Interference

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we will discuss the phenomena associated with the interference of light waves.
At any point where two or more wave trains cross one another they are said to interfere. In
studying the effects of interference we are interested to know the physical effects of
superimposing two or more wave trains.
It is found that the resultant amplitude and consequently, the intensity of light gets
modified when two light beams interfere. This modification of intensity obtained by the
superposition of two or more beams of light is called interference. In order to find out resultant
amplitude, when two waves interfere, we make use of the principle of superposition. The truth
of the principle of superposition is based on the fact that after the waves have passed out of the
region of crossing, they appear to have been entirely uninfluenced by the other set of waves.
Amplitude, frequency and all other characteristics of each wave are just as if they had crossed
an undisturbed space. The principle of superposition states that the resultant displacement at
any point and at any instant may be found by adding the instantaneous displacements that
would be produced at the point by the individual wave trains if each were present alone. In the
case of light wave, by displacement we mean the magnitude of electric field or magnetic field
intensity.

1.2 SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

1.2.1 Superposition of Waves of Equal Phase and Frequency
Let us assume that two sinusoidal waves of the same frequency are travelling together in a
medium. The waves have the same phase, without any phase angle difference between them.
Then the crest of one wave falls exactly on the crest of the other wave and so do the troughs.
The resultant amplitude is got by adding the amplitudes of each wave point by point. The
resultant amplitude is the sum of the individual amplitudes (Fig. 1.1).
Resultant amplitude
Amplitude 1
Amplitude 2
Amplitude

Fig. 1.1 Superposition of waves of equal phase and frequency

1
 2 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

i.e., A = A2 + A2 + ......
The resultant intensity is the square of the sum of the amplitudes
I = (A1 + A2 + A3 + ......)2 (1.1)
1.2.2 Superposition of Waves of Constant Phase Difference
Let us consider two waves that have the same frequency but have a certain constant phase
angle difference between them. The two waves have a certain differential phase angle . In
this case the crest of one wave does not exactly coincide with the crest of the other wave
(Fig. 1.2). The resultant amplitude and intensity can be obtained by trigonometry.
Amplitude

Resultant

1
2

 t

Fig. 1.2 Superposition of two sine waves of constant phase difference

The two waves having the same frequency ( = 2f) and a constant phase difference ()
can be represented by the equations
Y1 = a sin t
Y2 = b sin (t + ) (1.2)
where is the constant phase difference, a, b are the amplitudes and is the angular frequency
of the waves. The resultant amplitude Y is given by
Y = Y1 + Y2
= a sin t + b sin (t + )
= a sin t + b (sin t cos + cos t sin )
= a sin t + b sin t cos + b cos t sin
= (a + b cos ) sin t + b cos t sin (1.3)
If R is the amplitude of the resultant wave and is the phase angle then
Y = R sin (t + )
= R {sin t cos + cos t sin }
= R cos sin t + R sin cos t (1.4)
Comparing Eqs. (1.3) and (1.4)
R cos = a + b cos
R sin = b sin
R2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos
b sin
= tan1 (1.5)
a + b sin
 INTERFERENCE 3

Clearly, R is maximum when = 2n

and is minimum when = (2n + 1) where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
When is an even multiple of we say that waves are in phase and when is an odd
multiple of , the waves are out of phase.
When the amplitude of waves are equal to a say, then
I = 2a2 (1 + cos ) = 4a2 cos2 /2 (1.6)
A plot of I versus is shown in Fig. 1.3. Clearly , this reveals that the light distribution
from the superposition of waves will consist of alternately bright and dark bands called
interference fringes. Such fringes can be observed visually if projected on a screen or recorded
photo-electrically. In the above discussion we have not considered travelling waves (i.e., waves
in which displacement is also a function of distance). If is the wavelength, then the change of
phase that occurs over a distance is 2. Thus, if the difference in phase between two waves
arriving at a point is 2, then difference in the path travelled by these waves is . Let the
phase difference of two waves arriving at a point be and the corresponding path difference be
x. For a path difference of , the phase difference = 2. Therefore, for a path difference of x.
2 2
Phase difference = = .x = . path difference


and Path difference = x = phase difference
2
2 2
I = 4a cos 2 I
2
4a

2
2a

 5 4 3 2 0 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. 1.3 Intensity distribution for the interference fringes from
two waves of same frequency and amplitude

1.2.3 Superposition of Waves of Different Frequencies

So far we have assumed that the waves have the same frequency. But light is never truly
monochromatic. Many light sources emit quasimonochromatic light i.e., light emitted will be
predominantly of one frequency but will still contain other ranges of frequencies. When waves
of different freqencies are superimposed, the result is more complicated.
1.2.4 Superposition of Waves of Random Phase Differences
When waves having random phase differences between them superimpose, no discernible
interference pattern is produced. The resultant intensity is got by adding the square of the
individual amplitudes,
N
i.e., I= A
i =1
i
2
= A12 + A2 2 + A3 2 + ...... (1.7)
 4 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

1.3 YOUNGS DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

We have seen in the previous section that two waves with
a constant phase difference will produce an interference
pattern. Let us see how it can be realized in practice. Let S1
us use two conventional light sources (like two sodium
lamps) illuminating two pin holes (Fig. 1.4). Then we will
find that no interference pattern is observed on the screen.
S2
This can be understood from the following reasoning. In a
conventional light source, light comes from a large number
of independent atoms each atom emitting light for about Screen
9
10 seconds i.e., light emitted by an atom, is essentially a Fig. 1.4 If two sodium lamps
pulse lasting for only 109 seconds. Even if the atoms were illuminate two pin holes S1 and S2
emitting under similar conditions, waves from different no interference pattern is observed
atoms would differ in their initial phases. Consequently on the screen
light coming out from the holes S1 and S2 will have a fixed
phase relationship for a period of about 109 sec. Hence, the interference pattern will keep on
changing every billionth of a second. The human eye can notice intensity changes which last at
least for a tenth of a second and hence we will observe a uniform intensity over the screen.
However, if we have a camera whose time of shutter can be made less than 109 sec, then the
film will record an interference pattern. We can summarize the above argument by noting that
light beams from two independent sources do not have a fixed phase relationship over a prolonged
time period and hence, do not produce any stationary interference pattern.
Thomas Young in 1802 devised an ingenious but simple method to lock the phase
relationship between two sources. The trick lies in the division of a wave front into two. These
two split wave fronts act as if they emanated from two sources having a fixed phase relationship
and therefore, when these two waves were allowed to interfere, a stationary interference pattern
was produced. In the actual experiment a light source illuminated a tiny pin hole S (Fig. 1.5).

