DeterminingtheageofBrandywineFalls

Arnaud,Elin,Jason,Josie,Lars

1
 TableofContents

Introduction 3

BackgroundInformation 3

Methods 6

Results 10

EstimatedRecessionRate 10

Application 12

Discussion 12

Conclusion 16

FutureResearch 16

Acknowledgments 17

LiteratureCited 18

AppendixA 22

AppendixB 24

AppendixC 29

AppendixD 31

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Introduction

This study aims to identify the age of the most recent iterationofBrandywineFallsthat

was created after the most recentglaciation.Thetwocorevariablesarethedistanceofrecession

and the erosion rate, the combination of which determine the age of the waterfall. The erosion

rate is determined by a number of sub-variables whose sum effects are responsible for therate

at which the waterfall recedes. Despite being a heavily researched hydrogeological feature,

there is very little known about how to accurately determine the age of a waterfall because of

the complex interplay of these variables. We hypothesize that glacially deposited sediments,

interlayered with lava flows, allowed for progressive erosion byBrandywineCreektoformthe

receding Brandywine Falls at a specific erosion rate. The age of the contemporary Brandywine

Fallsisdeterminedtobe8400600yearsold.

BackgroundInformation

Waterfalls are one of the quickest river-based erosion processes withinthehydrological

landscape (Hayakawa,2009).Littleresearchhasbeenpublishedconcerningtheageofwaterfalls

due to various limitations, including the uncertainty of many variables and the difficulty in

measuring variables such as quantity of sediment causing erosion over time. Though similar

limitations exist for Brandywine Falls, determining its age could provide insight into the

landscape evolution of the surrounding area, as well as the impacts of water-based erosion in

similar environments (Hayakawa, 2008). Brandywine Falls was specifically chosen because its

morphological character has been shaped by both volcanic and glacial activity, two defining

characteristics of many landforms in the Cheakamus Valley (Green et al., 1988). Examining

Brandywine Falls could be potentially informative in examining the age and origin of other

geologicalfeaturesofthearea.

3
 On the southwestern coast of British Columbia,theGaribaldilakevolcanicfieldsforma

minimum oftwelvePleistocene-Holocenevolcanoes,composingthesettingofBrandywineFalls

(Green, 1990). According to the theory of mantle convection, as a descending oceanic crust

begins melting, some components of the crust melt faster (volatiles) and are released through

the continental crust as volcanic rock. This is the process by which the lava flowsoriginatedin

the Cheakamus Valley (Green, 1981). This is possible because the continental crust is thicker

than the oceanic crust, and as suchitisclosertothecoreoftheearth,whichmakesithotterand

in turn less dense.Theoceaniccrustiscoolerincomparisontothecontinentalcrustbecauseitis

thinner and therefore further fromtheheatoftheearthscore.Thiscausesthesubductionofthe

oceanic crust whose tensile strength is great enough to pull the restoftheplateinthedirection

of subduction. The subduction creates space that allows the mantle to release rock from mid

ocean volcanoes, which creates a mid-oceanic ridge. InthecontextofBrandywineFalls,itisthe

Juan de Fuca plate that is subducting under the North American plate, and volatiles were

released from volcanism in the Garibaldi Lake area that created the lava flows. The igneous

minerals that compose the olivine basalt layers at Brandywine Falls were created in magma

chambers at a high temperature, then carried to the surface lava flow with basaltic lava

(Prothero & Schwab, 2004). Specifically, one of the volatiles released by volcanoes is sulfur

dioxide which is found in the basaltic and rhyolitic rocks that surround Brandywine Falls

(Parfitt&Wilson,2009).

The impacts of volcanoes on waterfalls is further explored through flow-units. A

flow-unit is a body of lava that flows and cools as a single entity (Tarquini et al., 2012).

Flow-units are useful for classifying lava flows as compound or simple: compound lava flows

can be divided into multiple flow-units while simple lava flows contain only one flow-unit

(Walker, 1971). Compound lava flows are thought to be formed when the rate of extrusion of

4
lava is low, while simple lava flows are formed when the rate of extrusion is high (Walker,

1971). Simple lava flows are the most extensive and far-reaching of the types of lava flows

(Walker, 1971). Based on the observed topography of Brandywine Falls combined with the

history of volcanic activity in the area we believe that there are different layers of simple lava

flows that make up the harder rock layers present at the falls. A lava flow isusuallyseparated

from another by a weathered area, sediment beds, or plant remains (Walker, 1971). In the case

of Brandywine Falls, we speculate that the sediment beds between the lava flows is due to the

differingorderoftectonicandglacialactivityinthearea.

