A COPY PASTE ON

ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT

UNIT-II

8th semester
POWER ENGINEERING

By, SUNIL MAURYA

DG SET SYSTEM:
Diesel engine is the prime mover, which drives an alternator to produce electrical energy. In the diesel
engine, air is drawn into the cylinder and is compressed to a high ratio (14:1 to 25:1). During this
compression, the air is heated to a temperature of 700900C. A metered quantity of diesel fuel is then
injected into the cylinder, which ignites spontaneously because of the high temperature. Hence, the diesel
engine is also known as compression ignition (CI) engine. DG set can be classified according to cycle type
as: two stroke and four stroke. However, the bulk of IC engines use the four stroke cycle. Let us look at
the principle of operation of the four-stroke diesel engine.

Four Stroke - Diesel Engine The 4 stroke operations in a diesel engine are: induction stroke, compression
stroke, ignition and power stroke and exhaust stroke.

1st : Induction stroke - while the inlet valve is open, the descending piston draws in fresh air.

2nd : Compression stroke - while the valves are closed, the air is compressed to a pressure of up to 25 bar.

3rd : Ignition and power stroke - fuel is injected, while the valves are closed (fuel injection actually starts
at the end of the previous stroke), the fuel ignites spontaneously and the piston is forced downwards by
the combustion gases.

4th : Exhaust stroke - the exhaust valve is open and the rising piston discharges the spent gases from the
cylinder.

DG Set as a System: A diesel generating set should be considered as a system since its successful operation
depends on the well-matched performance of the components, namely:

a) The diesel engine and its accessories.

b) The AC Generator.

c) The control systems and switchgear.

d) The foundation and power house civil works.

e) The connected load with its own components like heating, motor drives, lighting etc. It is necessary to
select the components with highest efficiency and operate them at their optimum efficiency levels to
conserve energy in this system.
Selection Considerations: To make a decision on the type of engine, which is most suitable for a specific
application, several factors need to be considered. The two most important factors are: power and speed
of the engine. The power requirement is determined by the maximum load. The engine power rating
should be 10 20 % more than the power demand by the end use. This prevents overloading the machine
by absorbing extra load during starting of motors or switching of some types of lighting systems or when
wear and tear on the equipment pushes up its power consumption.

Speed is measured at the output shaft and given in revolutions per minute (RPM). An engine will operate
over a range of speeds, with diesel engines typically running at lower 9. DG Set System Bureau of Energy
Efficiency 167 speeds (1300 3000 RPM). There will be an optimum speed at which fuel efficiency will be
greatest. Engines should be run as closely as possible to their rated speed to avoid poor efficiency and to
prevent build up of engine deposits due to incomplete combustion - which will lead to higher maintenance
and running costs. To determine the speed requirement of an engine, one has to again look at the
requirement of the load. For some applications, the speed of the engine is not critical, but for other
applications such as a generator, it is important to get a good speed match. If a good match can be
obtained, direct coupling of engine and generator is possible; if not, then some form of gearing will be
necessary - a gearbox or belt system, which will add to the cost and reduce the efficiency.

There are various other factors that have to be considered, when choosing an engine for a given
application. These include the following: cooling system, abnormal environmental conditions (dust, dirt,
etc.), fuel quality, speed governing (fixed or variable speed), poor maintenance, control system, starting
equipment, drive type, ambient temperature, altitude, humidity, etc. Suppliers or manufacturers
literature will specify the required information when purchasing an engine. The efficiency of an engine
depends on various factors, for example, load factor (percentage of full load), engine size, and engine
type.

ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS:

Maximum Demand Controllers: High-tension (HT) consumers have to pay a maximum demand charge in
addition to the usual charge for the number of units consumed. This charge is usually based on the highest
amount of power used during some period (say 30 minutes) during the metering month. The maximum
demand charge often represents a large proportion of the total bill and may be based on only one isolated
30 minute episode of high power use. Considerable savings can be realised by monitoring power use and
turning off or reducing non-essential loads during such periods of high power use.

Maximum Demand Controller is a device designed to meet the need of industries conscious of the value
of load management. Alarm is sounded when demand approaches a preset value. If corrective action is
not taken, the controller switches off non-essential loads in a logical sequence. This sequence is
predetermined by the user and is programmed jointly by the user and the supplier of the device. The plant
equipments selected for the load management are stopped and restarted as per the desired load profile.
Demand control scheme is implemented by using suitable control contactors. Audio and visual
annunciations could also be used.

Automatic Power Factor Controllers: Various types of automatic power factor controls are available with
relay / microprocessor logic. Two of the most common controls are: Voltage Control and kVAr Control

Voltage Control: Voltage alone can be used as a source of intelligence when the switched capacitors are
applied at point where the circuit voltage decreases as circuit load increases. Generally, where they are
applied the voltage should decrease as circuit load increases and the drop in voltage should be around 4
5 % with increasing load. Voltage is the most common type of intelligence used in substation
applications, when maintaining a particular voltage is of prime importance. This type of control is
independent of load cycle. During light load time and low source voltage, this may give leading PF at the
substation, which is to be taken note of.

KILOVAR Control: Kilovar sensitive controls (see Figure 10.2) are used at locations where the voltage level
is closely regulated and not available as a control variable. The capacitors can be switched to respond to
a decreasing power factor as a result of change in system loading. This type of control can also be used to
avoid penalty on low power factor by adding capacitors in steps as the system power factor begins to lag
behind the desired value. Kilovar control requires two inputs - current and voltage from the incoming
feeder, which are fed to the PF correction mechanism, either the microprocessor or the relay.

Automatic Power Factor Control Relay: It controls the power factor of the installation by giving signals to
switch on or off power factor correction capacitors. Relay is the brain of control circuit and needs
contactors of appropriate rating for switching on/off the capacitors. There is a built-in power factor
transducer, which measures the power factor of the installation and converts it to a DC voltage of
appropriate polarity. This is compared with a reference voltage, which can be set by means of a knob
calibrated in terms of power factor.

When the power factor falls below setting, the capacitors are switched on in sequence. The relays are
provided with First in First out (FIFO) and First in Last Out (FILO) sequence. The capacitors controlled by
the relay must be of the same rating and they are switched on/off in linear sequence. To prevent over
correction hunting, a dead band is provided. This setting determines the range of phase angle over which
the relay does not respond; only when the PF goes beyond this range, the relay acts. When the load is
low, the effect of the capacitors is more pronounced and may lead to hunting. Under current blocking
(low current cut out) shuts off the relay, switching off all capacitors one by one in sequence, when load
current is below setting. Special timing sequences ensure that capacitors are fully discharged before they
are switched in. This avoids dangerous over voltage transient. The solid state indicating lamps (LEDS)
display various functions that the operator should know and also and indicate each capacitor switching
stage.

Intelligent Power Factor Controller (IPFC): This controller determines the rating of capacitance connected
in each step during the first hour of its operation and stores them in memory. Based on this measurement,
the IPFC switches on the most appropriate steps, thus eliminating the hunting problems normally
associated with capacitor switching.

Energy Efficient Motors: Minimising Watts Loss in Motors Improvements in motor efficiency can be
achieved without compromising motor performance - at higher cost - within the limits of existing design
and manufacturing technology. From the Table 10.1, it can be seen that any improvement in motor
efficiency must result from reducing the Watts losses. In terms of the existing state of electric motor
technology, a reduction in watts losses can be achieved in various ways. All of these changes to reduce
motor losses are possible with existing motor design and manufacturing technology. They would,
however, require additional materials and/or the use of higher quality materials and improved
manufacturing processes resulting in increased motor cost.

Simply Stated: REDUCED LOSSES = IMPROVED EFFICIENCY

SOFT STARTER:

Advantages of Soft Start:

Less mechanical stress

Improved power factor

Lower maximum demand

Less mechanical maintenance

Variable Frequency Drive: AGAR SHI SE PADHA H TO FIRST UNIT KA YAAD HOGA ;-)

Why Variable Torque Loads Offer Greatest Energy Savings In variable torque applications?

The torque required varies with the square of the speed, and the horsepower required varies with the
cube of the speed, resulting in a large reduction of horsepower for even a small reduction in speed. The
motor will consume only 25% as much energy at 50% speed than it will at 100% speed. This is referred to
as the Affinity Laws, which define the relationships between speed, flow, torque, and horsepower. The
following laws illustrates these relationships:

Flow is proportional to speed Head is proportional to (speed)2

Torque is proportional to (speed)2 Power is proportional to (speed)3
Energy Efficient Transformers: Most energy loss in dry-type transformers occurs through heat or vibration
from the core. The new high-efficiency transformers minimise these losses. The conventional transformer
is made up of a silicon alloyed iron (grain oriented) core. The iron loss of any transformer depends on

Energy Efficient Lighting Controls:

Occupancy Sensors: Occupancy-linked control can be achieved using infra-red, acoustic, ultrasonic or
microwave sensors, which detect either movement or noise in room spaces. These sensors switch lighting
on when occupancy is detected, and off again after a set time period, when no occupancy movement
detected. They are designed to override manual switches and to prevent a situation where lighting is left
on in unoccupied spaces. With this type of system it is important to incorporate a built-in time delay, since
occupants often remain still or quiet for short periods and do not appreciate being plunged into darkness
if not constantly moving around.

Timed Based Control: Timed-turnoff switches are the least expensive type of automatic lighting control.
In some cases, their low cost and ease of installation makes it desirable to use them where more efficient
controls would be too expensive.
FAN and BLOWERS:
Fans and blowers provide air for ventilation and industrial process requirements. Fans generate a pressure
to move air (or gases) against a resistance caused by ducts, dampers, or other components in a fan system.
The fan rotor receives energy from a rotating shaft and transmits it to the air.
Fan Performance and Efficiency: Typical static pressures and power requirements for different types of
fans are given in the Figure 5.8.
PUMP and PUMPING SYSTEM:
Pump Types: Pumps come in a variety of sizes for a wide range of applications. They can be classified
according to their basic operating principle as dynamic or displacement pumps. Dynamic pumps can be
sub-classified as centrifugal and special effect pumps. Displacement pumps can be sub-classified as rotary
or reciprocating pumps. In principle, any liquid can be handled by any of the pump designs. Where
different pump designs could be used, the centrifugal pump is generally the most economical followed by
rotary and reciprocating pumps. Although, positive displacement pumps are generally more efficient than
centrifugal pumps, the benefit of higher efficiency tends to be offset by increased maintenance costs.
Since, worldwide, centrifugal pumps account for the majority of electricity used by pumps, we will focus
on the centrifugal pump.

