CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates not decomposable to simple sugars by hydrolysis.

All free monosaccharides are reducing carbohydrates
Monosaccharides used in the experiment:
Arabinose (aldopentose)
Glucose (aldohexose)
Fructose (ketohexose)
Galactose (aldohexose
ARABINOSE
a component of complex plant polysaccharides called gums &
found in the free state in the wood of coniferous trees (i.e.
evergreen trees or shrubs.
GLUCOSE
Also called grape sugar (because it is found in grapes and
dextrose (because it is dextrorotatory; referred to as blood sugar
FRUCTOSE
fruit sugar; sweetest-tasting of all the sugars
GALACTOSE
Also called cerebrose or brain sugar; found in cerebrosides
(glycolipids found primarily in the sheaths of nerve cells

Disaccharides
MALTOSE (glucose + glucose)
malt sugar
LACTOSE (glucose + galactose)
milk sugar
SUCROSE (glucose + fructose)
Table sugar
found in sugar cane, sugar maple and sugar beets
Polysaccharides
STARCH
Found in seeds, tubers, and roots of plants such as potatoes, corn,
and cassava.
Consists of two components:
Amylose not branched but helical in configuration
with a hollow core
Amylopectin highly branched due to the presence of
DEXTRINS
Partial hydrolytic products of starch.
Due to their shorter chains, dextrins are used in the preparation of
infant food and various food products such as corn syrup.
 Also used extensively as adhesives and binders.
GLYCOGEN
Used a storehouse (primarily in the liver and muscles of glycogen
in an animal system. CELLULOSE (COTTON
Most abundant organic compound on earth. Dry leaves contains
10-20% cellulose; wood, 50%; and cotton, 90%. The most
convenient laboratory source of pure cellulose is filter paper.
Cellulose is a linear polymer made up of glucose units.
AGAR-AGAR
structural polysaccharide which is found in red algae.
Used as a microbiological medium for bacteria culture and as a
component of cosmetic and pharmaceutical preparations.
Complete hydrolysis of agar-agar yields galactose.
INULIN
Storage polysaccharide found in the bulb of many plants such as
the Jerusalem artichoke, dahlia tubers, onions, and garlic.
Composed of D-fructose units and has a linear structure.
GUM-ARABIC
The dried water-soluble exudate from the stems of Acacia senegal
or related species.
A carbohydrate polymer, complex and highly branched; the central
core or nucleus is arabinose.
Used in pharmaceutical preparations, as adhesive, thickening
agent.

General test for A color test for sugar, which

carbohydrate condenses with alpha-naphthol
or thymol in the presence of
Molisch Test
strong sulfuric acid, which
converts the sugar to furfural
derivatives.
This test distinguishes
carbohydrates from non-
carbohydrates
A purple ring between the layers
(phase boundary) is indicative of
a carbohydrate.
Naphthol-(1) reacts with the
cyclic aldehydes to form purple
colored condensation products
(furfuryl-diphenyl-methane-
dyes)

Anthrone test The sulfuric acid hydrolyzes

bound
sugars and reacts with
 sugars to
yield furfural or furfural
derivatives.
A blue or green-colored
compound is produced.

Iodine Test for Carbohydrates used to differentiate helical

polysaccharides from non-helical
polysaccharides
Amylose which is not branched
but helical with a hollow core
can accommodate heavy iodine
atoms
Positive results give solution
with colors varying from blue,
purple, wine red, red, red-brown
to brown
The color differences are
apparently related to the extent
of coiling in the different
samples of glycogen
Positive result for starch and
dextrin
BENEDICTS TEST FOR REDUCING Alkaline solutions of copper are
SUGARS reduced by sugars having a free
aldehyde or ketone group, with
the formation of colored cuprous
oxide (Cu2O
The formation of a green, red, or
yellow precipitate is a positive
test for reducing sugars
Benedict's reagent is a solution
of copper sulfate, sodium
hydroxide, and tartaric acid.
The reaction reduces the blue
copper (II) ion to form a brick
red precipitate of Cu2O.
Sucrose is a nonreducing sugar
and does not react with
Benedict's reagent.

