INGLS MEDIEVAL

Perodo del Ingls Medieval: desde 1066 (Hastings) hasta 1492 (Renacimiento)

The Normans were formerly skandinavian people, but they spoke French.

There are some reasons for this evolution of the Language:

External reasons:
The conquest by the Normans
The influence of French literature
The trading with Dutch people. (rover: wandering pirate) (cookie)

Characteristics of Middle English:

a) Undergoes great changes in vocabulary and grammar.

New sounds (/oi/)
b) Receives influence of Norman (vulgar), French and Latin (cult), and a little influence
by Dutch, Catalan, Spanish, German and Old Norse words. It becomes a hybrid
language, flexible and resourceful.
- English has been described as a two headed monster: one head is the English
Grammar, the other one is the French vocabulary.
- People of the northern half of England are more dynamic in linguistic, they
didnt keep literature in Old English.
- People of the southern half were more conservative, they held the OE
literature.
c) ME experiences a gradual levelling of inflections
d) ME develops a dominant system of weak (regular) verbs
FR. FR. GR. ENG. LAT. LAT.
e) ME transforms old Grammatical gender into a new natural gender.
f) ME suppresses much of the older West Germanic vocabulary and weaken the Old
English morphological processes.
g) ME evolves a more analytic syntax in which Word Order determines function.
h) ME distils a Standard Spoken and Literary English by 1450 out of five major
dialects: Northern, East Midland, West Midland, Southern and Kentish.

10 main Middle English dialects (x3 periods: Early, Medium and Late Middle English)
1.- Northern 6.- Southern
2.- North east-midland 7.- North west-midland
3.- Central east-midland 8.- North-central west-midland
4.- South east-midland 9.- South-central west-midland
5.- Kentish 10.- South west-midland

i) ME specializes into three levels of expression:

Popular (native English) ask
Literary (assimilated French) demand
Learned (reintroduced Latin and Greek) interrogate
j) ME disseminates its final achievements in London version via printings after 1476 to
hasten the entrance of Early Modern English (Renaissance)
Indeed, by the end of the reign of Edward I, the language has begun its evolution
towards a cosmopolitan vocabulary and had initiated several processes of great
linguistic change.

Tener presente el mapa de dialectos del ingls medieval.

Los 10 dialectos los simplificaremos a 5:

Northern
Southwestern
Kentish
Western Midland
Eastern Midland

EARLY MIDDLE ENGLISH (1154-1307)

The struggle for survival.

Henry II (1154-1189)
Husband to the powerful Eleanor of Aquitaine.
Fight against his children.
Richard I Lion-heart (1189-1199)
International king. Crusader.
Hubert Walter
The Owl and the Nightingale
John Lackland (1199-1216)
Magna Carta
Loss of Normandy
Henry III Hammer of Scots (1216-1272)
The provisions of Oxford
Simon of Mont forte
The Baron Wars (1258-1265)
Edward I Long Hands (1272-1307)
Statute of Wales
Prince of Wales (he didnt speak English though he was of the royal family).

Mature Middle English (1307-1422)

Slow ascendancy of the language.

a) From the death of Edward I (1307) up to the outbreak of the 100 years war
(1337) the language was present in the Parliament.
b) Beginning of the 100 YW (1337) up to the Peasants revolt (1381)
c) The Ps R (1381) up to the death of Henry V (1422)
Agincourt 1415.
Highest rate of French influence!

LITERARY ACHIEVEMENTS

1) John Wycliffe (+1384)

Translation of the Bible
Model of comfortable prose
2) Alliterative Revival
Piers Plowman (excellent poem)
Pearl (another one, shorter)
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

CHAUCER (1344-1400) (Canterbury Tales)

Scandinavian Words: Take, bathe, law3e, ey
French Words: Thousand, bothe, charlis, flow, poyntment, sholde.

LATE MIDDLE ENGLISH

The status of the Language constantly improved.
1423 - E recorded in Pearl
1425 - Public writing of E
1450 Town laws translated into E
1476 Caxton: the printing press
1489 Henry VII put an end to the (public) use of French
South-west Dialect

Text 3.

Diphtongs tend to turn into long vowels. (ws > was) (eom > am)

12th century. South of the Midlands c.1150

Poema Morale or Moral Poem

Interesting for its metrical form: rhymed couplets of 14 syllables.
(the only OE rhymed poem is a joke; any other must be ME or later)
Written by an old man who wishes others to take profit from his experience.
A short course in Christian morals: avoid sin, practice virtue, get ready for the
Judgement Day, keep the tortures of Hell in mind in order to obtain celestial bliss.

The South West dialect received a lot of influence from French literature.

13th century. The Fox and the Wolf

C 1272-1276. Based on a French original, one of the branches of the French
Roman de Renart
It has rhyme and a lot of French words.

Late 14th century. John of Trevisa (c 1342-1402)

Ranulph Higden (d 1364), Benedictine monk, composed under the title of
Polychronicon a historical complilation in latin which goes from the Creation to 1327.
The work iwas such a success in its time (more than 100 manuscripts survive) that it
was twice translated into English. One of these, by John of Trevisa, was finished in
0387 and printef a century later by William Caxton in a slightly modernized form.
John of Trevisa was a priest in Oxford and studied there. He translated 3 major
Latin works:
- Polychronicon, by Ranulph Higden (history)
- De propietaribus rerum or Of the Propieties of Things by Bartholomeus
Anglicus (encyclopaedia)
- De regimine principum or Of the government of the Prince by Aegidius
Romanus (politics)

These translations have the merit of being ranked among the earliest endeavours in
English prose of the 14th century.
South-East Dialect (Kentish)
Late 12th/ Early 13th century.
The Owl and the Nightingale (it isnt a translation)
It is a Debate (there where many in Latin and, mainly in the 9 th century, in other
languages). This one was among the most sophisticated poem.
The appearance of this witty, sophisticated poem has been described as
miraculous.
French metre neutralized. Some 2000 lines in octo-syllabic couplets.
A debate between the grave Owl (Athena) and the gay Nightingale, symbolizing
perhaps respectively the religious part of love.

13th century.
The Kentish Sermons (Translation from French, which was a translation from
Latin bible, which was a translation from Greek and Hebrew).
Maurice de Sully (~lfric), bishop of Paris, composed between 1168 and 1175 a
cycle of 67 homilies in French on the Gospel lessons for the year.
A Middle-English translation of five of them is preserved in a 13th century MS.
There are three levels of message:
- literal: historical account of the events mentioned in the text.
- allegorical: and exposition of its spiritual meaning (e.g. humility)
- moral: an exhortation (e.g. humble yourselves)

13th century. London (influence from E midland)

Proclamation of Henry III (October 1258)
Originally in French (due to Norman dominion). Then translated to ME
The first example of the official use of the EL since William I.
A good specimen of the speech of London area in the midst of the 13th cent.

14th century
John Gower (c. 1330-1408)
He was a close friend of Chaucer (Canterbury tales), for a long time this poem
was thought to be Chaucers. Gower wrote in 3 languages (French, Latin, English).
a) Latin: Speculum meditantis or Mirour de lOmme
b) Anglo-French: Vox Clamantis
c) English: Confessio Amantis
Some 34.000!! octoyllabic rhymed couplets. The first English poet to be translated into
another modern language. There is a Spanish version of his Comfessio Amantis on
that time.
A lover waery of life the poet- makes full confession to Venus Genius, her priest.
The priest instructs the poet concerning each of the 7 deadly sins and their remedy.
The stories are taken from classical and medieval sources and include the tale of Florent
(told also by Chaucers Wife of Bath and that of Constance (Chaucers Man of
Lawes tale.)
The poem shows the influence of Chaucer: the language is substantially the same.