A centrifugal pump is not positive acting; it will not pump the same volume always. The greater the depth
of the water, the lesser is the flow from the pump. Also, when it pumps against increasing pressure, the
less it will pump. For these reasons it is important to select a centrifugal pump that is designed to do a
particular job.

The standard convention for centrifugal pump is to draw the pump performance curves showing Flow on
the horizontal axis and Head generated on the vertical axis. Efficiency, Power & NPSH Required (described
later), are conventionally shown on the vertical axis, plotted against Flow, as illustrated in Figure
System Characteristics:

In a pumping system, the objective, in most cases, is either to transfer a liquid from a source to a required
destination, e.g. filling a high level reservoir, or to circulate liquid around a system, e.g. as a means of heat
transfer in heat exchanger.

A pressure is needed to make the liquid flow at the required rate and this must overcome head 'losses'
in the system. Losses are of two types: static and friction head.

Static head is simply the difference in height of the supply and destination reservoirs, as in Figure 6.3. In
this illustration, flow velocity in the pipe is assumed to be very small. Another example of a system with
only static head is pumping into a pressurised vessel with short pipe runs. Static head is independent of
flow and graphically would be shown as in Figure6.4
Most systems have a combination of static and friction head and the system curves for two cases are
shown in Figures 6.6 and 6.7.
Factors Affecting Pump: Performance Matching Pump and System Head-flow Characteristics Centrifugal
pumps are characterized by the relationship between the flow rate (Q) they produce and the pressure (H)
at which the flow is delivered. Pump efficiency varies with flow and pressure, and it is highest at one
particular flow rate. The Figure 6.10 below shows a typical vendor-supplied head-flow curve for a
centrifugal pump. Pump head-flow curves are typically given for clear water. The choice of pump for a
given application depends largely on how the pump head-flow characteristics match the requirement of
the system downstream of the pump.

Effect of over sizing the pump: As mentioned earlier, pressure losses to be overcome by the pumps are
function of flow the system characteristics are also quantified in the form of head-flow curves. The
system curve is basically a plot of system resistance i.e. head to be overcome by the pump versus various
flow rates. The system curves change with the physical configuration of the system; for example, the
system curves depends upon height or elevation, diameter and length of piping, number and type of
fittings and pressure drops across various equipment - say a heat exchanger. A pump is selected based on
how well the pump curve and system head-flow curves match. The pump operating point is identified as
the point, where the system curve crosses the pump curve when they are superimposed on each other.
In the system under consideration, water has to be first lifted to a height this represents the static head.
Then, we make a system curve, considering the friction and pressure drops in the systemthis is shown as
the green curve.

Suppose, we have estimated our operating conditions as 500 m3 /hr flow and 50 m head, we will chose a
pump curve which intersects the system curve (Point A) at the pump's best efficiency point (BEP). But, in
actual operation, we find that 300 m3 /hr is sufficient. The reduction in flow rate has to be effected by a
throttle valve. In other words, we are introducing an artificial resistance in the system. Due to this
additional resistance, the frictional part of the system curve increases and thus the new system curve will
shift to the left -this is shown as the red curve. So the pump has to overcome additional pressure in order
to deliver the reduced flow.

Now, the new system curve will intersect the pump curve at point B. The revised parameters are 300 m3
/hr at 70 m head. The red double arrow line shows the additional pressure drop due to throttling. You
may note that the best efficiency point has shifted from 82% to 77% efficiency. So what we want is to
actually operate at point C which is 300 m3 /hr on the original system curve. The head required at this
point is only 42 meters. What we now need is a new pump which will operate with its best efficiency point
at C. But there are other simpler options rather than replacing the pump. The speed of the pump can be
reduced or the existing impeller can be trimmed (or new lower size impeller). The blue pump curve
represents either of these options.

Efficient Pumping System Operation: To understand a pumping system, one must realize that all of its
components are interdependent. When examining or designing a pump system, the process demands
must first be established and most energy efficiency solution introduced. For example, does the flow rate
have to be regulated continuously or in steps? Can on-off batch pumping be used? What are the flow
rates needed and how are they distributed in time? The first step to achieve energy efficiency in pumping
system is to target the end-use. Once flow requirements are optimized, then the pumping system can be
analysed for energy conservation opportunities. Basically this means matching the pump to requirements
by adopting proper flow control strategies. Common symptoms that indicate opportunities for energy
efficiency in pumps are given in the Table 6.1.
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM:
Air compressors account for significant amount of electricity used in Indian industries. Air compressors
are used in a variety of industries to supply process requirements, to operate pneumatic tools and
equipment, and to meet instrumentation needs. Only 10 30% of energy reaches the point of end-use,
and balance 70 90% of energy of the power of the prime mover being converted to unusable heat energy
and to a lesser extent lost in form of friction, misuse and noise.

Compressor Types: Compressors are broadly classified as: Positive displacement compressor and Dynamic
compressor. Positive displacement compressors increase the pressure of the gas by reducing the volume.
Positive displacement compressors are further classified as reciprocating and rotary compressors.
Dynamic compressors increase the air velocity, which is then converted to increased pressure at the
outlet. Dynamic compressors are basically centrifugal compressors and are further classified as radial and
axial flow types.

Positive Displacement Compressors:

Reciprocating Compressors: Reciprocating compressors are the most widely used type for air
compression. They are characterized by a flow output that remains nearly constant over a range of
discharge pressures. Also, the compressor capacity is directly proportional to the speed. The output,
however, is a pulsating one. Reciprocating compressors are available in many configurations, the four
most widely used of which are horizontal, vertical, horizontal balance-opposed and tandem. Vertical type
reciprocating compressors are used in the capacity range of 50 150 cfm. Horizontal balance opposed
compressors are used in the capacity range of 200 5000 cfm in multi-stage design and upto 10,000 cfm
in single stage designs. Reciprocating compressors are also available in variety of types:

Lubricated and non-lubricated Single or multiple cylinder

Water or air-cooled. Single or multi stage

Rotary Compressors: Rotary compressors have rotors in place of pistons and give a continuous, pulsation
free discharge air. They are directly coupled to the prime mover and require lower starting torque as
compared to reciprocating machine. They operate at high speed and generally provide higher throughput
than reciprocating compressors. Also they require smaller foundations, vibrate less, and have a lower
number of parts - which means less failure rate.

Dynamic Compressors: Dynamic compressors are mainly centrifugal compressors and operate on similar
principles to centrifugal pump. These compressors have appreciably different characteristics as compared
to reciprocating machines. A small change in compression ratio produces a marked change in compressor
output and efficiency.

Centrifugal machines are better suited for applications requiring very high capacities, typically above
12,000 cfm. The centrifugal air compressor depends on transfer of energy from a rotating impeller to the
air. The rotor accomplishes this by changing the momentum and pressure of the air. This momentum is
converted to useful pressure by slowing the air down in a stationary diffuser. The centrifugal air
compressor is an oil free compressor by design. The oil-lubricated running gear is separated from the air
by shaft seals and atmospheric vents. The centrifugal is a continuous duty compressor, with few moving
parts, and is particularly suited to high volume applications, especially where oil free air is required. A
single-stage centrifugal machine can provide the same capacity as a multi-stage reciprocating compressor.
Machines with either axial or radial flow impellers are available. Axial flow compressors are suitable for
higher compression ratios and are generally more efficient than radial compressors. Axial compressors
typically are multi-stage machines, while radial machines are usually single-stage designs.

Compressed Air System Components: Compressed air systems consist of following major components:
Intake air filters, inter-stage coolers, after coolers, air dryers, moisture drain traps, receivers, piping
network, filters, regulators and lubricators (see Figure 3.6).

Intake Air Filters: Prevent dust from entering compressor; Dust causes sticking valves, scoured cylinders,
excessive wear etc.

Inter-stage Coolers: Reduce the temperature of the air before it enters the next stage to reduce the
work of compression and increase efficiency. They are normally watercooled.

After Coolers: The objective is to remove the moisture in the air by reducing the temperature in a water-
cooled heat exchanger.

Air-dryers: The remaining traces of moisture after after-cooler are removed using air dryers, as air for
instrument and pneumatic equipment has to be relatively free of any moisture. The moisture is removed
by using adsorbents like silica gel /activated carbon, or refrigerant dryers, or heat of compression dryers.
Moisture Drain Traps: Moisture drain traps are used for removal of moisture in the compressed air.
These traps resemble steam traps. Various types of traps used are manual drain cocks, timer based /
automatic drain valves etc.

Receivers: Air receivers are provided as storage and smoothening pulsating air output - reducing
pressure variations from the compressor.
Efficient Operation of Compressed Air Systems:

Location of Compressors: The location of air compressors and the quality of air drawn by the compressors
will have a significant influence on the amount of energy consumed. Compressor performance as a
breathing machine improves with cool, clean, dry air at intake.

Cool air intake: As a thumb rule, "Every 4C rise in inlet air temperature results in a higher energy
consumption by 1 % to achieve equivalent output". Hence, cool air intake leads to a more efficient
compression. It is preferable to draw cool ambient air from outside, as the temperature of air inside the
compressor room will be a few degrees higher than the ambient temperature.

Dust Free Air Intake: Dust in the suction air causes excessive wear of moving parts and results in
malfunctioning of the valves due to abrasion. Suitable air filters should be provided at the suction side.
Air filters should have high dust separation capacity, low-pressure drops and robust design to avoid
frequent cleaning and replacement.