Barfoeds Test When time of heating and

concentration of sugar solutions
are controlled, Barfoeds test
will distinguish between
monosaccharides and reducing
disaccharides.
In acidic medium,
monosaccharides are more
easily oxidized than
disaccharides.
 Reactions:
Reducing monosaccharides are
oxidized by the copper ion in
solution to form a carboxylic
acid and a red precipitate of
copper (I) oxide within three
minutes.
positive test for:
Reducing
monosaccharides
Formation of a green, red, or
yellow precipitate is a positive
test for reducing
monosacharides within three
minutes.

Seliwanoffs test The test reagent dehydrates
ketohexoses to form 5-
hydroxymethylfurfural.
5-hydroxymethylfurfural further
reacts with resorcinol present in
Test for Ketoses the test reagent to produce a
red product within two minutes.
Red color with or without a
brown-red precipitate must be
observed after not more than 20
to 30 seconds of boiling.
Positive test for: fructose
ORCINOL TEST Involves the decomposition of
(Test for Pentoses sugars when heated with
concentrated HCl to a furfural
which then condenses with
orcinol ( 3,5-dihydroxytoluene)
to form blue- colored
compounds.
hexoses generally react to form
green, red, or brown products.

osazone Test for reducing sugars

- Reducing sugars form
osazones with phenylhydrazine
- Osazones produced have
characteristic crystalline forms,
quite definite formation of time,
and differ in their relative
solubility in hot water
Results:
Fructose 2min
Glucose 4-5min
Arabinose 10min
 Galactose 15-19min
Lactose precipitated when
cooled
Maltose precipitated when
cooled
Sucrose none

Mucic Acid Test Oxidation of galactose by nitric
acid yields insoluble mucic acid
Mucic acid crystals have needle-
like structures when viewed
under a microscope
Lactose will also yield a mucic
acid due to hydrolysis of the
glycosidic linkage between its
glucose and galactose subunits.

LIPIDS
Acrolein Test Used to detect the presence of
glycerol grouping as in coconut
oil
This can be detected when the
sample is heated with
dehydrating agent such as
KHSO4.
It is readily detected by its
characteristic acrid, irritating
odor (burnt fat odor)

Test for Unsaturation Unsaturated lipids undergo

addition reaction with iodine.
The iodine adds to the
unsaturated portion giving an
iodinated saturated product as
indicated by the decolorization
of the reagent (I2 in HgCl2)
More drops of Hubls soln are
reqd, the more double bonds are
present in the sample
Oleic acid unsaturated fatty acid
Stearic acid saturated fatty acid
Coconut oil contains saturated fatty
acids
Olive oil contains unsaturated fatty
 aci
Test for Phosphates
Emulsification
Lieberman-Burchard Reaction
Carr-Price Reaction
Modified Furter-Meyer Test
PO43- group s in lecithin may be
released as inorganic phosphate
by incinerating the sample and
reacts with (NH4)2MoO4 to give a
bright yellow precipitate of
ammoniumphosphomolybdate,
(NH4)3PO4(MoO3)12
The presence of polar and non
polar groups in bile salts and
lecithin enable them to aid in
forming a homogeneous water-
lipid mixture of fine bubbles
(emulsion)
Cholesterol gives characteristic
colored condensation products
with acetic anhydride and conc.
H2SO4.
Unsaturated sterols react more
rapidly than the saturated ones
to give a green color with the
reagents
Vitamin A is detected by this
reaction to give a play of color
from blue to green to gray to
pink solution. (cod-liver oil and
-carotene)
Antimony trichloride is a
reagent for detecting vitamin A
and related carotenoids in the
Carr-Price test. The antimony
trichloride reacts with the
carotenoid to form a blue
colored complex that can be
measured by colorimetry.
This test is used to determine
tocopherols, Vit. E in foodstuffs.
The bronze-red color which
develops is specific for
tocopherols.
Carotenoids and certain sterols
produce a yellow or brown color
and when present in sufficient
amount may mask the bronze-
red color of small amount of
tocopherols.
The tocopherols are sensitive to
ultraviolet light and are
excellent antioxidants in the
free form.