y
y
z x

S1
d
S S2
x

Fig. 1.5 Youngs arrangement to produce interference pattern

Light diverging from this pin hole fell on a barrier containing two rectangular apertures S1
and S2 which were very close to each other and were located equidistant from S. Spherical
waves travelling from S1 and S2 were coherent and on the screen beautiful interference fringes
(Fig. 1.5) could be obtained. In the centre screen, where the light waves from two slits have
travelled through equal distances and where the path difference is zero, we have zeroth-order
maximum (Fig. 1.6). But maxima will also occur whenever the path difference is one wavelength
or an integral multiple of wavelength n. The integer n is called the order of interference.
 INTERFERENCE 5

First-order maximum


First-order minimum

S1
Zeroth-order maximum
S2

First-order minimum

First-order maximum

Fig. 1.6 Maxima and minima in Youngs double slit experiment

When the path difference is a multiple of (n + 1/2) we observe a dark fringe.
In order to calculate the position of the maxima, we proceed as follows. Let d be the
distance between the slits and D be the distance of the screen from the slits.

Y
S1

 
S O
d D

S2

Fig. 1.7 Path difference in Youngs double slit experiment

Let P be the position of the maximum (Fig. 1.7). Then the path difference between the
two waves reaching P is
n
d sin = n or sin =(n = 1, 2, 3,...)
d
where is the wavelength of light used and is the angle as shown in Fig. 1.7. If Y is the
distance of point P from O, the centre of the screen, then we have
Y = D tan
For small angles of , Y = D tan = D sin
Dn dY
Y= or = (1.8)
d Dn
D
Clearly, fringe width = Yn+1 Yn = = (1.9)
d
 6 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Hence, by measuring the distance between slits, the distance to the screen and the
distance from the central fringe to some fringe on either side, the wavelength of light producing
the interference pattern may be determined.

1.4 COHERENCE
An important concept associated with the idea of interference is coherence. Coherence means
that two or more electromagnetic waves are in a fixed and predictable phase relationship to
each other. In general the phase between two electromagnetic waves can vary from point to
point (in space) or change from instant to instant (in time). There are thus two independent
concepts of coherence namely temporal coherence and spatial coherence.
Temporal Coherence : This type of coherence refers to the correlation between the
field at a point and the field at the same point at a later time i.e. the relation between
E (x, y, z, t1) and E (x, y, z, t2). If the phase difference between the two fields is constant during
the period normally covered by observations, the wave is said to have temporal coherence. If
the phase difference changes many times and in an irregular way during the shortest period of
observation, the wave is said to be non coherent.
Spatial Coherence : The waves at different points in space are said to be space coherent
if they preserve a constant phase difference over any time t. This is possible even when two
beams are individually time incoherent, as long as any phase change in one of the beams is
accompanied by a simultaneous equal phase change in the other beam (this is what happens in
Youngs double slit experiment). With the ordinary light sources, this is possible only if the two
beams have been produced in the same part of the source.
Time coherene is a characteristic of a single beam of light whereas space coherence
concerns the relationship between two separate beams of light. Interference is a manifestation
of coherence.
Light waves come in the form of wave trains because light is produced during deexcitation
of electrons in atoms. These wave trains are of finite length. Each wave train contains only a
limited number of waves. The length of the wave train s is called the coherence length. It is
the product of the number of waves N contained in wave train and their wavelength i.e.,
s = N . Since velocity is defined as the distance travelled per unit of time, it takes a wave
train of length s, a certain length of time t, to pass a given point
t = s/c
where c is the velocity of light. The length of time t is called the coherence time. The degree of
temporal coherence can be measured using a Michelsons interferometer.
It is clear from the above discussion that the important condition for observing
interference is that the two sources should be coherent. The observations of interference are
facilitated by reducing the separation between the sources of light producing interference.
Further, in the Youngs double slit experiment the distance between two sources and the screen
should be large. The contrast between the bright and dark fringes is improved by making
equal the amplitudes of the light sources producing interference. Further, the sources must be
narrow and monochromatic. The concept of coherence is discussed in greater detail in the
chapter on lasers.

1.5 TYPES OF INTERFERENCE

The phenomenon of interference is divided into two classes depending on the mode of
productionof interference. These are (a) interference produced by the division of wavefrontand
 INTERFERENCE 7

(b) interference produced by the division of amplitude. In the first case the incident wavefront
is divided into two parts by making use of the phenomenon of reflection, refraction or diffraction.
The two parts of the wavefront travel unequal distances and reunite to produce interference
fringes. Youngs double slit experiment is a classic examples for this. In Youngs double slit
experiment one uses two narrow slits to isolate beams from separate portions of the primary
wavefront. In the second case the amplitude of the incident light is divided into two parts
either by parallel reflection or refraction. These light waves with divided amplitude reinforce
after travelling different distances and produce interference. Newtons rings is an example for
this type.

1.6 INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS

The colours of thin films, soap bubbles and oil slicks can be explained as due to the phenomena
of interference. In all these examples, the formation of interference pattern is by the division

2
i
E i

A D

phase change r
d
r

C
No phase change

Fig. 1.8 Interference in plane parallel films (Reflection geometry)

of amplitude. For example, if a plane wave falls on a thin film then the wave reflected from the
upper surface interferes with the wave reflected from the lower surface. Such studies have
many practical applications as provided by the example of production of non-reflecting coatings.
1.6.1 Interference in Plane Parallel Films due to Reflected Light
Let us consider a plane parallel film as shown in the Fig. 1.8. Let light be incident at A. Part of
the light is reflected toward B and the other part is refracted into the film towards C. This
second part is reflected at C and emerges at D, and is parallel to the first part. At normal
incidence, the path difference between rays 1 and 2 is twice the optical thickness of the film.
= 2d
At oblique incidence the path difference is given by
2d
= (AC + CD) AB = AB
cos r
2d
= 2d tan r sin r [3 AB = AD sin i = 2AE. sin i =
cos r
2d tan r. sin i = 2d tan r. sin r]
 8 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

i.e., = 2d
RS 1 tan r sin rUV = 2d RS 1 sin r UV = 2d.cos r
2

T cos r W T cos r W
where is the refractive index of the medium between the surfaces. Since for air = 1, the
path difference between rays 1 and 2 is given by
= 2d cos r
While calculating the path difference, the phase change that might occur during reflection
has to be taken into account. Whenever light is reflected from an interface beyond which the
medium has lower index of refraction, the reflected wave undergoes no phase change. When the
medium beyond the interface has a higher refractive index there is phase change of . The
transmitted waves do not experience any phase change.
Hence, the condition for maxima for the air film to appear bright is

