University of Sarajevo

Faculty of Philosophy
Department of English Language and Literature

BA PAPER:

Literary and Socio-historical Relevance of the Myth of King

Arthur

Mentor: Student:
Ifeta iri-Fazlija, Ph.D Budnjo ejla

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Introduction
The topic of my work is to examine and discuss the literary and socio-historical relevence of
the myth of King Arthur. In my paper, I will be dealing with the first sources of the Arthurian
legend, when and how Arthur was mentioned for the first time. Question untill this day remains
whether he was just a mythical figure or real person, but that will not be the subject of my
disscusion. By turning back to the 9th century and earliest historical sources about king Arthur,
I will provide facts that will affirm his mentioning even since the 8th century. I will deal with
historical records of the Welsh monk Nennius and his book Historia Brittonum. Then, I will
provide records of one of the best historians who gave the Arthurian legend details which
shaped it as a whole, namely, Geoffrey Monmouth and his book History of the British Kings.
Since his book contains a lot of details and newly introduced characters, I will provide a full
overview of the parts in which Monmouth deals with Arthurian legend in his book. Then, I find
that it is crucial, since the socio-historical context is involved too, to present a short overview
of Middle Ages, its political scene, and the newly emerging Medival English literature. In that
sense, I will deal with the term and genre of romances, Arthurian romances in particular. As
follows, the main part of my paper will analyze three texts in the context of Arthurian legend;
what the differences and similiriaties are with the original myth; what is different and what is
the special feature that makes that work to stand out. First in row will be Morte DArthur by Sir
Thomas Malory. The next one is Sir Gawain and the Green Knight whose authorship is
anonymous. The last one will be The Idylls of the King, a poem by Alfred Tennyson. In
analyzing these three works, I will present a short overview of the work itself, context in which
it was written, and in certain cases even compare the works to each other in order to show the
story of Arthurian legend seen from different perspectives, with different characters and put to
different purposes. The main goal of this work would be to prove how much has the myth of
King Arthur influenced literature, mainly in Great Britain, but also how it had influenced
society in different historical periods.

General Overview
For anyone to understand the literary relevence of the myth of King Arthur from which the
genre of the Arhturian romance originated, one needs to deal with the germination of the myth,
which is set as early as the 6th century by Gildas, who was a British monk. He wrote about
event which occurred before and during the coming of the Saxons. Ambrosius Aurelianus was a
real person figure in Roman Empire often associated with Arthur himself.

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He was the ancestor of the Roman emperor, Lucius Dumitius Aurelianus who had many
successful operations, but was killed by his conspirators. Ambrosius is mentioned in Gildas
De Excidio.
De Excidio is the oldest British document related to the topic of King Arthur. What Gildas
best provides us with is the timeline of events that occurred. Ambrosius rises 44 years before
the Bade was sieged, meaning that it was written around 540. He sets a timeline according to
which, Ambrosius reigned until 475. He mentions that Ambrosius was an important figure and
that Britons rellied on him from 453 to 497, when Battle at Badon took place which Britons
have won. (Reno, 2011, pp. 264-265)
From 8th century, there have been various accounts on the figure of King Arthur. The question
that until today remains unanswered is whether King Arthur was just a mythical figure or a real
person. The reason why this presents an issue even today is the fact that there is no physical
evidence that would support the idea of King Arthur being a real person. Many historians and
historiographers have engaged themselves with this topic, trying to reveal the truth about King
Arthur, whether he was a real person or just a mythical figure. Historians based their researches
mostly on the analysis of various texts that record the figure of King Arthur and his quests.
In his book King Arthur, Jeremy Roberts provides us with a brief overview of the myth of King
Arthur. According to the myth, King Arthur was the leader of Britons who were fighting against
the raids of Saxons in the British Isles. After the fall of the Roman Empire, British Isles were
sectioned into many small different kingdoms. That being said, there were many kings and
leaders who opposed and fought with each other, with no one who would make them unite. One
day, 500 AD, Arthur was the one who led his nation in the battle against few hundreds of
Saxons on the Badon hill. The battle came out to be a huge success and Arthur emerged as a
hero of the nation. He is said to be the king that would return to rule Britain again. The story
connected to the myth of King Arthur includes stories about Merlin the wizard, the quest for
Holy Grail, Knights of the Round Table, his wife Guinevere and many other persons, or better
to say, characters. (Roberts, 2001, pp. 10-11)
However, the dilemma that has plagued many for centuries now is whether King Arthur or any
of the persons related to this myth ever existed? There have been many stories, poems, even
fictional and non-fictional books written on the subject of King Arthur. At first, the conclusion
was that Arthur had been a mythical figure, a product of the imagination of writers. However,
the one thing over which historians have agreed on in the past 50 years is that Arthur did exist.
He was probably an outstanding leader who had lived in the area of the British Isles, who had
led the army and had won the battle against Saxons at the Badon hill around the 6th century.