1386: Mercers petition to the Parliament

It is the second known document of this type in which English was used.
It is necessary to wait until the beginning of the 15 th century to see the use of
English extended into these official acts.
Geoffrey Chaucer (London, c1340-c1400)
Germanic Christen name (Geoffrey, god afraid)
French Surname (Chaucer, shoe maker).
His name can be considered a symbol of the ending of differences between
Saxons and Normans.
He occupies without opposition one of the highest ranks in English literature.
The Canterbury Tales
Some pilgrims, going from London to Canterbury, to the Temple of Saint
Thomas Beckett bet who tells the best tale, and they ante a free meal for the winner.

East-Midlands Dialect
12th century. NE Midland (Northampton)
The Peterborough Chronicle

Late 12th cent / Early 13th cent. NE Midland

The Ormulum or The little work by Orm
This book is called Ormulum from its author: Orm (Scandinavian name
meaning worm, wyrm, wurm, snake... common in the North of England)
A MS of metrical English sermons.
Its 20,000 lines probably presents about one eighth of the work as planned.

13th cent. NE Midlands

Havelok the Dane (Danish)
The story of Havelok, son of Birkabeyne, king of Denmark, and Goldborough,
daughter of thelwold, king of England.
They are excluded from their rights.
The main tread is the fight to regain their power. .
~3000 lines (short).

13th cent SE Midlands

King Horn
Horn is a beautiful boy, son of king Murray and queen Godhill of Suddene
(Man)
A host of invading Saracens slay the inhabitants
Anagnorisis and disguise.
~1500 lines (short)

Early 14th cent. NE Midland

Robert Mannyng of Brune
a) Hanyng Synne (Handbook of Sins)
A collection of vivid stories, just like Gowers Confessio Amantis
b) Chronicle
First part: from the Flood up to 689 A.D. Octosyllabic
Second part: from 689 to the death of Edward I Hammer of Scots (1307)
Early 14th cent. SE Midland
The Travels of Sir John Mandeville
English translation from the French
More than 300 Ms remain today!!
A most popular work in medieval England and Europe.
Prose
- Pilgrims guide to the Holy land
- A decryption of the East.
It has some translation mistakes (montaigne >> e hille of Agnes)
(Les signes du ciel >> swannes of
heaven)
Yet one of the firs and best examples of a simple and clear style

Late 14th cent.

The Cloud of Unknowing
A mystical treatise. The description of via negativa or Way of Negation
This way requires the mind should be cleared of all images and categories
derived from human experience.

Late 14th cent.

Grimestone Lyrics
A Franciscan friar, John of Grimestone, compiled an anthology of pieces
suitable to be quoted on sermons
239 English poems, short enough to be readily used by a preacher.

West-Midlands Dialect
12th cent. W Midland
Sawles Warde (Souls Ward)
A translation from Hugo de Saint Victors De anima.
Religious literary prose. A tradition inherited from Anglo Saxon times.

12th cent. SW Midland

The Worcester Fragments
MS dated c. 1180, though the language shows that the WF were composed at a
much earlier date, probably in West Saxon and then modernized by a later scribe.
Actually, the WF are the remains of a MS, some of its leaves have been cut up
and pasted together to form a cover for another book in the chapter library of Worcester.
The leaves now collected form MS 174 in that collection
When complete, the MS apparently contained:
- a copy of lfrics Grammar and Glossary
- the poem we know
- a longer poem on the Debate of the Soul and the Body
Strong resemblance to OE
remains but in et and was
eo still in use: leoden, feole, beo
sc still in use but in englise
still in use but in this
 keeps the old way of alliterative verses, but he doesnt achieve it.
Old plurals: bec, cnotten, leoden, bodan, word.

Early 13th cent. W midland

Ancrene Riwle (Nun of Rule or Monja de Clausura)

13th century.
Lawman (or Laamon)s Brut
A Chronicle in alliterative verse.
16,120 lines
The history of Britain from the time of Brutus the mythical founder of the
kingdom- up to 689 A.D., the date when the Britons were definitively pushed back by
the Saxons into the mountains of Wales.

14th century. About 1370. West Midlands.

William Langlands Piers Plowman (Peter, the man that works the land)
Most important work in Middle English (exception Chaucers Canterbury
Tales)
A long alliterative poem.
Three Versions:
a) the shortest: 2587 lines (1362-63)
b) A three-times longer version. 7242 lines. Allusions to the political
crisis of 1376-82, the Peasants Revolt.
Syntax and sounds affected by the context and intertextuality,
therefore, changing semantics.
c) Revision of B but little longer. 7357 lines
Additions are compensated for by omissions.
Wandering in the Malvern Hills, the poet sees a vision of a high tower (Truth),
a deep dungeon (Wrong) and a fair field full of folk (the Earth) between.
There follows a vision in which Ladies Meed (bribery), Reason, Conscience
and other abstractions are confronted.
Then we have Conscience preaching to the people and Repentance moving
their hearts, the confession of the Seven Deadly Sins and a thousand of men moved to
seek Truth.
Here, Piers the Plowman makes his appearance on offers to guide the pilgrims
if they will help him plough his half-acre. Some help him, but some are shirkers.
Then follows a discussion of the labour problem of the day. This takes us to the
end of passus VIII
With passus IX the poem passes to a search of Do-well, Do-bet and Do-
best who are vainly looked for among the friars, the priests and in the scripture, with
the help of Thought, Wit and Study. All three (friars, priests ans scriptures) prove vain.
The additions contained in B and C are too incoherent to be easily summarized.
Their author is specially concerned with the corruption on the church and with
the merits of poverty.
The Seven new Visions include:
- a long disquisition on wealth and learning
- a theological discussion between Reason, Conscience, Clergy and a
doctor of Divinity.
- a conversation between Patience and Activa-vita, the humble worker.
- narratives of Christs life in which Christ and Piers blend into the other
 - the attack of Antichrist and Pride upon the house Unity and of Death
upon Mankind
The World was supposed to have 6 eras, beginning the 6th one with the birth of
Christ and ending with the coming of Antichrist. A 7th era could be possible with the 2nd
coming of the Christ.
Castle Perseverance (human soul) is sieged by the Seven Deadly Sins and
protected by the 7 Virtues.

Late 14th century NW Midland

The Pearl
A lyric poem of a character at once elegiac, mystical and allegorical, cast in a
very refined and complicated artistic mode.
An alliterative poem in twelve-lined octosyllabic stanzas
Pearl is the authors daughter, an only child, whom he has lost when she was
less than 2 years old.
Wandering, disconsolate, in the garden where she is buried, he has a vision of a
river beyond of which lies Paradise
Here he sees a maiden seated in whom he recognizes his daughter grown to
maturity.
She upbraids him for his excessive grief, and explains her blessed state.
He strives to join her and plunges into the river, and awakes from his trance,
comforted and resigned to his lost.
The Pearl is important in the way that it gives entry for many words into
English (mainly about geology).

Late 14th century NW Midland

Patience
An alliterative poem of 500 lines, of which the story of Jonah is the subject.
Attributed to the same author as Pearl, Cleanness and Sir Gawain and the
Green Knight
Jonah was devoured by Leviathan (/levaiaan/) and returned to life in 3 days

Late 14th century NW Midland

Cleanness
An alliterative poem of 1800 lines, exalting purity and delights of lawful love

Late 14th century NW Midland

Sir Gawaine and the Grene Knight
Although the first writings about Arthur are made in England and in Latin, the
legend is born before in France.
Alliterative verse. The jewel of Middle English literature
By its variety, the beauty of its descriptions, the balance of the composition, its
worked out dramatic progress, the richness and precision of the diction, the intricate
delicacy of the dialogues it is the work of a consummate artist.