Air filters should be selected based on the compressor type and installed as close to the compressor as
possible. As a thumb rule "For every 250 mm WC pressure drop increase across at the suction path due
to choked filters etc, the compressor power consumption increases by about 2 percent for the same
output" Hence, it is advisable to clean inlet air filters at regular intervals to minimize pressure drops.
Manometers or differential pressure gauges across filters may be provided for monitoring pressure drops
so as to plan filter-cleaning schedules.

Elevation: It is evident that compressors located at higher altitudes consume more power to achieve a
particular delivery pressure than those at sea level, as the compression ratio is higher.

Pressure Settings: Compressor operates between pressure ranges called as loading (cut-in) and unloading
(cut-out) pressures. For example, a compressor operating between pressure setting of 6 7 kg/cm2 means
that the compressor unloads at 7 kg/cm2 and loads at 6 kg/cm2 . Loading and unloading is done using a
pressure switch.

For the same capacity, a compressor consumes more power at higher pressures. They should not be
operated above their optimum operating pressures as this not only wastes energy, but also leads to
excessive wear, leading to further energy wastage The volumetric efficiency of a compressor is also less
at higher delivery pressures.

HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM:

The Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) and refrigeration system transfers the heat energy
from or to the products, or building environment. Energy in form of electricity or heat is used to power
mechanical equipment designed to transfer heat from a colder, low-energy level to a warmer, high-energy
level.

Refrigeration deals with the transfer of heat from a low temperature level at the heat source to a high
temperature level at the heat sink by using a low boiling refrigerant. There are several heat transfer loops
in refrigeration system as described below:
In the Figure 4.1, thermal energy moves from left to right as it is extracted from the space and expelled
into the outdoors through five loops of heat transfer:

Indoor air loop: In the leftmost loop, indoor air is driven by the supply air fan through a cooling coil,
where it transfers its heat to chilled water. The cool air then cools the building space.

Chilled water loop: Driven by the chilled water pump, water returns from the cooling coil to the chillers
evaporator to be re-cooled.

Refrigerant loop: Using a phase-change refrigerant, the chillers compressor pumps heat from the chilled
water to the condenser water.

Condenser water loop: Water absorbs heat from the chillers condenser, and the condenser water pump
sends it to the cooling tower.

Cooling tower loop: The cooling towers fan drives air across an open flow of the hot condenser water,
transferring the heat to the outdoors.

Air-Conditioning Systems: Depending on applications, there are several options / combinations, which
are available for use as given below:

-Air Conditioning (for comfort / machine)

-Split air conditioners

-Fan coil units in a larger system

-Air handling units in a larger system

Refrigeration Systems:

(for processes) Small capacity modular units of direct expansion type similar to domestic
refrigerators, small capacity refrigeration units.
Centralized chilled water plants with chilled water as a secondary coolant for temperature range
over 5C typically. They can also be used for ice bank formation.
Brine plants, which use brines as lower temperature, secondary coolant, for typically sub zero
temperature applications, which come as modular unit capacities as well as large centralized
plant capacities.
The plant capacities upto 50 TR are usually considered as small capacity, 50 250 TR as medium
capacity and over 250 TR as large capacity units.
A large industry may have a bank of such units, often with common chilled water pumps, condenser water
pumps, cooling towers, as an off site utility. The same industry may also have two or three levels of
refrigeration & air conditioning such as:

Comfort air conditioning (20 25 C)

Chilled water system (8 10 C)
Brine system (sub-zero applications)

Two principle types of refrigeration plants found in industrial use are: Vapour Compression Refrigeration
(VCR) and Vapour Absorption Refrigeration (VAR). VCR uses mechanical energy as the driving force for
refrigeration, while VAR uses thermal energy as the driving force for refrigeration.

The theoretical Coefficient of Performance (Carnot), COPCarnot - a standard measure of refrigeration

efficiency of an ideal refrigeration system- depends on two key system temperatures, namely, evaporator
temperature Te and condenser temperature Tc with COP being given as:
In the field performance assessment, accurate instruments for inlet and outlet chilled water temperature
and condenser water temperature measurement are required, preferably with a least count of 0.1C. Flow
measurements of chilled water can be made by an ultrasonic flow meter directly or inferred from pump
duty parameters. Adequacy check of chilled water is needed often and most units are designed for a
typical 0.68 m3 /hr per TR (3 gpm/TR) chilled water flow. Condenser water flow measurement can also be
made by a non-contact flow meter directly or inferred from pump duty parameters. Adequacy check of
condenser water is also needed often, and most units are designed for a typical 0.91 m3 /hr per TR (4 gpm
/ TR) condenser water flow.

In case of air conditioning units, the airflow at the Fan Coil Units (FCU) or the Air Handling Units (AHU) can
be measured with an anemometer. Dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures are measured at the inlet and
outlet of AHU or the FCU and the refrigeration load in TR is assessed as ;
COOLING TOWER:
Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary task of a cooling tower is
to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a relatively inexpensive and dependable means of
removing low-grade heat from cooling water. The make-up water source is used to replenish water lost
to evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the cooling tower. The water exits the cooling
tower and is sent back to the exchangers or to other units for further cooling. Typical closed loop cooling
tower system is shown in Figure

Cooling Tower Types: Cooling towers fall into two main categories: Natural draft and Mechanical draft.
Natural draft towers use very large concrete chimneys to introduce air through the media. Due to the
large size of these towers, they are generally used for water flow rates above 45,000 m3 /hr. These types
of towers are used only by utility power stations.

Mechanical draft towers utilize large fans to force or suck air through circulated water. The water falls
downward over fill surfaces, which help increase the contact time between the water and the air - this
helps maximise heat transfer between the two. Cooling rates of Mechanical draft towers depend upon
their fan diameter and speed of operation.

Mechanical draft towers: Mechanical draft towers are available in the following airflow arrangements:

1.Counter flows induced draft. 2.Counter flow forced draft. 3.Cross flow induced draft.

In the counter flow induced draft design, hot water enters at the top, while the air is introduced at the
bottom and exits at the top. Both forced and induced draft fans are used.

In cross flow induced draft towers, the water enters at the top and passes over the fill. The air, however,
is introduced at the side either on one side (single-flow tower) or opposite sides (double-flow tower). An
induced draft fan draws the air across the wetted fill and expels it through the top of the structure. The
Figure 7.2 illustrates various cooling tower types. Mechanical draft towers are available in a large range
of capacities. Normal capacities range from approximately 10 tons, 2.5 m3 /hr flow to several thousand
tons and m3 /hr.
Components of Cooling: Tower The basic components of an evaporative tower are: Frame and casing, fill,
cold water basin, drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans.

Frame and casing: Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior enclosures (casings),
motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller designs, such as some glass fiber units, the casing
may essentially be the frame.

Fill: Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by maximising water and
air contact. Fill can either be splash or film type. With splash fill, water falls over successive layers of
horizontal splash bars, continuously breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface.
Plastic splash fill promotes better heat transfer than the wood splash fill. Film fill consists of thin, closely
spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads, forming a thin film in contact with the air. These
surfaces may be flat, corrugated, honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type of fill is the more efficient
and provides same heat transfer in a smaller volume than the splash fill.

Cold water basin: The cold water basin, located at or near the bottom of the tower, receives the cooled
water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has a sump or low point for the cold
water discharge connection. In many tower designs, the cold water basin is beneath the entire fill.

Drift eliminators: These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that otherwise would be lost
to the atmosphere.

Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take up an entire side of a
towercross flow design or be located low on the side or the bottom of counter flow designs.

Louvers: Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to equalize air flow into
the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow tower designs do not require louvers.

Nozzles: These provide the water sprays to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of the fill is
essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be fixed in place and have
either round or square spray patterns or can be part of a rotating assembly as found in some circular cross-
section towers.

Fans: Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally, propeller fans are used
in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans are found in forced draft towers.
Depending upon their size, propeller fans can either be fixed or variable pitch. A fan having non-automatic
adjustable pitch blades permits the same fan to be used over a wide range of kW with the fan adjusted to
deliver the desired air flow at the lowest power consumption. Automatic variable pitch blades can vary
air flow in response to changing load conditions.

Cooling Tower Performance:

The important parameters, from the point of determining the performance of cooling towers, are:
i) "Range" is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet temperature.).
ii) "Approach" is the difference between the cooling tower outlet cold water temperature and ambient
wet bulb temperature. Although, both range and approach should be monitored, the 'Approach' is a
better indicator of cooling tower performance.
iii) Cooling tower effectiveness (in percentage) is the ratio of range, to the ideal range, i.e., difference
between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature, or in other words it is =
Range / (Range + Approach).
iv) Cooling capacity is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or TR, given as product of mass flow rate of water,
specific heat and temperature difference.
v) Evaporation loss is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty and, theoretically, for every
10,00,000 kCal heat rejected, evaporation quantity works out to 1.8 m3 .

An empirical relation used often is:

*Evaporation Loss (m3 /hr) = 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation rate (m3 /hr) x (T1-T2)

T1-T2 = Temp. difference between inlet and outlet water

vi) Cycles of concentration (C.O.C) is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water to the dissolved solids
in make up water.

vii) Blow down losses depend upon cycles of concentration and the evaporation losses and is given by
relation: Blow Down = Evaporation Loss / (C.O.C. 1)

viii) Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio, of a cooling tower is the ratio between the water and the air mass flow rates.
Against design values, seasonal variations require adjustment and tuning of water and air flow rates to
get the best cooling tower effectiveness through measures like water box loading changes, blade angle
adjustments. Thermodynamics also dictate that the heat removed from the water must be equal to the
heat absorbed by the surrounding air:

where: L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)

T1 = hot water temperature (C) T2 = cold water temperature (C)

h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature (same units as above)
h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature (same units as above)

and on to the cooling water. Range C = Heat Load in kcals/hour / Water Circulation Rate in LPH Thus,
Range is a function of the heat load and the flow circulated through the system. L(T1 T2) = G(h2 h1) L
= h2 h1 G T1 T2
Efficient System Operation:
Cooling Water Treatment: Cooling water treatment is mandatory for any cooling tower whether with
splash fill or with film type fill for controlling suspended solids, algae growth, etc. With increasing costs of
water, efforts to increase Cycles of Concentration (COC), by Cooling Water Treatment would help to
reduce make up water requirements significantly. In large industries, power plants, COC improvement is
often considered as a key area for water conservation. Drift Loss in the Cooling Towers It is very difficult
to ignore drift problem in cooling towers. Now-a-days most of the end user specification calls for 0.02%
drift loss. With technological development and processing of PVC, manufacturers have brought large
change in the drift eliminator shapes and the possibility of making efficient designs of drift eliminators
that enable end user to specify the drift loss requirement to as low as 0.003 0.001%.