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Besides that, everything else related to the myth is a subject of debate, more fictional than a
fact.
It is important to note that historians dealing with the issue of the myth of King Arthur, have
done a thorough analysis of the texts in which Arthur was mentioned. One of those sources was
by a Welsh monk Nennius in the 9th century, who was proclaimed as the author of the book
Historia Brittonum which was written around 828.
In Historia Brittonum, in chapter 56, Nennius mentions Arthur for the first time as dux
bellorum (a war leader), who was successfull in 12 battles which occurred due to Saxons
invasion. Nennius also calls upon Gildas records and the battle at Baden Mount which was a
success for Britons and Arthur, and yet, Gildas did not attach any reference to the leader of
Britons. Gildas did not mentioned Arthur himself, but rather a figure that was later associated
with Arthur, a man called Ambrosius Aurelianus. Nennius subsequently describes all of the 12
battles, including the 7th one where the remains of the fortress have been mentioned located
between so called Loder and Eimot. That fortress was of a circular shape and it became
known as the King Arthur's Round Table. Several versions of this book exist, and although it is
very disorganized and confusing, the character of the King Arthur is mentioned here. Although
there are many different versions of the story on King Arthur, as will be presented in this
paper, the one thing that remains unchanged is the fact that he is always characterized as an
outstanding leader and politically influential person in history. (The Hermit, pp. 178-183)
Next person that mentioned Arthur in an imprecise manner was the Velnerable Bede. He was a
British monk, and he is considered to be one of the first Anglo-Saxon historians. He wrote a
well known book called The Eccleasstical History of English People. Bede relied very much on
the Gildas story. Like Gildas, Bede does not name Arthur explicitly. However, while Gildas
describes much more the events and timeline, Bede deals much more with Vortigen (leader of
Britons in the 5th century), whom he calls a proud tyrant, and Bede fails to mention Arthur in
any way. (Patterson, 1990, pp. 27-28)
Next in line of historiographers discussing King Arthur is Geoffrey of Monmouth, a Welsh
cleric, such as Nennius was, who contributed immensely to the development of British
historiography and who is the primary source for the tale of King Arthur. In the year 1136 he
completed a book called History of the Kings of Britain. The work itself comprises 12 books in
total.
Although at a later part of his life he became a priest, Geoffrey Monmouth was a passionate
scholar, who had even attended Oxford, the first English university, from 1129 to 1151. In the
Middle Ages, when his History was published, it was extremely popular.

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He described the history of Britain going far back into its past, which also included the story
about King Arthur. In this book, Monmouth proclaimed Arthur as one of the greatest kings.
However, later investigations and research showed that some of the facts written in his book
had been inaccurate, such as several names and various locations. Regarding the very story of
King Arthur, Geoffrey begins with Arthurs father and ends with Arthurs death. He, as many
other historians, uses Historia Britonnum as one of his sources. (Roberts, 2001, pp. 28-29)
Geoffrey of Monmouth's work, although titled History is actually much more a fictional work
about the legend. In this work he also expresses his patriotism and celebrates the newly
founded Norman England. One of the fiction facts that shaped the myth was Monmouths
introduction of the wizard Merlin and his prophecies, and Arthurs wife Guenevere in the 7th
book. In the 7th book, Monmouth introduced to his readers Arthurs father Uther Pendragon
and the trick that he had made by involving with the wife of Count Gorlois of Cornwall, out of
which Arthur was born. In the 8th book Monmouth starts telling the actual story of Arthur.
Even from his young age Arthur is described as a fine warrior. Monmouth incorporates the
scene where Arthur kills the giant which could be a hint that Arthur was of Celtic origin, since
killing a giant was considered to be one of the Celtic motifs. Along with the story of Arthur,
Monmouth presents to his readership a new kind of love, namely the noble love. This concept
was arranged in the way that a knight would have to participate in tournaments, fighting with
the other knights in order to win the love of a woman he feels affection for. The concept of
noble love made fine grounds for the development of what later came to be known in
literature of the Arthurian romances the courtly love code and the chivalric code. While
Arthurs presence was needed in Normandy, he thought that his nephew had engaged in the
affair with his wife Guinevere. Because of this incident, Arthur came back to Britain and ended
up mortally wounded in the civil war as a consequence of the fight to preserve his throne. After
these events, according to Monmouths version Guinevere went to a nunnery and Arthur
departed to Avalon in order to heal. (Loomis, 1956, pp. 58-60)
Geoffrey Monmouth was the first historian who gave Arthur a historical significance,
developing the story about the knights of Round Table and describing Arthurs life and
accomplishments. (otari, 2009, pp. 100)

