CHAPTER 2 THE PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN PERSON OF BUDDHISM AND HINDUISM

Buddhism

It is a major world religion, found in Northeastern India. Buddhism is based on the

teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, who is known as the Buddha, which means the Enlightened
One.
Buddhism rejected some aspects of Hindu Philosophy, challenged the authority of
priesthood, denies that an individual's spiritual worth is a matter of birth, and opened this
movement to all members of all castes.
Buddhism has been very significant in India, Shri Lanka(Ceylon), Cambodia,
Myanmar(Burma), China, Japan, Taiwan, Tibet, Nepal, Mongolia, Korea and Vietnam

Doctrines of Buddhism in General

1. The"doctrine of anatman" which holds that human
beings has stream of renewed existence, or a repeated rebirth in the
cycle of phenomenal existence According to Buddhism, human
existence is made of five(5) aggregates or"bundles" (skandhas)
material body, feelings, perception, predisposition, and karmic
tendencies. individual is only a temporary combination of these
aggregates which are subject to continues change Buddhism
believes in rebirth without transmigration.

2. The doctrine of karna" which individual's acts and

their ethical consists of consequences. Human actions lead to
rebirth, is, good deeds are rewarded and deeds are punished which
is a Universal Justice operates as a natural moral law rather than a
determines species(a rebirth as a human, animal, ghost, a god,
etc), beauty, intelligence, longevity, wealth, social status, etc.
Enlightenment is only for human beings, not to god Gods are not of
the universe. They in control of human destiny. Since they are in
their own pleasures in heaven, they are in the same predicament as
human beings and other creatures, being subiect eventually to
death and further rebirth in lower states of existence, Thus, prayer
and sacrifice to them by man is of no value.
3. The doctrine of"nirvana" in which an individual is released from the cycle of continued
existence with its inherent sufferings by attaining nirvana. Nirvana
is an enlightened state of consciousness in which greed, hatred,
ignorance, etc that makes a person suffers, may be eliminated

The Four Noble Truths.

This is the core of Buddha's enlightenment. These are:

1. Life is sufferlng. Human existence is essentially painful from the moment of

birth to the moment of death. Death does not bring relief to a person since life is
cyclical, with death leading to further rebirth.
2. suffering is caused by ignorance. to the nature reality including his craving,
attachment and grasping of worldly pleasures can cause his suffering.
3. Suffering can be Ended. By overcoming ignorance and attachment to worldly
pleasures, man's suffering can be ended.
4. Fulfillment of the Noble Eightfold Path. The path to the suppressing or ending
of observe the Noble Eightfold Path: right views, right intention, suffering is
right livelihood, right effort, right-mindedness, and right speech, right action,
right contemplation
 Hinduism

Hinduism has grown to become the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam. Hinduism,
however, differs from Christianity and other Western religions. in that it does not have a single founder,
a specific theological syste a single system of morality, or a central religious organization because it
consists of thousands of different religious groups that have evolved in india since 1500 BC. At present
claims about 900 million followers. It is the dominant religion in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka and a
significant increase in Canada. Hinduism philosophers include Mahatma Gandhi, Romakrishna,
Sarasvati, Vivekananda but it was Mahatma Gandhi who was the famous philosophers among them
because of his greatest contributions in Hinduism philosophy The most famous religious writing of the
India tradition the Bhagavad Gita(Sang of the Lord is one book of the immense poem the Mahabharata
which together with the Ramayana, the other great Hindu cpic, has had enormous influence in Hinduism
philosophy and religion.

The Hindu Major Concept of Man

1. The universal belief of Hinduism is the belief in reincarnation(to be born again)
and in the eternity of the saul or self(Atman).
2. In human beings, eating, sleeping, fear and sex are common to man as well as
animals. Without dharma(restraint through moral codes), men are no better than
beasts.
3. Man is divine. To become divine, man must embrace dharma. In embracing
dharma, man must renounce all worldly desires and selfish actions by resorting to
spiritual practice to attain liberation.
4. Man rises from a beast to a human level until he ascends to godhood and be-
come divine by also accepting dharma

Due to the divine elements absorbed into Hinduism during its long evolution and
because of the latitude allowed in the interpretation of the scripture, there is no
single which can be said represent Hinduism .
 CHAPTER 3 SOCRATES AND PYTHAGORAS PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN
PERSON

The Life of Socrates

Socrates(470-399 BC) was art ancient Greek philosopher who is credited for having laid the
foundation for Western philoso Socrates father was Sophroniscus and his mother Phaenarete, a
buxom midwife Socrates married Xanthippe who is far younger than him. They have three sons
but they were all quite young when Socrates abandoned them.
There was a belief that he took over the profession of his father as a stonernasonry but he was
reported to have been loitering around schoolyard looking for children to befriend and saying
that Socrates devotes himself only to what he regards as the most important art or occupation:
discussing philosophy
He served the Athenian army but he slipped out of the battle in order to return to Athens to check
out the handsome young children. Socrates refused to accept payment for his toachings,
maintaining that he had no positive knowledge to offer except the awareness of the need for more
knowledge
Plato's dialogs feature Socrates as a teacher who denies having disciples, a pious man but
executed for religious improprieties, disparages the pleasure of the senses yet executed by
youthful beauty, devoted to the education of the boys of Athens, yet indifferent to his own sons,
The trial and execution of Socrates are the climax o his career. Socrates admitted in court that
he could have avoided his uue first place by abandoning his philosophy and going home to tend
his business. he was convicted, h could avoided the death penalty by agreeing to pay a small
fine and once in prison he could have escaped.
The Socratic Method. His most important contribution to Western philosophy is by with a
question. his Socratic method, a method of inquiry answering a question applied The Socratic
method is also called the of he largely to the examination of key moral concepts like the God and
Justice, for which he was also regarded as a Father of Political Philosophy and Ethics. In
Socratic Method, a series of questions are posed to help a person or group of persons determine
their underlying beliefs as well as the extent of their knowledge. is a negative method of
hypothesis elimination so that better hypothesis could steadily identify and eliminate those which
lead to contradictions. This method is designed to force one to examine his own beliefs and the
validity of such beliefs. Socrates once said, "l kroto you mont believe me, but the highest form of
human excellence is to question oneself and others"

Socrates Philosophy of Man The following is an outline of Socrates concept of

human person:
1 Good education does not create good citizers such that some good fathers who are successful in life do not
yproduce sons of their own quality.

