackout screen. Low night temperatures may be compensated by high
radiation levels during the day. High light conditions during the day compensate to a certain degree lower
night temperatures. The rate of compensation depends on the variety. During the final three weeks
before harvest the flowers may become bleached as a result of high average temperatures. This may be
prevented by using a shading screen or by whitewashing (chalk) the glasshouse roof. At low
temperatures (less than 16 oC) as well as high day and/or night temperatures (more than 25 0C) for more
days the bud initiation and flower bud development are inhibited. The crop grows more vegetatively and
the quality of the flowers is diminished.

4.8. CO2 enrichment

CO2 enrichment should be applied when there is sufficient light. There is hardly any point in giving CO 2
during dark weather. CO2 may be distributed in the greenhouse with the aid of a pipe system suspended
above the crop. In this case the CO2 is generated by the boiler combustion gases. A disadvantage of this
method is that when the sun comes out, the heat requirements of the crop are reduced, but the CO 2
requirements are increased which means that the boiler must continue to operate. The problem has been
solved by fitting the boiler with a separate water tank in which the excess hot water can be stored for use
during the night. Another disadvantage of the method when combustion gases are used, that care must be
taken to ensure that combustion in the boiler is complete and the boiler gases should be checked
continually for the presence of CO2, NO, NOx and ethylene.
The use of pure CO 2 is inherently a better system. Pure CO 2 gas can be distributed among the crop
through a network of very thin hoses. This system allows a much more accurate control over CO 2
enrichment than cm be obtained with the use of combustion gases. CO 2 enrichment can be continued
even with the greenhouse ventilators wide open provided the concentration is maintained at a level of no
more than 400 ppm. Pure CO2 is supplied in liquid form and the gas is released with the aid of a heating
element. A disadvantage of pure CO2 is its high cost, but an advantage is that its distribution among the
crop is excellent.

4.9. Growth regulators

The use of growth regulators has become very much part and parcel of the modem chrysanthemum
growing scene. This is true particularly for the growth inhibitors. The most important reasons for the use
of inhibitors are:
1. Strengthening of the stem, especially if there is excessive extension growth during periods of
poor light conditions.

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2. Correction of deviations in the habit of the sprays, such as split stems and secondary growth.
3. Improvement of the flower spray habit. A poor spray habit may be caused by excessive
stretching during periods of poor light conditions. Treatment with a growth inhibitor will make the
spray more compact and give it a better shape.
4. Prevention of 'long necks in disbudded chrysanthemums. A growth inhibitor will encourage the
development of strong stems supporting large flowers.

Alar/Dazide/B9
The growth inhibitors most widely used at present are Alar and Dazide. Another inhibitor is B9, but this is
much more expensive in use than Alar or Dazide. It is not a simple matter to recommend the
concentrations of growth inhibitors growers should use as these depend very much on the following
factors:

1. The vigour of the crop. The growth regulator is taken up through the young leaves and hardly any
is transported to other parts of the plants. An actively growing, vigorous crop will therefore showa
greater response than a stagnant or old crop.
2. The vigour of the variety. There is a wide variation in the response of different varieties to growth
inhibitors.
3. The time of the year. Growth regulators need more time to take effect during periods of low light
conditions than during high periods. However, the ultimate response will be stronger.
4. The effect the grower is trying to achieve.
5. The wishes of the consumer, for instance with respect to the length of flower stem.
6. The concentration of the active ingredient of the preparation. Alar contains 64% active ingredient
and Dazide 85%. This should be taken into account in deciding the concentration of the solution.

Therefore it is practically impossible to recommend an exact spray schedule for growth regulators. The
most widely used treatments consist of 100 to 250 grams of Alar 64% per 100 litres of water with one to
four applications per crop. (For the conversion table of Dazide 85%, Alar 64% and B9, see Addendum 3).
The stage at which the spray is applied has a profound effect on the ultimate results. If a growth regulator
is applied too early, this may cause problems in the foliage later on during the crop's development in
some varieties. The leaf mass lower down the stems may become too dense which has a negative effect
on the micro-climate. Sprays applied at a late stage on the other hand, may have a negative effect on the
flower colour.

Berelex
Berelex is a gibberellic acid which has the opposite effect to a growth inhibitor. A Berelex spray causes the
internodes to stretch with the result that the plants become thinner and lankier. Berelex can
sometimes encourage extension growth in a crop which keeps on rosetting, which means that
successive leaf pairs remain too close together. The effect is accelerated by a simultaneous increase in
temperature. Following a spray application with Berelex, the temperature should be maintained at 17 oC at
least. For the chrysanthemum crop Berelex should be used in tablet form (GA3) and not in its liquid form
(GA4-7). A concentration of one Berelex tablet (= 10 g) in 50 to 100 litres of water is normally used for the
initial application. However, in practice the concentration is often increased to one tablet in 50 liter water
which depends on the variety, the vigour of the crop and the time of year. T wo or three spray
applications are sufficient in most cases.
The varietal characteristics and the climatic conditions have a great effect on the ultimate result achieved
with growth regulator and this applies to Berelex as well as to growth inhibitors.

4.10. Irrigation and nutrition

Chrysanthemums are one of those crops which require relatively large amounts of water. The quantity to
be applied depends on:

a. Salt concentration of the soil moisture.

It is understandable that at higher salt concentrations the plant has difficulties with its water uptake. By
keeping the soil thoroughly moist one can prevent that salt concentrations reach levels at which the plant
roots find it difficult to take up water. The same is true if the irrigation water has a high salt content in
which case the choice is a difficult one. If the amount of irrigation water applied to the crop is reduced
the

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salt concentration in the soil moisture may reach levels at which growth stagnation could occur. In this
case the only solution is to keep the salt concentration as low as possible by applying as much water as
the soil can hold.

b. Stage of the crop.