Cooling Tower Fans: The purpose of a cooling tower fan is to move a specified quantity of air through the
system, overcoming the system resistance which is defined as the pressure loss. The product of air flow
and the pressure loss is air power developed/work done by the fan; this may be also termed as fan output
and input kW depends on fan efficiency. The fan efficiency in turn is greatly dependent on the profile of
the blade. An aerodynamic profile with optimum twist, taper and higher coefficient of lift to coefficient of
drop ratio can provide the fan total efficiency as high as 8592 %. However, this efficiency is drastically
affected by the factors such as tip clearance, obstacles to airflow and inlet shape, etc.

As the metallic fans are manufactured by adopting either extrusion or casting process it is always difficult
to generate the ideal aerodynamic profiles. The FRP blades are normally hand moulded which facilitates
the generation of optimum aerodynamic profile to meet specific duty condition more efficiently. Cases
reported where replacement of metallic or Glass fibre reinforced plastic fan blades have been replaced
by efficient hollow FRP blades, with resultant fan energy savings of the order of 2030% and with simple
pay back period of 6 to 7 months. Also, due to lightweight, FRP fans need low starting torque resulting in
use of lower HP motors. The lightweight of the fans also increases the life of the gear box, motor and
bearing is and allows for easy handling and maintenance.
Energy Saving Opportunities in Cooling Towers:

Optimise cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis.

Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan balance.

On old counter-flow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with new square spray ABS practically non-clogging nozzles.

Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular film fill.

Periodically clean plugged cooling tower distribution nozzles.

Balance flow to cooling tower hot water basins.

Cover hot water basins to minimise algae growth that contributes to fouling.

Optimise blow down flow rate, as per COC limit.

Replace slat type drift eliminators with low pressure drop, self extinguishing, PVC cellular units.

Restrict flows through large loads to design values.

 Segregate high heat loads like furnaces, air compressors, DG sets, and isolate cooling towers for sensitive applications like A/C
plants, condensers of captive power plant etc. A 1C cooling water temperature increase may increase A/C compressor kW by
2.7%. A 1C drop in cooling water temperature can give a heat rate saving of 5 kCal/kWh in a thermal power plant.

Monitor L/G ratio, CW flow rates w.r.t. design as well as seasonal variations. It would help to increase water load during summer
and times when approach is high and increase air flow during monsoon times and when approach is narrow.

Monitor approach, effectiveness and cooling capacity for continuous optimisation efforts, as per seasonal variations as well as
load side variations.

Consider COC improvement measures for water savings.

Consider energy efficient FRP blade adoption for fan energy savings. Consider possible improvements on CW pumps w.r.t.
efficiency improvement.

Control cooling tower fans based on leaving water temperatures especially in case of small units.

Optimise process CW flow requirements, to save on pumping energy, cooling load, evaporation losses (directly proportional
to circulation rate) and blow down losses.

Some typical problems and their trouble shooting for cooling towers are given in Table:
APPLICATION OF NON-CONVENTIONAL & RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:
Renewable energy sources also called non-conventional energy, are sources that are continuously
replenished by natural processes. For example, solar energy, wind energy, bio-energy - bio-fuels grown
sustain ably), hydropower etc., are some of the examples of renewable energy sources

A renewable energy system converts the energy found in sunlight, wind, falling-water, sea-waves,
geothermal heat, or biomass into a form, we can use such as heat or electricity. Most of the renewable
energy comes either directly or indirectly from sun and wind and can never be exhausted, and therefore
they are called renewable. Various forms of renewable energy are:

Solar energy
Wind energy
Bio energy
Hydro energy
Geothermal energy
Wave and tidal energy

Solar Energy: Solar energy is the most readily available and free source of energy since prehistoric times.
It is estimated that solar energy equivalent to over 15,000 times the world's annual commercial energy
consumption reaches the earth every year. India receives solar energy in the region of 5 to 7 kWh/m2 for
300 to 330 days in a year. This energy is sufficient to set up 20 MW solar power plant per square kilometre
land area.

Solar Thermal Energy Application:

In solar thermal route, solar energy can be converted into thermal energy with the help of solar collectors
and receivers known as solar thermal devices. The Solar-Thermal devices can be classified into three
categories:

Low-Grade Heating Devices - up to the temperature of 100C.

Medium-Grade Heating Devices -up to the temperature of 100-300C
High-Grade Heating Devices -above temperature of 300C

Solar water heaters: Most solar water heating systems have two main parts: a solar collector and a storage
tank. The most common collector is called a flat-plate collector (see Figure 12.1). It consists of a thin, flat,
rectangular box with a transparent cover that faces the sun, mounted on the roof of building or home.
Small tubes run through the box and carry the fluid either water or other fluid, such as an antifreeze
solution to be heated. The tubes are attached to an absorber plate, which is painted with special coatings
to absorb the heat. The heat builds up in the collector, which is passed to the fluid passing through the
tubes.

Solar water heating systems can be either active or passive systems. The active system, which are most
common, rely on pumps to move the liquid between the collector and the storage tank. The passive
systems rely on gravity and the tendency for water to naturally circulate as it is heated. A few industrial
application of solar water heaters are listed below:

Hotels: Bathing, kitchen, washing, laundry applications

 Dairies: Ghee (clarified butter) production, cleaning and sterilizing, pasteurization

Textiles: Bleaching, boiling, printing, dyeing, curing, ageing and finishing

Breweries & Distilleries: Bottle washing, wort preparation, boiler feed heating

Chemical /Bulk drugs units: Fermentation of mixes, boiler feed applications

Electroplating/galvanizing units: Heating of plating baths, cleaning, degreasing applications

Pulp and paper industries: Boiler feed applications, soaking of pulp.

Solar Cooker: Solar cooker is a device, which uses solar energy for cooking, and thus saving fossil fuels,
fuel wood and electrical energy to a large extent.

Box type solar cookers: The box type solar cookers with a single reflecting mirror are the most
popular in India. These cookers have proved immensely popular in rural areas where women
spend considerable time for collecting firewood. A family size solar cooker is sufficient for 4 to 5
members and saves about 3 to 4 cylinders of LPG every year. The life of this cooker is upto 15
years. This cooker costs around Rs.1000 after allowing for subsidy. Solar cookers are widely
available in the market.
Parabolic concentrating solar cooker: A parabolic solar concentrator comprises of sturdy Fibre
Reinforced Plastic (FRP) shell lined with Stainless Steel (SS) reflector foil or aluminised polyester
film. It can accommodate a cooking vessel at its focal point. This cooker is designed to direct the
solar heat to a secondary reflector inside the kitchen, which focuses the heat to the bottom of a
cooking pot. It is also possible to actually fry, bake and roast food. This system generates 500 kg
of steam, which is enough to cook two meals for 500 people. This cooker costs upto Rs.50,000.

guided into a wire that is connected to a battery or DC appliance. Typically, one cell produces about 1.5
watts of power. Individual cells are connected together to form a solar panel or module, capable of
producing 3 to 110 Watts power. Panels can be connected together in series and parallel to make a solar
array (see Figure), which can produce any amount of Wattage as space will allow. Modules are usually
designed to supply electricity at 12 Volts. PV modules are rated by their peak Watt output at solar noon
on a clear day.Some applications for PV systems are lighting for commercial buildings, outdoor (street)
lighting, rural and village lighting etc.

Wind Energy: Wind energy is basically harnessing of wind power to produce electricity. The kinetic
energy of the wind is converted to electrical energy. When solar radiation enters the earths atmosphere,
different regions of the atmosphere are heated to different degrees because of earth curvature. This
heating is higher at the equator and lowest at the poles. Since air tends to flow from warmer to cooler
regions, this causes what we call winds, and it is these airflows that are harnessed in windmills and wind
turbines to produce power. Wind power is not a new development as this power, in the form of traditional
windmills -for grinding corn, pumping water, sailing ships have been used for centuries. Now wind power
is harnessed to generate electricity in a larger scale with better technology.

Wind Potential: In order for a wind energy system to be feasible there must be an adequate wind supply.
A wind energy system usually requires an average annual wind speed of at least 15 km/h. The following
table represents a guideline of different wind speeds and their potential in producing electricity

The wind speed is the most important factor influencing the amount of energy a wind turbine can
produce. Increasing wind velocity increases the amount of air passing the rotor, which increases the
output of the wind system.

Wind Energy in India: India has been rated as one of the most promising countries for wind power
development, with an estimated potential of 20,000 MW. Total installed capacity of wind electric
generators in the world as on Sept. 2001 is 23270 MW. Germany 8100 MW, Spain- 3175 MW, USA 4240
MW, Denmark 2417 MW, and India - 1426 MW top the list of countries. Thus, India ranks fifth in the
world in Wind power generation. There are 39 wind potential stations in Tamil Nadu, 36 in Gujarat, 30 in
Andhra Pradesh, 27 in Maharashtra, 26 in Karnataka, 16 in Kerala, 8 in Lakshadweep, 8 Rajasthan, 7 in
Madhya Pradesh, 7 in Orissa, 2 in West Bengal, 1 in Andaman Nicobar and 1 in Uttar Pradesh. Out of 208
suitable stations 7 stations have shown wind power density more than 500 Watts/ m2 .