The Wisconsinan Fraser ice sheet largely contributed to the geomorphology of thearea.

The Fraser glaciation is estimated to have began up to 29,000 years ago and occurred in three

mainphases:theiceexpansionphase,themaximumphase,andthelateglacialphase(Stumpfet

al., 2000). It was in the late glacial phase that the ice sheetsbegantomeltandthin.Themelting

began with the oldest ice, as its lack of reflexivity allowed it to absorb heat more readily and

melt more rapidly than fresh ice. These glacial phases impact erosion, but higher rates of

erosion occur when tectonic uplift and glacial erosion happen concurrently (Slotnick, 2004).

Together, these phases contributed to altering the topography of British Columbia and the

riversandwaterfallsaroundSquamish.

It is possible to have multiple iterations of existence for some waterfalls because of the

interplay between glacial and tectonic forcesthatshapetopography;glaciationorerosioncould

create a valley, then lava could flow into thevalleybutmaynotlevelthesurfacebecauseofthe

previous glacial depression. Through differing timelines of tectonic, glacial, and erosiveforces,

along with source availability, a waterfall can have a different interpretation of its age. We

argue that this is the case for Brandywine Falls, and our aim was to determine the age of the

most recent iteration of this waterfall. In doing this we acknowledge that Brandywine Falls

5
could have existed before our estimate, but that determining the age of the initial falls lies

beyondthescopeofthispaper.

Methods

To investigate the age of Brandywine Falls our team collected data samples from the

falls and compared the data to existing scientific knowledge of the area. The area studied

included sections of the river approximately 10m before and 300m after the waterfall. We then

utilized calculations to determine the age of Brandywine Falls. The first equation includes the

waterfalls rate of erosion (E), and the distance of recession from the waterfalls initial starting

point (R). These combine to form equation (1), enabling us to calculate the answer to our

researchquestion,whatistheageofthecontemporaryiterationofBrandywineFalls.
R
Y = E (1)

The rate of erosion (E) is measured through an equation procured from Factors

influencing the recession rate of Niagara Falls since the 19th century (Hayakawa, 2009). The

Horseshoe Falls as part of the Niagara Falls examined in the 2009 Hayakawa paper are plunge

waterfalls and so is Brandywine Falls. Therefore the waterfall characteristics beingverysimilar

in terms of shape and features, the same equations can be applied to Brandywine Falls. Inthis

paper, the erosion rate is calculated using a dimensional analysis to identify a dimensionless

index FR, calculated in equation (2), based on sub-variables: stream discharge (Q) in ms, the

width of the waterfall lip (W) in m, the height of the vertical drop (H) in m, the water density

()inkgm,andtheuncompressedconfinedstrength(S)inkgms.

Q


FR = WH S (2)

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 This equation is then used to finally calculate the erosion rate (E) which can be used in

equation (1). The equation then uses the dimensionless index FR to convert it into an erosion

rateinequation(3).

E = 99.7(F R)0.73 (3)

In order to determine the distance of recession (R) we used a Phantom 4 drone in

conjunction with the DroneDeploy app to create a three dimensional model of the area.

DroneDeploy allows users to generate a flying path that then allows the drone to optimally

photograph all of an area. The photos are subsequently stitched together, and using their

geolocation and optical differences, a depth map and an orthomosaic is generated. Please refer

to Appendix A for the 3D model. This model in turn enables the use of the three dimensional

model to determine the amount of recession by examining the edge of the plateau, topmost

layer of recent lava extending from the waterfall lip and around the canyon, as pictured in

Figure1.,wherethecontemporaryiterationofthewaterfallinitiallycommenced.

Figure 1. Orthomosaic constructedwiththeDroneDeployapp;thewhitelinehighlightsthedistancefrom

theestimatedknickpointtothecurrenttopofthewaterfall

Another variable that is helpful in determining the age of a waterfall is the waterfalls

discharge. The waterfall discharge was determined throughresearchingBrandywinesmonthly

mean flow (in ms) on wateroffice.gc.ca, which provided data from 1915 through 1921

(Environment of Canada, 2015). To confirm that this data is still relevant today the flow was

measured at the topofBrandywineFallsusingaflowmetreandthedepthoftheriveralongthe

8
width to produce a cross sectional area. Using the cross-sectional area and flow rate, we

calculatethestreamdischarge(Q)inms.