Newly planted cuttings require a lot of moisture in the surface soil layer, particularly during the first week
after planting. A moist soil surface stimulates root development and increases the atmospheric humidity
around the young plants. In most cases water is applied regularly during the first weeks after which the
irrigation frequency can be reduced to two times per week. The quantity of water applied on each
occasion is gradually increased.

c. The weather.
On bright sunny days with much wind the crop requires more water than during misty- weather. By using
radiation data, the water requirements can be matched to the weather conditions because there is a
close relationship between radiation energy and transpiration. The amount of water lost from the soil can
be replenished on the basis of the radiation data.

d. Soil type.
The irrigation frequency and the amounts of water applied on each occasion depend also on the soil
type. The moisture retentive soils - heavy soil types or soil with high organic matter content - relatively
large quantity of water may be applied at any one time and the irrigation frequency may be reduced.
On very light soil like sand which has a low water holding capacity, the crop is irrigated more frequently.
The amount of water applied on each occasion can be relatively small because excess water is leached
quickly to the subsoil or the land drains anyway.

e. Time of the day.

Newly planted cuttings are rather susceptible to Rhizoctonia and Pythium infection, which can be spread
via surface moisture. Irrigation during the earliest hours in the morning is preferred for crops. In this case
evaporation of a shallow surface layer of the moist soil is possible.
High radiation levels stimulate evaporation and because of this evaporation the soil temperature
increases much slower. Besides, irrigation in the morning prevents an extremely high humidity during the
night and decreases problems with fungal diseases.

Overhead irrigation
There are many different types of irrigation systems and the choice of a particular system is often a
question of availability of equipment and national customs and preferences. However, one point is
absolutely essential: the system must be capable of providing an even water distribution pattern.
Depending on the time of year and the soil type, a chrysanthemum crop can require between 5 and 7
litres of water per square metre per day. The EC of the source of irrigation water should be less than 0.7, in
fact the lower the EC the better.
The distribution of the water over or under the crop should have a uniformity rating of at least 85%. In the
case of sprinklers, the pump capacity and diameter of the pipes determine the area covered by each
sprinkler. Spray nozzles of the bow or pin type are often used for overhead irrigation systems. The
nozzles are fitted on 32 mm pipes at a spacing of 1.50 metres and three spray lines per 6.40 greenhouse
bay are generally installed to cover four 1.25 metres wide beds. A high degree of uniformity of the spray
lines and nozzles is necessary for an even distribution pattern. If liquid nutrients are to be applied via the
irrigation system, additional equipment should be installed to control the EC of the nutrient solution. In
areas where a wet crop may give rise to problems during the second half of the cropping period, growers
are increasingly using a twin irrigation system.

Trickle irrigation
Trickle or drip irrigation is applied via a second circuit installed below the crop canopy. Depending on the
soil type, four or five trickle hoses are required per 1.25 metre wide bed. Whilst spray nozzles have an
output of 2 to 4 litres of water per nozzle per minute at a pressure of 1.5 atm., the trickle nozzle has an
output of about 2 litres per hour at a pressure of 1 atm. For both systems it is important to use only highly
soluble fertilizers and clean water. A water or sand filter should be installed if either one does not have

20
the required quality. There are now very advanced irrigation systems on the market which are capable of
very accurate control over the amount of water applied to the crop for maximum growth.

Nutrition
Target values of fertilizers for cut flowers in the soil are not very different from the ones for mother plants:
Main elements (mmol/l)
element K Na Ca Mg NO3 Cl SO4 HCO3 H3PO4
value 1.5 <1 1.8 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 0.15

Trace elements (mol/l)

element Fe Mn Zn B Cu Mo
value 7 0.8 1.0 7 0.8 0.4

The basic nutrition scheme (of the irrigation water) with a concentration of 1.2 EC is:
Main elements (mmol/l)
element K Ca Mg NO3 SO4
value 4.0 2.0 1.0 8.4 1.0

Trace elements (mol/l)

element Fe Mn Zn B Cu Mo
value 15 5.0 3.0 10.0 0.5 0.5

Two tanks are used for the fertilizers:

A-tank for calcium nitrate and potassium nitrate.
B-tank for magnesium sulphate and potassium nitrate.

4.11. Crop support

The bed width is determined to some extent by the width of the greenhouse bays and the width of the
paths. The path width may range from 15 to 40 cm depending on the degree of mechanisation of various
crop operations such as lighting, blackout, pest control and internal transport. The optimum bed width is
between 125 and 150 metre.
The mesh of chrysanthemum netting is generally about 11 x 11,5 cm, designed to contain one plant per
mesh. It is also possible to use rose netting. The netting is usually laid down on the bed before planting so
that it may serve as a ready measuring tool for planting distance and plant distribution. The netting is
raised at regular intervals as the crop develops, usually every week or fortnight. As a rule, the netting is
supported at 50% of the total crop height.

4.12. Harvesting
Harvest
The usual method is to bunch the flowers and wrap them in sleeves in the greenhouse during the
harvest. Alter harvesting the flowers a pre-treatment for improvement of the shelf life is recommended. The
flowers are stood in water to which bactericides, sugars and wetting agents may be added. The flowers
should be left in water for 4 to 20 hours, but preferably for 20 hours. The flowers are transported to the
markets in cardboard boxes, preferably after having been cooled.

The flowers are ready for harvesting when three to five flowers per spray have opened completely,
depending on the market. Harvesting takes place by pulling the plants out of the soil with roots and all or by
cutting the flower stems as close to the soil as possible. The flower stems should be of uniform quality and
size and they are graded during the harvest. Five sprays of similar quality and size form a bunch. In the
absence of any form or harvest mechanization, the bunches are trimmed to a standard length - 75 cm -
after which they may be sleeve wrapped and laid down on the bed for collection.
If the harvesting operation has been mechanised with the aid of harvesting conveyor belts and machines,
the flowers are graded, bunched maybe weight graded and packed for transport.