2d cos r + = n
2

or 2d cos r = n
2

= (2n 1) where n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2
The film will appear dark in the reflected light when

2d cos r + = (2n + 1)
2 2
or 2d cos r = n where n = 0, 1, 2,3 ...
1.6.2 Interference in Plane Parallel Films due to Transmitted Light
Figure 1.9 illustrates the geometry for observing interference in plane parallel films due to
transmitted light. We have two transmitted rays CT and EU which are derived from the same
point source and hence, are in a position to interfere. The effective path difference between
these two rays is given by
= (CD + DE) CP
sin i CP / CE CP
But = = = CP = (QE)
sin r QE / CE QE
or = (CD + DQ + QE) (QE)
= (CD + DQ) = (ID + DQ) = (QI)
= 2d cos r
In this case it should be noted that, no phase change occurs when the rays are refracted
unlike in the case of reflection. Hence, the condition for maxima is 2d cos r = n and the

condition for minima is 2d cos r = (2n 1) .
2
Thus, the conditions of maxima and minima in transmitted light are just the reverse of
the condition for reflected light.
1.6.3 Interference in Wedge Shaped Film
Let us consider two plane surfaces GH and G1H1 inclined at an angle and enclosing a wedge
shaped film (Fig. 1.10). The thickness of the film increases from G to H as shown in the figure.
Let be the refractive index of the material of the film. When this film is illuminated there is
 INTERFERENCE 9
I
A

r
Air
i
G F D H
B

d r
r r Q
Dense medium
r E
G1 C i H1
i
P

T U

Fig. 1.9 Interference in plane parallel films (Transmission geometry)

R
R1
A
F H1

i 90 i D

G1 B E r+ d
r+

r
 C
H
G
 r+

P
Q

d


Xn

Fig. 1.10 Interference in a wedge shaped film

interference between two systems of rays, one reflected from the front surface and the other
obtained by internal reflection at the back surface.
The path difference is given by
= (BC + CD) BF
= (BE + EC + CD) BE
LM3 sin i = BF ; sin r = BE ; = sin i =
BF OP
N BD BD sin r BE Q
= (EC + CD) = (EC + CP) = EP = 2d cos (r + )
Due to reflection an additional phase difference of /2 is introduced.
 10 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Hence, = 2d cos (r + ) + /2
For constructive interference
2d cos (r + ) + /2 = n
or 2d cos (r + ) = (2n 1) /2 where n = 1, 2, 3 ...
For destructive interference

2d cos (r + ) + = (2n + 1)
2 2
or 2d cos (r + ) = n where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ...
Spacing between two consecutive bright bands is obtained as follows.
For nth maxima

2d cos (r + ) = (2n 1)
2
Let this band be obtained at a distance Xn from thin edge as shown in Fig. (1.10). For
near normal incidence, r = 0. Assuming, = 1,
From the figure, d = Xn tan

2Xn tan cos = (2n 1)
2

2Xn sin = (2n 1)
2
For (n + 1)th maxima

2Xn+1 sin = (2n + 1)
2
2(Xn+1 Xn) sin =

or fringe spacing, = Xn+1 Xn = =
2 sin 2
where is small and measured in radians.

1.7 COLOURS OF THIN FILMS

The discussion of the interference due to a parallel film and at a wedge should now enable us
to understand as to why films appear coloured. To summarize, the incident light is split up by
reflection at the top and bottom of the film. The split rays are in a position to interfere and
interference of these rays is responsible for colours. Since the interference condition is a function
of thickness of the film, the wavelength and the angle of refraction, different colours are observed
at different positions of the eye. The colours for which the condition of maxima will be satisfied
will be seen and others will be absent. It should be noted here that the conditions for maxima
and minima in transmitted light are opposite to that of reflected light. Hence, the colours that
are absent in reflected light will be present in transmitted light. The colours observed in
transmitted and reflected light are complimentary.

1.8 NEWTONS RINGS

When a plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate, an air film of
gradually increasing thickness is formed between the two. If monochromatic light is allowed to
fall normally and viewed as shown in the Fig. 1.11 then alternate dark and bright circular
fringes are observed. The fringes are circular because the air film has a circular symmetry.
Newtons rings are formed because of the interference between the waves reflected from the
top and bottom surfaces of the air film formed between the plates as shown in the Fig. 1.12.
 INTERFERENCE 11

M
B L1

45
S

Air Film
G

Fig. 1.11 Experimental set up for viewing Newtons rings

1 2

L B

C
P D

Fig. 1.12 Interference in Newtons rings setup

The path difference between these rays (i.e., rays 1 and 2) is

2d cos r +
2

i.e., Since r 0, = 1; = 2d +
2

At the point of contact d = 0, the path difference is . Hence, the central spot is dark.
2
The condition for bright fringe is
(2n 1)
2d + = n or 2d = , where n = 1, 2, 3 ...
2 2
and the condition for dark fringe is

2d + = (2n + 1) or 2d = n where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ...
2 2
Now let us calculate the diameters of these fringes. Let LOL be the lens placed on the
glass plate AB (Fig. 1.13). The curved surface LOL is part of the spherical surface with the
centre at C. Let R be the radius of curvature and r be the radius of Newtons ring corresponding
to constant film thickness d.
 12 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