Central Govt. Assistance and Incentives: The following financial and technical assistance are provided to
promote, support and accelerate the development of wind energy in India:

Five years tax holiday

100% depreciation in the first year
Facilities by SEB's for grid connection
Energy banking and wheeling and energy buy back
Industry status and capital subsidy
Electricity tax exemption
Applications:

Utility interconnected wind turbines generate power which is synchronous with the grid and are used
to reduce utility bills by displacing the utility power used in the household and by selling the excess power
back to the electric company.

Wind turbines for remote homes (off the grid) generate DC current for battery charging.

Wind turbines for remote water pumping generate 3 phase AC current suitable for driving an electrical
submersible pump directly. Wind turbines suitable for residential or village scale wind power range from
500 Watts to 50 kilowatts.

Bio Energy: Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from the carbonaceous waste of various
human and natural activities. It is derived from numerous sources, including the by-products from the
wood industry, agricultural crops, raw material from the forest, household wastes etc.

Biomass does not add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as it absorbs the same amount of carbon in
growing as it releases when consumed as a fuel. Its advantage is that it can be used to generate electricity
with the same equipment that is now being used for burning fossil fuels. Biomass is an important source
of energy and the most important fuel worldwide after coal, oil and natural gas

Application:

Bio energy is being used for: Cooking, mechanical applications, pumping, power generation

Some of the devices : Biogas plant/ gasifier/burner, gasifier engine pump sets, stirling engine pump sets,
producer gas/ biogas based engine generator sets

Biogas Plants: Biogas is a clean and efficient fuel, generated from cow-dung, human waste or any kind of
biological materials derived through anaerobic fermentation process. The biogas consists of 60% methane
with rest mainly carbon-di-oxide. Biogas is a safe fuel for cooking and lighting. By-product is usable as
high-grade manure.

Biomass Briquetting: The process of densifying loose agro-waste into a solidified biomass of high density,
which can be conveniently used as a fuel, is called Biomass Briquetting (see Figure 12.8). Briquette is also
termed as "Bio-coal". It is pollution free and ecofriendly. Some of the agricultural and forestry residues
can be briquetted after suitable pretreatment. A list of commonly used biomass materials that can be
briquetted are given below: CornCob, JuteStick, Sawdust, PineNeedle, Bagasse, CoffeeSpent, Tamarind,
CoffeeHusk, AlmondShell, Groundnutshells, CoirPith, BagaseePith, Barleystraw, Tobaccodust, RiceHusk,
Deoiled Bran.

Biomass Gasifiers: Biomass gasifiers (see Figure 12.9) convert the solid biomass (basically wood waste,
agricultural residues etc.) into a combustible gas mixture normally called as producer gas. The conversion
efficiency of the gasification process is in the range of 60%70%. The producer gas consists of mainly
carbon-monoxide, hydrogen, nitrogen gas and methane, and has a lower calorific value (1000 1200
kcal/Nm3 ). Gasification of biomass and using it in place of conventional direct burning devices will result
in savings of atleast 50% in fuel consumption. The gas has been found suitable for combustion in the
internal combustion engines for the production of power.
Bio fuels: Unlike other renewable energy sources, biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels
biofuels for our transportation needs (cars, trucks, buses, airplanes, and trains). The two most common
types of biofuels are ethanol and biodiesel. Biodiesel, produced by plants such as rapeseed (canola),
sunflowers and soybeans, can be extracted and refined into fuel, which can be burned in diesel engines
and buses. Biodiesel can also made by combining alcohol with vegetable oil, or recycled cooking greases.
It can be used as an additive to reduce vehicle emissions (typically 20%) or in its pure form as a renewable
alternative fuel for diesel engines.

Hydro Energy:
The potential energy of falling water, captured and converted to mechanical energy by waterwheels,
powered the start of the industrial revolution. Hydro Power Plant Wherever sufficient head, or change in
elevation, could be found, rivers and streams were dammed and mills were built. Water under pressure
flows through a turbine causing it to spin. The Turbine is connected to a generator, which produces
electricity. In order to produce enough electricity, a hydroelectric system requires a location with the
following features: Change in elevation or head: 20 feet @ 100 gal/min = 200 Watts. 100 feet head @ 20
gal/min gives the same output.

Small Hydro: Small Hydro Power is a reliable, mature and proven technology. It is non-polluting, and does
not involve setting up of large dams or problems of deforestation, submergence and rehabilitation. India
has an estimated potential of 10,000 MW

Micro Hydel: Hilly regions of India, particularly the Himalayan belts, are endowed with rich hydel resources
with tremendous potential. The MNES has launched a promotional scheme for portable micro hydel sets
for these areas. These sets are small, compact and light weight. They have almost zero maintenance cost
and can provide electricity/power to small cluster of villages. They are ideal substitutes for diesel sets run
in those areas at high generation cost.

Micro (upto 100kW) mini hydro (101-1000 kW) schemes can provide power for farms, hotels, schools and
rural communities, and help create local industry.

Tidal and Ocean Energy :

Tidal Energy: Tidal electricity generation involves the construction of a barrage across an estuary to block
the incoming and outgoing tide. The head of water is then used to drive turbines to generate electricity
from the elevated water in the basin as in hydroelectric dams.

Barrages can be designed to generate electricity on the ebb side, or flood side, or both. Tidal range may
vary over a wide range (4.5-12.4 m) from site to site. A tidal range of at least 7 m is required for economical
operation and for sufficient head of water for the turbines.

Ocean Energy: Oceans cover more than 70% of Earths surface, making them the worlds largest solar
collectors. Ocean energy draws on the energy of ocean waves, tides, or on the thermal energy (heat)
stored in the ocean. The sun warms the surface water a lot more than the deep ocean water, and this
temperature difference stores thermal energy.

The ocean contains two types of energy: thermal energy from the suns heat, and mechanical energy
from the tides and waves.
Ocean thermal energy is used for many applications, including electricity generation. There are three
types of electricity conversion systems: closed-cycle, open cycle, and hybrid. Closed cycle systems use the
oceans warm surface water to vaporize a working fluid, which has a low boiling point, such as ammonia.
The vapour expands and turns a turbine. The turbine then activates a generator to produce electricity.
Open-cycle systems actually boil the seawater by operating at low pressures. This produces steam that
passes through a turbine / generator. The hybrid systems combine both closed-cycle and open-cycle
systems

Ocean mechanical energy is quite different from ocean thermal energy. Even though the sun affects all
ocean activity, tides are driven primarily by the gravitational pull of the moon, and waves are driven
primarily by the winds. A barrage (dam) is typically used to convert tidal energy into electricity by forcing
the water through turbines, activating a generator

WASTE MINIMISATION AND RESOURCE CONSERVATION:

Traditionally, waste is viewed as an unnecessary element arising from the activities of any industry. In
reality, waste is a misplaced resource, existing at a wrong place at a wrong time. Waste is also the
inefficient use of utilities such as electricity, water, and fuel, which are often considered unavoidable
overheads. The costs of these wastes are generally underestimated by managers. It is important to realise
that the cost of waste is not only the cost of waste disposal, but also other costs such as:

Disposal cost
Inefficient energy use cost
Purchase cost of wasted raw material
Production cost for the waste material
Management time spent on waste material
Lost revenue for what could have been a product instead of waste
Potential liabilities due to waste

waste minimization: Waste minimisation can be defined as "systematically reducing waste at source". It
means:

Prevention and/or reduction of waste generated

Efficient use of raw materials and packaging
Efficient use of fuel, electricity and water
Improving the quality of waste generated to facilitate recycling and/or reduce hazard
Encouraging re-use, recycling and recovery

Waste minimisation is also known by other terms such as waste reduction, pollution prevention, source
reduction and cleaner technology. It makes use of managerial and/or technical interventions to make
industrial operations inherently pollution free. Waste minimization is best practiced by reducing the
generation of waste at the source itself. After exhausting the source reduction opportunities, attempts
should be made to recycle the waste within the unit.
Classification of Waste Minimization (WM) Techniques: The waste minimization is based on different
techniques. These techniques are classified as hereunder.

Source Reduction: Under this category, four techniques of WM are briefly discussed below:

a) Good Housekeeping- Systems to prevent leakages & spillages through preventive maintenance
schedules and routine equipment inspections. Also, well-written working instructions, supervision,
awareness and regular training of workforce would facilitate good housekeeping.

b) Process Change: Under this head, four CP techniques are covered:

(i) Input Material Change - Substitution of input materials by eco-friendly (nontoxic or less toxic than
existing and renewable) material preferably having longer service time.

(ii) Better Process Control - Modifications of the working procedures, machine-operating instructions and
process record keeping in order to run the processes at higher efficiency and with lower waste generation
and emissions.

(iii) Equipment Modification - Modification of existing production equipment and utilities, for instance, by
the addition of measuring and controlling devices, in order to run the processes at higher efficiency and
lower waste and emission generation rates.
(iv) Technology change - Replacement of the technology, processing sequence and/or synthesis route, in
order to minimise waste and emission generation during production.

c) Recycling i) On-site Recovery and Reuse - Reuse of wasted materials in the same process or for another
useful application within the industry.

ii) Production of Useful by-product - Modification of the waste generation process in order to transform
the wasted material into a material that can be reused or recycled for another application within or
outside the company.

d) Product Modification: Characteristics of the product can be modified to minimise the environmental
impacts of its production or those of the product itself during or after its use (disposal).

Waste Minimization: Methodology For an effective Waste Minimization programme, it is essential to

bring together various groups in the industry to ensure implementation. How formalised the programme
would be depends upon the size and composition of the industry and its waste and emission problems.
The programme should be flexible enough so that it can adapt itself to changing circumstances
WASTE HEAT RECOVERY:

Waste heat is heat, which is generated in a process by way of fuel combustion or chemical reaction, and
then dumped into the environment even though it could still be reused for some useful and economic
purpose. The essential quality of heat is not the amount but rather its value.

The strategy of how to recover this heat depends in part on the temperature of the waste heat gases and
the economics involved. Large quantity of hot flue gases is generated from Boilers, Kilns, Ovens and
Furnaces. If some of this waste heat could be recovered, a considerable amount of primary fuel could be
saved.