Post-harvest treatments
After bunching, the flowers should be cooled as quickly as possible. The flowers may be stored on the
nursery in a cold store which is maintained at a temperature of 7 to 8 oC.

21
he bunches are sometimes packed straight into cardboard boxes for direct delivery to customers or the
auction. If this is not the case, the bunches are stored in water to which a preservative may be added.
This is a necessary precaution if heavy demands are to be made of the flowers like for instance transport
over long distances.

4.13. Internal transport

The internal transport systems in chrysanthemum nurseries show a direct relationship with the cuttings
used. Bare root cuttings have a relatively high weight and a low volume. The internal nursery transport
system often is not mechanised and the need for technical aids and transport equipment is minimal. Bare
root cuttings are therefore suitable for use in smaller nurseries with limited, non-hardened roadways.
Cuttings in soil blocks also have a relatively high weight and a small volume, but compared with bare root
cuttings, the volume is greater. Mechanical transport systems are often well developed. Good
accessibility and transport equipment - hardened roadways and forklift trucks - are necessary. Soil block
grown cuttings are therefore suitable for larger nurseries which have a higher degree of mechanisation, as
well as hardened roadways.
Mechanized transport systems are also often used in nurseries for the purpose of conveying the flowers
from the greenhouse to the packing shed. The packing flowers have a relatively great volume and little
weight. Compared with the transport systems for soil blocks, the flowers can be handled and transported
with relatively simple equipment. Wide roadways are necessary for this purpose, but the road surface
does not always have to be concrete.

Cold stores
The floor area of a cold store on a chrysanthemum nursery should be about 1.5% of the crop acreage,
with a minimum of 10 square metres. The optimum storage temperatures are for:

unrooted cuttings - 2-4C with an rh about 98%

rooted cuttings - 5-8C with an rh about 90%
cut flowers - 7-8C with an rh about 65 %

The store must have a uniform temperature distribution pattern and should be fitted with a safety system
against frost.

Chrysanthemum ready for harvesting

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5. PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL

5.1. Fungal diseases

Fungi may be divided into the causal agents of leaf spot diseases and the tissue parasites. The latter
affect the plant from within and are therefore more difficult to control. A general recommendation for the
control of fungal diseases is to apply preventative control measures. The risks of fungal diseases may
also be reduced considerably by certain cultural methods. One of these is avoidance of prolonged
periods of high atmospheric humidity. Allowing wet crops to dry as quickly as possible is another. Crop
maintenance operations like raising the crop support netting and disbudding should be carried out during
dry weather so that any wounds will quickly dry up. Fungal spores germinate readily on open wounds.

The following fungi may cause damage to the chrysanthemum crop:

Didymella chrysanthemi (Ascochyta chrysanthemi = black spot disease)

Didymella may be recognised by the dark brown and black spots which occur on the leaves as well as on
the stems, usually near the soil surface. A typical symptom in affected plants is that the growing point
becomes curved and develops a small leaflet on one side. In the flowers the disease usually starts at the
flower base in the form of a black rot.
The fungus produces many spores in the affected areas which spread readily to other damp areas where
they may infect more plants. Didymella occurs only sporadically nowadays as a result of the intensive
control measures taken to eradicate white rust fungus (Puccinia horiana).

Botrytis cinerea (grey mould)

A well-known and frequently occurring fungus is Botrytis cinerea. The spores of this fungus are always
present. Moisture, crop damage and dead or drying tissues are the means by which the fungus can
attack the crop. Leaves, stems and flowers may all be affected by grey mould. The fungus often displays a
grey-brown fluff on the affected areas. The spores are also capable of infecting the florets directly
which causes the so-called pepper symptoms.

Oidium chrysanthemi (mildew)

This fungus which causes white spots on leaves and stems is found mostly in crops which are growing
poorly and at relatively low atmospheric humidity levels. A crop can become affected quickly, especially if
the soil is too dry. However, mildew does not occur very often any more, probably as a result of regular
spraying against leaf miner and white rust.

Rhizoctonia solani (stem rot)

This fungus spreads readily over the soil surface. A Rhizoctonia attack can be recognised by the
restrictions on the stems near the soil surface. At the same time, a brown-black discoloration appears on
the stems and sometimes also on leaves which are in contact with the soil. Weak and soft plants and a
stagnant, humid climate shortly after planting favour the development of the fungus. Since the
introduction of soil block rooted cuttings, Rhizoctonia has ceased to be a big problem.

Puccinia chrysanthemi, Puccinia horiana (rust)

Chrysanthemums may be attacked by two different rust species, white rust (Puccinia horiana) and
common or brown rust (Puccinia chrysanthemi). The latter fungus produces brown spore pustules on the
leaves and can easily be controlled. Brown rust hardly occurs any more.
White rust on the other hand presents a much bigger problem. This fungus is much more difficult to
control than brown rust. White rust symptoms are light-green sunken spots on the upper side of the
leaves and bulbous spore pustules on the reverse side. Initially the pustules are white, becoming grey to
light brown later. Especially young leaves are affected. Unlike Botrytis spores, the white rust spores are
not always present and they do not need open wounds to penetrate the plant leaves. When conditions
are ideal for germination of the spores (moisture!), the spores and/or the fungal hyphae can penetrate the
leaf surface. Fortunately, there is a growing number of varieties which are not or less susceptible to white
rust.

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Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
Sclerotinia specifically attacks susceptible varieties growing under unsuitable climate conditions (high
atmospheric humidity) and during the mature stage of the crop. The fungus causes large light brown
spots on the stems which sometimes develop a white woolly fluff eventually. The plant dies off above the
affected area. In a later stage, the fungus develops rather large black sclerotia on and around the
affected part of the stem which can remain dormant in the soil for many years.