L L
P
Q N d

A O B
r

Fig. 1.13 Calculation of diameter of Newtons Ring

From the property of the circle.
i.e., NP NQ = NO ND
i.e., r r = d(2R d) = 2Rd d2 2Rd
i.e., r2 = 2Rd or d = r2/2R
Thus, for a bright fringe
2r 2 (2n 1) (2n 1)R
= or r2 =
2R 2 2
Replacing r by D/2 where D is the diameter we get
Dn = 2R 2n 1
Similarly, for a dark fringe
2r 2
= n or r2 = nR
2R
Dn2 = 4nR
Dn = 2 nR
Thus, the diameters of the rings are proportional to the square roots of the natural
numbers.
By measuring the diameter of the Newtons rings, it is possible to calculate the wavelength
of light as follows. We have for the diameter of the nth dark fringe.
Dn2 = 4nR
Similarly diameter for the (n + p)th dark fringe
D2n + p = 4(n + p)R
D2n + p Dn2 = 4 pR
D2 n+ p Dn 2
or =
4 pR
can be calculated using this formula.
 INTERFERENCE 13

Newtons rings set up could also be used to determine the refractive index of a liquid.
First the experiment is performed when there is air film between the lens and the glass plate.
The diameters of the nth and (n + p)th fringes are determined. Then we have
D2n + p D2n = 4pR
Now the liquid whose refractive index is to be determined is poured into the container
without disturbing the entire arrangement. Again the diameter of the nth and (n + p)th dark
fringes are determined. Again we have
4 pR
D2n + p D2n =

from the above equations
D 2 n+ p Dn 2
= .
D 2 n + p D 2n

REFERENCES
1. F.A. Jenkins and H.E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, McGraw Hill Book Company,
New York, 1985.
2. J.R. Meyer-Arendt, Introduction to Classical and Modern Optics, Prentice Hall Pvt.
Ltd., New York, 1984.
3. A Ghatak, Optics, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 1977.
4. R.K. Gaur & S.L. Gupta, Engineering Physics, Dhanpat Rai and Sons, 1987.
5. N. Subrahmanyan and Brijlal. A Text of Optics, Niraj Prakashan, 1968.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
1. Two narrow and parallel slits 0.08 cm apart are illuminated by light of frequency
8 1011 kHz. It is desired to have a fringe width of 6 104 m. Where should the screen
be placed from the slits?
Solution:
d = 0.08 cm = 0.08 102 m, = 6 104 m
frequency = 8 1011 kHz

c 3 10 8
i.e., = = m, D = ?
v 8 10 11 10 3

D d
From = we have D =
d

6 10 4 0.08 10 2 8 10 14
D= = 1.28 m .
3 108
2. In Youngs double slit experiment, a source of light of wavelength 4200 is used to
obtain interference fringes of width 0.64 102 m. What should be the wavelength of the
light source to obtain fringes 0.46 102 m wide, if the distance between screen and the
slits is reduced to half the initial value?
 14 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Solution:
In the first case = 4200 = 4200 1010 m
= 0.64 102 m

4200 10 10 D
0.64 102 = (i)
d
In the second case = 0.46 102 m, = ?
D / 2 D
0.46 102 = = (ii)
d 2d
Dividing equation (i) by (ii)

0.64 10 2 4200 10 10 D 2d
=
0.46 10 2 d d

4200 10 10 2 0.46
= = 6037.5 .
0.64
3. In Youngs double slit experiment, the distance between the slits is 1 mm. The distance
between the slit and the screen is 1 meter. The wavelength used in 5893 . Compare the
intensity at a point distance 1 mm from the centre to that at its centre. Also find the
minimum distance from the centre of a point where the intensity is half of that at at the
centre.
Solution:
Path difference at a point on the screen distance y from the central point
Y .d
=
D
Here Y = 1 mm = 1 103 m
D = 1m
d = 1 mm = 1 103 m
1 10 3 1 10 3
Path difference = = 1 10 6 m =
1
2 10 6 2
Phase difference = = = 3.394 radians
5893 10 10
Ratio of intensity with the central maximum
= cos2 /2 = cos2 (1.697) = 0.3372
When the intensity is half of the maximum, if is the phase difference,
we have
cos2 /2 = 0.5 or /2 = 45 or = 90 = /2

Path difference = = = =
2 2 2 4
D
Distance of the point on the screen from the centre = Y = .
d
Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

UNIT I Interference
1.1 Formation of Newtons rings in reflected light.

Formation of Newtons rings When a plano-convex lens of large radius of

curvature is placed with its convex surface in contact with a plane glass plate, an
air-film of gradually increasing thickness from the point of contact is formed
between the upper surface of the plate and the lower surface of the lens. If
monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally on this film, then alternate bright
and dark concentric rings with their centre dark are formed. These rings are
known as Newtons rings. The fringes are circular because the air film is
symmetrical about the point of contact of the plano-convex lens with the plane
glass plate.
Newtons rings are formed because of the interference (by division of amplitude)
between the waves reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of an air-film
formed between the plano-convex lens and the plate.

1.2 Refractive index of a liquid with the help of Newtons rings

experiment with necessary formula.

Newtons rings in reflected light We know that when monochromatic light

falls normally on a plano-convex lens resting on a plane glass plate, alternate
bright and dark concentric rings with dark centre are formed due to waves
reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of an air-film or any other medium of
refractive index between the plano-convex lens and plane glass plate.

For reflected system, the effective path difference is given by

By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

2t cos r 2t (since light is falling normally, cos r 1) 1
2 2

At the point of contact t 0 , therefore, effective path difference
2
This is the condition for minimum intensity. Hence, the centre of Newtons rings is
dark.

For constructive interference (bright fringes/maxima)

2t n n = 0, 1, 2, 3..
2

Or 2t 2n 1 2
2

For destructive interference (dark fringes/minima)

2t 2n 1 n = 0, 1, 2, 3. .
2 2

Or 2t n 3

Diameters of Bright Rings

From the above figure, OP R, PN rn and ON R tn

Therefore, ON 2 PN 2 OP2

R tn
2
Or rn2 R 2
By:- Manvendra Singh
Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

Or R2 tn2 2Rtn rn2 R2

rn2
Or 2tn neglecting tn2 , since tn is small 4
R

Determination of refractive index of a liquid - Newtons ring experiment can

be used to determine the refractive index of a liquid. The liquid whose refractive
index is to be determined is placed between the plano-convex lens L and the
glass plate P of the Newtons ring set-up. In case liquid is rarer than glass, a
phase change of will occur at reflection from the lower surface of the liquid, but
if the liquid is denser than glass, phase change will occur at reflection from the
upper surface of the film. Hence, in both the cases, path difference will be equal
to /2.