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The Middle Age and Medieval English Romances
Monmouth himself lived in the period known as the Middle Ages. This period came about after
the coronation of King William I in 1066, also known as William, Duke of Normandy. For the
first time in history, England was about to be reigned by a foreign, namely Norman, dynasty.
With this, English and French cultures came to be intertwined, and this had a huge impact on
English literature. Due to the mixing of these two cultures, French romances found their way
into English literature. One of the most notable effect was the fact that Arthurian legend came
to be recognized as an inexhaustible theme for writing. Romances are mainly a secular genre
with certain religious elements that were inevitable due to the historical events of Crusades and
ideas of knights quests to the Holy Land. The main characters of romances are always knights
who are heroes with courtly refinements. Most of the romances of this period have the same
patterns and motifs, such as knightly adventure, battles with supernatural creatures, and knights
who are often put on test to prove their loyalty and defend their honour. However, this work
will be based on one of the most known stories that concerns quests King Arthur and his
Knights of the Round Table. Their ultimate goal is to find Holy Grail, which allegedely
contains the blood of Jesus Christ, symbol of the ultimate knowledge. What is typical for
English romances is most commonly the battles with dragons, appearance of the fairies,
mystery around the enchanted swords and alike. Although romances are usually associated with
love relationships, medieval romances were much more than that. They represented spiritual
journey for a knight and sacrifice for others well being. (otari, 2009, pp. 81-82)
Romances also imposed the manner in which the woman should have behaved through the
chivalric and courtly love codes, which I will later explain in depth when I come to the analysis
of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.
When it comes to romances in general, they are grouped into 4 different sets of possible
themes and patterns of romances. To this paper, the most interesting one is the matter of Britain
which leads one to the term of Arthurian romances. (otari, 2009, pp. 85)
The matter of Britain deals particularly with the stories that found its inspiration in the
Arthurian legendKing Arthur, his wife Guinevere, Sir Lancelot, Merlin the wizard, the legend
of Excalibur and other characters already mentioned at the beginning of this paper. The
Arthurian legend derived primarily from the British Isles, but it also expanded to France and
Germany. In 1155, Norman poet Wace translated Monmouths work into French for it had only
been written in Latin. The name of his work was Roman De Brut.

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Wace however did exclude certain passages written in Monmouths work, such as scenes where
Picts and Scots are tortured. Wace indeed does rely much more on the courtly love tradition, for
he adds additional passages. One of those scenes is when Uther Pendragon becomes fascinated
with the look of Ygerne. Wace was also the one to name the sword Excalibur. Wace certainly
made a much more picturesque version of Monmouths work. What is interesting in this work
is that he refers to Arthur as Breton Hope.
This was certainly marked as a turning point in developing the Arthurian legend, for Waces
work set grounds later for works of important authors such as Chretien de Troyes and Marie de
France. Due to the translation, the work became much more accessible to the public. (Lambdin,
2008, pp. 27)
The first author who dealt with Arthurian legend in English language was an English priest
called Layamon. He translated Waces version Roman de Brut in 1205. What is interesting is
the fact that Layamon wrote his version based on Waces French work, instead of Monmouths,
which was certainly much more accurate in dealing with British history. Although Wace did
introduce the concept of the Round Table, Layamon was the one who added details such as the
reason why the table was round. (otari, 2009, pp. 89)
Until 1300 Arthurian romances became an inspiration for European authors, regardless of
national origin. In France, one of their most notable poets, Chretien de Troyes wrote five
Arthurian romances, using French courtly ideals to shape Arthurian knights in his stories. One
of those romances was the story about adulterous relationship of Guinevere and Lancelot,
composed around 1180s. The Arthurian legend served to him as a theme for romance, and he
was an inspiration for English authors who later based their stories on his works. (otari,
2009, pp. 87-90)
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
The poem is also inspired by the myth of King Arthur, and Knights of the Round table. More
specifically, it was inspired by Sir Gawain and his adventures. This poem is said to be one of
the best work of art of English Arthurian romances in Medieval England. It has anonymous
author. It was found in a manuscript together with texts such as Patience, Pearl and
Purity. This poem is actually alliterative poem, meaning that it belongs to the so called
Alliterative Revival. The Alliterative Revival encompasses works that echo old Anglo-Saxon
verse characterized by the unrhymed verse line and use of alliteration as a connection of half-
lines. However, although it is alliterative, it has been adjusted to the Middle English. It was
much more adaptable. Poets had more freedom when it comes to using the alliteration for they
could expand a line by adding more syllables. (otari, 2009, pp. 91)

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Unlike Malorys Le Morte DArthur, of which I will discuss more in the subsequent chapter,
which is coherent in its theme, but from structural perspective has some loose parts, the author
of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight made a very coherent poem in which all the parts
seemed to be intertwined, mainly through symbolism, but also through the use of parallelisms.
Also, when compared to Malorys work this poem has a greater potential to be seen from
religious perspective.
It is divided into 4 parts: Christmas celebration at Camelot; Gawains journey and arrival to the
Lord Bertilacks castle; Gawains stay at the castle; and the battle with Green Knight at the
Green Chapel. (otari, 2009, pp. 91)
It is important to mention that characters, locations, objects which may sometimes seem
irrelevant, have a highly symbolical meaning in this poem. Where in Malory we have the whole
story focusing on Arthur, this poem focuses mainly on one knight, who is a representative of all
the knights of the Round Table. The four parts of the poem mentioned above, also have a
symbolical meaning in that they represent knights adventure spiritually. They shows how a
knight matures, gets to know himself, comes across various challenges and temptations, and in
this case, the fourth stage becomes an eye-opener for Gawain where he eventually earns a
lesson and gets punished for falling under a temptation. (otari, 2009, pp. 91)
In order to best explain the true meaning of this poem, this papers next paragraph gives a short
summary of the poem. There is a New Years Eve celebration at King Arthurs court when
certain Green Knight appears unexpectedly. He challenges all present there to a game. There
has to be one person brave enough to kill him at that particular moment with his own axe, but
that person will have to find him at the Green Chapel in exactly one year and a day. King
Arthur wants to accept the challenge, but Sir Gawain stands up and does it for him. Having
been beheaded by Gawain, the Green Knight picks up his head, then reminds Gawain of the
bargain he has just made and leaves. Quickly, the fall comes, and it is time for Sir Gawain to set
off to a journey in search of Green Knight and the Green Chapel. During his journey, Sir
Gawain comes across many adversities. He fights with beasts, suffers from hunger and cold. He
becomes hopeless, and on the Christmas Day, he seeks God to help him. Strangely enough, he
finds a castle where the owner welcomes him and offers him to stay. The owner of the castle is
Lord Bertilack and he lives there with his wife, and his servants. However, Lord Bertilack
makes a pact with Gawain. Gawain will stay at the castle and Lord Bertilack will go to hunt
with his companions, while Gawain will stay at the castle. What each of them hunts, they will
exchange gifts at the end of the day.