Heat Losses Quality Depending upon the type of process, waste heat can be rejected at virtually any
temperature from that of chilled cooling water to high temperature waste gases from an industrial furnace
or kiln. Usually higher the temperature, higher the quality and more cost effective is the heat recovery. In
any study of waste heat recovery, it is absolutely necessary that there should be some use for the
recovered heat. Typical examples of use would be preheating of combustion air, space heating, or pre-
heating boiler feed water or process water. With high temperature heat recovery, a cascade system of
waste heat recovery may be practiced to ensure that the maximum amount of heat is recovered at the
highest potential. An example of this technique of waste heat recovery would be where the high
temperature stage was used for air pre-heating and the low temperature stage used for process feed
water heating or steam raising.

Heat Losses Quantity In any heat recovery situation it is essential to know the amount of heat
recoverable and also how it can be used. An example of the availability of waste heat is given below:

Heat recovery from heat treatment furnace In a heat treatment furnace, the exhaust gases are leaving
the furnace at 900o C at the rate of 2100 m3 /hour. The total heat recoverable at 180o C final exhaust
can be calculated as

Q = V x x Cp x T

Q is the heat content in kCal

V is the flowrate of the substance in m3 /hr
is density of the flue gas in kg/m3
Cp is the specific heat of the substance in kCal/kg o C
T is the temperature difference in o C
Cp (Specific heat of flue gas) = 0.24 kCal/kg/o C

Heat available (Q) = 2100 x 1.19 x 0.24 x (900-180) = 4,31,827 kCal/hr

Classification and Application: In considering the potential for heat recovery, it is useful to note all the
possibilities, and grade the waste heat in terms of potential value as shown in the following Table

High Temperature Heat Recovery: All of these results from direct fuel fired processes.

Medium Temperature Heat Recovery: Most of the waste heat in this temperature range comes from the
exhaust of directly fired process units.
Low Temperature Heat Recovery: In this range it is usually not practical to extract work from the source,
though steam production may not be completely excluded if there is a need for low-pressure steam. Low
temperature waste heat may be useful in a supplementary way for preheating purposes.

Benefits of Waste Heat Recovery: Benefits of waste heat recovery can be broadly classified in two
categories:

Direct Benefits: Recovery of waste heat has a direct effect on the efficiency of the process. This is reflected
by reduction in the utility consumption & costs, and process cost.

Indirect Benefits: a) Reduction in pollution: A number of toxic combustible wastes such as carbon
monoxide gas, sour gas, carbon black off gases, oil sludge, Acrylonitrile and other plastic chemicals etc,
releasing to atmosphere if/when burnt in the incinerators serves dual purpose i.e. recovers heat and
reduces the environmental pollution levels.

b) Reduction in equipment sizes: Waste heat recovery reduces the fuel consumption, which leads to
reduction in the flue gas produced. This results in reduction in equipment sizes of all flue gas handling
equipments such as fans, stacks, ducts, burners, etc.

c) Reduction in auxiliary energy consumption: Reduction in equipment sizes gives additional benefits in
the form of reduction in auxiliary energy consumption like electricity for fans, pumps etc..

Commercial Waste Heat Recovery Devices:

RECUPERATORS:
concentric lengths of metal tubing as shown in Figure. The inner tube carries the hot exhaust gases while
the external annulus carries the combustion air from the atmosphere to the air inlets of the furnace
burners. The hot gases are cooled by the incoming combustion air which now carries additional energy
into the combustion chamber. This is energy which does not have to be supplied by the fuel; consequently,
less fuel is burned for a given furnace loading. The saving in fuel also means a decrease in combustion air
and therefore stack losses are decreased not only by lowering the stack gas temperatures but also by
discharging smaller quantities of exhaust gas.

Radiation/Convective Hybrid Recuperator: For maximum effectiveness of heat transfer, combinations of

radiation and convective designs are used, with the high-temperature radiation recuperator being first
followed by convection type.
Ceramic Recuperator: The principal limitation on the heat recovery of metal recuperators is the reduced
life of the liner at inlet temperatures exceeding 1100o C. In order to overcome the temperature limitations
of metal recuperators, ceramic tube recuperators have been developed whose materials allow operation
on the gas side to 1550o C and on the preheated air side to 815o C on a more or less practical basis. Early
ceramic recuperators were built of tile and joined with furnace cement, and thermal cycling caused
cracking of joints and rapid deterioration of the tubes. Later developments introduced various kinds of
short silicon carbide tubes which can be joined by flexible seals located in the air headers.

Earlier designs had experienced leakage rates from 8 to 60 percent. The new designs are reported to last
two years with air preheat temperatures as high as 700o C, with much lower leakage rates.

average temperature of preheat and consequently reduce fuel economy.

Accumulation of dust and slagging on the surfaces reduce efficiency of the heat transfer as the furnace
becomes old. Heat losses from the walls of the regenerator and air in leaks during the gas period and out-
leaks during air period also reduces the heat transfer.
A heat wheel is finding increasing applications in low to medium temperature waste heat recovery
systems. Figure 8.6 is a sketch illustrating the application of a heat wheel. It is a sizable porous disk,
fabricated with material having a fairly high heat capacity, which rotates between two side-by-side ducts:
one a cold gas duct, the other a hot gas duct. The axis of the disk is located parallel to, and on the partition
between, the two ducts. As the disk slowly rotates, sensible heat (moisture that contains latent heat) is
transferred to the disk by the hot air and, as the disk rotates, from the disk to the cold air. The overall
efficiency of sensible heat transfer for this kind of regenerator can be as high as 85 percent. Heat wheels
have been built as large as 21 metres in diameter with air capacities up to 1130 m3 / min.

A variation of the Heat Wheel is the rotary regenerator where the matrix is in a cylinder rotating across
the waste gas and air streams. The heat or energy recovery wheel is a rotary gas heat regenerator, which
can transfer heat from exhaust to incoming gases. Its main area of application is where heat exchange
between large masses of air having small temperature differences is required. Heating and ventilation
systems and recovery of heat from dryer exhaust air are typical applications.

Environment management
Air pollution standards:
EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON MATERIALS:

With the advent of industrial revolution degradation of buildings has been identified. Though there are
many reasons for degradation the principal reason may be attributed to air pollution. The air pollution in
the form of acid rain may be chiefly responsible. The pollutants that are principally responsible for acid
rain are sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxides. These two are emitted from the combustion of fossils fuels
like coal and oil. The rapid industrialization has encouraged the quantity of these emissions.

MATERIALS AFFECTED: In fact, all most all materials are affected by the deposition of acid, but the degree
of damage or intensity may be varied. Some of them are more susceptible to the affect such are Carbon,
Steel, Zinc, Nickel, Limestone, Marble, Paints and some plastics. Basically metallic materials are spoiled
due to corrosion. Oxygen and moisture are the chief agents responsible for corrosion. Submerged
structures like foundations and pipes will also be affected by acidified waters due to corrosion caused by
acid attack.

THE CHEMISTRY OF CORROSION: Corrosion causing acids may attack the material both in wet and dry
form. Some of the pollutants in the gaseous form may fall close to the source of emissions causing direct
damage. Sulphur dioxide frequently falls as dry deposition within 30 km of its source. Wet deposition of
acids occurs when the pollutants are released in to atmosphere. They react with water vapor present in
clouds to form dilute acids. Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide are the most responsible
pollutants causing damage to the material. The intensity of damage caused by sulphur dioxide is more
compared to the other pollutants. In fact in the reaction of the materials with pollutants many variables
take place. The atmospheric concentration may play a major role in the deposition of pollutants on to the
surface of materials. When the pollutants fall on to the surface of the material the intensity of reaction
depends on the nature of the material and amount of moisture content present in when So2 falls as dry
deposition on the material, it is oxidized to sulphuric acid in the presence of moisture in the surface.

AFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON MATERIALS: The damage due to air pollution on materials is really a
serious concern since the service life of buildings is remarkably reduced. It is true that the intensity of
manmade pollutants on building degradation is more than the impact of natural pollutants. Most
importantly the affects of soiling, degradation, corrosion and erosion caused by So2 are very much
serious. The effect of air pollution on materials may be seen in terms of discoloration, material loss,
structural failing and soiling. Both discoloration and structural failure due to air pollution on buildings may
be insignificant and that may not involve huge coasts. But the effect of corrosion due to acidic deposition
costs a lot. Especially the effect of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide emissions is very much significant.
The effect of calcium sulphate has been very significant and may be continued for fairly long time. When
calcium carbonate dissolves in sulphuric acid leads to the formation of calcium sulphate. The calcium
sulphate when it falls on stone breaks the surface of the building blocks.

MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS AFFECT: Air pollutants deteriorate by five ways such as abrasion, deposition
and removal, direct chemical attack, indirect chemical attack and corrosion. Air pollution is directly
responsible for economic losses in urban areas. The atmospheric deterioration of materials are caused
due to moisture, temperature, sunlight, air movement and the position of the materials.
CORBON MONOXIDE: The combustion of fossil fuels results in the emission of a variety of pollutants in to
the atmosphere of which the major ones are Sox, NOx and CO. Particularly the main sources of CO in the
urban air are smoke and exhaust fumes of many devices, burning coal., gas or oil. These pout comes show
a big impact on the structures exclusively located near by the factories from where they are emitted.
EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON VEGETATION:

Pollutant Impacts:

The air pollutants currently considered to be most important in causing direct damage to vegetation are
SO2, NOx, O3 , F and SPM. Direct effects of air pollution can be further classified into visible and invisible
injury. Visible injury normally takes the form of discolourations of the leaf surface caused by internal
cellular damage. Such injury can reduce the market value of agricultural crops for which visual appearance
is important (e.g tobacco and spinach). It can also lead to yield reductions, while the damaged parts of the
leaf surface can provide points of entry for plant pathogens. Invisible injury results from pollutant impacts
on plant physiological or biochemical processes and can lead to significant loss of growth or yield and
changes in nutritional quality.