2. Moral excellence is more of a matter of divine bequest than potential nurture.

3. Virtue cannot be taught.

4. Knowledge is not gained from instruction and study, but from divine dispensation.

5. Authoritarianism is better than democracy. A wise and noble tyrant ruler is the ideal alternative to the random
decision made by a democratic ruler.

The Life and Teachings of Pythagoras

His Life Pythagoras(582-

507 BC) was an Ionian(Greek)
Mathematician
and philosopher,
founder of the Mathematical,
mystic, religions, and
scientific society called the Pythagorians. He is known as the Father of Numbers because of the
Pythagorean theorem which bears his name.
Pythagoras was born on the island of Samos. His father was Minesarchus, a divine merchant
from Tyre and her mother Pythais, a native of Samos. Upon his migration from Samos to
Crotone, he established a secret and elite society called Pythagoreans. Those who joined this
school called themselves the Mathematikoi(Mathematicians).
Pythagoras was well educated, learning to play the lyre and poetry and able to recite Homer. of
Pythagoras actual work nothing is known. His school practiced secrecy and communalism
making it hard to distinguish between his work and his followers.
Pythagoras and his followers believed that everything was related to Mathematics and through
Mathematics, everything could be predicted in rhythmic patterns or cycles.
According to some beliefs, he died at the hands of a saldier, because he refused to trample a
bean-field while fleeing.

His Philosophy of Human Person The philosophy of Pythagoras is summarized

as follows:
1. Learn to be silent. Let your quiet mind listen and absorb
2. Help a man in raising a burden, but da not ass st him in laying it down for it is a sin to
encourage indolence
3, It is better to learn none of the truth about Mathematics, God, and the Universe at all than to
learn a little without learning all
4. Women should function on equal terms with men in society
5.) . Do not vex with sharp words a man swollen with anger da not vex yourself with anger.
 CHAPTER 4 HEDONISM, EPICUREANISM AND UTILITARIANISM
PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN PERSON

Hedonism(Pleasure over Pain) Basic Concepts

1. Pleasure is the sole or chief good in life and the pursuit of it is the ideal aim of 2

2. All actions can be measured on the basis of how pleasure and how little pain they produce Action is
good if it gives wordly pleasure or temporal happiness to men: action is bad, if it is not.

Hedonistic philosophy of men has a sexual or libidinal connotation. It is an ethical theory that expounds
on the pursuit and enjoyment of pleasure as the man's goal in

Types of Hedonism in Ancient Greece

1. Egoistic or Cyrenaic Hedonism. It stressed gratification of one's immediate
personal desires, without regard for other people, as the supreme end ofhuman
existence. It also stressed that knowledge is rooted in the fleeting sensations of
the moment and is futile to attempt the formulation of a system of moral values.

2. Rational Hedonism. It points out that true plensure is attainable only by

reason. They stressed the virtues of self-control and prudence.

Both types of hedonism and their doctrines survived practically without change until the modern times. In
the 18 and 19 centuries, British philosophers like Jeremy 3ertham, James Mill and John Stuart Mill
propounded the doctrine of universalistic hedonism, better known as Utilitarianism.
Two(2) Schools of Thought in Hedonism
1. Quantitative Approach(grouped under Jeremy Bentham). It holds that the
value of pleasure could be quantitatively understood. This that it is just means
the number of pleasures, but their intensity and how long they lasted that must
be taken into account.

2. Qualitative Approach(grouped under John Stuart Milly. It holds that

pleasure has different levels: higher quality level and lower quality level.
Higher quality pleasure higher quality level is better than lower quality
pleasure(ower quality level). Lower quality pleasures are simple beings, like
pigs, that have easier access to simple pleasures sin they do not see other
aspects of life.

They can simply indulge in their pleasures. In higher quality pleasures, and elaborate beings, like men,
tend to spend more thought on other matters to hence lesser time for simple pleasure. Thus, it is more
difficult for them indulge in said simple pleasure in the same manner simple beings do.

The quantitative approach of hedonism was criticized because what is pleasurable is a subjective thing,
that is different between individuals. Critics of this approach cite the fact that the standards of what ought
to be a pleasure vary between individuals(for example, sexual sadism).

Epicureanism(Peace of mind and absence of bodily pain)

It is a system of philosophy based up the teachirg of

Epicurus. It was founded in 307BC. Epicureanism form of hedonism because it also declares pleasure as
the a sole intrinsic good, its conception of absence of bodily pain as the greatest pleasure and its
advocacy of a simple and moderate life make it quite different from hedonism

"The Garden" is an Epicurean school that has been a moderately ascetic community which rejected the
political doctrine of Athenian philosophy. In this school, it includes women and slaves and the members
of the school were probably vegetarians.
Epicurus(340-210 BC)is the proponent Epicureanism. He was an atomic materialist following the steps
of Democritus. Epicurus concept on materialism led him to attack superstition and divine intervention.