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For three nights that he stays in, Lord Bertilacks wife tries to seduce Gawain, giving him one
kiss the first night, two the next one, but on the third night she gives him three kisses and a
green silk girdle that is supposed to protect Gawain from death. Gawain does not mention the
green silk girdle given to him and departs from the castle. On New Years Eve, he finds the
Green Chapel and Green Knight waiting for him.
After two blows Green Knight stops at the third one and laughs. Green Knight turns out to be
Lord Bertilack himself. Sir Gwain did not get the third blow for he did not make equal
exchange with Lord. (Borroff and Howes, 2010, pp. 67-81)
From the structural point of view, the author of this poem made a beautiful coherence through
lot of reoccurring patterns that he repeats through the poem. One of the example is of course
the repetition of number three: 3 days of hunting, 3 kisses from Lord Bertilacks wife, 3 blows
of axe that Sir Gawain receives from the Green Knight.
Another aesthetically pleasing element is the predominance of colour green in the poem: the
Green Knight, the Green Chapel, the green girdle. The very character of the Green Knight is
presented to readers in two different ways. At the beginning of this poem, one sees him as the
source of problems that Sir Gawain has experienced and will go through. However, by the
ending of the poem, one can see him as a teacher, or perhaps, the best thing that could have
happened to Sir Gawain in order for him to realize how foolish he was. The Green Knight has a
lot of symbolical meaning here. He serves as a challenge to Sir Gawain, to test his morality and
loyalty, but also as an opponent and a teacher simultaneously. (otari, 2009, pp. 92)
On the other hand, this poem has a lot of descriptions of nature, which also serve symbolically.
Nature directly influences characters and serves to show positive and negative aspects of
human nature. The Green Knight is the symbol of human desires which are part of every human
being and are irrational part of their nature. As in Malorys work where one of the prevailing
subjects is the human imperfection, in Sir Gawain, in a slightly different manner, the author
shows that, although striving towards perfection, humans are incapable of achieving it.
However, in this romance Sir Gawain is presented as an almost perfect knight, until the very
last stage, where he realizes that he is also susceptible to sin, and that the tiniest omission
makes a huge difference. To foreground this lesson even more, the author relies both on the
chivalric, but even more so on the concept of courtly love codes. The chivalric code represents
the code according to which every knight should behave. According to this code, a knight
should represent the embodiment of moral virtues. True knight must be loyal to his master. He
has to defend those who are not capable of defending themselves. He must protect the king and
his kingdom even if it costs him his life.

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Sir Gawain indeed does represent embodiment of the chivalric code through his loyalty,
courage and courtesy. But chivalric code also serves as the example that rules are there to be
broken. Sir Gawains relapse is a clear indication how important chivalric code is. (otari,
2009, pp. 93-95)
Besides the chivalric code, we also have the concept of courtly love. This concept has its
examples in Sir Gawain and Green Knight, in the seduction scenes between Sir Gawain and
Lord Bertilacks wife given in Part Three of the poem. (otari, 2009, pp. 93-95) Yet, this
concept is best represented in the relationship of Sir Lancelot and Guinevere, which is
described in Malorys Morte DArthur.
The existence of these two concepts combined together as a guidance to a knight desiring to
live up to an ideal is already paradoxical. Sir Gawain himself has to follow the chivalric code
which is in direct opposition to the concept of courtly love which demands knight to be a
servant to his lady. The idea of courtly love was first promoted by the love lyrics of Provencal
troubadours. Here we have passages that are dealing with debates around philosophy of love.
This concept has in long terms influenced gender relations and roles in the Western world.
From this concept, the term romantic love originated. He has to accept everything that would
protect and please the lady, even if that means abandoning the rules of the chivalric code.
Courtly love is a highly controversial concept because it is not related to a typical kind of love
romance. It alludes to the customs according to which a knight worships a woman who is not
his wife, and most frequently, she is someone elses wife. The main point of this concept is that
the ultimate goal is not marriage. This concept was special due to the fact that marriage would
spoil this kind of love. Sir Gawain is the perfect example of these two concepts colliding
with each other. The scene where wife of the Lord Bertilack tries to seduce Sir Gawain,
represents the confrontation of the chivalric code and courtly love concept. On one hand
according to chivalric code, he needs to be honest when exchanging gifts with Lord Bertilack.
On the other hand, he must not reject ladys wishes for he is her vassal. I would say that Sir
Gawain and the Green Knight presents one really important aspect of the myth of King Arthur.
It deals with one of the pillars of Arthurs kingdom, namely his Knights of the Round Table.
Although this story, already stated above, deals with one particular knight, it can be certainly
applied to all the knights, for they all underwent similar challenges and temptations; and this is
where one can find the weaknesses of Arthurs kingdom. This poem also shows to us a different
dimension through which we can conclude that challenges set in front of his knights, and to
which they often could not resist, are one of many reasons why Arthurs kingdom experienced
its literary downfalls.