14th 15th century

Saint Erkenwald
An alliterative poem written in Cheshire
The poem tells a miracle by saint Erkenwald, bishop of London in the 7th cent.
Theological questions
14th century. C1340.
The Harley Lyrics
A scribe compiled a wide-range anthology of texts in Latin, French and English
Probably it was the writer himself that wrote the poems
Religious and secular. Tradition of troubadours

Northern Dialect

Late 13th century

Cursor Mundi (The Course of the World)
Thick as a brick
Some 30,000 lines!! Many of them in eight syllabic couplets
The long poem recounts with many different divagations- the Bible history
from the Creation onwards
The (unknown) author shows skill in popularizing religious instruction. Perhaps
he was a secular priest?
Many copies survive.

1300-1349: Richard Rolle of Hampole

Fr. Fr? Eng
He mentions Aristotle for the first time on many centuries
Richard Rolle is the greatest mystic and writer of mystical devotions of 14 th
century England
During his lifetime, especially after his death, he exercised a very wide
influence which the considerable number of manuscripts of his work bears witness to.
The Bee and the Stork
His prose, strongly rhythmical, melodious, puts him in long line of great
religious writers.

14th century
The Towneley Plays
Mystery plays or Craft gild plays: pieces cast in a popular mode that retells
the stories of the two testaments, Old and New.
The History of Noah (the first drunkard), Adam and Eve, the Passion of
Christ...
Performed by the various gilds during the liturgical feast days.
Preserved in one MS, containing 32 plays.

1330-1352. Lawrence Minot (dead when only 22)

Minot is known because he mentions himself twice in the Eleven political
Poems on the wars of Edward III that we have by him
yet nothing about him is known
He sings the victories of Edward III over the Scots and the French

1320-1395. John Barbour

The Bruce
 Primitive Style
A long narrative poem of 13,549 lines in octosyllabic rhymed couplets divided
into 20 blocks.
The poem deals with Robert Bruce (1274-1329), the nationalistic champion of
Scotland, hero of the battle of Bannockburn (1314), in which the English were defeated.
Scotland will be independent up to the times of Queen Anne.
The frontier of Scotland has been the same since the 10th century. In southern
Scotland, English has been spoken since then.

14th century
Alliterative Morte Arthure
Taken out mainly from Geoffrey of Monmouths Histori Regum Brittani
and Lawman, the author takes up part of the Arthur legend, which is treated in epic
style.
Original developments: the Grief of Guinevere at Arthurs departure, the
elaboration of Arthurs dream.

Late 14th century

The York Play of the Crucifixion
1465-1477: the text of 45 plays was written down so as:
- The Fall of the Angels
- The Last Judgement
- The Life of Christ.
 MIDDLE ENGLISH: A PERIOD OF GREAT CHANGE

Declensions are lost since they are unnecessary. It is preferred to use the word order.
New sounds
Introduction of lots and lots of new words.

1150-1500: Changes more extensive and fundamental than those that have taken place
at any time before or since.
Result of the Norman Conquest and the conditions that followed.
The grammatical gender falls in benefit of a natural gender. (+ with French)
Control of the island passes through to French hands by Force. Military control.
(Abbots, Nobles, Monks, Merchants all of them were French)
They Bring gothic architecture, cavalry they learn English archery.
3 languages (French, English, Latin) at time
- French (Norman upper and middle classes in everyday use; some
English men interacting with Normans)
- English (spoken by common people on all occasions, also by Norman
middle classes and sporadically by members of upper classes)
- Latin. After 1080, Latin replaced English in legal documents. The first
laws in French appeared c1140. Latin was also used in culture.
The Norman Conquest removed from England some conservative influences
that are felt when a language is extensively used in books and is spoken by an
influential educated class. E.g.: the -s plural is easy and useful, it replaces OE.
English, a highly inflected language was reduced to a extremely analytic one.
Addition of thousands words from French and Latin
If the word is a train, being the root as the engine, the inflectional endings are
the final wagon, bearing all semantic loading. This last syllable falls and the
meaning is worked in other ways (word order)

DECAY OF INFLECTIONAL ENDINGS

Ending of the noun and adjective marking distinctions of number and case (and
often of gender) were SO ALTERED in pronunciation as to lose their distinctive forms
and, hence, their usefulness.
To some extent the same thing is true for the verb
This levelling of inflectional endings was due partly to phonetic changes, partly
to the operation of analogy.
The phonetic changes were simple but far-reaching. The earliest seems to have
been: Dative in -m >> -n
Plural of nouns and adjectives and in the dative singular -masculine and neuter-
of adjectives inflected according to the Strong Declension
muum >> muun godum >> godun
When declensions began to be unnecessary e, o, u, a in inflectional
endings were obscured to a sound which came to be written e (and less often i, y
or u), depending on the place and time (and even on the author). A chaos.
SOUND CHANGES

Short vowels

>> i
Scip > schip(p)e witan > wyte(n)
BUT riht > right/ riht/ richt
/iht/ > /it/ > (~14th cent) /i:t/ > rht >> /ait/

^y >> - N and E Midland: i OE lyft > ME lift > PdE left

- SE (Kent): e OE lyft > ME left
- SW and W Midland /y/ OE lyft > ME luft / lft

>> e
betera > beter

>> a
mgden > maiden dg > day t > at / et > that

>> a
gangan > gan faran > fare nacod > naked / nakit

>> u
hungor > hunger / hungre / hungr

>> o
borgian > borwe(n) > borrow folgian > folwe > follow folc > folc

Long vowels

i: >> i: OE ME PdE
min > mi / myn >> mine /main/
swin > swin / swyn / zuin >> swine /swain/ (cerda)

y: >> N and E Midland > i: fyr > fir/fyr

SE (Kent) > e: fyr > fer / fier / feer
SW and W Midland >: fyr > fur / fr

e: >> e:
deman > deme(n) >> deem (estimate, judgement, doom)
fet > fete /feete / feytt

: >> e:
s > see / se >> sea
dlon > dele(n) >> deal (fragment, split, segment)
hlan > hele(n) >> heal

a: >> o:
cnawan > knowe(n) > know hwa > huo/ wo/ hwo > who
ham > hom(e) / hoom
 o: >> o:
don > do(n) / doon >> do
rod > rod(e) >> rod
gos > goos >> goose

u: >> u: (pero escrita al estilo francs)

mus > mous /mu:s/
su > sou(e) / south(e)

New(?) Diphthongs

Maybe they were already formed but not officially

Previous OE diphthongs: e, e, e, e, i, i

/ai/ (written: ai / ay / ei / ey)

- +g: mgden > maiden
- e+g segl > seil >> sail
regn > rein/ rain / reyn >> rain
- e(a)h neah(ge)bur > nebore / neighbour
- : +g clg > clei / clai / clay >> clay

/au/ (written: au)

- a+w awal / awel > awl / aul(e) >> owl
- a+f (/v/) hafoc > hawk / haweke / hauk >> haowk /ho:k/ (untrained falcon)
- a+g/+[vowel] dragan > drae(n) / drawe(n) >> draw /dro:/
sagu > sawe / saw >> saw /so:/
- /ea + h/ht seah > sawh / saugh / saw >> saw /so:/
hleahtor > later / laghter >> laughter /lo:ft/

/ou/ (written ou)