Visible injury tends to be associated with short-term exposures to high pollutant levels whilst invisible
injury is generally a consequence of longer-term exposures to moderately elevated pollution
concentrations. While visible injury can be identified in the field, loss of yield can only be identified with
suitable control plants, and so can go undetected especially if there is little awareness of air pollution
issues. A brief description of the process by which each of the five different pollutants cause injury to
vegetation is given below; this information is summarised in Table 1.
Sulphur Dioxide (S02): S02 enters leaves through the stomata, but is also deposited at significant rates to
wet surfaces, where it may dissociate to form sulphite or bisulphite and react with cuticular waxes. This
can affect the cuticle to such an extent that a certain amount of S02 can enter via the damaged cuticle.

SO2 causes visible injury characterised by chlorosis of leaf tissue (whitened areas of dying tissue where
the pigments have been broken down). Even when no visible injury is apparent, S02 can cause a reduction
in growth and yield. However, in sulphur (S) deficient areas, low levels of S02 may actually be beneficial.
Changes in fertiliser practice coupled with S02 emission reductions over the last three decades in Western
Europe and North America have resulted in the occurrence of S deficiency in some agricultural species
growing under specific soil types and climatic conditions. S02 can also indirectly affect crop yields through
effects on the prevalence of plant pathogens and insect pests as can NOx.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx): The predominant pathway of NOx entry into plant leaves is through the stomata,
although cuticular resistances to N02 entry are lower than for both S02 and 03 . The biochemical effects
of NO and N02 are quite different and there is some uncertainty over which oxide is more toxic. NOx can
reduce plant growth at high concentrations, although growth stimulations can be caused by low NOx
concentrations, generally under situations of low soil nitrogen. However, even if growth is stimulated,
exposure to NOx can have adverse effects such as heightened sensitivity to drought, pests, and in some
cases, to frost. Rare instances of visible injury caused by exposure to very high concentrations of N0 2 are
characterised by chlorotic areas on leaves associated with necrotic patches. Prolonged exposure to NOx
has been shown to suppress plant growth via inhibition of photosynthesis. The combination of NOx with
other pollutants has been found to cause synergistic effects on plants (i.e. affect vegetation to a greater
extent in combination than individually).

Ozone (O3): Unlike S02 and NOx , consideration of the toxicity of 03 is not complicated by its role as a
source of an essential nutrient. 03 transfer via the leaf cuticle is negligible and O3 uptake is almost entirely
through the stomata. On entry to the sub-stomatal cavity, 03 reacts with constituents of the aqueous
matrix associated with the cell wall to form other derivatives which result in the oxidation of the sensitive
components of the plasmalemma. The inability to repair or compensat e for altered membrane
permeability can manifest itself as symptoms of visible injury, which are generally associated with short-
term exposures to high O3 concentrations. Symptoms of acute injury on broad-leafed plants include
chlorosis, bleaching, bronzing, flecking, stippling and uni- and bifacial necrosis. On conifers, tip necrosis,
mottling and banding are all common symptoms (Kley et al, 1999). Chronic exposures may or may not
result in visible foliar symptoms (usually characterised by chlorosis, premature senescence and leaf
abscission). However, reductions in growth from chronic exposures are well documente d and can result
in crop yield losses, reductions in annual biomass increments for forest trees and shifts in species
composition of semi-natural vegetation

Suspended particulate matter (SPM): SPM can produce a wide variety of effects on the physiology of
vegetation that in many cases depend on the chemical composition of the particles. Heavy metals and
other toxic particles have been shown to cause damage and death of some species as a result of both the
phytotoxicity and the abrasive action during turbulent deposition. Heavy loads of particles can also result
in reduced light transmission to the chloroplasts and the occlusion of stomata, decreasing the efficiency
of gaseous exchange (and henc e water loss)

Fluorides: Both gaseous and particulate fluorides are deposited on plant surfaces and some penetrate
directly into the leaf if the cuticle is old or weathered. Fluoride dissolved in water on the leaf surface can
be absorbed by diffusion through the cuticle. Gaseous fluoride is absorbed via the stomata and
transported by the transpirational flow in the apoplast, and can accumulate at toxic levels in the tips and
margins of the leaves. Plant species show a wide range of susceptibilities to fluoride; for example, studies
have shown that young conifers and vines are especially sensitive, whilst tea and cotton are resistant to
fluoride pollution. Accumulation of fluoride in plants has been associated with fluorosis in grazing animals.
Animals grazing on pasture close to brickworks, smelters, and phosphate fertiliser factories, or fed forage
gathered from such areas, may develop fluorosis, a condition characterised by damage to the
musculoskeletal system including softening of teeth, difficulty in mastication, lameness and painful gait

Impact of air pollution on health:

The magnitude of the London fog of 1952, which affected such a large number of people, was the first
incident that made people aware of the damage done to the atmosphere due to industrialization. The
SPM levels increased manifold and resulted in over 4000 deaths.
 Indoor air pollution can be particularly hazardous to health as it is released in
close proximity to people. It is stated that a pollutant released indoors is many
times more likely to reach the lung than that released outdoors. In the
developing countries a fairly large portion of the population is dependent on
biomass for their energy requirements. These include wood, charcoal,
agricultural residue, and animal waste. Open fires used for cooking and
heating are commonly found in the household both in the rural and the urban
areas. The stove is often at floor level, adding to the risk of accident and the
hygiene factor. In addition, they are often not fitted with a chimney to remove
the pollutants. In such households the children and women are most likely to be affected, as they are
the group that spends more time indoors. The main pollutant in this environment is the SPM. In fact,
death due to indoor air pollution, mainly particulate matters, in the rural areas of India are one of the
highest in the world. Many of the deaths are due to acute respiratory infections in children; others are
due to cardiovascular diseases, lung cancer, and chronic respiratory diseases in adults. If emissions are
high and ventilation is poor, household use of coal and biomass can severely affect the indoor air
quality.

Pollutant emissions per meal are also very high compared to those of other fuels. Household use of
fossil fuel is also fairly common in the developing countries, particularly coalboth bituminous and
lignite. These are particularly damaging as they burn inefficiently and emit considerable quantities of air
pollutants. If emissions are high and ventilation poor, then the exposure levels to the gases emitted are
far higher. The most harmful of the gases and agents that are emitted are particulate matter, carbon
dioxide, polycyclic organic matter, and formaldehyde. The indoor concentrations of these are far higher
than the acceptable levels and is cause for concern in rural areas.

Health impact of specific air pollutants

Some of these gases can seriously and adversely affect the health of the population and should be given
due attention by the concerned authority. The gases mentioned below are mainly outdoor air pollutants
but some of them can and do occur indoor depending on the source and the circumstances.

Tobacco smoke. Tobacco smoke generates a wide range of harmful chemicals and is a major
cause of ill health, as it is known to cause cancer, not only to the smoker but affecting passive
smokers too. It is well-known that smoking affects the passive smoker (the person who is in the
vicinity of a smoker and is not himself/herself a smoker) ranging from burning sensation in the
eyes or nose, and throat irritation, to cancer, bronchitis, severe asthma, and a decrease in lung
function.
Biological pollutants. These are mostly allergens that can cause asthma, hay fever, and other
allergic diseases.
Volatile organic compounds. Volatile compounds can cause irritation of the eye, nose and
throat. In severe cases there may be headaches, nausea, and loss of coordination. In the longer
run, some of them are suspected to cause damage to the liver and other parts of the body.
Formaldehyde. Exposure causes irritation to the eyes, nose and may cause allergies in some
people.
Lead. Prolonged exposure can cause damage to the nervous system, digestive problems, and
in some cases cause cancer. It is especially hazardous to small children.
Radon. A radioactive gas that can accumulate inside the house, it originates from the rocks
and soil under the house and its level is dominated by the outdoor air and also to some extent the
other gases being emitted indoors. Exposure to this gas increases the risk of lung cancer.
 Ozone. Exposure to this gas makes our eyes itch, burn, and water and it has also been
associated with increase in respiratory disorders such as asthma. It lowers our resistance to colds
and pneumonia.
Oxides of nitrogen. This gas can make children susceptible to respiratory diseases in the
winters.
Carbon monoxide. CO (carbon monoxide) combines with haemoglobin to lessen the amount of
oxygen that enters our blood through our lungs. The binding with other haeme proteins causes
changes in the function of the affected organs such as the brain and the cardiovascular system,
and also the developing foetus. It can impair our concentration, slow our reflexes, and make us
confused and sleepy.
Sulphur dioxide. SO2 (sulphur dioxide) in the air is caused due to the rise in combustion of
fossil fuels. It can oxidize and form sulphuric acid mist. SO2 in the air leads to diseases of the
lung and other lung disorders such as wheezing and shortness of breath. Long-term effects are
more difficult to ascertain as SO2 exposure is often combined with that of SPM.
SPM (suspended particulate matter). Suspended matter consists of dust, fumes, mist and
smoke. The main chemical component of SPM that is of major concern is lead, others being
nickel, arsenic, and those present in diesel exhaust. These particles when breathed in, lodge in
our lung tissues and cause lung damage and respiratory problems. The importance of SPM as a
major pollutant needs special emphasis as a) it affects more people globally than any other
pollutant on a continuing basis; b) there is more monitoring data available on this than any other
pollutant; and c) more epidemiological evidence has been collected on the exposure to this than
to any other pollutant.

The Fate of Pollutants: KHUD KRLE, BORING H YE

Natural Acidity of Rainwater: Pure water has a pH of 7.0 (neutral); however, natural, unpolluted
rainwater actually has a pH of about 5.6 (acidic). The acidity of rainwater comes from the natural
presence of three substances (CO2, NO, and SO2) found in the troposphere (the lowest layer of the
atmosphere). As is seen in Table I, carbon dioxide (CO2) is present in the greatest concentration and
therefore contributes the most to the natural acidity of rainwater.
Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid (Equation 1). Carbonic acid then dissociates to
give the hydrogen ion (H+) and the hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO3-) (Equation 2). The ability of H2CO3to
deliver H+ is what classifies this molecule as an acid, thus lowering the pH of a solution.