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It is also important to mention the religious aspect that is highly emphasized in this poem. From
the very holidays on which the events occurr (Christmas Day, New Years Day), to the number
three which can stand for the Holy Trinity. Unlike Malory's Morte DArthur which offers more
historical facts and a subtle style of writing, Sir Gawain and Green Knight deals with the
same theme of human imperfection, but in an almost a fairytale like style. Creatures that Sir
Gawain crosses along the way, the use of magic, the atmosphere in the woods all give a tone of
fairytale, but at the same time, the poem suggests a strong message about the myth of King
Arthur and world in general. I have to conclude that this poem, at least in my impression, also
has a universal message for the humankind, regardless of a period.
The message is that no matter how hard we try to play by the rules, our imperfect nature does
not allow us to achieve the perfection that we strive for. That was the cancer of Arthurs
kingdom, but it is the cancer of the society even today.
Sir Thomas Malory and Morte DArthur
One of the authors who carried on discussing King Arthur in the late Middle Ages was Sir
Thomas Malory. Sir Thomas Malory lived in a very turbulent period for British Isles moving
from the Middle Ages to Renaissance. It was the period of Henry Vs campaign in the France
during the Hundred Years War (1413-1422) and the period of yet another civil war, the War of
Roses, fought between the members of the pretenders to the throne of England, which ended in
1485 with the Battle at Bosworth. There are certain records that suggest there was a
relationship between Henry V and Sir Thomas Malory, and they claim that Malory was a
member of Henry Vs campaign in France. Sir Thomas Malory was beknighted in 1442, and
later on elected to Parliament in 1445. After 1450, many records appear that prove Malory took
a wrong path. He was accused of various criminal deeds such as robbery, murder, even rape. He
died in March of 1471. His Morte DArthur was probably written in prison because he refers to
himself in the work as kinghted-prisoner. Thanks to William Caxton, Malorys version of
Morte DArthur was published in 1485. Caxton took the liberty to name this version after
Malorys last chapter, Le Morte DArthur. Two versions of the book have been preserved:
one in the Winchester Manuscript, which is closer to Malorys version because it is more raw
and unedited, and Caxtons version. The Winchester manuscript version consists of 8 books
with subsections. Caxtons version, however, consists of 21 books with 3 large sections that are
intertwined. According to some critics, Caxton wanted to make the book as one whole, while
others find that Malory himself wanted to present tales as separate, non-related stories.

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As it appears, both in historiographic texts and in fictional texts, every new author dealing with
Arthurian legend had something new to incorporate, or simply to make a variation. (Lambdin,
2008, pp. 128-132)
Variations were made due to different origins of authors, different countries, and most
importantly different periods. We have to bear in mind that authors generally tend to make their
works acceptable for their audience. Audience of the 10th and that of the 15th century, for
example, is different in ways that cannot be described. Therefore, although Arthurian legend
has been an inspiration for authors through centuries, certain adaptations have been done.
Malory himself drew upon French and English sources. From France he used French romances,
namely the Vulgate Cycle, while he used Monmouths History of the British Kings as his
English source.
The Vulgate Cycle version introduced the story about the Holy Grail and a love affair of
Lancelot and Guinevere. Malory used this version together with the alliterative poem Morte
Arthure, according to which Sir Gawain was Arthurs chief knight, and not Sir Lancelot.
(otari, 2009, pp. 183)
Malory describes Arthurs story using a narrative style of writing. In this work, Malory was not
much interested in the style of writing, but rather in what he was going to tell, what kind of
message he would give to the readers. Although the title of this work might be misleading for
readers, for it suggests that Malory was only concerned with the last phase of Arthurs life until
his death, the work itself encompasses the whole story about the King Arthur, from his
conception to his death. Most of this work is written straightforwardly. Each book presents one
subsequent part of Arthurs life. Also, each book focuses on a particular character or event.
Even though there are many characters and events described, the main character is still Arthur,
and his story provides a framework for the whole work.
In the Winchester Manuscript, there are eight books. In Book One, readers are presented with
the chronology of Arthurs life from his conception, to his coronation as the king. Along with
Arthurs story, audience is given the story of Lancelot, and the discussion of Merlin and Arthur
regarding Arthurs marriage to Guinevere. The ending of Book One is marked with the arrival
of Lancelot and Tristram to Camelot. In Book Two, the readership is given a story on Arthurs
military campaigns occurring mainly in Normandy, but also the defeat of Romans, and Arthur
celebrated as the new emperor of the Rome. Books Three, Four and Five revolve around events
which include Sir Tristram, Sir Lancelot and Sir Gareth. In Book Six, readers become familiar
with the story of the Holy Grail, and also predictions which announce the destruction of
Arthurs kingdom.