Septoria chrysanthemi (leaf spot disease)

An attack by Septoria may be recognised by the brown, more or less round, spots measuring 0.5 to 2 cm in
diameter which appear particularly on fully developed leaves. An attack can spread very rapidly under high
humidity conditions. The risk of a Septoria attack is minimal it regular control measures are taken against
white rust.

Verticillum sp. (wilt disease)

The Verticillium fungus attacks the plants from the soil if it is infected. The infection can also be spread
via cuttings obtained from infected mother plants. A poor soil structure promotes the spread of the
disease. Infected (mother plants often start to wilt during the final stage of the crop. Initially the lower
leaves develop yellow edges and they die off completely later on. The wilt usually starts by affecting one
side of the plant only in which case some of the stem tissues will show a light brown discoloration.

Fusarium sp. (vascular disease)

In chrysanthemum several Fusarium species are known. The most dangerous and aggressive one is the
Fusarium oxysporum forma specialis (f-sp.) chrysanthemi.
The symptoms of Fusarium oxysporum in chrysanthemums are very similar to those of Verticillium sp.
The leaves on one side of the plant are wilting from the bottom upwards, the colour turns yellow to light
brown and the growth is inhibited. Differences with Verticillium are first the brown colouring of the
vascular bundles as an important symptom of Fusarium oxysporum and second the symptom of
Fusarium oxysporum mostly become visible in an earlier stage than these of Verticillium.
There is a big difference in susceptibility for Fusarium oxysporum between the varieties. The fungus is
very difficult to control. A best result gives steam sterilization of the soil.

Pythium ultimum (root rot)

Faulty irrigation, combined with a poor soil structure, is usually the primary causes of Pythium attack. At
certain times these factors result in an unfavourable air/water balance in the soil. The presence of
nematodes in the soil may be another cause of Pythium.
The fungus infects the root at the root tip or via wounds and travels through the root to the stem. Damage to
the roots may be caused for instance by root lesion nematodes. The fungus shows up particularly
during the first few weeks of the crop and during the first stage of the short day period. Characteristics of
an attack are poor root development and the bark is easily stripped from the roots. Poor roots
development will result eventually in uneven and retarded growth of the plants.

Phoma chrysanthemicola (root rot)

The Phoma fungus usually thrives in soils with a bad structure, a fluctuating water table and in soils
which are sterilised infrequently. Affected plants start to wilt and yellow spots appear first on the lower
leaves and gradually moving upwards. The leaf colour becomes dull and bluish. Sometimes there is also
yellowing of the leaf veins. The roots develop reddish to brown spots. Eventually the roots and the base of
the stem turn blackish brown and the stems become woody.

5.2. Virus diseases

Chrysanthemum stunt viroid
This is the most harmful disease in the chrysanthemum crop. The growth of affected plants is retarded
(dwarfing), they have smaller-flowers and usually flower earlier than healthy plants. In its early stages the
disease may sometimes be recognized by light spots on the young leaves and the appearance of the
plants may give an impression of being thin and pointed. Stunt viroid is very infectious and is readily
transmitted to healthy plants mechanically by hands, knives and other tools.

24
Tomato aspermy virus
In chrysanthemums, tomato aspermy virus can produce symptoms in the leaves as well as in the flowers.
The virus shows up as light green rings on the leaves, light spots on the florets and sometimes
misshapen flowers. The virus is transmitted by aphids from diseased to healthy plants. This virus and B
virus rarely occur in all yearround plant culture.

B virus
The B virus causes malformations, particularly in the darker coloured flowers.
Affected plants grow a little slower than healthy plants. The virus is also transmitted by aphids.

Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV) and Impatiens Necrotic Spot Virus (INSV)
Tomato spotted wilt virus - or bronze spot disease - and Impatiens necrotic Spot Virus have been
increasing in chrysanthemum crops in recent years. The virus has a very wide range of host plants and is
capable of surviving in many plant species. As far as is known at present, the virus is transmitted mainly by
certain thrips species. The thrips larvae ingest the virus from infected plants and transmit it to healthy plants
when they become flying adults.
Since Western Flower thrips is very difficult to control and has become a widespread pest, the risk of
TSWV infection has also increased. The symptoms are not easy to describe as they may vary with the
variety. The most important symptoms are: brown stripes and spots on the stems, necrotic spots and
yellowing of the leaves, brown spots in the stems, retarded growth, wilting when the transpiration rate is
high and sometimes death of the plants.
If healthy plant material only is used and there are no sources of infection in and around the nursery,
then a rigorous control of thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) provides the most important means of
preventing TSWV infection. In warmer countries, control of TSWV is more difficult since there infected
thrips are present throughout the whole year.

5.3. Bacterial diseases

Pseudomonas cichorii (bacterial stem rot)
The disease causes long, glassy, reddish brown stripes on the stems which turn black in later stage.
Ultimately, the stems turn black all over, hence the pseudonym 'black stem' for the disease. The leaves
are affected via the leaf petioles and eventually develop a reddish brown necrosis. A yellowish white to
reddish brown bacterial slime which eventually dries up to a granular fleece often develops on the
affected areas on the stems. Bacterial attacks usually occur in crops which are in the generative stage,
i.e. crops which are in flower. A combination of high atmospheric humidity and high (soil) temperatures
should be avoided as much as possible.

Erwinia chrysanthemi (bacterial wilt disease)

Erwinia usually attacks at the stem base or the middle of the stem. The disease causes elongated watery
spots which eventually turn black or brown black. The stems also may show a brown internal
discoloration. In severe cases the plants may wilt completely and the stems topple over from the affected
area. For this disease also, climate conditions like high atmospheric humidity levels and high
temperatures, as well as soft growth, should be avoided.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens (crown gall)

Agrobacterium tumefaciens occurs particularly in a number of pot chrysanthemum varieties. The disease
can be recognized by the bacterial nodules which are formed on the roots. It can also occur on leaves
and stems of plants which are pinched. Agrobacterium is particularly prevalent in countries with a warm
climate.