Acidity of Polluted Rainwater: Unfortunately, human industrial activity produces additional acid-
forming compounds in far greater quantities than the natural sources of acidity described above. In
some areas of the United States, the pH of rainwater can be 3.0 or lower, approximately 1000 times
more acidic than normal rainwater. In 1982, the pH of a fog on the West Coast of the United States was
measured at 1.8! When rainwater is too acidic, it can cause problems ranging from killing freshwater fish
and damaging crops, to eroding buildings and monuments.

Sources of Excess Acidity in Rainwater

About one-fourth of the acidity of rain is accounted for by nitric acid (HNO3). In addition to the natural
processes that form small amounts of nitric acid in rainwater, high-temperature air combustion, such as
occurs in car engines and power plants, produces large amounts of NO gas. This gas then forms nitric
acid via Equations 4 and 5. Thus, a process that occurs naturally at levels tolerable by the environment
can harm the environment when human activity causes the process (e.g., formation of nitric acid) to
occur to a much greater extent.
What about the other 75% of the acidity of rain? Most is accounted for by the presence of sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) in rainwater. Although sulfuric acid may be produced naturally in small quantities from biological
decay and volcanic activity (Figure 1), it is produced almost entirely by human activity, especially the
combustion of sulfur-containing fossil fuels in power plants. When these fossil fuels are burned, the
sulfur contained in them reacts with oxygen from the air to form sulfur dioxide (SO2). Combustion of
fossil fuels accounts for approximately 80% of the total atmospheric SO2 in the United States. The effects
of burning fossil fuels can be dramatic: in contrast to the unpolluted atmospheric SO2 concentration of 0
to 0.01 ppm, polluted urban air can contain 0.1 to 2 ppm SO2, or up to 200 times more SO2! Sulfur
dioxide, like the oxides of carbon and nitrogen, reacts with water to form sulfuric acid (Equation 6).

Sulfuric acid is a strong acid, so it readily dissociates in water, to give an H+ ion and an HSO4- ion
(Equation 7). The HSO4- ion may further dissociate to give H+ and SO42- (Equation 8). Thus, the presence
of H2SO4 causes the concentration of H+ ions to increase dramatically, and so the pH of the rainwater
drops to harmful levels.

OZONE LAYER:

The ozone layer sits in the lower region of the stratosphere from about 20-30 kilometers above the surface

of the earth. The thickness of the ozone layer is about 3 to 5 mm, but it pretty much fluctuates depending

on the season and geography. Ozone layer is a deep layer in earths atmosphere that contain ozone which

is a naturally occurring molecule containing three oxygen atoms. These ozone molecules form a gaseous

layer in the Earths upper atmosphere called stratosphere. This lower region of stratosphere containing

relatively higher concentration of ozone is called Ozonosphere. The Ozonosphere is found 15-35 km (9 to

22 miles) above the surface of the earth.

The concentration of ozone in the ozone layer is usually under 10 parts per million while the average

concentration of ozone in the atmosphere is about 0.3 parts per million.

Composition of the Ozone Layer

It comes as a surprise that the same UV rays form the bulk of ozone layer. Ozone is an extraordinary kind

of oxygen composed of 3 oxygen atoms instead of the normal 2 oxygen atoms. Ozone layer normally

develops when a few kinds of electrical discharge or radiation splits the 2 atoms in an oxygen(O2)

molecule, which then independently reunite with other types of molecules to form ozone. The ozone

layer has been shielding life on planet earth for billions of years, but its now being worn out by human

activities.

These targeted efforts have seen the ozone layer recovering over the past years. The Stratospheric ozone

plays a big role in protecting humans from the harshness of the sun. However, there is also a kind of ozone

developed just above the ground as a result of sun rays coming into contact with pollution in the

atmosphere, which is hazardous to human health. In some individuals, it can lead to complications in

breathing and often takes place during summer when pollution is rampant in cities where the air is static.

Why Ozone Layer is Necessary?

An essential property of ozone molecule is its ability to block solar radiations of wavelengths less than 290

nanometers from reaching Earths surface. In this process, it also absorbs ultraviolet radiations that are

dangerous for most living beings. UV radiation could injure or kill life on Earth. Though the absorption of

UV radiations warms the stratosphere but it is important for life to flourish on planet Earth.

Ultraviolet radiation could destroy the organic matter. Plants and plankton cannot thrive, both acts as
food for land and sea animals, respectively. For humans, excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation leads
to higher risks of cancer (especially skin cancer) and cataracts. It is calculated that every 1 percent
decrease in ozone layer results in a 2-5 percent increase in the occurrence of skin cancer. Other ill-effects
of the reduction of protective ozone layer include increase in the incidence of cataracts, sunburns and
suppression of the immune system.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone-Depleting Substances have been proven to be eco-friendly, very stable and non-toxic in

the atmosphere below. This is why they have gained popularity over the years. However, their stability

comes at a price; they are able to float and remain static high up in the stratosphere. When up there, ODS

are comfortably broken down by the strong UV light and the resultant chemical is chlorine and bromine.

Chlorine and bromine are known to deplete the ozone layer at supersonic speeds. They do this by simply

stripping off an atom from the ozone molecule. One chlorine molecule has the capability to break down

thousands of ozone molecules.

The chief ozone-depleting substances include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon tetrachloride,

hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and methyl chloroform. Halons, sometimes known as brominated

fluorocarbons, also contribute mightily to ozone depletion. However, their application is greatly restricted

since they are utilized in specific fire extinguishers. The downside to halons is they are so potent that they

are able to deplete the ozone layer 10 times more than ozone-depleting substances.

There are two regions in which the ozone layer has depleted.

In the mid-latitude, for example, over Australia, ozone layer is thinned. This has led to an
increase in the UV radiation reaching the earth. It is estimated that about 5-9% thickness of
the ozone layer has decreased, increasing the risk of humans to over-exposure to UV radiation
owing to outdoor lifestyle.

In atmospheric regions over Antarctica, ozone layer is significantly thinned, especially in spring
season. This has led to the formation of what is called ozone hole. Ozone holes refer to the
regions of severely reduced ozone layers. Usually ozone holes form over the Poles during the
onset of spring seasons. One of the largest such hole appears annually over Antarctica
between September and November.

Natural causes of depletion of ozone layer: Ozone layer has been found to be affected by certain

natural phenomena such as Sun-spots and stratospheric winds. But this has been found to cause
 not more than 1-2% depletion of the ozone layer and the effects are also thought to be only

temporary. It is also believed that the major volcanic eruptions (mainly El Chichon in 1983 and

and Mt. Pinatubo in 1991) has also contributed towards ozone depletion.

Man-made causes of depletion of ozone layer: The main cause for the depletion of ozone is

determined as excessive release of chlorine and bromine from man-made compounds such

as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), halons, CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform),

CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride), HCFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons), hydrobromofluorocarbons and

methyl bromide are found to have direct impact on the depletion of the ozone layer. These are

categorized as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).

Main Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Its billed as the most extensively utilized ozone-depleting substance because it attributes to more than

80% of overall ozone depletion. It was utilized as a coolant in home appliances like freezers, refrigerators

and air conditioners in both buildings and cars that were manufactured prior to 1995. This substance is

usually contained in dry cleaning agents, hospital sterilants, and industrial solvents. The substance is also

utilized in foam products like mattresses and cushions and home insulation.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs): Hydrofluorocarbons have over the years served in place

of Chlorofluorocarbons. They are not as harmful as CFCs to ozone layer.

Halons

Its especially used in selected fire extinguishers in scenarios where the equipment or material could be

devastated by water or extinguisher chemicals.

Carbon Tetrachloride

Also used in selected fire extinguishers and solvents.

Methyl Chloroform

Commonly utilized in industries for cold cleaning, vapor degreasing, chemical processing, adhesives and

some aerosols.

Serious Effects of Ozone Depletion

1. Damage to human health

If the ozone layer is depleted, it means humans will be overly exposed to strong UV light. Overexposure

to strong UV light causes skin cancer, cataracts, sunburns, weakening of immune system and quick aging.

2. Devastation to environment

Many crops species are vulnerable to strong UV light and overexposure may well lead to minimal growth,

photosynthesis and flowering. Some of the crop species vulnerable to UV light include barley, wheat, corn,

oats, rice, broccoli, tomatoes, cauliflower just to name a few. Forests equally bear the brunt of ozone

depletion.

3. Threat to marine life

Certain marine life, especially planktons, is greatly impacted by exposure to strong ultraviolet rays. In the

aquatic food chain, planktons appear high up. If planktons decrease in number due to ozone

layer destruction, the marine food chain would be disrupted in many ways. Also, overexposure of sun rays

could reduce the fortunes of fishers. On top of that, certain species of marine life have been greatly

affected by overexposure to ultraviolet radiation at their early stage.

 4. Effect on animals

In domesticated animals, too much Ultraviolet radiation could also lead to skin and eye cancer.

5. Impacts certain materials

Materials like plastics, wood, fabrics, rubber are massively degraded by too much ultraviolet radiation

Solutions to Ozone Depletion

1. Desist from using pesticides

Pesticides are great chemicals to rid your farm of pests and weeds, but they contribute enormously

to ozone layer depletion. The surefire solution to get rid of pests and weeds is to apply natural methods.

Just weed your farm manually and use alternative eco-friendly chemicals to alleviate pests.

2. Discourage driving of private vehicles

The easiest technique to minimize ozone depletion is to limit the number of vehicles on the road. These

vehicles emit a lot of greenhouse gases that eventually form smog, a catalyst in the depletion of ozone

layer.

3. Utilize environmentally friendly cleaning products

Most household cleaning products are loaded with harsh chemicals that find way to the atmosphere,

eventually contributing to degradation of the ozone layer. Use natural and environmentally

friendly cleaning products to arrest this situation.

4. Prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide

The Montreal Protocol formed in 1989 helped a lot in the limitation of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

However, the protocol never covered nitrous oxide, which is a known harmful chemical that can destroy

the ozone layer. Nitrous oxide is still in use today. Governments must take action now and outlaw nitrous

oxide use to reduce the rate of ozone depletion.