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Book Seven is dedicated to the affair between Lancelot and Guinevere which as the
consequence had the fall of Arthurs court. In the Book Eight, many incidents occurred, and as
a consequence of those incidents, the fall of Arthurs kingdom ensues.
Many tragic events take part after Mordreds strategy to reveal the relationship between
Lancelot and Guinevere. After that, due to rivalry of Arthur and Lancelot, the Round Table is
on the verge of destruction. Sir Gawain dies, and after the battle between Arthur and Mordred,
Arthur dies too, followed with deaths of Guinevere and Lancelot who at the end of the story do
not remain together. (otari, 2009, pp. 184-185)
Bearing in mind that Malory used various sources, and that he incorporated sources from two
different cultural milliues into one whole, his telling of the story and the narration retain
chronology in the telling of events.
In this work, Malory makes few digressions, but with a defined intention. The story about
Lancelot, which in this work is presented as important as the Arthurs, shows the knightly ideal
of that period. He tried to portray a knight who was striving towards his ideal, but on the way to
the perfection the knights failed, due to human nature which is inconsistent. Lancelots
relationship with Guinevere is a clear sign that nothing and nobody, even the knight cannot be
brought to the perfection. (otari, 2009, pp. 185)
Often, the myth of the King Arthur undergoes religious, precisely Christian interpretations in
this work. This is not wrong by any means, since the very quest for the Holy Grail is involved
and is an ultimate goal of knights and their adventures. However, Malorys work contains few
details that could trigger this Christian interpretation. There are only few details which reflect
on religion, such as the very quest for the Holy Grail and Guineveres departure to a nunnery.
Yet, it is interesting how Malory made these stories separate, but also coherent. He achieved
that, for example involving and telling of Lancelot adventures, which are mainly told in the
Book Three, alongside with Arthurs adventure in Rome which was finalized with his
coronation as the emperor of Rome. Also, the quest for the Holy Grail, retold in the Book Six is
closely connected to Book Eight where Grail quest fails due to Lancelots inability to resist his
imperfect human nature. Malory also makes digressions and contrasts the ideals a knight
should uphold and their morality, by proving through Lancelot that humans are impossible to
sustain the perfect ideal. Books Three, Four and Five indeed are not connected. They concern
different knights and their adventures which are neither at the same location, nor at the same
period. And yet, Malory succeeds in making these 3 books related to each other by showing,
again, the knightly ideals and goals. Lancelot, Gawain, and Gareth are representation of the
chivalric code and of Arthurs Knights of the Round Table. (otari, 2009, pp. 186-187) They

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are symbols of the same ideal and ambitions, but also symbols of the fall of Arthurs kingdom
and of human imperfections. This is what makes the chapters, at least in the thematic sense,
coherent parts. Again, it seems that Malory through this work wanted to make readers dig deep
under the surface and to recognize the hidden message behind this story.
One of the events described in Book Eight is the murder of Sir Gareth by Lancelot which could
be seen as the first step leading to the destruction of the Round Table and Arthurs kingdom.
Ironically, Lancelot was the one who benighted Gareth and they were a true representation of a
fellowship knights. Yet, Malory, as many other times in this work, with small digressions,
shows us the different, more significant parts of the story. (otari, 2009, pp. 187)
There are also some other parts of this work which Malory carefully thought trough. He often
mentions Lancelot and Tristram in the same context, and later on in Book Five, he even goes as
far as to compare their love stories, Lancelot and Guineveres, with that of Tristram and Isolde.
Their love stories have the same occurring pattern. For one thing, both Isolde and Guinevere
were queens and wives of other men. This is an example of another small, but significant
digressions. (otari, 2009, pp.188)
The last two books, the Seventh and Eighth, came to be the most successful ones, in terms of
narration and coherency. Starting with Book Seven, Lancelots love towards Guinevere is
described, along with his inner thoughts. On the one hand, he adores Guinevere and feels
unconditional love for her. Yet, on the other hand, he is constantly struggling internally, for she
is the wife of his king, and he is his right hand and closest friend. It is never clear whether the
love or honour prevails. In Book Eight, we have a sort of culmination and denouement of
events. Lancelots love to Guinevere and the workings of Arthurs enemy, Mordred, present the
cause of the fall of Arthurs England. In this last book, Malory manages to grasp details from
previous parts and give them a closure. Book Eight starts with Mordreds plan to reveal the
adulterous relationship between Lancelot and Guinevere. Several times in his work, Malory
emphasizes the hate that Mordred feels towards Arthur. Mordred was allegedly the illegitimate
son of Arthur, a product of the affair that Arthur had with his half sister Morgana. Mordred
from the very beginning of the story is described as an evil character who, due to his life
background and the position in the court, had no other solution but to set a plan for the
destruction of the kingdom. (otari, 2009, pp.189)