In order to measure the vertical height and the widthofthelipofBrandywineFalls,we

used aBushnelllasertodeterminehowfarwewerestandingfromthebottomandthetopofthe

falls. Then we utilised thePythagoreanTheoremtodeterminetheverticalheightbasedonthese

measurements. Additionally, by examining the rock face behind and on the sides of the

waterfall, we were able to observe the layered rock types that make up the topmost hard rock

layer and softer layers below which are erodingtoformthecliff(Hayakawa,2013).Thevertical

height and identification of rock layers helps to determine how the load from the dropping

watercausesverticalerosionandthescouringoftherockface(Hayakawa,2013).

In order to determine the extent to which the sediment in the river attributed to the

erosion of the riverbed, wetookwatersamplesfromthetopandthebaseofthefalls.Withthese

samples the sediment concentration is evaluated to determine the water density and the

subsequent impact sediments will have on erosion rates as part of water density. We also

determined the type of rock in the area by observation of the layered landscape and by

collecting samples of two different rock types present above and below the waterfall. This

research provided insight into which rock types are present in the geological landscape of

Brandywine Falls. As a result we were able to find the unconfined compressive strength ofthe

top layer of rock and thus determine erosion rate of the rock and by extension the age of the

waterfall.

Variables we thought might be relevant to measure also included the depth and width

of the plunge pool in conjunction with the depth of the cave, or overhang, below the waterfall

lip. This comes about due to the cyclic possibility of waterfall recession as seen in retreating

waterfalls which often have exposed bedrock at their base where plunge pools develop and

9
increased erosion within pools can increase recession rates (Scheingross et al., 2017). The

Bushnell laser method was chosen and attempted in order to determine the overhang of the

waterfall by measuring the depth of the cave behind the falls in an effort to explore the

possibility of a cyclic lip overhang collapse (Gilbert, 1890). However, measurements of the

plungepoolprovedimpossibletosafelyobtaingivenourlackofequipment.

Other research we pursued included the examination of the trees surrounding the

waterfall. Measuring the age of the trees at the top of the waterfall, and at the bottom of the

waterfall. Using this method,wewouldbeabletodeterminehowoldthetreesatthebaseofthe

waterfallwere,andwhethertheyweresignificantlyyoungerthanthetreesatthetop.

Results

The researched and sampled datacanbefoundinAppendixBundertable1whereupon

the elementary bases of the dependent variables are set out. Through this research we have

determinedthatBrandywineFallsisdeterminedtobe8400600yearsold.

BrandywineFallsestimatedrecessionratefromempiricalequations

Through secondary research we identified the topmost lava layer which covers the

contemporary floor of the Cheakamus Valley as olivine basalt which was confirmed by our

observations and the rock samples obtained on site, as seen in Figure 1.3 (Green, 1981). To be

more precise, upon comparison to the Canarian islands basalt images from Rotonda et al.s

2015 book on Volcanic Rocks and Soils, the specific basalt type present as the topmost lavalayer

and constituting the waterfall lip is an olivine pyroxenemassivebasalt(BOPM)(Rotondaetal.,

2015). BOPMs unconfined compressive strength is ascertained to be 114.5MPa(Rotondaetal.,

2015).

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 Concerning the flow, data collected on the 18th of May 2017 produced a flow rate of

5.22 m s, this is determined by the cross sectional area, illustrated in Figure 2, and the flow

rate. The raw data for the flowratemeasurementsisavailableinFigure1.2,AppendixB.Thisis

a similar result to that of mid-May data in the gauged 1915-21 years (Environment of Canada,

2015). This confirms the possible extrapolation that the rest of data concerning the monthly

mean is still in accordance today and that thestreamdischargeremainsrelativelyconstant.The

annualmeanoftheyears1915-1921resultsto5.09ms(EnvironmentofCanada,2015).

Figure 2. Cross sectional area representing the area through which the water passes through just before

the waterfall lip by plotting the width by the depth (both in metres). Coupled with flow rate, the stream

dischargeisresolved.

The calculations(2)and(3)usingthedatacollectedonsitesuchasthewidthoflip(W)is

11 1 m and the height of the waterfall (H) is 72 2 m in conjunction with our researched

data yielding an averaged annual stream discharge (Q) of 5.09 ms (Environment Canada,

2015), an unconfined compressive strength (S) of 114.5 MPa (Rotonda et al., 2015) and an

11
assumed water density ()of1000kgmenablethecalculationofanerosionrate(E)of0.03569

my.