Basic Concepts of Epicureanism

Here is a summarized outline of the basic concepts of Epicurus and Epicureanism:

1. The pleasure of the individual the sole or chief goal in life. To arrive to this goal, man must live in
such a way as to derive the greatest amount of pleasure possible during one's lifetime, yet doing so
moderately in order to avoid the incurred by over-indulgence in such pleasure. This pleasure empha sizes
the pleasure of mind rather than a physical pleasure.

2. A moderate pleasure can result to a state of tranquility and freedom from fear(ataraxia) and absence
of bodily paln(aponia). Freedom from fear and absence of bodily pain constitute happiness, in the
highest form

3. The highest pleasure(peace of mind and freedom from bodily pain) can be obtained through
knowledge, friendship and using virtuous and temperate(modest) life.

Misconceptions Toward Epicureanism

There is largely a misunderstanding of the Epicurean doctrine due to the fact that it posits pleasure as the
ultimate good(telos). It is commonly misunderstood as a doctrine that advocates the partaking pleasures
such as constant partying, orgasmic sexual excess and expensive food, which should not be the case.
Epicureanism is regarded as ataraxia(tranquility or peace of mind, freedom from pain) and
aponia(absence of bodily pain) combined to be the height of happiness. Excess drinking, for example, is
contrary to the attainment of ataraxia and aponia. Prudence, is therefore, an important virtue in seeking
pleasure.

Utilitarianism

It is an ethical doctrine that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to
overall utility. Thus utility thus have a form of consequentialism. The term"utility" has been thought of
various thinkers as happiness, pleasure, or wel-being, while there is a tendency to consider only the
well-being of humans when interpreting utilitarianism count the interest of any and all sentient being
when assessing overall utility. Consequently, the well-being of animals and possibl even extraterrestial
beings have importance to utilitarians. Jeremy Bentham 0748-1832) and John Stuart Mill(806-1873) in
Britain developed the moral theory of utilitarianism. Bentham is also an advocate of hedonism. His work
Principle of utility" promotes the greatest good for the greatest number Bentham stressed that an action
is good if it increases pleasure, bad increases pain. An action is good if it produces the greatest
happiness for the greatest number, He developed a happiness calculus as a tool for weighing up the
consequential pleasure and pain of an action in order to deduce the moral course of action. He designed
a prison where punishment would be measured out according to the amount of pain caused by the
offender. James Mill was Bentham's foremost proponent, a significant philosopher in his day, and the
father of John Stuart Mill. John was educated according to Bentham's principles and much of his fathers
work was summarized by him while still in his teens.

in his famous short work, Utilitarianism, John Stuart Mill stressed that intellectual and spiritual
pleasures are of greater value than mere physical pleasure

Basic Concepts of Utilitarianism

1. The doctrine of utility is: that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest
number of people

2. The only purpose for which political power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized
community, against his will, is to prevent har others.

3. The moral thing to do is the maximization of pleasure and the minimizationot pain.

4. It is immoral to harvest healthy people's organs to be given to sick people

5. The well-being of all sentient things(to include animals), deserve equal consideration with that given
to human beings, thus it is often immoral to harm an animal even if the animal itself is not given a moral
status.

The core tenet of utilitarianism is that everybodys interest should be considered equally when making
decision. Utilitarianism has been criticized for leading to a number of conclusions contrary to common
sense morality, that of comparing happiness among different people, difficulty in calculating happiness,
for only looking at the results of actions, not at the desires or intentions which motivate people, among
others.

The classic utilitarianism of Bentham and Mill influenced many other philosophers and the development
of the broad concept of the doctrine called consequentialism. As a result, there now exist many different
accounts of the good, and therefore many different types of consequentialism besides utilitarianism. For
example, some modern philosophers reject the sole importance of well-being and argue that there are are
intrinsic values other than happiness or pleasure such as knowledge and autonomy.
 CHAPTER 5 EMPIRICISM PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN PERSON

Historical Background

The term"empiricism" has two etymological derivation First, it is derived from the Latin word
experiential, from which we derived the vord experience. may also be derived from the classical Greek
and Roman usage of empiric, referring to a physic whose skill was derived from practical experience as
opposed to instruction in theory Until the 20 century, the term empiricism was applied to the view held
chiefly by the English philosopher of the 17th, 18th', and 19th century. Of these, the doctrine of
empiricism was first explicitly formulated by John Locke in the 17h century. Locke argued that the human
mind is a tabula rasa(clean slate or blank tablet) on which experiences leave their marks. Empiricism
denies that humans have innate ideas or that anything is knowable without reference to experience

As historical matter, empiricism is commonly contrasted with rationalism which asserts that much
knowledge is attributed to reason independently of the senses. Thus this philosophy is opposed to
rationalism which was represented such French philosopher Rene Descartes, Dutch philosopher Banuch
Spinoza, the German philosophers Gotfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Christian Wolff and the British
philosophers George Berkeley, David Hume, and John Stuart Mill. William James called his own
philosophy radical empiricism and John Dewey coined the term immediate empiricism for his view of
empiricism

Basic Concept of Empiricism

1. All knowledge is based on experiences, not on spontaneous ideas or priori thought(innate ideas).
Experience becomes the sole basis of real knowledge, and. reason is only seconda

2. Empiricism does not hold that we have empirical knowledge automatically Rather for any knowledge
to be properly inferred or deduced, it is to be gained ultimately from one's sense-based experience"

Philosophers Associated with Empiricism

Some important philosophers commonly associated with empiricism include John Locke, Aristotle,
Thomas Aquinas, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, David Hume and John Stuart Mill
George Berkeley 1685-1753) In his work, Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, he
stressed a very extreme form of empiricism. He stressed that things only exist either as a result of their
being perceived, or by virtue of the fact that they are an entity doing the perceiving. Berkeley holds that
God fills in for humans by doing the perceiving whenever humans are not around to do it. He further
pointed out that any order humans may see in nature is the language or handwriting of God.