5.4. Insects and other parasites

Chrysanthemums can be attacked by many insect parasites. It is of paramount importance that no
parasites from a previous crop are allowed to remain in the greenhouse or the greenhouse soil. All crop
debris and weeds should be cleared away thoroughly before the greenhouse is prepared for a new crop. If
necessary, additional measures should be taken such as treating the greenhouse with an insecticide or,
in the absence of steam sterilization, treating the soil with an insecticide. Treating the old crop before it is
cleared is to be preferred.

25
Leaf nematodes (Aphelenchodes ritzemabosi)
Attacks by leaf nematodes have occurred only sporadically in recent years and then usually as a result of
using infested cuttings. An attack by leaf nematodes can be recognized by the yellowish-brown,
irregularly shaped spots in the leaves. The affected areas are bordered by the leaf veins. Leaf
nematodes are rarely a problem in yearround chrysanthemums.

Root nematodes
Chrysanthemums may be affected by root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne sp.) as well as by free living
nematodes. Root knot nematodes produce nodules on the chrysanthemum roots as well as on tomatoes
and cucumbers. Root rot, as a result of an attack by the free living root nematode Pratylenchus
penetrans, has become increasingly prevalent in recent years. In the event of an attack by eelworms, the
roots develop oval, reddish brown spots of about one millimetre diameter which are slightly depressed in
the centre. The discoloration is not even but somewhat stripy. These are the areas where the nematodes
have damaged the roots and which may subsequently serve as access points for fungi. The presence of
nematodes should be verified by a soil test carried out in a laboratory.

Cutworms (Agrotis sp.) and leatherjackets (Tipula sp.)

Cutworms are the larvae of nocturnal moths. The larvae curl up when resting. They feed mainly on the
lower leaves and the stem base, particularly during the night. Occasionally they may also feed higher up
the plants. Leatherjackets are the legless larvae of the crane fly or the daddy long-legs.
They damage mainly the stems. Both cutworms and leatherjackets are associated with newly ploughed
pasture.

Aphids
There are several species of aphids which teed on chrysanthemums. Like capsids, the aphids prefer to
feed on the younger parts of the plants. They often remain hidden in the growing points and between the
bud scales and florets.
Aphids can also transmit viruses like Tomato aspermy and B virus.

Leaf miners
Leaf miners, especially the Liriomyza species, may cause severe damage to chrysanthemums. They
cause the greyish white tortuous tunnels in the leaves which result in a severe reduction in the value of the
flowers, high pest control costs and serious problems in export. Remember that a good start is half the
job done and use therefore healthy plant material only! Control measures should be taken
immediately when the first spots or flies are observed. In a greenhouse all stages of the leaf miner fly are
present simultaneously and total eradication is possible only it the control treatments are continued for at
least four weeks. After this, preventive sprays should be applied again.

Caterpillars
Various species of caterpillars may attack chrysanthemums, feeding on the leaves, stems and flowers. The
most important are the so-called leaf roller moth (Tortrix) and the Florida moth (Spodoptera exigua). The
leaf rollers are small caterpillars which spin leaves together while feeding on the leaves and stems. The
Florida moth has become more prevalent in recent years and its control is difficult. The caterpillars are light
to dark green and about 1 cm long. They feed especially on the younger leaves and buds. The moths are
difficult to find, they arc grey-brown and remain hidden during the day. The pest can show an explosive
development during periods of high temperatures.

Slugs
The risk of a build up of slugs is particularly great in the absence of regular soil sterilization. The species
most commonly found in chrysanthemum crops is a small light slug which feeds especially on the leaves.

Red spider mite (Tetranychus sp.)

Like many other crops, the chrysanthemum is very susceptible to red spider. This minute pest usually
prefers to live on the underside of the leaves. However, when the red spider population increases, the
mites can be found all over the plants and also in the flowers. They usually spin a web between different
parts of the plant. The leaves of affected plants become dull grey in colour.

26
Thrips
Thrips live only in the tops and lateral shoots of the chrysanthemum. As the insect is very small, it is
difficult to see. The feeding activity of thrips on the young plant parts causes misshapen leaves and
florets and light spots on the leaves. In the dark coloured varieties, the spots also appear on the florets. The
Thrips tabaci is easily kept under control, but the Frankliniella occidentalis or Western Flower Thrips is
much more difficult to eradicate.

Capsids
An infestation of capsids results in stagnation of the growth of chrysanthemums. The young leaves and
flowers develop severe malformations and the affected areas eventually develop holes in the leaf and
flower tissues. The flowers also become lopsided.

White fly
White fly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) usually inhabits the underside of the leaves. The adult flies are
small, powdery white and winged. They tend to fly up in a cloud when the plants are disturbed. The older
larvae, which also feed on the underside of the leaves, are flat, light green insects which tend to remain
stationary. The larvae have hairs around the circumference of the body.
The white fly, Bemisia tabaci, is more difficult to control, but does not seem to be a big problem in
chrysanthemum.

Symphilids (Scutigerella inmaculata)

Symphilids are white, quick moving and about half a centimetre long. They feed on young weak root tips. In
older crops the damage pattern tends to be rather patchy. Affected plants wilt each time they become dry
and their growth is retarded. Symphilids are prevalent in areas with a poor soil structure and they tend
to prefer the heavier soil types.