5.099 1000 5
FR = 11*72 114.5*10
6 = 1.90264 * 10 (2)

0.73 1
E = 99.7(0.03569) = 0.03569 my (3)

Taking our initial equation (1) to determine the age of the waterfall, we use the

Orthomosaic of the BrandywineFallsasseeninFigure1.toestimatetheamountofrecession(R)

tobe30010m.Thefinalagecalculatedthroughequation(1)is8400600years.
300
Y = 0.03569 = 8406 years (1)

Application

Utilizing the waterfalls recession rate, we would like to provide a practical application

to the infrastructure present around Brandywine Falls. The railway tracks just upstream the

falls are situated 36 1 m above the current waterfall lip. Using the erosion rate calculated

previously of 0.03569 my andequation(1),wedeterminethatinapproximately1000yearsthe

waterfall lip will be situated below the train tracks. Around the year 3000 CE it is likely that

some form of bridge building or relocation of the tracks will be required to ensure the safe

passageofthetrains.
R
Y = E (1)

36
Y = 0.03569 = 1008 y

Discussion

When determining the age of Brandywine Fallstherearemanyvariableswhichmustbe

considered to arrive at a reasonable and sound result. This study pursuedanunderstandingof

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the geomorphologic landscape in conjunctionwiththerecessionrateofthewaterfalltoincrease

knowledge of the Cheakamus Valley landscape evolution and its practical applications.

Through the process of dating the waterfall we discovered limitations, uncertainties, and

alternateinfluencesthatcouldimpacttheageofthewaterfall.

A primary limitation of our research (which is likely to increase the ageofthewaterfall

if taken into account) is the other erosion processes which contribute to the erosion rate of the

waterfall. One process which could influence the erosion and weathering of the cliff face isthe

vertical stress due to pressure and weight (Hudson, 2012).Anotherinfluenceistheclimatethat

Brandywine Fallsissituatedinsinceitincludessnowfallandnegativetemperaturesthroughout

winter (Government of Canada, 2011). A comparison with the Shomyo falls (studied in the

paper Post-Volcanic Erosion Rates of Shomyo Falls in Tateyama, Central Japan) can be made to

identify similar erosionprocesses(Hayakawa,2008).Bothstudyareasaresubjecttofreeze-thaw

weathering. Freeze-thaw weathering occurs frequently at columnar joints where lava cools

(Prothero & Schwab, 2004). At this point the waters expansion during freezing wedges and

cracks the rock (Prothero & Schwab, 2004). This expansion ofinfiltratedwaterinthebedrockis

partlyresponsibleforrapidrecessionratesofwaterfalls(Hayakawa,2008).

Inevitably, the empirical data collected at the waterfall site included uncertainties and

therefore are propagated through equations (1), (2) and (3) as seen in Appendix C. These

uncertainties demonstrate an error of about 7% of the age of Brandywine Falls (8400 600

years old). This in itself indicates to us that the measurements and their uncertainties are

marginal in comparison to theactualanswerwhichcouldrangefrom7800to9000yearsold.As

this is such a small uncertainty, we are confident of our results as well as the fact that on a

geologic timescale they are appropriate. Our geologic findings indicate that the contemporary

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iteration of the waterfall began after the retreat of the last glacier in the Cheakamus Valley 13,

500yearsago(Ryderetal.,1991).

The variation in climate and overall precipitation rates are elements which cannot be

accounted for over the time span of the thousands ofyearssincethelastIceAge.Therefore,we

can only speculate and assume constant values for water flow in Brandywine Creek for our

calculations. This limitation is further accentuated when acknowledging human impact on

climate since the Industrial Revolution. Our flow data is constituted of averages between the

years 1915-1921 as well as contemporary flow data taken on a single day in May this year and

therefore does not date to prior industrialisation. However, it is reassuring toacknowledgethe

fact that over the past100orsoyearsthereseemstobearelativelyconstantaverageflowwhich

bringsincreasedreliabilityinthepossibilityofaconstantflowforBrandywineCreek.

Changes in sediment levels of water affect water density and thus erosion rate.

Brandywine Falls, as seen before, has its current source in the Powder Mountain Icefields and

there is also the inclusion of surface water runoff. There are a range of variables which come

into play when determining theconcentrationofsedimentsinthecreekanditisnotcertainthat

the source will always yield the same sediment concentration for Brandywine Creek.

Nonetheless, the sediment concentration being negligible inoursamples,itisassumedthatthis

isnotanimportantfactorinchangingtheerosionrate.