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As professor otari underlines (2009) Malory indeed had a particular approach to the myth of
King Arthur. His work can be seen as a tribute to the long gone age of chivalry and courtly
love, and he definitely gives a nostalgic tone to it. It can also be seen as a product of his
frustration due to the events and the period in which he lived, namely, the Middle Ages.
(otari, 2009, pp.190) And the situation in which Malory-the man was, is a clear indicator
that he wanted to escape from reality. Being patriotic as he was, he found comfort in the
national past. With this epic, Malory maybe almost wanted to recall Arthur, to have him return
as the true king to help his country in troubled times. When seen from this perspective, this
work is an old story that needed to be mentioned again.
Through various digressions, contrasts and comparison Malory shows to his readers the
impossibility of humans who strive towards perfection, but, since reaching perfection is
impossible, humans must always fail. The best example of such an understanding in this story
is Sir Lancelot, who, on his way to perfection, made so many mistakes that they resulted in
tragedy. Some other authors focused on the very quest for the Holy Grail and the Round Table,
but Malory chose not to deal with the facts of the story itself, but rather, through narrating these
facts he presents the nature of human beings to his readership. In such a manner, in my personal
opinion, the work Morte DArthur conveys a universal message for readers, regardless of
period in which they live.
Alfred, Lord Tennyson and The Idylls of the King
To move away from Middle Ages, the paper will now observe and analyse one of the best
collections regarding the Arthurian legend in the Victorian Era. It is a collection of 12 narrative
poems, called The Idylls of the King written by Alfred, Lord Tennyson. As one of his main
sources Tennyson used Malorys Morte DArthur, but he made a version that was adjusted to
the Victorian Era. The first idyll is called The Coming of Arthur and it deals with Guineveres
potential marriage with Arthur which her father only allows after having been given the
prediction that Arthur would become a successful king.
In the second idyll, Gareth and Lynette, Gareth is a future knight to be who assumes false
identity and is given a quest by Arthur. The quest includes a salvation of land of Lady Lynoros,
and her sister Lynette is in a search for a knight at Arthurs court to help them. That is when she
comes across Gareth. In the third idyll The Marriage of Geraint, one of Arthurs knights,
Gareint, wins the tournament in which he meets his wife Enid. Moreover, in winning that
tournament Gareinth also revenges an insult inflicted on Guinevere.

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In the fourth idyll, Geraint and Enid, Geraint puts his wife to a test to prove her loyalty to
him which she passes successfully. In the fifth idyll Balin and Balan there is the description
of two brothers, seeking a demon in the lands of King Pellam.
Balin is the one who finds out about the love relationship between Lancelot and Guinevere.
Idyll six, Merlin and Vivien is a poetic presentation of the dialogue between Merlin and
Vivien where she tries to seduce him, but unsuccessfully. Lancelot and Elaine, the seventh
idyll is the story about Elaines unreturned love towards Lancelot, who is in love with
Guinevere. The Holy Grail is the eighth idyll dealing with, as the very title suggests, quest
for the Holy Grail. In the ninth idyll, Pelleas and Ettarre, the story about a devoted loving
knight Pelleas and rejection by Ettare is described.
The Last Tournament, the tenth idyll, portrays an event which takes place during a
tournament for which Sir Lancelot was responsible. As is shown, certain conflicts break out,
precisely conflicts with Tristram. Guinevere is the eleventh idyll which is dealing with
Guinevere and Lancelots relationship, Arthur founding out for their affair, and telling her how
this incident causes turbulence at the Round Table. Arthur, however, forgives her and she
becomes devoted to do good deeds for the rest of her life. In the final idyll, The Passing of
Arthur, his famous last battle with Mordred is described. (Kopito, 2004, pp. 88-97)
What makes this collection different from other works concerning the Arthurian legend are
certainly the parts devoted to Arthurian women. In these poems there is a lot of emphasis
placed on the ladies and their participation in the mythical plot, which one cannot find in
previous two works: the emphasis in Morte DArthur and Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight were put on other subjects. In Tennysons collection, however, one gets an insight into
strong influences of women on knights and various events. For example in the idyll Merlin
and Viven there is no presentation of Arthur. The whole idyll revolves around Viven and her
attempts to seduce Merlin. (Staines, 1982, pp. 149)
Arthur is presented of course in the idyll Guinevere for he is directly connceted with the story
of his wife. In other idylls as well, the representation of Arhur is not quite what we used to see.
In the idyll Holy Grail, hes seen as a spiritual figure who is more concerned with real world.
(Staines, 1982, pp. 150)
I would say that this idyll presents something that we did not have in the previous two analysis,
and that is Arthur's thoughts and realizations. What drew my attention in regards to the
character of Arthur is that he is not presented that often as a strong warrior, but rather as a
character overcoming all sorts of difficulties.

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We have hints in the first idyll The Coming of Arthur that he is indeed a strong warrior and
reaffirmation in the idyll The Last Tournament in which he goes to face the Red Knight. Of
course, the story still revolves around him, for he is the main character, but Tennyson dealt
much more with everything occuring around him, rather than Arthur himself.
Tennyson focused very much on Guinevere, Arthurs wife which is clear from the very way in
which he started the collection, namely the story about Guinevere and her father's disapproval
of Arthur. This somehow makes sense, for it was Guineveres adultery which led to the decline
of Round Table, and then Arthurs kingdom. And again, even from this kind of approach, we
have the message which affirms that human are indeed imperfect creatures. Tennyson left
Arthurs life before coronation as a mystery, and focused only on the development of his
kingdom and Knights of the Round Table.
The fact is that in any version it was not Arthurs fault that kingdom declined, but the unability
of humans to be perfect. Each idyll is a separate story, but it has its part and significance in the
whole story of Arthurian legend. In this collection, we do feel a high level of spiritual and
religious elements. Tennyson left the impression that it is good to strive for the ideal, and to
overpass physical world, because the ideal lies only in spirituality. Although humans are
imperfect by just being humans, and the ideal is probably unattainable, we never should stop
trying. (Staines, 1982, pp. 152)
We have to bear in mind the period in which Tennyson composed this collection. It was the
second half of the 19th century, when author and painters found a new interest into Arthurian
legend. This is a period marked by the rule of Queen Victoria and the emerging Industrial
Revolution. Due to many factories, including people working even to ten hours, the nostalgia
for the past times was felt. The pressure imposed on people, not just by an army of working
class, but also the events on the political scene, did not predict anything good coming in the
future. People lost their spirit and hope, and authors together with artists found comfort in the
greatest king of all times, Arthur, and his knights.
Conclusion
Any student of English language and literature, myself included, gets familiar with the
Arthurian legend. However, investigating deeper into the subject, I have realized that my
knowledge of that matter is very superficial. While researching for this topic, I came to the
realization of the significance of this myth for the nations of Great Britain. The United
Kingdom of Great Britain went through many turbulent periods in their history. In my personal
opinion, the Arthurian myth is the idealization of the period in British history and culture to
which authors and artists happily and frequently return in order to escape from their reality.