5.5. Physiological problems

Brown flower centres and desiccated buds
The symptoms of this disorder - brown-black discoloration of the flower centre - are found especially in
the spider flowered varieties. In spider varieties you can also find a secondary infestation from the
bacteria Pseudomonas. The worse the growing conditions - for instance through lack of light, or an
excessively saline or dry soil - the greater the risk of this disorder occurring. The symptoms are often
combined with stagnation of the development of flower buds formed subsequently (desiccated buds).

Leaf death
Disorders often occur in the leaves of a number of varieties and may take the form of yellowing of the
leaves, scorching of the leaf edge and brown spots on the leaf surface. The environmental conditions
and the way in which the crop is grown play an important part in maintaining healthy leaves.

5.6. Control measures

The results of pest control measures depend not only on the choice of the right chemical. There is much
more to effective crop protection. The main guide lines are discussed below.

5.6.1. Preventative crop protection

Healthy plant material is of paramount importance for a good start of the crop. Equally important is that the
crop is monitored for pests and diseases at regular intervals and at least once a week. It none is
observed, crop spraying may be given a miss. If a pest or disease attack is small or localized, a spot
treatment may solve the problem. Soil disinfection, by chemical means or steam sterilization, prevents
attacks by insects and fungi from the soil. The environmental conditions provided for the crop must be
such that fungi, insects and other pests are given as little opportunity to develop as possible. It is
essential that a favourable micro-climate is created and maintained amongst the crop. This means that the
crop should not be allowed to remain wet too long. Ventilation and hearing for a reduction in humidity help to
create an optimum micro-climate.

5.6.2. Curative crop protection

Curative crop protection measures should be applied at the moment when an attack is diagnosed. The
following guide lines should be adhered to:

27
The recommended spray concentrations are expressed in grams or millilitres per 100 litres solution for
high volume spraying (1,000 to 1,500 litres per hectare).
As far as possible, the control of red spider mite, white flies, aphids, caterpillars, etc. should be carried
out as separate sprays. The insecticide should not be added to the cocktail used for the control of rust, leaf
miner and thrips. As far as possible, all sprays should be applied separately.
The use of cocktails should be limited as much as possible.
Crop spraying should be carried out at a time when the plants are sufficiently turgescent. Spraying during
periods of large temperature fluctuations must be avoided. Therefore, sprays should not be applied to
crops which have a high leaf temperature as a result of high radiation levels.
Be careful when using potent chemicals on tender crops, for instance in winter.
Make sure of an optimal spray distribution and droplet size. The effect of a small droplet has been shown to
be much greater than that of a large droplet. Therefore, old, worn spray nozzles or nozzle plates
should not be used. They should be renewed regularly, paving attention to the correct size.
Regular spray applications are the most effective and the proper time intervals for spray applications
should be observed.
Make changes in spray chemicals in order to avoid the build up of resistance.
See Addendum 4 and Addendum 5 for chemical control of fungi and insects respectively.

5.6.3. Integrated crop protection

Biological crop protection methods are being used frequently in greenhouse vegetable crops.
Experiments have shown that biological control methods can also be used for several insects in
chrysanthemums.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM), a combination of scouting in the field, biological and chemical
control, is applied more and more in floriculture.

28
6. DEFICIENCIES AND EXCESSES

Nitrogen deficiency
Nitrogen is necessary for the plant in the formation of proteins, DNA and chlorophyll. Nitrogen deficiency is
expressed by reduced growth. The leaves remain smaller than normal and become light green. The
youngest leaves of certain varieties become darker in colour, whilst in other varieties the opposite is true.
Some varieties develop red or reddish brown spots in the discoloured leaves. Sometimes the whole leaf,
and especially the older leaves, takes on a reddish discoloration. The oldest leaves die off. The flower
colour can become more intense as well as paler as a result of nitrogen deficiency. Flowering may be
delayed if the deficiency is severe and smaller and fewer flowers per stem may be formed. Plants
suffering from nitrogen deficiency have a particularly well developed root system. Nitrogen deficiency
may result from the use of fresh organic material. In the case of pot chrysanthemums, the deficiency may be
the result of an excess of water, especially if small pots are used.

Phosphorus deficiency
Phosphorus is also part of the DNA, many proteins and enzymes. It is improving the growth of the roots
and the flowers and has an important role in the photosynthesis and transport of sugars in the plant. A
phosphorus deficient crop is retarded in its growth without showing clear symptoms. The leaves are dark or
dull green. In some varieties the leaves may turn red or yellow, usually starting from the leaf edge. The
oldest leaves die off prematurely but they remain hanging from the plants. The dead leaves are usually
dark brown in colour. Flowering is delayed and sometimes the flowers remain small. Occasionally the
flower colour may be pale. Phosphorus deficiency may occur in new greenhouses and in pot
chrysanthemums if feeding with phosphates has been neglected.

Potassium deficiency
Potassium is improving the firmness of the plant and is a key factor in opening and closing of the stomata
and in the activity of phytochrome and enzymes. The symptoms of potassium deficiency are rather
obscure. Extension growth is reduced only slightly and the stems become thin or weak. The leaves
develop chlorosis along the leaf edge which spreads to areas in between the leaf veins. Chlorosis usually
starts as small spots of a few millimetres diameter and the chlorosis pattern depends on the variety. The
older leaves are affected and die oft after which the chlorosis spreads to the younger leaves. Sometimes
the flower colour remains normal, but it may also become paler which depends on the variety. Flowering is
delayed. Potassium deficiency occurs on poor soils or when feeding with potassium has been
neglected in the case of pot chrysanthemums.

Magnesium deficiency
Magnesium is used a.o. in chlorophyll and for the activity of enzymes. Chrysanthemums are probably not
very susceptible to magnesium deficiency. Unless the deficiency is severe, it causes little growth
reduction. With a chronic deficiency the older leaves become chlorotic, but it the deficiency is acute the
younger leaves are most affected. The leaf veins - and initially also the leaf edge - remain green. Some
varieties develop red or violet discolorations in the leaves. Delayed flowering occurs only as a result of
severe magnesium deficiency and in that case the root system is also poorly developed.