therefore, effective path difference 2 t cos r
2

for normal incidence r 0,cos r 1

Or effective path difference 2t
2
2
r
and from eq4 2tn n
R

for nth bright fringe, 2t n
2
2n 1
Or 2t
2
rn2 2n 1
Or
R 2
2n 1
Or rn2 R 5
2

If d n is diameter of the nth ring, then d n 2rn

2 2n 1
therefore, d n2 R 6

If d n p is the diameter of n p ring,

th

2 2 n p 1
then, d n2 p R 7

By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

4p R
Or d 2
n p d n2 liquid


8

Since, 1 , for air

therefore, dn2 p dn2 air

4 p R 9

Or dividing eq9 by eq8

d 2
np d 2n
air
10
d 2
np d 2

n liquid

By measuring diameters of nth and n pth rings for medium as air and liquid and
substituting the values in the eq10, refractive index of the liquid can be
determined.

since, liquid > 1, dn liquid < dn air

therefore, when liquid is introduced between the lens and the plate, the
diameters of the rings decrease, that is, rings are contracted.

diameter of a ring in liquid film 1

11
diameter of the same ring in air film

1.3 Construction and working of Michelsons interferometer and explain

how circular and localized (straight) fringes are produced with it.

Construction and working -

Michelsons interferometer is a device that can be used to measure lengths

or changes in length with great accuracy by means of interference fringes. The
basic principle of this instrument was given by A.A. Michelson in 1881 according
to which when a parallel beam of monochromatic light coming from an extended
source is incident on a half silvered glass plate (also called as beam splitter), it is
divided into two parts. One part is reflected wave and the other part is a refracted
wave and both are coherent. In this experiment, coherent waves are produced by
the method of division of amplitude. These waves proceed in the perpendicular
directions and are incident normally on the two mirrors. After reflections from
these mirrors, they superpose and produce interference fringes, which are
observed with the help of a telescope as shown in the figure.

By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

Form of fringes
In Michelsons interferometer, the form of fringes depends on the separation d
between M1 and M2 and the shape of hypothetical air film formed between M 1
and M2, which is virtual image of M2.
Circular fringes are produced when the mirrors M1 and M2 are perpendicular
to each other and thickness of air film between M1 and M2 is not equal to zero,
that is d 0 . If d 0 then, the whole pattern becomes dark.

Appearance of fringes in the Michelsons interferometer as the mirrors are moved away
from each other. Arrows on the far right figure indicate motion of the fringes.

By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

If thickness of air film is d , the light waves reflected from the mirror M1 and M2
and reaching towards the telescope will coming parallel from M1 and M2 and will
be equal to 2d . If these parallel waves make an angle with the normal, the path
difference between them will be 2d cos .

We know that when a wave is reflected from a denser medium and another wave

are reflected from a rarer medium, path difference of is created between them.
2

Hence, effective path difference between these waves will be 2d cos .
2

If 2d cos n n = 1, 2, 3
2

Or 2d cos 2n 1 1
2
Then a bright fringe will form due to constructive interference. Same condition will
be at all points on the circle of inclination and bright fringe will appear circular.

If the effective path difference 2d cos 2n 1 n = 0, 1, 2
2
Or 2d cos n 2

Then a dark fringe will form due to destructive interference. Same condition will
be at all points on the circle of inclination and dark fringe will appear circular.
Hence, alternate bright and dark circular fringes are observed.

Radii of circular fringes- It is clear that in the fringe system of Michelsons

interferometer, for given d , as n increases, cos increases and hence
decreases, that is, order of fringes increases towards center and decreases as
By:- Manvendra Singh
Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

we move away from it. For central fringe 0 and order is n , then order of the
successive fringes from the central fringe are n 1 , n 2 , n 3 ... and so on.

Then from eq2 2d n 3

If 1st, 2nd, 3rd mth circular fringes subtend semi-angles 1 ,2 ,3 ...m respectively
from the telescope, then

2d cos 1 n 1
2d cos 2 n 2
4
2d cos 3 n 3
2d cos m n m

Thus, if fringes are counted from the central fringe (assuming its order zero), then
subtracting eq4 from eq3, we get

2d 1 cos m m m = 1, 2, 3 5

m
Or cos m 1 6
2d

If radius of mth fringe is rm and final image of circular fringes is observed at a

distance D (least distance of distinct vision), then

D m
cos m 1
r D
2
m
2d
2

1
m 2 2

Or rm D 1 1 7
2d

If angle m is very small, or m 2d , then using binomial approximation we get

m
rm D 8
d
That is, near the central fringe, radius of fringes is directly proportional to square
root of natural numbers.

Localized fringes are formed when mirrors are not orthogonal, that is, M1 and
M2 are not exactly parallel. A wedge shaped air film is formed between them
giving rise to fringes of equal thickness. The path of the two waves reflected from
mirrors M1 and M2 and originating from a single wave, are no more parallel but
intersect near M1 as shown in the figure below and so fringes are localized near
By:- Manvendra Singh
Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

M1. The shapes of these fringes are curved with convex side towards thin edge
of the wedge. As mirror M2 is moved gradually the air film wedge varies
successively and fringes change the shape and when mirrors M1 and M2
intersect each other, fringes become straight as shown in the figure.

1.4 How Michelsons interferometer can be used to determine

wavelength of light.

Determination of wavelength of monochromatic light For this,

monochromatic light from source is allowed to fall on half silvered plate A and
Michelsons interferometer is adjusted for circular fringes. Then, mirror M 1 is
moved such that AM1 = BM2. The mirror M1 and M2 are made perfectly
perpendicular to each other. Thus, concentric circular fringes are observed
through telescope.
Let the separation between real mirror M1 and virtual mirror M2 is such that bright
fringe of nth order is formed at the center of the field of view and let reading of
micrometer screw is say x1 .

Then, path difference,

2d cos 00 n

Or 2d n 1

Where d is separation between M1 and M2.

By:- Manvendra Singh
Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

Adding on both sides of the eq1, we get

2d n 1

Or 2 d n 1 2
2

From the above eq2, it is observed that when d becomes d , the nth
2
fringe at the center is replaced by n 1
th
fringe. We can also say that if M1 is

moved by distance , one fringe is displaced in the telescope. Now the mirror M 1
2
is gradually moved and number of fringes displaced is counted and reading of
micrometer screw is say x2 . If M1 is moved through distance x x2 x1 and the

number of fringes displaced is N . That is, by moving the mirror by , the number
2
of fringes displaced is one.
Therefore, on moving the mirror by distance x x2 x1 , the number of fringes
displaced will be

2x
N

2x
Or wavelength 3
N

Hence, by knowing the values of x and N experimentally, wavelength of

monochromatic light used can be calculated.