- + h/ht bohte > boghte > bouhte > bought /bo:t/
- + ht broht > brote/broght >> brought /bro:t/
oht > oght(e) > thought(e)/ thoucht>> thought /o:t/

/u/ almost /au/

- w cnawan > knawe(n) / knowe(n) >> know
- + /g aan > owen / oun(e) >> own
- g boga > bough / bowgh / bowe / bow >> bow
flogen > flowe(n) / flown >> flown
- w growan > growe(n) / grove(n) / grow >> grow

/eu/
- w slw > slewe / sleuth / sleue >> sloth
- eaw deaw > dew / deu >> dew
sceawian > schew(n) >> shew (show)
- ef (/ev/) efeta > evete > ewte > ewt /iu:t/
(salamandra/ tritn) (tritn)
 /iu/
- ow eow > ew/ eu / yw/ yuw >> you
- w stiw(e)ard > stiward / styward > steward

/oi/ (it is not an evolution, it is a pure introduction)

point, boil, boy, voice, toy, poison

Vowel Shortenings

a) Before two consonants:

wfman > wmman >< woman bls > bliss >> bliss
(masculine, female person)
b) Before three consonants:
gd-spell > gdspell > gospel
cld > chyldren > children *

Vowel Lenghtening
Mainly in the 1st half of the 13th century, due to the re-conquest, growing Franciscanism,
and restoring of Aristotle. It was the beginning of a time of changes, more modern.
There is a black box problem, we can see the results, but frequently, not the process.

> e:
tan > te(n) >> eat /i:t/
brekan > brken > break

> a:
faran > fare(n) >> fare /fea/
nacod > naked / naked >> naked

Reduction of Diphthongs

ea > > a
sceadu > scdu > schadde / schadewe >> shadow

eo/io > oe > e / y

meolc > moelc > melk / mylk /milc >> milk (/milk/ or /melk/)
heorte > hoerte > herte >> heart

ie > i
fiellan > fillan > fylle() / vylle(n) >> fill

a > > e
sceap > scp > shp(e) / ssp >> sheep
heafod >> hfod > hefed / heved / heed(e) >> head

o/o > oe > e:

deofol > doefel > devel >> devil

e > > i:
hieh > nih > ny / ny > neigh
THE NOUN

The complexity of OE inflections can be seen in these three examples:

Masculine in a Femenine in o Masculine in [consonant]
N stan stanas giefu giefa hunta huntan (same as oaxen or the
Ac stan stanas giefe giefa huntan huntan fake children)
G stanes stanas giefe giefa huntan huntena
D stane stanum giefe giefum huntan huntum
Strong Declension Weak Declension
It will be SEVERELY reduced

N stan stanes
Ac stan stanes
G stanes stanes
D stane stanes

Only three forms: Stan, stane stanes.

Later, the e for the Dative will be extended to Nominative and Accusative
singulars

N stane stanes mu > mouth(e) > mouth

Ac stane stanes hus > house
G stanes stanes mus > mouse
D srane stanes

The -s came to be thought of as the sign of the plural and was extended to all
plural forms
Other declensions suffered more so that in many words (giefu, sunu) yhe
distinction of case and number were completely destroyed / obliterated / annihilated.

Gifu > gift (Viking)

Gifan (give) -> gifu (given) = gift (in meaning, not as an evolution)

In Early ME only two methods of indicating the plural remained distinctive.

a) the (-e)-s from Strong Declension
b) the -en (as in oxen, children, brethren) from the Weak Declension
c) if it is to be a third method, it is the absence of desinence
boc > bec fot > fet
Until the 13th century the -en plural enjoyed great favour in the South. What
is more, -en was often added to nouns which had not belonged to the Weak
Declension in OE. E.g. cld > cildru but =>children
BUT, in the rest of England the -s for plural and Genitive singular (or Saxon
Genitive) was apparently felt so distinctive useful- that it spread rapidly. This took
place mainly in the North.
By 1200, the -s was the standard plural (and genitive singular) in the North
and north Midland areas. Other forms were exceptional.
By 1256 it had conquered the rest of the Midlands. In the course of the 14 th
century it had been accepted all over England as the normal sign of plural in nouns.
Story of the two sailors (see Curiosities)
 There are exceptions. In the 16th century, in the south, they still used non-viking
rd
3 person plural pronouns (hie, hiora)
This spread of -s plural may have been helped by the use of -s throughout
the Anglo-Norman period.
However, some root in plosive plurals (minor declensions) will survive as
some irregular verbs would.
Singular Plural PdE Singular Plural PdE
Fot Fet Feet To Te Teeth
Man(n) Men(n) Men Boc Bec Books*
Gos Ges Geese Lus Lys Liece
Mus Mys Mice (and some others)
*= Bec suffered another change in Late Middle English

There were another exceptions in the South that were regularized later.
OE Sing OE Plural Middle E (South) PdE
g gru >> Eyren >> Eggs
Cealf Cealfru >> (Many forms) >> Calves (ternera viva)
Cild Cildru >> (see uriosities) >> Children

THE ADJECTIVE

In OE the form of the adjectives depended on how it was used, not on the type of noun:
- Strong: the adjective stands alone
The Strong Form (The adjective stands alone or only with a noun)(se mann is eald / ealde menn)
Singular Plural
Til Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative Til_ TilU Til_ TilE TilE/A TilU
Accusative TilNE TilE Til_ TilE TilE/A TilU
Genitive TilES TilRE TilES TilRA
Dative TilUM TilRE TilUM TilUM
Instrumental TilE - TilE -

- Weak: the adjective follows a demonstrative or a possessive

The Weak Form (The adjective follows a determinant) (se ealda mann)
Singular Plural
Til Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative TilA TilE TilAN
Accusative TilAN TilE TilAN
Genitive TilAN TilRA/RENA
Dative TilAN TilUM

In ME all of this will disappear

At first, all these inflection will be severely reduced.

Indeed, morphemic simplification in ME adjective is even more dramatic than
in the case of the noun for the adjective maintains only one inflectional vestige from
OE: the final -e.
 This morphemic relic is added to the adjective that ends other than -e in order
to form the plural, the weak form or some datives.
On the other hand, the form of the N singular was early extended to all cases of
singular, both in Strong and Weak Declensions.
ME adjectives can be grouped in two declensions
a) those not ending with an unstressed -e
b) those ending with an unstressed -e
Even this will disappear with time.
The whole form of the adjective appears after a possessive or a demonstrative
or the article, and in the vocative case.
If the adjective follows the noun without the repetition of the demonstrative or
the definite article, then it is uninflected.

1st declension:

Strong
Sing. (any case) wis mani litel fre

Plural (any case) wise mani litel fre

manie litle
manie
Weak
Sing. and Plural wise mani(e) litel fre

2nd declension:

Strong Weak
Sing. grene Singular and Plural: Grene
Plural grene

No longer distinction between singular and plural, both end in -e.