Layers of lava and subsequently the rock type below the topmost layer can only be

approximately identified due to the inability toaccuratelydetermineallthedifferentexactrock

types for the various layers due to a lack of previousresearchontheCheakamusValleysprior

lava flows. The combination of our lack of access to a Schmidt hammer (N-type) and the

inability to accessthewaterfallsvariouslayers(otherthanthetopmost)bringsincomplications

for attempting to calculate the various rebound values of the rock layers. Thus, we cannot

14
connect these with their exact unconfined compressive strengths and estimate their erosion

rates.

In addition, the erosion rate calculated from current empirical data cannot be assumed to hold

constant over thousands of years. Too many factors may influence the erosion rate for it to

remainconsistentthroughoutgeologictimescales.

Geological events such asearthquakesfrequentlyoccurinBritishColumbia(Earthquake

Track, 2017). Thus it can be assumed that in the past 8400 years earthquakes have impacted

erosion rates by creating faults or cracksintheclifffaceorrocklayers.Iffaulted,theclifffaceis

likely to erode at an accelerated rate due to the other erosion factors such as freeze-thaw

weatheringandverticalstress.

We did not inquire into the chemical composition of water due to the understanding

that the chemical reactions between igneous, and furthermore basaltic rocks, are not rapidand

therefore wouldnothaveasignificanteffectontherecessionanderosionofwaterfalls(Prothero

&Schwab,2004).

Nodatawascollectedforthedepth,width,andlengthofplungepoolorcaveduetothe

inaccessibility of the landscape and conditions, specifically the volume of spray from the

waterfall rebounding from the plunge pool was too great. The cave turned out to be recessed

behind the waterfall curtain and thesidesweretooimpracticablefordatacollection.Measuring

the depth of the plunge pool was inaccessible for our means. However, this does not

significantly hamper our calculations due to the fact that the equation utilized did not require

thesevariables.

Measuring the water temperature of a single day was not deemed necessary due to the

temperature fluctuations over time. For Brandywine Creek, we recognise that the temperature

of the flowing water does not fluctuate immensely throughout the year due research into the

15
Cheakamus River, Brandywine Creeks sister river in the middle of the valley, which has a

temperaturefluctuationof0to12yearround.(NorthwestHydraulicsConsultants,2009).

Some of our methodsofcalculationprovedtobeunsuccessful.Anoriginalideawasthat

through comparing the age of trees at the base of the waterfall with trees at the top of the

waterfall we would be able to determine the rate of recession. To pursue this, we determined

the age of the trees by multiplying the diameter of the tree by the growth factor of thespecies.

However, this method did not provide any insightful results due to the young age of the trees

both above and below the waterfall. Additionally, the age of the oldest trees are nowhere near

to the actual age of the waterfall due to the different time scales onwhichgeologyandbiology

oftenoccur.

There is not yet a mechanistic model to explain sediment transport so it was not

successfully tracked in our study (Scheingross & Lamb, 2016). For further information on

sedimenttransport,seeAppendixD.

Conclusion

Factors influencing the rate of erosion and the amount of recession lead to the age of the

contemporary iteration of Brandywine Falls being 8400 600 years. This age is in accordance

with geologic timescales and events in the area. There are many limitations in this study and

future research could be focused on ameliorating the limitations by taking more variables into

account.

FutureResearch

A possible avenue for future research involves furtherapplicationofgeologicmodeling

to test the evolution of the landscape due to the waterfall's impact. It would be primarily

16
hydraulic erosion that would be of interest since we have identified itasthemajorfactorinthe

recession of the Brandywine Falls. Geologic models can be used in a variety of situations to

further test interactions of different variables and evaluate the general accuracy of empirical

evidence concerning geologic features (Hubbert,1937).Moreover,asVargaandWellman(2016)

show in their paperontheBayesian-basedinferencemodel,geologicmodelscanalsobeusedto

predict certain properties and compositions of geologic structures. Benes etal.(2006)proposea

model which combines elementsofNavierStokesequations,theerosiondepositionmodeland

themodelofmaterialtransportation.Amongotherexamples,theyalsoapplytheirmodelonthe

case of arecedingwaterfall.Hence,itwouldbeinterestingtoapplytheirmodelinthecontextof

Brandywine Falls and compare the accuracy of the model with the answers produced in this

study.

The recession rate of a waterfall can also be determined through different calculations

demonstratedinthepaperStabilityAnalysisofCliffFacearoundKegonFallsinNikko,EasternJapan:

An Implication to Its Erosional Mechanisms by Hayakawa (Hayakawa, 2013). The empirical data

required for these new calculations are more extensive anddiverseandthuscouldsupportthis

studyindevelopingagreaterunderstandingofwaterfallrecessionrates.