CHAPTER 6 RATIONALISM PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN

PERSON
Basic Concepts

Rationalism

is philosophical view that appeals to reasonas source of knowledge a more technical terms, it is a theory
in which the criteria of truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive. The rationalists believed that
reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge to the radical position that reason unique
path to knowledge. The appeal to reason is contrasted with revelation as in religion, or with emotion and
feeling. In philosophy, reason is more often contrasted with the senses, including introspection but not
intuition.

Rationalism is opposed to absolute monarchy, to rigid social classes, to religious authoritarianism, to

superstition and unscientific views of the world, and the doctrine of original sin with respect to human
nature.

Rationalism begins with the Eleatics, Pythagorians and Plato, whose theory of the
self-sufficiency of reason became the neoplatonism and idealism

Both Spinoza, Leibniz, and Descartes stressed that, in principle, all knowledge,
including scientific knowledge could be gained through the use of reason alone,
though they both observed that this was not possible in practice for human beings. In
short reason alone, unaided by experience, can arrive at basic truth regarding the
world.
 Rationalism is opposed to empiricism on the question of the source of knowledge and the technique for
verification of knowledge,

o Baruch Spinoza(1632-1677).
He was a Dutch philosopher of Jewish origin, considered as one of the great rationalists of the 17th
century philosophy. His writings, like those of his fellow rationalists, reveal considerable mathematical
training and facility, His main interest were in ethics, epistemology and metaphysics. Aside fr
rationalism, his notable ideas are also in pantheism and neutral monism. His works Ethics and Opera
Posthuma.

Basic Concepts of Spinoza

1. He rejected the propositional nature of special revelation in the Scriptures.
He rejected the existence of miracles for miracles do not happen.

2. He argued that God and nature were two names for the same reality;
namely the single substance that underlies the universe and of which lesser
entities are actually made or modified.

3, God does not rule over men and things but God is part of the system of
which everything in nature is a part. Thus God is the natural world and has no personality

o Gottfield Wilhelm Leibniz(1646-1716).

He was a German polymath who wrote mostly in French and Latin. He was
born in Leipzig, Germany. Others often referred to him as"Leibnitz", His
works include on the Art of Combination, Combinatorial Art and Theodicee.

His Philosophy
Leibniz is widely known for his wide range of thought about fundamental
philosophical ideas and principles including truth, necessary and contingent
truth, the principle of sufficient reason, the principle of pre-established harmony.

o Rene Descartes(1596-1650. He is the Father of Modern

prilosophy" and the irst modern rationalist. He was known for his principle
of"Cogito ergo sum" (I thinl therefore I exist). He was also a believer of the
philosophy of skepticism. He felt philosophy should move away from the
beliefs of the medieval scholastics. He was looking for certainty, and used
his method of doubt(skepticism) to try and find what was indubitable

His Philosophy Descartes believed that when a man doubt, he is

thinking, for doubting is the starting point of thinking so without any
reference to the external world he was already sure that he had found a basic
truth that could not be questioned. Once a person is already thinking, he could no longer doubt that he
existed.

o Plato(428-347 BC). He was originally named Aristocles, but was called Plato by one of his teachers
because of the breadth of his shoulders or his speech. He was by many to be the most important
philosopher, who ever lived. He is known as the Father of Idealism and a in philosophy Plato had
written several works which consist of 41 so-called dialogues plus a collection of 13 letters and a book of
Definitions. His famous concept of an ideal state is incorporated in his book Republic. His
Philosophy
Plato's philosophy on the nature of man is outlined as follows: 1. Under the usual haphazard methods of
childrearing, accidents of birth often restrict the opportunities for personal development. 2. Faulty
upbringing prevents most
people from achieving
everything of which they are
capable. 3. The promise of easy
fame or easy wealth distracts
some of the most able young people
from the rigor's of intellectual pursuits

CHAPTER 7 NATURALISM PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN

PERSON
Naturalism(Let nature follow its course)

it is a philosophy that emphasizes the preservation of the natural goodness of

an individual and the formation of a society based upon the recognition of
natural rights. It views that man, as he comes from nature, is good but that he becomes evil(corrupted)
through contact with society. It also emphasizes the necessity for man to be free to develop his own
natural impulses and to grow up in a society which he could engage his activities in a natural manner.
The most important and influential philosopher in naturalism is Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Jean Jacques Rousseau He was a Swiss-born French philosopher of naturalism, nationalism,

romanticism one the Enlightenment. He was also a socio-political scientist, musician, botanist and of
the most eloquent writers of the Age of Enlightenment. He was born in Geneva(then an independent
republic, today a part of Switzerland), but throughout his life he described himself as a citizen of
Geneva.

His mother died nine(9) days after his birth due to complications from birth and father, a failed
watchmaker abandoned him in 1722 avoid imprisonment for fighting a duel. As a consequence, he was
raised by his uncle and auntie.

Rousseau wrote the following

Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts, 1750,

The Village Saga: Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Mankind,

1755 The New Eloise,

1761; The Social Contract,

1962, Emile,

1762; Botany,

1802 and Confessions, 1782.

Rousseau's Philosophy
Rousseau believed that there is a division between society and
human nature. He contended that man is good, but is
corrupted by society. His idea does not imply that humans
in the state of nature this is a state where all animals and man
was in before the creation of society) act morally; Humans
may act with all of the ferocity of an animal. Men are
good because they are self- sufficient and thus, not subject
to the vices of political society. He viewed that society is artificial and held that the development of
society has been inimical to the well-being of human beings.