About 1250 the strong declension had distinctive forms from the Singular and
Plural only in monosyllabic adjectives which ended in OE in [consonant]
Although the southern dialect reveals an archaic -es genitive singular and
maintains a rather rigid distinction between strong and weak forms of adjectives, the
northern dialect tends to drop even the final -e and achieve a merge of the two
declensions.
Indeed the only ending which remained to the adjective was often with a
distinctive grammatical meaning, but its use was not ruled by any strong sense of
declension and will disappear too.
When, in the 14th century, the final -e ceased to be pronounced, it became a
mere feature of spelling.
Loan words from Old French that enter into some classes corresponding to ME
adjectives will receive similar inflections. That is:
- a) borrowed adjectives not ending in a vowel form their plurals on weak -e
- b) polysyllabic adjectives that have experienced the shift of Germanic accent
to the first syllable stay uninflected.
A similar simplicity prevails in both the comparative and superlative forms:
omparative: -re or -er Superlative: -est
Later, this will be restricted only to short adjectives.
 During the ME the OE adverbs more and most emerge as the comparative
and superlative modifier of polysyllabic adjectives, but only sometimes.
Thus, except for a few archaic survivals, the adjective became an uninflected
word by the closing of the ME period.
Today, we have what we may consider a kind of inflected adjective in
combinations such as men students and women patrons

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

1st person 2nd person

Singular Plural Singular Plural
Subject ich, ic, ik, I, y we u, thou, tou e, ge
Object me us, ous e, thee, te eu, ou, ow, ou, you

3rd person
Singular Plural
Masculine Neuter Feminine North Midlands South
Subject he, hee, hit, it, a heo, hue, ho, ai, ay, ei, e hy, heo,
ha, a he, ha, hi. thaiy ho, he, ha,
ho, cho, seho, a
sche, she
Obj. Acc. hine, him hit, it hire, hir, hure aim, heom, hi, hise,
thaim, hem his, hes,
thame. hies, es
Obj. Dat. him him heom,
hem, hm,
ham
Scandinavian Native
Forms Forms

Evolution of OE Pronouns

Ic >> a) North: Ik z) 14th century and then on: I / y

b) Centre and south: Ich

u >> a) N: thou / ou - seistou / seistu = you say

b) C & S: u - wy seiste so? = why do you say so?
th
z) 13 century on: e / ye (polite plural)

eow >> a) eu / ou G: eure / oure

b) ou / you / ow G: oure / youre>> ? eow > eow > iow > yow
? e > ye
he >> a) he (Strong)
b) ha / a (weak) sometimes e
Dative: him instead of acc hin(c) (12th century). General use in 15th century.
heo >> a) Strong in the Centre and SW he (= e, ghe, hye, hue)
ho (= o, ho, hyo)
b) Weak in the Centre and SW ha / a
c) sche ( = schee, se, sse)
scho ( = sso)
? OE seo / sio >> ME sjo / sje >> she
? heo + seo >> sheo >> she

hi(e) & heo >> hi / hy ; heo / he / ho; he / a Acc: hise, hies, his, hes (until 14th c.)

BUT:
Scandinavian ai / ay / ei > thai / they
Thaim / aim > them

VERBS

Strong Verbs that became Weak

Class I
glidan glad glidon gliden >> glide, glided
scinan scan scinan scinen >> shine, shined (to shine, to polish something)

Class II
bugan beah bugon bogen >> bow, bowed
leosan leas luron geloren>> lose
fleon fleagh flugon flogen >> flee, fled
scufansceaf scufon scofen >> shove, shoved (push)
dufan, deaf dufon dofen >> dive, dived

Class III
byrnan, barn, burnon, burnen >> burn, burnt /burned
climban, clamb, clumbon, clumben >> climb, climbed
meltan, mealt, multon, molten >> melt, molten / melted
helpan, healp, hulpon, holpen >> help, helped
mornan, mearn, murnon, mornen >> mourn, mourned
breowan, breaw, bruwon, browen >> brew, brewed

Class IV
steppan, stop, stopon, stapen >> step, stepped
hladan, hold, hlodon, hladen >> load, loaded

(No cases in classes V and VI)

Class VII
flowan, fleeow, fleowan, geflowen >> flow, flowed
rowan, reow, reowon, gerowen >> row, rowed
wepan, weop, weopon, gewopen >> weep, wept
slpan, sleop, sleopon, selopen >> sleep slept
 wealcan, weolk, weolcon, gewealcen >> walk, walked
fealdan, feold, feoldan, gefealden >> fold, folden
healdan, heold, heoldon, gehealden >> hold, held
hleopan, hleop, hleopon, gehleapen >> leap, leapt

Loses among Strong Verbs

Class I: OFF
fletan, flat, fliton, fliten >> contend
gewitan - - - >> go
lian, la, lidon, liden >> go
scrian, - - - >> go
hrinan - - - >> touch
ON
bitan >> bite, bit, bitten
writan>> write, wrote, written
ridan >> ride, rode, ridden
scinan >> shine, shone, shone
risan >> rise, rose, risen

Class II: OFF

beodan, beod, budon, boden >> command
seoan, sea, sudon, soden >> boil
brucan, breac, brucon, brocen >> enjoy
hreosan, hreah, hrugon, hrogen >> fall
teon, teah, tugon, togen >> draw
ON
ceosan >> choose, chose, chosen
freosan >> freeze, froze, frozen

Class III: OFF

beorgan, bearg, burgon, borgen >> protect
hweorfan - - - >> go
weorpan - - - >> throw
belgan - - - >> be angry
sweltan - - - >> die
gielpan - - - >> boast
winan - - - >> fight
gilimpan, lamp, lompon, lumpon >> happen
swincan - - - >> toil
fringan, frgn, frugnon, frugnen >> ask
ON
berstan > burst feohtan > fight swimman > swim
bindan > bend findan > find grindan > grind
drincan > drinc irnan > run

Class IV OFF
helan, hl, hlon, holen >> hide
scieran, scear, scearon, scoren >> cut
niman, nam/nom, namon/nomon, numen >> take
 ON
beran > bear teran > tear brecan > break
stelan > steal cumin > come

Class V OFF
cwean, cw, cwdon, cweden >> say
fretan - - - >> devour
genesan, gens, genson, genesen >> survive
ongietan, ongeat, ongeaton, ongieten > perceive.
ON
etan > eat metan > measure sprecan/specan > speak sittan > sit
tredan > tread, trod, trodden wefan > weave, wove, woven
giefan > give biddan > abide licgan > lie, lay, lain ( lied, lied)
seon > see

Class VI OFF
faran, for, foron, faren >> go (but survives in farewell)
galan - - - >> sing (but survives in nightingale)
hebban, hof, hofon, hafen >> lift / rise
scieppan, scop, scopon, scapen > create, make (but survives as shape)
ON
standan > stand, stood, stood
swerian > swear, swore, sworn
slean > slay, slew, slain

Class VII OFF

spowan, speow, speowan, spowen >> succeed
wealdan - - - >> rule
weallan - - - >> boil (but survives as well, noun)
weaxan, weox, weoxon, weaxen >> grow, long lasting (vid. Beowulf)
hatan, het, heton, haten >> call, order
ON
blowan > blow cnawan > know mawan > mow sawan > saw
growan > grow beatan > beat hleapan > leap letan > let
heawan > hew (polish and work stones)

Irregular verbs

Class I Ved1 = Ved2 (2nd column = 3rd column)

Vowel identity in all the parts
1a.- All of them have a regular alternative, characteristic in American English.
dwell dwelt dwelt
burn burnt burnt
learn learnt learnt
smell smelt smelt
spell spelt spelt
spill spilt spilt
spoil spoilt spoilt (malcriar, estropear, saquear)
 1b.- bond bent bent 1c.- have had had
build built built make made made
lend lent lent
rend rent rent
send sent sent
spend spent spent

Class II Ved1 = Ved2

There is change in the base vowel
* = optional regular form
2a.- mean meant 2b.- (they used to be regular)
leave left beseech besought
bereave bereft* bring brought
cleave cleft buy bought
creep crept seek sought
deal dealt catch caught
dream dreamt* teach taught
shine shone* think thought
flee fled
keep kept 2c.- lose lost
kneel knelt* sell sold
lean leant* (apoyarse) tell told
leap leapt* hear heard
sleep slept say said
sweep swept shoe shod* (herrar)
weep wept