1.5. How Michelsons interferometer can be used to determine

separation between two close wavelengths.

Determination of separation between two close wavelengths - For this,

light is allowed to fall on half silvered plate A and Michelsons interferometer is
adjusted for circular fringes. Let two wavelengths 1 and 2 are very close to each
other. The two wavelengths form their separate fringe patterns, but because of
very small difference in wavelengths, the two patterns overlap. As the mirror M 1
is moved slowly, the two patterns separate out slowly and when the path
difference is such that the dark fringe due to 1 falls on the bright fringe due to 2 ,
the result is maximum indistinctness. When the path difference is such that,
By:- Manvendra Singh
Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

bright fringe due to 1 falls on the bright fringe due to 2 , or vice-versa, the result
is maximum distinctness.

Let the mirror M1 is moved through a distance x x2 x1 between two positions

x1 and x2 of successive distinctness. In this position nth fringe due to 1 must
coincide with n 1 fringe due to 2 . Therefore,
th

n1 n 1 2
x
2 2

2x
Or n 1
1

2x
And n 1 2
2

Subtracting eq...1 from eq2, we get

1 1
1 2x
2 1

Or 1 2x 1 2
12

12
Or 1 2
2x

2
Or 1 2 3
2x

Where 12 is geometric mean of the two wavelengths. Thus, by

measuring the distance x moved by the mirror M1, the difference between two
close wavelengths can be determined.

06. Compare the rings formed by Michelsons interferometer and

Newtons rings.

1. The fundamental difference between the two is that in Michelsons

interferometer rings originate as locus of equal inclination (also called as
Haidingers fringes) whereas the Newtons rings are locus of the air film of
equal thickness (also called as Fizeau fringes).
By:- Manvendra Singh
Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

2. In Michelsons interferometer rings are located at infinity and are therefore

viewed by a telescope whereas Newtons rings are located in the plane of the
film and hence viewed by traveling microscope.

3. The air film in Michelsons interferometer is imaginary (hypothetical) whereas

in Newtons rings experiment it is real.

4. Center of circular rings in Michelsons interferometer can be dark or bright

whereas in Newtons rings, in case of reflected light it is dark and in case of
transmitted light it is bright.

5. In Michelsons interferometer, order of the rings decrease when one moves

outwards from the center whereas in Newtons rings order of the rings
increase when one moves away from the center.

6. In both, Michelsons interferometer and Newtons rings, the thickness of the

rings decreases as radius of the rings increases, which is a common feature.

07. Write short note on anti-reflection coating.

Anti-reflection coating - Whenever a ray of light moves from one medium to
another, for example, when light enters a sheet of a glass after traveling through
air, some portion of the light is reflected from the surface (known as interface)
between the two media. The strength of the reflection depends on the refractive
indices of the two media as well as the angle of the surface to the beam of light.
When the light meets the interface at normal incidence (perpendicularly to the
surface), the intensity of light reflected is given by the reflection coefficient or
reflectance R .

If 1 and 2 are refractive indices of the two media, then reflectance, R is given
by
2
1
R 2 1
2 1
It is clear from the above eq1 that reflection will not occur if 1 2

One of the practical applications of the interference phenomenon is the anti-

reflection coating on the glass. The reflection from a lens or a prism can be
decreased to a minimum by coating a thin transparent film of proper refractive
index and proper thickness.

By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

The idea behind anti-reflection coatings is that the creation of a double interface
by means of a thin transparent film gives two reflected waves. If these waves are
of nearly equal amplitude and out of phase, they partially or totally cancel. If the
coating is of quarter wavelength thickness and has refractive index less than that
of the glass then the two reflections are 180 degrees out of phase and complete
destructive interference occurs and no reflected waves will emerge from the film.

The thickness of coating and refractive index is chosen in such a way that light
waves reflected from the two layers have the same amplitude and out of phase
so as to cancel one another.

If refractive index of coating be c , that of glass be g and that of air be 0 , then

the amplitude of reflected wave from the first surface (air to coating) is given by

2
0
R1 c 2
c 0

and the amplitude of reflected wave from the second surface (coating to glass) is
given by

2
g c
R2
g c
3

The condition of equality of amplitude, that is, R1 R2 , at two reflections yield,
2
c 0 g c
2

4
c 0 g c

c 0 g c
Or
c 0 g c

Or c g c2 0 g 0 c c g c2 0 g 0 c

By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

Or 2c2 20 g

Or c 0 g 5

Or c g since, 0 1 (for air) 6

That is, refractive index of coating should be equal approximately to the

geometric mean of refractive indices of media on either side.

The -phase condition gives the thickness of the coating film to be

2c t 2n 1 7
2

For minimum thickness, n 1

Or 2 c t
2

Or t 8
4 c

That is, optical thickness of the coating must be equal to one-quarter of a

wavelength. Thus transparent coating satisfying eq6 and eq8 eliminates
reflection completely. The best material known for this is MgF 2 for which
refractive index 1.38 . To have suitability at multi-wavelengths, for example,
white light, multi-layer coating is used. Each layer is optically quarter wave thick.

08. Write short note on interference filters.

Interference filters - are multilayer thin-film devices. They can be designed to
function as an edge filter or band pass filter. In either case, wavelength selection
is based on the property of destructive light interference. This is the same
principle underlying the operation of a Fabry-Perot interferometer.

Incident light is passed through two coated reflecting surfaces. The distance
between the reflective coatings determines which wavelengths destructively
interfere and which wavelengths are in phase and will ultimately pass through the
coatings. If the reflected beams are in phase, the light is passed through two
reflective surfaces. If, on the other hand, the multiple reflections are not in phase,
destructive interference reduces the transmission of these wavelengths through
the device to near zero. This principle strongly attenuates the transmitted
intensity of light at wavelengths that are higher or lower than the wavelength of
interest.
By:- Manvendra Singh
Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

In many spectroscopic studies, it is required to have a narrow frequency band of

light of width about 100 or less, centered on a chosen wavelength of visible
light. It can be obtained by an interference filter. In an interference filter, a thin
transparent dielectric spacer like magnesium fluoride (MgF 2) or cryolite is
sandwiched between glass plates. Reflecting surfaces are coated by extremely
thin semi-transparent layers of a good reflecting material like silver, deposited by
vacuum evaporation method or a dielectric of desired characteristics. When a
beam of light is incident normally on the filter, multiple reflections take place
within the film.