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One aspect of the Arthurian myth is the chivalry and courtesy that existed at the time, which
with modern times vanish and people feel the need to express their nostalgia for those times
when everything seems so perfect and ideal.
In terms of literature and cultural studies, the most important invention of Arthurian legend is
certainly the genre of romances that peaked in the Middle Ages, but which remain interesting
even to todays authors. When it comes to text which are analyzed in this work as different
examples of the myth of King Arthur, I must say that each text presents a different approach to
the theme of the myth of King Arthur. It is important to stress the fact that all three texts differ
in the approach as well as in the style and form in which they were written.
The author of Sir Gawain and Green Knight focused his text on a particular part of the myth,
namely the chivalric and courtly love code. He deals with tempations and embodiments of a
true knight of the Round Table. It is also interesting that this particular text contains a lot of
religouis motifs hinted through the use of various paralelisms and symbols. This is also due to
the fact that this text was written and popular in the Middle Ages.
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight from the structural point of view is a very coherent text
which is achieved through the recurrent use of symbolism. Unlike Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight, Thomas Malorys Morte DArthur is a work which deals primarly with the life of
King Arthur and his kingdom. Structuraly, Morte DArthur is not as coherent as the Sir
Gawain and the Green Knight. Malory does make some thematic coherent parts, by
intertwining stories through his books, but each book deals with a separate event and different
characters introduced in every book. While Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is written in a
fairytale like manner, Malorys work is written straightforwardly, with a clear intention to send
a particular message to the readers. However, we have to bear in mind Malorys background
story and the fact that this work was apparently written while he was in prison. While in the
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight author focuses on the representation of the knights of the
Round Table, Malorys work deals with King Arthur as the central figure around all other
characters revolve. Patriotic as Malory was, he laments for the times of chivalry and morality
that in his time were vanished. Malory seemed to have wanted to escape from his reality in
prison, and he found comfort in the ancient history and culture of British Isles. King Arthur to
him was an ideal king who was strong and brave, but most importantly honest.
When it comes to the third and final text which was analyzed, Tennysons Idylls of the King, it
is important to mention that his main inspiration and source was Malorys Morte DArthur. Yet,
Tennyson also has a different approach and focus to the myth of King Arthur. He foucses on the
female characters appearing in the myth, but mostly, Arthurs wife, Guinevere.

17
Since Tennyson was part of the Victorian Era, he dedicated his attention to women and gave
them voice in the myth. While still relying on the Arthur as the central figure, he also wanted to
show the other side of King Arthur, which does not always include battles and Arthur being a
warrior. Tennyson presented many difficulties with which Arthur was dealing aside from the
battlefield. Similary to Malorys Morte DArthur, Tennyson wrote separate idylls, which deal
with separate events and characters. However, Tennysons work has much more religious and
spiritual elements unlike Malorys. We have to bear in mind that all three text were written in
different periods. Each author adjusted the myth of King Arthur to their time and audience
expectations. That is why these texts offer an torough insight into societies developed in a
particular period. Also, we get much better perspective in regards to the historical background
of these periods for they have indeed had influenced authors of the texts and their approaches to
the subject.
Yet, I have to conclude, although these three text deal with the same theme, in a different
manner, they do convey on strong message, that is present even today. The universal tone
which I have noticed during the analysis of these works is the human imperfection and humans
constant need to strive for perfection. In each case, we fail, for humans cannot be perfect. These
texts certainly confirm this, for they were written over a long period of time, in periods with
different socities, political scene and beliefs. Each author managed to present its time period
through his variation of the Arthurian myth. Malory and Tennyson show lament and nostalgia
for the past times which is a clear indicator that periods in which they lived, were everything,
but satisfying. In the Victorian Era, for example, Tennyson was horrified by the traits of the
beginning of Industrial Revolution. Malory, living in the period of the king Henry V and the
Hundred Years War and imprisoned as he was, was devasted by the political scene of his time.
The only thing that did not change through these periods and all other periods is human
behaviour. In either way it does not matter because the Arthurian legend had a remarkable
impact on literature and society of various historical periods. I find that people are always
fascinated with roads unknown and uncertain because that leaves them with enough space to
speculate and make their own versions of events, such versions frequently reflecting the socio-
historical changes and ideological background of an author. I believe that the concept of
Arthurian legend will always have the potential to be explored more, and it will never be
exhausted.

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