29
Calcium deficiency
Calcium is a substantial part of the cell walls and several enzymes. With calcium deficiency growth is
slightly reduced and the leaves are dark green. Brown spots may appear in the older leaves and in
severe cases the growing points may die off. The youngest leaves especially remain small and may
suddenly develop necrotic spots, particularly along the leaf edge. Severely affected young leaves droop
from the petiole and eventually dry up. The leaf edge curls inwards giving a convex appearance to the
leaf. The flower stems can also keel over and die. The flowers remain small and the florets are poorly
developed with sometimes a brown discoloration. The flowers may become susceptible to high
temperatures and radiation. The root system is poorly developed and calcium deficiency makes the plant
more susceptible to some fungal diseases.

Iron deficiency
Iron is an element of the chlorophyll and is an important factor for the activity of enzymes, which are
related to the formation of chlorophyll. This results in rather severe growth reduction and chlorosis of the
leaves. The latter start in the top of the plant, usually affecting the whole leaf, but sometimes the leaf
veins remain green a little longer. The chlorosis moves on to the older leaves and there it affects mainly
the areas between the leaf veins. The leaves in the top of the plant become paler all the time and may
eventually end up yellow or nearly white. Severely affected leaves may develop small necrotic spots of 2
mm diameter which arc brown. These spots may spread, causing partial or complete death of the leaf.
Flower bud initiation is reduced and delayed. The flowers remain small and their colour is often paler
than normal. The root system is poorly developed. Cuttings taken from plants with iron deficiency readily
develop brown rotting spots.

Nitrate excess
Excess of nitrates inhibits growth. The leaves become thick and/or brittle and take on a dark green
colour. If nitrate excess is acute, the leaves may wilt and scorch. The older leaves in particular may be
affected in this way. Chlorosis or a yellow discoloration of the upper leaves may also be observed. Other
typical symptoms are keeling over of the stems, splits across the stems and the development of leaf axil
growing points, known as 'compounding'. The crop becomes extra sensitive to pests and diseases.
Flowering is delayed, the flower colour is changed and the vase life of the flowers is reduced. Root
scorch may also occur.

Manganese excess and deficiency

Manganese is needed for the photosynthesis and is activating many important enzymes. Both conditions
inhibit growth. In case of deficiency the top of the plant becomes slightly chlorotic as with iron deficiency.
The older leaves develop brown spots of 1 to 2 mm diameter along the leaf edge and the younger leaves
may also be affected in a later stage. The necrotic spots spread over the entire leaf surface which is
followed by death of the leaf. The main vein with some of the adjoining leaf tissue stay green or yellowish
green longest. The secondary veins may become brown. Flower bud initiation is reduced and sometimes no
buds at all are produced. The flowers remain small and the flower centre may become brown and
desiccated. Manganese excess may occur in the soil following steam sterilization, particularly if the pH is
low. Different varieties vary in susceptibility to manganese excess.
In some varieties manganese deficiency may occur. This is expressed by a light, greyish leaf colour and
chlorotic shades in the leaves in the top of the plant.

30
 Addendum 1
Development stages of chrysanthemum

The stage of development is based on the shape of the growing tip. An example of a variety with a
response time of 52 weeks is given.
In the vegetative stage 1 (see drawings in this chapter) the top meristem (apex) is flat to lightly arch. This
shape is kept for a couple of days after the start of short days. In this short period there is still some
vegetative growth. Two to four leaves can be formed then. After about three short days the crown bud is
generative. The meristem starts swelling and gets chubby after about five short days (stage 2). After
another two days it is developed into a wider receptacle, in total after seven short days (stage 3). In this
period more so called short-day leaves are formed. The short-day leaves get a size of maximum one
third of the long-day leaves. The amount of short-day leaves depends on the speed of turning into
generative stage of the total growing tip. The formation of bracts is starting then. This happens at a
higher speed till stage 4. About 35 bracts are formed in about ten days. The amount of bracts strongly
depends on the variety. If after ten short days (stage 4) the receptacle is approximately 1mm the flowers
will be formed. The first flower primordia will be seen from eleven short days. The speed is depending on
the time of the year and the growing conditions. Stage 5 is reached between twelve and eighteen short
days. Interrupted lighting in general is given when the centre bud has stage 5 -6. A few days after stage
5, stage 6 is reached.

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

Stage 5

Stage 6

31
 After 21 short days the centre bud is visible

After 35 short days the centre bud is growing above the first leaves and may be pinched

After 40 short days the buds are colouring

After 52 short days the stem is harvestable

32
 Addendum 2

Plant density

A greenhouse consist of bays, e.g. 6.40, 8.00 or 9.60 meter width.

4 beds in a bay of 6.40 meter, 5 beds in a bay of 8 meter, 8 beds in a bay of 9.60 meter.
Mesh size: 11.5 cm width, 12.5 cm length.

Example of 6.40 bay with 4 beds:

bed bed bed bed

1 2 3 4

x x x x x x x 7 plants
x x x x x x x x 8 plants
x x x x x x x 7 plants
x x x x x x x x 8 plants
x x x x x x x 7 plants
x x x x x x x x 8 plants
x x x x x x x 7 plants
x x x x x x x x 8 plants

This example has a checkerboard planting with the outer rows fully planted.

1 meter bed: 13 meshes of 11.50 cm = 149.5 cm width, 8 meshes of 12.5 cm = 1 meter length, in total
1.5 m2.

In total 60 plants on 1.5 m2 bed, this is 40 plants per m2 net.

4 beds in a 6.40 bay, so 240 plants on 6.40 m2.

This is 37.5 plants per m2 greenhouse.