CHAPTER 8 REALISM AND HUMANISM PHILosoPHY oF

HUMAN PERSON
Realism

It is more an educational philosophy which advocates that education should be

mare concerned w ith the abilibes of human life so as to prepare him for his
duties in society. It is a reaction opposing marrow humanism and religious
formalism. Asa philosophy, itdenotes two distinct sets of philosophical
theories, one regarding the nature universal concepts and theother external
world modern philosophy, realism is a broad term encompassing several
movements whose unity lies in a common rejection of the philosophy of
idealism Most notable philosophers in realism and humanism include John
Milton(1606- 1674) John Amos Comenius(1592-1670), Francis Bacon(561-1626), Richard
Mulcaster(1531-1611) and Wolfgang Ratke(571-1633)

John Milton. He was a poet who published his work"Tractate on England" in England. This work
contains some treatises on what men should perform.

According him, " education should enable man to perform justly and skillfully and magnanimously so that
he will be fit to work in all offices both in private and in times of peace and war."

John Amos Comenius. He was a Moravian bishop who was considered the first educator to
advocate the use of visual aids in classroom teaching, His philosophy contained in his book Pictus
Sensualism or the"World of Sensible Pictured He stressed that at home, even with the absence of books,
children should begin to learn basic facts of nature and basic geography. This should be the first stage in
the life of a child. In the second stage, children should be taught in the mother tongue(vernacular) and
be free to experience the world around them.

Some of Comenius principles of are summarized as

follows:
1. older individuals should stay longer in school while children and
younger ones should be in school for a short period of the day.

2. Each class should have uniformity in textbook and test and should only
have are

3. The morning hours should be devoted for intellectual subjects and in the afternoon period, physical
and aesthetic subjects should be given

4. No subject matter should be left unless thoroughly mastered.

Francis Bacon. He was known for his"Bacomian Method in which he

postulated that a researcher mut be free from all idols(prejudices and
biases), assemble the material resulting from his observations and draw
his general principle from the comparison of cases where a certain effect
has taken place or not. According to him man's knowledge of nature is the
only real and fruitful knowledge and should be the only basis of scientific nature. Bacon was known for
his effant to make scentisc investigation practical rather than metaphysical

Richard Mulcaster. He was the school head of two(2) schools:

Merchants Taylor and se Paul School hro Eamous and excellent
humanistic schools in England His philosophical ideas are contained in
his books Elementaries and Positions. He insisted that education of men
should be in accordance with nature and it must aim for the expression and
development of dhildish tendencies, instead of su hendencies. Similar to
Bacon's beliefs he advocated that all teaching processes should be adopted
to the s understanding. The mother tongue(vernacular) should be used as the language of the school for
the children from 6 bo 12 years of age.
Wolfgang Ratke. He was a German sense
realist whose entire lifetime has been devoted
to educational philosophies and
principles that would be acceptable to the of
education, masses and the German Diet in
Frankfurt. Just like the other philosophers all
children he also advocated the use of
vernacular as the basis for instruction to
give all children thorough knowledge of
all threats and sciences. He believed
that everything should always be repeated to ensure mastery. Students should be taught without
compulsion. Rote learning should be avoided. All things can be learned through experience,
investigation or experiment.

Humanism

It is a philosophical and literary movement which originated in Italy in the second half of the 14th
century. It recognizes the value or dignity of man and makes him the measure of all things. Its theme is
human nature or human interest. It entails a commitment to the search for truth and morality through
human means in support of human interest, Humanism rejects transcendental justification such as
dependence on faith, supernatural or divinely revealed truths.

The term"humanism" signifies education of man, a discipline that makes him different from the other
animals. Humanism is a"rebirth" of a spirit that man had possessed, that provided justification for men's
claim of natural autonomy, allowing him to see himself involved in nature. It asserted that discipline
alone can educate man as such and put him, in a position effectively to exercise his freedom.

Freedom, in humanism, should be one that which man can and should exercise in nature and in
Humanism defended man's freedom to project his life in the world in an autonomous way. Man has the
capacity to form his world, to vary it, and to better it absolutely.

Finally, the humanists believed that the liberal arts(music, art, grammar, rhetoric, oratory, history,
poetry and many other classical texts) should be studied and practiced by all levels of society Noteworthy
humanists include Erasmus,

the Dutch theologist;

Thomas Moore,

an English author; Francois Rabelais,

a French writer and Giovanni Pico dela Mirandola, an Italian scholar.

CHAPTER 9 SKEPTICISM AND POSITIVISM

PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN PERSON
Skepticism

The Greek term skeptein which means"to reflect or consider" and is used to
refer any view which involves or places a premium on doubt and questioning.
skepticism in the Western philosophical tradition maintains that human
beings can never arrive at any kind of certain knowledge. Unless man can
know something absolutely and with perfect certainty, then man can know
anything at all

Skepticism is based on the following principles . There is no

certainty in human knowledge. Human knowledge is only probably true, that
is, true most of the time, or not true. Knowledge has limitations. Moral
values are subjective or arbitrarily. One must be cautious and suspend
judgment until one is certain of truth.

skeptic philosophers were called"skeptikoi" which means"to look carefully

or to reflect". Rene Descartes, Blaise Pascal, Pyrrho of Elis, David Hume,
Democritus are some of the known skeptic philosophers.
Rene Descartes. He refused to accept any piece of knowledge whatsoever as true, and tried to
rebuild a Christian faith based on the radical
questioning of truth Descartes asked these
questions: What if nothing were true?
How, if you doubted everything, could you
find something anything that was true? He
concluded by hi famous cogito. Cogito ergo
sum or"I think, therefore I am" or"I
think, therefore I exist

Pyrrho of Elis was the founder of skepticism which is the contemporary of Epicureanism and
Stoicism. He holds that man can reach the greatest degree of tranquility and happiness by renouncing all
worldly desires. According to him, it impossible to reach the truth with absolute certainty because
sensations vary from individual to individual.