Path difference between successive pair of emergent parallel rays is 2t , for

normal incidence. With white light, the transmitted beam will be maximum for
only those wavelengths which satisfies the condition

2t n n = 1, 2, 3
n
Or t
2

Where, is refractive index of the dielectric and t is its thickness.

If the effective thickness of the spacer is integral multiple of half of the desired
wavelength, then other wavelengths will be attenuated by destructive
interference and wavelength , 2... will be transmitted through the filter. If for a
particular thickness there are two maxima in the visible region, one of them can
be eliminated by using colored glass filter. However, if the angle of incidence is
and angle of refraction in the spacer is , then, the wavelength of light passing
through the filter can be obtained from

2t cos n

By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit I

sin 2 sin
2t 1 n using and sin 2 cos2 1
2
sin

sin 2
For n 1 , 2 t 1
2
sin 2
Or 0 1 where 0 2 t
2

By:- Manvendra Singh

 L4: Interference 62

4-5 THIN FILM INTERFERENCE

Interference patterns can be observed whenever waves from two or more coherent sources come
together. In Young's experiment the waves came from two separate sources but in thin film
interference, the waves come from one source. One wavefront is split into two parts which are
recombined after traversing different paths. Examples of thin film interference occur in oil slicks,
soap bubbles and the thin layer of air trapped between two glass slabs. Here thin film means a layer
of transparent material no thicker than several wavelengths of light.

Ray from one Rays which

point on the have travelled Figure 4.10
source different optical
paths
Thin film
interference

Figure 4.11

Interference
fringes in a soap
film

When light strikes one boundary of the film, some of it will be reflected and some will be
transmitted through the film to the second boundary where another partial reflection will occur
(figure 4.10). This process, partial reflection back and forth within the film and partial transmission,
continues until the reflected portion of the light gets too weak to be noticed. The interference effects
come about when parts of the light which have travelled through different optical paths come
together again. Usually that will happen when the light enters the eye.* Thus for example, light

* When light rays are brought to a focus either by the eye or a lens, there is no extra optical path
difference introduced so the focussing has no effect on the conditions for the location of the
interference fringes.
 L4: Interference 63

reflected back from the top surface of the film can interfere with light which has been reflected once
from the bottom surface and is refracted at the top surface.
The interference effect for monochromatic light, light or dark or somewhere in between, is
determined by the amplitudes of the interfering waves and their phase difference. The conditions for
a maximum or minimum in the irradiance are the same as before: a phase difference of m(2) gives a
1
maximum and a phase difference of (m + 2 )(2) produces a minimum.

Change of phase at reflection

A new phenomenon reveals itself here. A straightforward interpretation of the conditions for
interference maxima and minima solely in terms of optical path difference gives the wrong answer!
Two examples illustrate this point. In a very thin soap film it is possible to get a film thickness
which is much less than one wavelength. So the path difference between light reflected from the two
surfaces of the film is much less than a wavelength and the corresponding phase difference will be
almost zero. A zero phase difference should produce brightness, but the opposite is observed -
when the film is very thin there is no reflection at all! The explanation is that whenever a light wave
is reflected at a boundary where the refractive index increases, its phase jumps by or half a cycle.
In the case of the soap film, the light reflected from the first surface, air to soapy water, suffers a
phase change, but light reflected at the water-air boundary has no phase change. You can observe
this effect yourself in soap bubbles. Carefully watch the top of a bubble as the water drains away.
As the film gets thinner you will see a changing pattern of coloured fringes. Just before the bubble
breaks, the thinnest part of the film looks black - indicating no net reflection.

Monochromatic light

Central dark fringe in reflected light

Figure 4.12. Newton's rings

The other example is a thin film interference pattern called Newton's rings which are formed
using a curved glass lens resting on a flat glass slab (figure 4.12). The thin film is the air between
the lens and the slab. The important feature is that where the optical path difference is zero, right in
the middle of the pattern where the lens actually touches the slab, there is darkness instead of a
bright fringe. The dark spot can be explained by saying that there is a phase change of in the light
reflected at the boundary between air and glass.
 L4: Interference 64

Analysis of thin film interference

The conditions for finding bright or dark fringes in a thin film clearly depend on the angle of
incidence of the light, but a useful approximation can be worked out assuming that the incident light
rays are normal to the surface, or almost so. In that case the optical path difference between parts of
an elementary wave reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of a film is just 2nb, where b is the
thickness and n is the refractive index (figure 4.13).

There is no extra optical path difference

from here on when these rays are
eventually brought together by a lens or an eye.

n b

Figure 4.13. Calculating the optical path difference

For near normal incidence, D = 2nb.
To work out the conditions for bright and dark fringes you have to include the effect of phase
changes at reflection. Each phase change of has the same effect as the addition of an extra half
wavelength of optical path.
No net phase change at reflection
If there is no phase change at either boundary or a phase change at both boundaries (for example: a
film of water on glass), the conditions for maxima and minima are
for a bright fringe: 2nb = m ... (4.5a)
l
and for a dark fringe: 2nb = m+2 (m = 0, l, 2, 3, ...). ... (4.5b)
Phase change at one boundary
Where there is a phase change at only one boundary (for example an air film trapped between two
glass plates or a soap bubble) the interference conditions depend on both the thickness and the
phase change at reflection. The conditions are simply interchanged:
l
for a bright fringe: 2nb = m+2 ... (4.6a)
and for a dark fringe: 2nb = m (m = 0, l, 2, 3, ...). ...(4.6b)
Notes
There is no point in trying to memorise these equations. It is better to work them out when
you need them by combining the conditions expressed in terms of phase difference (equations 4.1a
and 4.1b) with the phase changes at reflection and the relation between optical path and phase
difference.
It is important to remember that the value of wavelength to be used in these relations is the
wavelength in vacuum (or air). If you need to know the value of the wavelength, m, in the medium
with refractive index n it can be calculated using the relation

m = n .
 L4: Interference 65

Example: fringe patterns in wedges

If two flat glass plates are allowed to touch at one edge and are separated by a small object such as a
thin wire at the opposite edge, the space between the plates contains a wedge-shaped thin film of air
(figure 4.14).