In case of all meshes planted (chessboard), there are 13 plants on each line, resulting in 104 plants per
1.5 m2 bed, this is 69 plants per m2 net.
Or 65 plants per m2 greenhouse.

33
 Addendum 3

Conversion table (Dazide/Alar in g per 100 I water; B9 in ml per 100 I water)

Dazide 85% Alar 64% B9

30 40 5
40 53 7
50 67 8.5
60 80 10
75 100 13
90 120 15
100 135 17
150 200 25
180 240 30
200 265 33

(e.g. 30 g of Dazide 85% corresponds with 40 g of Alar 64% and 5 ml B9 per 100
litre water)

34
 Addendum 4

Crop protection against fungi

Pest Active Ingredient Commercial name Remarks

(Netherlands)
Botrytis Chlorothalonil Daconil
Tolyfluanid Eupareen
Trifloxystrobin Flint
Triflumizole Rocket EC
Vinchlozolin Ronilan
Iprodion Rovral
Carbendazim/diethofencarb Sumico
Procymidon Sumisclex
Fenhexamid Teldor
Thiofanate/methyl Topsin

Pythium Etridiazole Aaterra

Fosethyl-aluminium Aliette
Propamacarb-hydrochlorid Previcur
Metalaxyl Ridomil

Phytophthora Etridiazole Aaterra

Fosethyl-aluminium Aliette
Dimethomorph Paraat
Propamacarb-hydrochlorid Previcur
Metalaxyl Ridomil

Powdery Bitertanol Baycor

mildew Boscalid/kresoximmethyl Collis
Tolyfluanid Eupareen
Trifloxystrobin Flint
Kresoxim-methyl Kenbyo
Thiofanate/methyl Topsin
Sulphur Zwavel

Downy Chlorothalonil Daconil

mildew Propamacarb-hydrochlorid Previcur

White rust Bitertanol Baycor

Boscalid/kresoximmethyl Collis
Chlorothalonil Daconil
Tolyfluanid Eupareen
Trifloxystrobin Flint
Kresoxim-methyl Kenbyo
Mancozeb Tridex, Dithane

Rust Bitertanol Baycor

Boscalid/kresoximmethyl Collis
Chlorothalonil Daconil
Trifloxystrobin Flint
Mancozeb Tridex, Dithane

Rhizoctonia Tolclofos-methyl Rizolex

Iprodion Rovral

35
Pest Active Ingredient Commercial name Remarks
(Netherlands)
Thiofanate-methyl Topsin

Fusarium Carbendazim Bavastin

Benomyl Benlate
Thiofanate-methyl Topsin

Leaf spot Bitertanol Baycor

Chlorothalonil Daconil
Tolyfluanid Eupareen

Chalara Thiofanate-methyl Topsin

Sclerotinia Triflumizole Rocket EC

Vinchlozolin Ronilan
Iprodion Rovral
Procymidon Sumisclex
Thiofanate/methyl Topsin

Alternaria Iprodion Rovral

36
 Addendum 5

Crop protection against insects

Pest Active Ingredient Commercial name Remarks

(Netherlands)
Aphids Thiamethoxam Actara
Imidachloprid Admire
Triazamate Aztec
Thiacloprid Calypso
Carbofuran Curater
Methomyl Methomex
Azadirachtin Neem Azal
Pirimicarb Pirimor
Pymetrozin Plenum
Piperonylbutoxide Spruzit
Esfenvalerate Sumicidin Super

Leaf miner Deltamethrin Decis, Splendid

Methomyl Methomex
Milbemectin Milbeknock
Azadirachtin Neem Azal
Esvenvalerate Sumicidin Super
Cyromazin Trigard
Abamectin Vertimec

Spider Mite Chlofentezin Apollo

Pyridaben Aseptacarex
Acequinocyl Cantack
Spirodiclofen Envidor
Befenazate Floramite
Tebufenpyrad Masai
Milbemectin Milbeknock
Azadirachtin Neem Azal
Hexythiazox Nissorun
Spiromesifen Oberon
Fenbutatinoxide Torque Plus
Abamectin Vertimec

Thrips Spinosad Conserve

Carbofuran Curater
Deltamethrin Decis, Splendid
Methiocarb Mesurol
Methomyl Methomex
Verticillium lecanii Mycotal
Azadirachtin Neem Azal
Piperonylbutoxide Spruzit
Esfenvalerate Sumicidin Super
Abamectin Vertimec
Fipronil Violin

White Fly Pyriproxyfen Admiral

Imidachloprid Admire
Buprofezin Applaud

37
Pest Active Ingredient Commercial name Remarks
(Netherlands)
Pyridaben Aseptacarex
Beauveria bassiana Botanigard
Thiacloprid Calypso
Deltamethrin Decis, Splendid
Methomyl Methomex
Verticillium lecanii Mycotal
Azadirachtin Neem Azal
Teflubenzuron Nomolt
Spiromesifen Oberon
Piperonylbutoxide Spruzit
Esfenvalerate Sumicidin Super

Moths, Spinosad Conserve

Caterpillars Deltamethrin Decis, Splendid
Diflubenzuron Dimilin
Methomyl Methomex
Azadirachtin Neem Azal
Teflubenzuron Nomolt
Methoxyfenozide Runner
Virus Spod-X
Piperonylbutoxide Spruzit
Esfenvalerate Sumicidin Super
Bacillus thuringiensis Turex
Bacillus thuringiensis Xen Tari

Mites Pyridaben Aseptacarex

Azadirachtin Neem Azal
Fenbutatinoxide Torque Plus

Capsids Imidachloprid Admire

Thiacloprid Calypso
Deltamethrin Decis, Splendid
Azadirachtin Neem Azal

Nematodes Fenamifos Nemacur

Aldicarp Temik

Symphilids Chlorpyrifos Dursban