Class III V = Ved1 = Ved2

No change of base vowel
Sample verbs: bet*, bid*, burst, cast, cost, hit, cut, hurt, knit*, let, put, quit*,
rid*, set, shed, shit, shut, slit, split, spread, sweat*, thrust, wed*, wet*

Class IV Ved1 = Ved2

Change of base vowel (similar to Class II)
4a.- bleed bled 4b.- cling clung
breed bred dig dug
feed fed fling flung
hold held hang hung ( if = execute, then *)
lead led sling slung
meet met slink slunk
read read spin spun
seed sped* stick stuck
strike struck (metaphorical is in 6c)
4c.- bind bound string strung
find found swing swung
grind ground win won
wind wound wring wrung

4d.- light lit* 4e.- sit sat

slide slid spit spat (or spit in AmE)
 4f.- get got (gotten, AmE meaning acquired, caused, come)
shine shone (when transitive, *)
shoot shot 4g.- fight fought

4h.- stand stood 4i.- stride strode

Class V Ved1 is regular, Ved2 can be either regular or nasal

hew hewed hewn
mow mowed mown
saw sawed sawn
sew sewed sewn
shear sheared shorn
sow sowed sown
strew strewed strewn
swell swelled swollen swallow

Class VI Ved1 and Ved2 have the same base vowel

6a.- break broke broken
choose chose chosen
freeze froze frozen
speak spoke spoken
steal stole stolen
wake woke woken* 6c.- bite bit bitten
awake awoke awoken* hide hid hidden/hid
weave wove woven

6b.- bear bore borne 6d.- forgot forgot forgotten

swear swore sworn tread trod trodden
tear tore torn beget begot begotten
wear wore worn

Class VII Always vowel change

shrink shrank shrunk
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
spring sprang sprung
stink stank stunk

THE LOSS OG GRAMMATICAL GENDER

It is a result of the decay of the inflections

The present day method of determining gender was not a sudden invention of
ModE (see lfrics mistake in Curiosities). The recognition of sex which lies at the
root of natural gender is shown in OE by the tendency to use personal pronouns un
accordance to natural gender even when such use involved a clear conflict with the
grammatical gender of the antecedents.
 The gender of OE nouns was not often determined by meaning. Indeed,
sometimes it was in contradiction with the meaning.
- wifman (woman) was masculine
- cild was neuter (and it was used for boys)
The gender of nouns in OE was not so indicated by the declension but, by the concord
of adjectives and the demonstratives. These by their distinctive endings- showed at
least in singular whether a noun was masculine, feminine or neuter.
When the inflections of these gender-distinguishing words (demonstratives and
adjectives) were reduced to a single ending for the adjective, and the, this, that, these
and those were fixed for demonstratives, the support for grammatical gender was
removed. It was unnecessary.
In the North, the inflections weakened earliest and grammatical gender
disappeared first. In the South, the decay of inflections was much slower, thus
grammatical gender lingered longer.

GRAMMATICAL CHANGE AND THE NORMAN CONQUEST

Languages borrow words but do not borrow their grammar from other
languages. For instance, Spanish borrows Arabic words as berenjena, acequia,
Almazora but not Arabic grammatical features.
The changes which affected the grammatical structure of English after the
Norman Conquest were not the result of contact with the French language. Certain
idioms and syntactical usages that appear in Middle English are the result of such
contact, but the decay of inflections and the confusion of forms that constitute the
significant development in the ME grammar are the result of the Norman Conquest
ONLY so far as that event brought about conditions favourable to such changes. It is an
indirect consequence, if you want to consider it so.
By making English the language mainly of uneducated people, the Norman
Conquest made easier for grammatical changes to go on unchecked and unleashed from
many written rules.

FRENCH INFLUENCE ON VOCABULARY

More than 50% of the English Language today is French. The loss of the
inflections and the ease of English grammar are indirectly due to the use of French in
England. French influence is mucho more direct and observable in vocabulary.
It is a transference inevitable (that is inevitable) when two language exist side by
side for a long time. A number of English words found their way into the French spoken
in England but the number of French words that poured into English was unbelievably
great. There is nothing comparable to it in the previous or subsequent history of the
language.
Victory of William I the Conqueror > political and social consequences: the
influx was neither sudden nor immediately apparent. It began slowly and continued with
varying tempo for a long time. Two main stages can be seen with year 1250 as the
dividing line:
a) Before 1250:
a. Less numerous
b. Popular (messenger, servant, noble)
c. Associated with the Church (angle, church, candle)
 b) After 1250:
a. The moment of highest politic opposition between England
and France is the time with the highest number of French
borrowings in English.
b. Government, administration, ecclesiastical, military, fachion,
food, arts, learning

Governmental and administrative words:

- Manor, bailiff, vassal, homage, peasant, slave, servant, caitiff

- Noble, nobility, peer, prince, princess, duke, dichess, count, countess, marquis,
marchioness, baron, square, page, sir, madam, mistress.
- Coroner, constable (agent), warden, viscount, minister
Some titles ascend through time: kid (lamb >> boy); knight (servant >> cavalier)
Others decay through time: ealdorman (noble >> elder, counsellor)
- Councillor, governor, marshal, chamberlain, treasure, chancellor.
- Crown, state, realm, empire, reign, royal
- Prerogative, authority, sovereign, majesty, sceptre
- Tyrant, usurp, oppress, court, council, treaty, parliament, truce, assembly,
statute, alliance, subject, rebel, traitor, treason, exile, public, liberty.

Ecclesiastical words:

In monasteries and religious houses French was for a long time main language:
- Monastery, monk, nun, abbey, abbot, deacon
- Religion, theology, sermon, homily, baptism, sacrament, communion,
confession, penance, prayer, lesson, passion (comes from Greek clergy, clerk,
prelate, cardinal, legate, dean, parson (prroco), vicar, abbess, novice, friar, hermit
- Creator, trinity (OE rynness), saviour, virgin, saint, miracle, patriarch (OE
heah fer), mystery, faith, heretic, schism, reverence, devotion, sacrilege, temptation,
simony, damnation, penitence, contrition, absolution, salvation, immortality.
- Piety, sanctity, charity, mercy, pity, obedience, virtue
- Solemn, divine, devout, reverend
- Pray, preach, chant, repent, confess, adore, sacrifice, convert, anoint (ungir,
untar), ordain

Law words: (Law comes from Scandinavian. Dane law)

- Justice, equity (OE gorihte), judgement (OE dom > doom), crime (delito) (OE
synn, gylt, undd)
- Judge, judgement, complaint, jury, evidence, verdict, decree, fine (multa),
punishment, prison, pillory (cepo), etc

- Demands were made for the leader of the sect to be barred from Britain
(comes from the punishment bars in ships, it means extradited)
- This was no bar to anyone who wanted to emigrate (ban, impediment)
- Prisoner at the bar (accused in a court)
- To be Behind bars (entre rejas)
- I dont belong to the bar, I am not a barrister (abogado) (The Bar is used to
refer to the profession of a barrister in England, or any kind of lawyer in the US)
 - Plea: the answer which someone charged with a crime makes to the charge in a
court of law. (Sp. alegato) It is a polysemic word:
I would enter a plea of guilty if the Crown would drop the charge against my friend
Justification: Our plea of national poverty rings a little hollow
The court established that the plaintiff had not received medical treatment (the one
who begins the plea, the complaintive. Demandante).
She was faced with the difficult task of pleading for a defendant(Fr) obviously guilty
We discussed the process of the suit (case) and the legal fight to prevent extradition
Types of Lawyer:
- Advocate/barrister. A person, especially lawyer, who acts in favour of someone
or defends him or her in a court of law
- Attorney/representative: a person who acts for someone in a legal matter. AmE.
-Prosecutor/plaintiff: lawyer that tries to prove the person on trial is guilty. AmE.
- Bill (highly polysemic): A formal statement of a proposal for a new law.