Monochromatic light

Glass

Wire
Glass

Figure 4.14. Interference fringes in a wedge of air

The vertical scale is greatly exaggerated.
When monochromatic light is shone down on to this arrangement, interference fringes will be
observed in the reflected light. Since the existence of a bright or dark fringe depends on the
thickness of the film at a particular place, fringes will be seen at various places across the air wedge.
The analysis above shows that the spacing of the fringes is proportional to the wavelength. For a
given wavelength each fringe follows a line or contour of constant thickness in the air film. If you
follow across the fringe pattern, the thickness of the film will change by /2n as you go from one
fringe to the next. If the medium in the wedge is air then n = 1.000, so the fringe spacing
corresponds to a change in thickness of /2. This gives a way of measuring the thickness of the thin
object used to prop the plates apart if you already know the wavelength: just count the total number
of fringes across the whole wedge and multiply by /2. The resolution in this measurement is about
half a wavelength, or better, depending on how well you can estimate fractions of a fringe.
Alternatively, you could use this method and a wire of known diameter to find the wavelength.
Localisation of the fringes
Although a narrow light source (the single slit) is needed to produce coherence in Young's
experiment, thin film fringes can be formed using extended light sources, even daylight from the
sky. The difference is that in thin film interference every incident wavefront, no matter where it
comes from, is split into two wavefronts when it meets the first surface of the film. When the two
waves meet again they have a definite phase relationship so that interference is seen to occur. The
phase difference between the waves is locally constant and the fringes are said to be localised. You
can see that when you look at thin film fringes - they appear to be located in (or just behind) the
film.
Coloured fringes
If a thin film is illuminated with white light the reflected light will contain a continuous range of
fringe patterns corresponding to the spectrum of wavelengths in the light. You do not, however, see
the same colours as the pure spectrum like a rainbow. Instead the colours are formed by subtraction
from the white light. For example, at a place where the film thickness is just right for a dark fringe
in the green you will see white light minus green, which leaves the red end and the blue end of the
spectrum; the resulting visual sensation is purple.
 L4: Interference 66

Where does the energy go?

There is a puzzle that needs to be answered: what happens to the energy of the light when the
reflected light is removed by interference? The energy cannot be destroyed so it must go somewhere
else - it is transmitted through the film instead of being reflected. As in the case of Young's
experiment, the energy is rearranged in space but it is never destroyed. If you are used to thinking
of energy as a kind of fluid, then that idea may be hard to understand. However experimental
evidence supports the wave theory, so the "fluid" model of energy needs to be abandoned. Energy is
not like matter, it does not have to flow continuously through space. Another way of resolving the
problem is to say that the principle of superposition (just adding things up) works for electric fields
but it does not apply to energy or wave intensity.
4-6 APPLICATIONS OF THIN FILM INTERFERENCE
Testing for flatness
Given a slab with a very accurately flat surface, thin film interference can be used to test the flatness
of the another surface. (At least one of the two objects needs to be transparent.) Interference fringes
formed by the thin film of air between the surfaces gives a contour map of variations in the height of
the surface being tested. The contour interval is equal to half a wavelength of the light in the gap.

Incident light

Surface being tested

Thin film
of air
Optically flat surface

Figure 4.15. Testing for flatness

Figure 4.16.
Thin film contour
fringes

Blooming of lenses
A common application of thin film interference is in anti-reflection coatings on lenses that are used
in cameras, microscopes and other optical instruments. A modern lens system may have as many as
ten glass surfaces each with a reflectivity of about 5%. Without some kind of treatment about half
the light entering such a lens system would be reflected instead of going on to form the final image.
Apart from the loss of brightness involved, multiple reflections in an optical system can also degrade
the quality of an image.
The amount of light reflected from each surface can be greatly reduced using the technique of
blooming, that is the deposition of an anti-reflection coating. Interference in the reflected light
means that light is transmitted instead of being reflected. The choice of material for the coating is
important. Clearly it must be transparent, but it should also result in approximately equal
reflectivities at both surfaces, so that the reflected waves (at a chosen wavelength) can completely
 L4: Interference 67

cancel each other. Cancellation is achieved exactly when the refractive index of the coating is equal
to the geometric mean of the refractive indices of the air and the glass: n2 = n1n3 . See figure
4.17. However it is not easy to find materials with exactly the right properties, so in practice a
compromise is needed. Magnesium fluoride, which has a refractive index of 1.38, is often used.
The thickness of the coating is chosen to work best for light of a wavelength near the middle
of the visible spectrum, for example a wavelength of 500 nm corresponding to yellow-green light. In
that case the lens still reflects some light in the blue and red so it looks purple in reflected light. The
refractive index of the coating is between that of air and glass so there is a phase change at both
l
reflections. At the chosen wavelength we require 2n2b=(m+2 ) for no reflection. With
m=0, the film thickness is a quarter of a wavelength.

Reflected rays interfere Transmitted light is brighter

n1 n2 n3

Front surface
Lens

Coating

Figure 4.17. Anti-reflection lens coating

THINGS TO DO
Look for examples of interference in your environment. The colours in oil slicks are an example of
thin-film interference. Next time that you see one make a note of the colours and their sequence.
Are they the same as the colours of the rainbow? Can you explain the differences or similarities?
Other examples of thin-film interference may be found in soap bubbles, the feathers of some birds
and opals.
You can make a thin film using two sheets of transparency film like that used on overhead
projectors. Just place the sheets together and look at the reflected light. A dark background behind
the sheets will help. You should be able to see coloured contour fringes which map the thickness of
the air between the sheets. To enhance the effect place the two sheets on a hard surface and by
rubbing something like a handkerchief over them, try to squeeze the air out of the gap. What do you
see now? See what happens when you press your finger on one part of the top sheet. Does the
angle at which you look make any difference? Does the angle of the incident light matter? Look
through the sheets and try to see the interference in the transmitted light; why is that harder to see?
Observe the colour of the light reflected from various camera lenses. Can you explain the
colour? Is the colour the same for all lenses?