David Hume. He denies certainty to any knowledge except that involving

the relation of the idea. He abandoned the hope of any knowledge of the
relation of the idea to the real.

Positivism

Positivism It is a philosophy developed in the middle ofthe 19h century that stated that the can only only authentic
knowledge is scientific knowledge and that such view come from positive affirmation of theories through strict
scientific method This who is sometimes referred to as a scientist ideology and is often shared by technocrats believe
in necessary progress through scientific progress.

There are three well-known philosophers of positivism, but the famous of them all was

Auguste Comte(1798 1857).

He was a French positivist philosopher, considered the founder Sociology and
the"Father of Positivism" Very early in life, he already rejected his family's Roman Catholicism'and
royalist political views. He was expelled as a student for participating in a student rebellion. For several
years he served as a secretary to the noted Claude Henri de Rourvoy whose influence is reflected in much
of Comte's work. His last years were marked by periods of mental illness. He died in Paris on September
5, 1857 at the age of 59, His work includes A General View of Positivism(1856) According to Comte,
society undergoes three a) different phases in its quest for the truth.

These three(3) phases are

(1) theological phase; In the theological phase of man, this is based on whole-hearted belief in all things
with reference to God. God had reigned supreme over human existence. Man place society is governed
by his association with the divine presence and with the church governed all. The theological phase of
man deals with mankind accepting the
doctrines of the church and not
questioning the world. It put in place the
religious organizations at the time
and the total acceptance of any"fact"
placed forth for society believe

(2) metaphysical phased : The second

phase. Metaphyslcal phase of man, states that
the universal rights of man are most important.
The certralidea is that man is born with certain
rights that should not and cannot be taken away and which must be respected, It is here where
emocracies and dictators rose and fell in attempt to maintain the innate rights of men.

(3) positive phase. The third and final stage of man is the scientific or Positive phase of man where the
individual rights are more important than the rule of any one person. Comte emphasized that the idea
that man, is able to govern himself is what makes this innately different from the other phases. There is
no higher power governing the masses and the intrigue of any one person than the idea that he can
achieve anything based in his individual free will and authority

CHAPTER 10 SCHOLASTICISM PHILOSOPHY OF

HUMAN PERSON Scholasticism

Scholasticism comes from the Latin word scholasticus or scholar, wnich means"that which belongs to the
schoor. It refers to both a doctrine and a method of teaching in the medieval European school and to their
successive revival to the present day Scholasticism originally began to reconcile the philosophy of the
ancient classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology It is not a philosophy or theology in itself
but a tool and method for learning which puts emphasis on dialectical reasoning

Some of the scholasticist is Aurelius Augustine

 Saint Augustine He is referred to as Aurelius Augustus, Augustine of Hippo, or Saint Augustine
(354-430). He was born in Tagaste, Algeria(now Souk-Akras, Algeria). His father, Patricius was a
pagan but later converted to Christianity, but his mother Monica, a devout Christian who labored
untiringly for her son's conversion and who was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church.

Some of the influential quotations from Saint

Augustine's writings are:
Man should love the sinner but hate his sin.

Nothing can conquer man except truth and the victory of truth is love.

If a person sings once, he must pray twice.

Christ is the teacher of men.

CHAPTER 11 MONISM AND PLURALISM PHILOSOPHY

OF HUMAN PERSON
Monism.

Monism comes from the Greek term"monos" which means one, alone, unique. Monad is a symbol referred by
Greek philosophers as the"The First,"The Seed,"The Essence", "The Builder and"The Foundation"

Monism is the metaphysical and theological view that all is one essence, principle, substance or energy and that
there is one, universal, unified set of laws underlying nature Monism denies that the manifoldness is real, and
holds that the apparently many are phases, or phenomena, of a one.

Philosophy of Monism The following is a summarized philosophical idea of

Monism.
1. It holds that there is one substance, that there is only one kind of thing and there are many different
individual things or beings in this category
2. There is only one mind that is real, that both the mental and the physical can be reduced to some sort
of substance, or energy.

3. It also holds that only the physical is real, and that the mental can be reduced to the physical

Pluralism

It is a social and political philosophy that affirms and accepts diversity or multiplicity. It was stressed most
wigorously in England during the early 20th century In politics, the affirmation of in the interest and beliefs of the
citizenry is one of the most important features of modem democracy. In science, pluralism describes the view that
several methods, theories or points of view are legitimate or plausible.

Philosophical Ideas of Pluralism

In democratic politics, pluralism serves as a guiding principle which permits the peaceful co-existence of
different interest, convictions and lifestyles. It acknowledges the diversity of interests in the society of
men and it considers it imperative that members of society accommodate their differences and diversities
by engaging in good-faith negotiation

CHAPTER 12 MATERIALISM AND DETERMINISM

PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN PERSON .
Materialism

In philosophy, materialism is that

form of physicalism which holds that
the only thing that can truly exists in
this world is matter, that
fundamentally, all things are
composed of materials and all
phenomena are the result of material
interactions There are no minds or
soul o immaterial spirits. Physical matter is all that exists. It contents that observable events in nature are
explained only by natural causes without assuming the existence or non-existe of the supermatural as a theory
materialism stands sharp contrast to idealism and pluralism.