Art and Architecture words:

- Sculpture, paint, picture, art ( ME thou art, that is PdE you are from OE
u eart), music, beauty, colour, figure, image, tone
- Cathedral, palace, mansion, tower, chamber, ceiling, cellar, chimney, pinnacle,
turret, porch, cloister, baptistery, column, pillar, garrison (guarnicin), joist (OE rod,
PdE Beam, Sp viga)
- Garret (14th cent: turret, watch-tower; 15th cent: attic room; 20th cent: penthouse
that is very cheap for rent.) (comes through French from German)
- Lintel (Sp. dintel, Val. llindar, Fr. linteau).
- Lattice (structure made of laths used as a screen. Celosa

Literature and Learning

- Poet (Gr), rhyme, rime, prose, romance, lay (Sp. lego, Sp. Endecha,
moan), story, chronicle (Gr), tragedy (Gr), Prologue (Gr), Preface (Lat.), title, chapter,
volume, quire (book of parchment), parchment (~scroll), vellum (Sp. vitela), paper
(Eg.), pen (feather), pencil (brush).
- Compilation, treatise, study, logic (Gr), Geometry (Gr), Glamour /glama:/,
grammar /grama:/, grimoire, noun, clause, gender, to copy, to expound, to compile
Grammar, Glamour and Grimoire, come all from the Greek ,
meaning rules and savoir faire)

Medicine Words:

Among the sciences, medicine has brought in the largest number of French
words still in common use.
- Surgeon, malady, debility, pain, ague (Lat Acuta, very high fever), palsy
(paralysis), gout (Sp. gota), jaundice (from Fr jeune meaning yellow; Sp.
ictericia), leper, leprous, paralytic, plague, pestilence, contagion, anatomy (Gr),
stomach ( Gr meaning mouth), remedy, ointment, balm, pellet (Sp.
perdign or pastilla), arsenic, poison
 Army and Navy words:

- Army, enemy, arm (melee weapon), battle, skirmish, siege, defense, ambish,
stratagem (Gr , general), retreat, soldier, garrison, guard (Ger), spy
- Captain, lieutenant /leftenant/, sergeant
- Dart, lance, banner, mail (not like in post mail, but in ring mail), barbican
(Ar) (Sp. torre barbicana, annexed tower at a corner of a stronghold from which you
can cover a great angle, usually 270; se the Kings Tower at Oropesa)

Fashion, Meals and Social life words:

- Gown (bata), fashion, dress, robe, garment, cloak, coat (also when used when
talking about onions, lasagne), collar, button, boots
- Blue, brown, vermilion, scarlet (Ar), saffron (Ar)
- Jewel, ornament, ivory (Val. ivori), enamel (Sp esmalte), emerald,
turquoise, ruby, sapphire, pearl, diamond, crystal, coral, beryl.
- Dinner, supper, appetite, taste, feast, banquet /bankwet/, famine
- Mackerel (Sp. lenguado), salmon, sardine, oyster
- Mutton (sheep, lamb), pork (pig), bacon (pig), beef (cow), veal, venison
- Sausage, pigeon
- Sugar, toast, biscuit (Lat Bi cocto), cream, salad, lettuce, almonds (Ar), fruit,
raisin, fig, orange, lemon, tart, jelly
- Spice, thyme (Val. Tim), herb, condiment, carob (not clearly Fr) (Sp.
algarroba)
- Mustard, vinegar, cinnamon, nutmeg (Sp. nuez moscada)
- Curtain, couch, chair, cushion, scream, lamp, lantern, blanket, towel
- Leisure (Sp. asueto), dance, carol, minstrel, melody (Gr), music, chess (Ar),
conversation
Types of horse: ambler (de tiro), courser (de carreras), hackney (with speed
and stamina, mix of Spanish and Arabic horses), rouncy (rocn), stallion.
More types, not coming from French: steed (corcel), colt (potro), mare (yegua)
- rein, curb (grab the reins), trot, stable, harness, terrier (close to the earth),
falcon, partridge (perdiz), forest, park, joust, tournament, pavilion

These words are enough to show how much the English vocabulary owes French in
matters of domestic and social life.

WORDS ALREADY ACTIVE C.1300

a) (nouns): action, business, calendar, city, country, crocodile (Gr), dozen, error,
face, fame, grain, harlot, joy, malice, manner, poverty, substance, season, sphere
(Gr), waste
b) (adjectives): able, blank, brief, common, contrary, cruel, double, final, foreign,
gentle, horrible, large, original, natural, nice, poor, precious, principal, probable,
rude
c) (verbs): wait, tremble, suppose, refuse, purify, observe, move, marry, join,
flourish, excuse, enjoy, desire, defeat, declare, consider (Gr), complain, change,
carry, aim, advance
 ANGLO-NORMAN V.S. CENTRAL FRENCH

In French, the s befor consonant, almost always disappears at the end of 12th century.
This means that words as those we will see now have been in English before the end of
the 12th century.
Old French Feste >> ME feste > ModE feast
>> ModFr fte

Castle > chteau Coast >cte Feast > fte Beast > bte
Hospital > hpital hostel > htel Forest > fort

In French, in 13th century, j and ch are smoothed. So these words were introduced
into English before that happened:

Judge /dad/ (Fr. juge /a/) Chant /ta:nt/ (Fr: chant /a:n/)
- Charge, change, chamber, chase, chair, chime, just, jewel, journey, majesty, gentle

In the same way, these words entered English after this:

Chamois /mwa:/ (gamuza) Chaperon /perun/ (carabina)
Chiffon /ifn/ (gasa) Chevrons /Sevrnz/ (galones)
Rouge /ru:/ (camn / colorete)

The word chivalry is an early borrowing and should be pronounced /t/, but it
suffered influence from the later entrance of chevalier from Modern Fr.

Police and ravine /rvi:n/ (barranco) where both the accent and the i are French.
If these words had been borrowed earlier, we should pronounce them as we do in nice
and wine.

Another cause of difference between English words and their French counterparts is the
fact the Anglo-Norman or Anglo-French spoken in England differed from the language
of Paris (Central French):

a) Initial ca- often was refined in AN, but it became cha- and chic- in CF.
AN: caitiff (cautivo) >> PdE caitiff
CF: chaitif
Same in carry, carriage, case (box), cauldron, carrion -> AN
Charrier, chaudron CF

b) In some cases, E has taken over the same words in both its AN and CF
different meanings
AN catel >> E cattle AN cachier >> E catch
CF chattel >> E chattel CF chasier >> E chase

c) CF showed an early distaste for the /w/ sound, both separately and in
combination with other consonants, but this sound is found in AN.
AN wicket >> E wicket AN waster >> E waste
CF guichet > Mod F CF gaster >> Mod F gte
Same in wasp-gupe, warrant-garantir, reward-rgarder
Wardrobe, wait, warden, wage, warren, wince (mucea)
 d) In the combination qu-, CF dropped the labial element.In AN it survived
E: quit, quarter, quality, question, require /kw/
F: quitter, quartier, qualit, question, requisit /k/

CURTAILMENT OF OLD ENGLISH PROCESSES OF DERIVATION

OE, like other indo-European languages, enlarged its vocabulary chiefly by a

liberal use of prefixes and suffixes and an easy power of combining elements into self-
explaining compounds.
In the centuries following the Norman Conquest, however, there is a VISIBLE
DECLINE in the use of these old methods of word-formation.