Materialism is concerned about the nature of the world, which give to matter a primary position and accord to
mind(or spirity a secondary, dependent reality or even not at all. Extreme materialism asserts that the real world
consists of material things varying in their states and relations and nothing else. Philosophers differed in their
opinions over what constitutes a body, over what states and relationships a body may enter and whether every
material thing is a body The tenet of materialism is"everything that is, is material".

There are no incorporeal souls or spirits, no spiritual principalities or power, no angels or devils, and no Gods.
Thus, nothing that happens can be attributed to the action of such beings.

In sum, materialism tenets are

summarized in the following
1. Nothing exists in this world except atoms and
empty space(void)

2. In this world, nothing happens by chances,

everything occurs for a reason and necessity. This necessity is natural and mechanical

Determinism

It is a philosophical doctrine which holds that every event, mental as well as physical, has a cause, and that, the
cause the event follows invariably Free will is an illusion. This theory denies the element of chance or contingency.
is opposed to indifferentism which maintains that of the human will, preceding events do not definitely determine
subsequent ones. A person without moral
judgment is not responsible for his or
her actions. No wholly moral
spontaneous, mysterious,
ormiraculo occur, accor Nowholly
random to this philosophy.
Determinism is a popular conception
that entails humanity or
individual humans have no influence in
the future and its events.

CHAPTER 13 PHENOMENOLOGY AND

EXISTENTIALISM PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN PERSON
Phenomenology
It is an approach to philosophy that begins with an exploration of phenomena what presents to us in conscious
experience has three(3) meanings history, one derived from George Wilhelm F. Hegel in 1807, one derived from
Edmund Husserl in 1920, and one derived from Martin Heidegger in 1927.

Basic Concepts of Phenomenology

1. It perceives the original experience in an integral unified whole before considering the facts of the
whole The phenomenologist is interested in the Parts but only insofar as these are related to the context of
the totality of human experience.

2. The phenomenologists describe the phenomena, simply unfolds what is already there. What is left to
do is simply to reveal the structures of this totality Since the original experience can only be described
because it is already there, the ultimate, the origin there is no more need to reason by induction or
deduction

Existentialism(search for the life)

is a philosophical system that is concerned on the question meaning of man's existence than the answer of what is
meaning for the existentialists do not agree on the existentialists would rather invite us to answer. The ask similar
questions but seek the answers ourselves.

The basic features of existentialism are:

1. Existentialists look at the on existence on the basis of their personal problem experience. The
existentialist can hardly be divorced from their Philosophy, such that they make use of the play, short
story to dramatize th problems

2. Existentialists stressed the subjectivity of man. They do not deny that man to a certain extent, is
controllable by others. In protest of the dehumanization of man, the existentialists emphasized on the
subjectivity of men that man is the original center, the source of investigation and giver of meaning of the
world.
 CHAPTER 14 THE PURPOSE DRIVEN LIFE OF HUMAN
PERSON

The book written by Rick warren is entitled "The Purpose Driven Life" which is a guide to a spiritual
journey that will enable to discover the answer to life's anyone most important question: What on earth
am I here for?" other words, we ask the question: "What is our purpose in life

Warren starts with the answer that we are not an accident, for God has been thinking of us long before we
even thought about him, our birth was not a mistake. parents may not have planned us, but God did.

Long before we were conceived by our parents, we were already conceived in the mind of God. It is not
fate, nor chance, nor luck, nor coincidence that makes us alive now. We are alive because God wanted
to create us. He has a purpose for us.

Because God made us for a reason, he decided where we would be born and how long we would live.
He planned the day of our life in advance, choosing the exact time of birth and death

According to Warren, everyone's life is driven by something. Many people are driven by guilt. They
spend the entire lives running from regrets and hiding their shame. They allow their past to control their
future. They often punish themselves by sabotaging their own success. Although we are products of our
past, let us not be prisoners of it.

Many people are also driven by ear as a result of traumatic experience, unrealistic expectation,
frustration, conflict, etc. Regardless of the cause, fear-driven people often miss great opportunities
because they are afraid to venture out Don't make yourself a prisoners of fear.

Knowing your purpose in life gives meaning to your life. It defines what you do and what you don't do.
out a clear purpose in life, you have no foundation on which you bare plans and decisions. You don't
even have a direction.You are like a leaf that is blown by the wind in any direction. By knowing your
purpose you may be able to allocate your time, use your resources efficiently; you may also be able to
concentrate the efforts and energy on what is important. you become effective by being selective.
 CHAPTER 15 THE RIGHTS OF HUMAN PERSONS

Every man has a right for he is not only a being is also a human person possessing worth and dignity He
is not a piece material that can be used and out at any moment when of meaningless for He is not a he
possesses the ability to think, feel and and consequently to and make decisions. As a human person, he
is the captain of his the of own destiny. According to Christian conoept, man is created in the image and
likeness of God"destined for everlasting life with God"

As a human person, he is a creature with rights that he must exercise for his own protection and well-
being. The Constitution sets forth his basic rights as a human person in a democratic state thus he has
intrinsic dignity and worth which must be respected and safeguarded all the time

Under a democratic state, the human person enjoys by him which are not natural and constitutional
rights. His natural rights are those possessed granted by the State but are conferred upon him by God
and nature so that he may right to live, and the right to love.

Misconceptions of Human Rights

There are two views that led to the misconception of human rights. One that the human person is
superior, entirely free and absolutely independent holds from the control and regulation of the State.
Hence, the human person must therefore have all the rights which are absolute and limitless. The State
therefore must ultimately serve the human person in all aspects, maintain and preserve his rights, The
other view holds that the State has complete control over the sovereignty of the human person, that his
existence depends on the ability of the State to maintain his rights In other words the state is the source of
all human rights and that the human person has no rights at all before the Sute Hobbes, Mar, Plato and
Hegel are some of philosophers who advocated this view.

Limitations of Human Rights

Rights are not absolute, they are limited by nature, God and law. For every right, there is a
corresponding duty or obligation. This is the principle of justice that we must give each other his due. If
one has his right, it is the duty of others to respect that right. To reserve social order, rights must be
limited. If rights are unlimited, it may result to social conflict, chaos and consequently anarchism. Since
no man is perfect, his rights are therefore imperfect and limited. This is the very nature of man. Man is
physically free because of his free will, yet he may not be free spiritually and morally. He is still bound to
observe moral and spiritual values.
 CHAPTER 16 THE HUMAN PERSON AND HIS
HAPPINESS

what is meant by happiness? Is it something that makes a person happy and self-fulfilled? Does material wealth
make a person happy? it for friat m la human person happy? Or is it sex that pervades the human breast making
emery and woman to be happy?

In this earthly place, every act is motivated with a purpose Everything is directid towards an end. The end is
always towards one goal happines But what gives ppiness to a human person?

Men differ in many aspects in their search and concept of happiness Montemayor in his"Introduction to Philosophy"
said, and I quote:

"Man's greatest good and perfection, the sages ofall ases tell us, consists in the artainment, thr full realization of
marr supreme purpose and destiny-Happiness"

"There is one truth to mlrich all men absolutely agree that man seeks his own well-being, lus success in all his
undertakings in a riord his own happiness". Montemayor went further by saying that men differ and dispute over the
meaning of happiness about what would give them happiness and in what does happiness consist for them.

The reason why human person disputes on happiness is that the human person A perfect does not search deeper
enough to find out what is truly makes him happy. enduring happiness is at the bottom of allhuman person's deepest
yearning. Happiness is the ultimate end of all human person's activities. Man longs for happiness. In search for
that happiness, we do not find it in the fullness of our earthly existence because all things on earth are imperfect and
therefore perfect happiness is an elusive dream.

In the Christian view, perfect happiness can only be found in a perfect Supreme Being, the Summum Bonum.

Philosophy and Philosophers Concept of Man's Happiness

Happiness is viewed differently by different philosophies and philosophers. Let us cite some of their
concepts of happiness.

St. Thomas Aquinas Man's ultimate happiness lies in his inner will. A person's will must be ordered
toward right things, such as charity, peace and holiness as a way of happiness.

Aristotle Human aspirations and desire is directed to happiness, Happiness begins from the facts of
personal experience. True happiness lies in the outworking ofthe true soul and self and continued
throughout lifetime.

Confucius Happiness can only be attained by man by fulfilling the virtues of kindness, uprightness,
wisdom truthfulness.
CHAPTER 17 THE PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN PERSON
SOCIALISM

socialism is a direct offshoot of the philosophy of naturalism but it modifies naturalism to fit the
particular requirements of the individual's social life. Socialism grew out as a consequence of the extreme
individualism of some philosophers like therefore, who held that the aeates society through social
contract and is totally over and above society

Specific Philosophy of Socialism

There are five(5) concepts of socialism. These. are outlined as follows:

1. Society is over and above the individual The individual is only a sgment of society and therefore his
needs and desires are subordinated to the needs and demands of society

2. Conduct is right when it brings social benefit to a greater number and is not good when it produces a
social evil. Anything that is directed to the common welfare of society is good for after all, the welfare of
the people is the supreme law

3. The human person must learn by doing by his own experience. Thus learning by doing means that the
activity must be something real and true to life.

4. There is no individual freedom of the will for the human will is determined by society and is the
extension of the will of the group. The individual must therefore conform to the group's will to avoid
social disapproval or social ostracism. Thus, the human person must fashion his behavior to the social
pattern set forth by the group in order to avoid social conflict.

5. Socialism prepares the individual to take part in the affairs of society since established schools to
promote the interest and welfare all individuals society in a society.
 CHAPTER 18 THE HUMAN PERSON AND THE
PHILOSOPHY OF COMMUNISM
Communism

is a social system and a political movement and ideology of which ownership of property is owned by the community
and not by individuals, with the benefits of the system distributed in accordance with the common good. The
essential difference between socialism and communism would be one of industrial output. Communism would be
attained when the socialist economy had achieved such a high level of abundance that it would be possible to
replace the formula of socialism from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs. Communism is
based on dialectical materialism which was proposed by Karl Marx and Engels which was practiced in Russia by
Lenin and his followers. Dialectical materialism or damat is centered on State morality, religion, revolution,
history and society.

Principal Doctrines of Communism

The following are the principal doctrines of Communism.

Socio-economic system
Socio-economic system of Communism. The three(3) propositions of dialectical materialism(thesis,
antithesis. and synthesis) are applied to the socio-economic system of communism. The two socio-
economic classes which are antithetical(contradictory) to each other are the bourgeoise(the capitalists or
property owners) and the proletariat(the laborers or workers). These two opposite classes are in
constant conflict with each other and their conflict can be resolved only when the proletariat revolt and
overthrow the bourgeouise(capitalist) class, to be able to establish a classless society such that only the
laborers or workers can own the means of production in common

Economic determinism(historical materialism)

Doctrine of Economic Determinism. This doctrine called historical materialism. According to this
doctrine, the means of economic production of material goods determine the nature of its cultural social
structure such the political, social, and of people in each era of intellectual and religious life and
institutions a given people's history. Those who can own the means of production control the culture
including their moral and religious ideas as well as their social and intellectual outlook. The capitalist is
in a position to control the people's ideas, can influence and direct their social and cultural
developments. According to Marx, capitalism by its nature is self-destructive