Prefixes and suffixes:

For- was often used to intensify the meaning of a verb or to add the idea of
something destructive, yet the only verbs in Modern English in which for- occurs are:
forbear, forbid, fordo, forget, forgo, forsake, forswear, and the past participle folorn.
To- has disappeared.
With- (against) gave a few new words in ME: withdraw, withhold, withstand
survive. Withsay (renounce), withspeak (contradict) and withset (resist) are dead.
Over- and Under- fell in disuse
On- (nowadays un-): unbind, undo, unfold, unwind, unfasten, uncover,
unwrap seem to owe its life to the association with un-, but Latin counter-,
dis-, re-, trans- gain terrain rapidly.
A similar decline is observable in the formative power of certain suffixes whiche
were widely used in OE. However, some important endings have remained in full force:
-ness, -ful, -less, -some, -ish
-lock (OE -lac) survives only in wedlock (to be born out of wedlock)
Manhood, womanhood, likelihood (OE -had) are new ME formations.
Boyhood and Girlhood were formed in the 18th century.
Many of the OE abstracts in -ship/-scip were lost: -ness was preferred.

Self-explaining compounds:

Leohtft (leoht ft, light vessel)

Eorcrft (eor crft, earth craft, geometry)
Fiscdeag (fisc deag, fish dye, purple)
Fotadl (fot adle, foot disease, gout)
Gimmwyrhta (gem worker, jeweller)
This practice was not abandoned in ME but often French words were borrowed instead.
Today self-explaining compounds are still formed: radio tube, four-wheel brakes,
oil.burner but the method is less universal than it once was because of the habits
introduced after the Norman Conquest.

Latin borrowings in ME:

- Less popular than French ones. They gain admission through th written language.
- The translation of Bartholomew Anglicus De propietaribus rerum by John of
Trevisa contains several hundreds.
- 14th and 15th centuries were really prolific in Latin borrowings
- Wycliffe is credited with more than 1000 Latin words not previously found in English
- Words retained in the system thanks to the Bible: subsequent translations bring
common use: allegory, frustrate, incarnate, include, incredible, individual, inferior,
legal, magnify, moderate, necessary, private, secular, summary, temporal, testify,
etcetera, law, medicine, theology, science, literature
-The important fact, but, was the pouring of many and fertile Latin adjective endings:
-able, -ible, -ent,- -al, -ous, -ive

Synonims at three levels:

ENGLISH FRENCH LATIN

Holy sacred consecrated
Fear terror trepidation
Fire flame conflagration
Fast firm secure
Goodness virtue probity
Ask question interrogate
Rise mount ascend

Words from the Low Countries (Flemish, Dutch and Low German):

- Flemish mercenaries fighting with the English forces.

- Woollen industry: English wool supplied Flemish and Dutch looms in Middle Ages
- Continental weavers settled down in England.
- A text dealing with the Peasants Revolt (1381) says:
Many fflemmynges lost here heeds and namely they that koude nat say breede and
ches but case and brode
(Many Flemish lost their heads and specially they that could not say bread and
cheese but case and brode)

At the end of the period:

Nap = cloth >> to take a nap (dormir la siesta), to be caught napping (con las
manos en la masa)
Duck = type of clothe Beleague = siege Furlough = military license.
Commodore = commodore Gin = gin gherkin = (pepinillo)
Dollar = dollar easel = (caballete) etching = (grabado)
Landscape = landscape deck (of a ship) bowsprit = (bauprs)
Boom = (botavara) lighter = (gabarra) Freight = Load
Rover = pirate / vagabond mart = market
In the USA:
Cruller = (buuelo) cookie = cookie cranberry = (arndano agrio)

Scandinavian Words:

Only a few: axle-tree (eje), band (faja, cenefa), bank (river shore), birth, boon
(favour, help), booth (fair stand), brink (edge of a glass or a cliff), bull (ox, bully), calf
(of a leg: pantorrilla), crook (curve, bend, staff. In the US: thief), dirt, guess, keel, kid,
leg, link, gap, loan, mire, race, reindeer, reef (pliegue de la vela), rift, root, scrab (costra,
esquirol), scales, scrap, seat, skill, skin, shirt, sky, slaughter, snare (lasso, trap), stack,
steak, swain (pretender), thrift (frugality), tidings, trust, want (lack), window
 Dialectal diversity in ME:

In the absence of any recognized literary standard before the one of the period,
writers wrote in the dialect of that part of the country to which they belonged.
Giraldus Cambriensis (12th cent) remarks that the language of the South
particularly Devonshire- was more archaic and seemed less agreeable than others.
William of Malmesbury (12th cent) complained of the harshness of the speech of
Yorkshire, saying that southerners could not understand it.
The author of Cursor Mundi notes that he found the story of the Assumption
of Our Lady in Southern English and turned it into his own dialect for Northern people
who could read no other English
Language differed almost from county to county, there were noticeable variations
The characteristic features of a given dialect do not cover all the same territory:
some extend into adjoining districts or may be characteristic of another dialects.

So, it is difficult to decide how many dialectal divisions should be recognized:

The Northern dialect extends as far south as the Humber does.
East and West Midlands cover the area between the Humber and the Thames
Southern occupies the district south of the Thames with Gloucestershire and Hereford
Kentish preserves individual features marking it off as a distinct variety than Southern.

Particular features:
a) Pronunciation b) Vocabulary c) Syntax

OE ending for the 3rd person plural present indicative was -th / - / -
ME: South: -eth (loveth) Midlands -en (loven) North -es (loves)

The present participle before the spread of -ing:

North: lovande Midlands: lovende North: lovinde
(Later, appears the Mercian -ing in the Midlands and the South)
Differences are deeper between north and the south, midlands tend to be an
intermediate.
N. (they, theis, them) Stane Hame
S. (hire, hure) Stone Home

Initial f and s were often voiced in the south to v and z.

N. for, from, fox, forsoe (forsooth) >> fox
S. vor, vrom, vox, vorzoe >> vixen

Ch in the S often corresponds to k in the North: bench/benk, church/kirk

Such variety lessens towards the end of the ME period by the general adoptions
of a standard written -and later spoken- English

The Rise of Standard English:

Towards the end of the 14th century, a written language emerged that in the
course of the 15th won general recognition. It was the East Midland Dialect that became
Standard, and more specifically the dialect of London.
It was a middle position between the extreme divergences of N and S:
for men of e est wi men of e west, as it were under the same partie of heuene,
acorde more in sownynge of speche an men of the nor wi men of e sou; erefore
it is that Mercii, at bee men of myddel Engelond, as it were parteners of e endes,
understonde better e side langages, Norene and Souerne, an Norene and
Souerne understonde eier oer. (John of Trevisa, c.1385)

The East Midland district was the largest and most populous of the major
dialectal areas. It also counted with the presence of Oxford and Cambridge universities.

The London English

London was and still is-:

- The political and commercial centre of England
- The seat of the Court
- The seat of the highest tribunals
- The focus of the social and intellectual activities of the country
To London were drawn those whose affairs took them beyond the limits of their
provincial homes:
- They brought trails of their local speech
- They took back with them the forms and usages of the great city.

London English took as well as gave. It began as Southern and ended as Midland
dialect.

By the 15th century there had come to prevail in the East Midlands a fairly uniform
dialect that the language of London agrees with it.