Acknowledgements

We would not have been as successful in our research without the help of a few key

individuals. Thank you to Rich Wildman for the many suggestions that improved our process

andoutcome,toLauren,Johannes,Bryce,DarrenandMichaelforcollectingpartoftherawdata

for the flow measurements and for sharing it with us, and Valerie Fowles for keeping our

moraleup.

17


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AppendixA:IndependentandDependentVariables

Independentvariables:

Knickpoint.Determinedtobe30010mfrom3Dmodel.

Tectonicplates

Glaciation: The Cheakamus Valley formation arising from the last glaciers passage,

thusenablingthelandscapetotakeplace.

Erosionandothermasstransports

Dependentvariables:

Width of the lip above:111m(Pythagoras,opposite:1.750.01m,hypotenuse:

11 1 m) - below: 12 1 m (Pythagoras, opposite: 1.75 0.01 m, hypotenuse: 12 1 m) the

waterfall

Depthoftheplungepool:NA

Depthoftheriverabovethewaterfall.SeeAppendixB,Figure1.1

Height of the vertical drop: 72 2 m (Pythagoras, adjacent: 125 1m,

hypotenuse:1441m)

Depthofthecavebehindthewaterfall:NA

Lengthoftheoverhang:NA

Rock composition (type) top 3 layers: olivine basalt, bottom layers: ash and

debrisfromglacialdeposition-linkupwithrocksamples

22
 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of olivine pyroxene massive basalt:

114.5MPa(Rotondaetal.,2015)

Chemicalcompositionofwater:NA

Temperature:NA

Sedimentquantity:~0-NA

Discharge(yearlymean):5.09ms(EnvironmentCanada,2015)

Brandywinegrossdrainagearea:46.6km(EnvironmentofCanada,2015)

Pictures:

Rocktypes

Cave

Plungepool

360pictures

Bottomofthewaterfall

https://theta360.com/s/fYKbkhXfjE8D18morsjxnewqG

Abovethewaterfall

https://theta360.com/s/qaihqSg6QibhQaBLXXvSmj3gm

3Ddronemappingofthewholearea

http://drdp.ly/u8wjRL

23


AppendixB:RawData

1.1Widthanddepthmeasurements

Widthacross(m) Depth(m)

0.5 0.10

1.5 0.20

2.5 0.25

3.5 0.30

4.5 0.40

5.5 0.45

6.5 0.45

7.5 0.45

8.5 0.35

9.5 0.30

10.5 0.15

11.0 0.10

1.2Flowmeasurements.

Flow(ms)

Width across 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5

(m)

Measurement

no.

24
1 0.3 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.7 1.6 1.0 1.5 0.8 0.4

2 0.4 0.8 1.2 0.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.3 0.8 0.3

3 0.5 0.9 1.3 0.7 2.0 1.6 1.4 1.2 0.9 0.5

4 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.0 1.7 1.8 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.6

5 0.6 0.8 1.4 1.2 1.8 1.7 0.8 1.4 0.8 0.4

6 0.6 0.8 1.3 0.9 1.9 1.8 1.2 1.1 0.8 0.6

7 0.4 0.9 1.5 0.8 2.0 1.8 0.8 1.4 0.9 0.4

8 0.4 1.0 1.3 0.6 1.9 1.7 0.9 1.4 0.7 0.5

9 0.5 0.7 1.3 1.1 2.0 1.7 0.4 1.2 0.7 0.5

10 0.4 0.9 1.2 1.0 1.6 1.6 1.0 1.5 0.9 0.4

11 0.6 0.9 1.4 0.9 1.6 1.8 0.7 1.5 0.9 0.6

12 0.4 0.9 1.1 0.7 1.7 1.5 1.2 1.2 0.9 0.4

13 0.5 0.8 1.1 0.4 1.9 1.7 0.9 1.0 0.8 0.5

14 0.5 0.9 1.1 0.8 1.7 1.7 0.8 1.2 0.9 0.5

15 0.6 0.9 1.3 0.8 1.7 1.6 0.5 1.6 0.9 0.6

16 0.7 0.8 1.1 0.5 1.7 1.7 0.9 1.4 0.8 0.6

17 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.6 1.7 1.7 0.7 1.5 0.9 0.7

18 0.6 0.9 1.2 0.5 1.6 1.7 1.1 1.5 0.9 0.5

19 0.6 1.0 1.1 0.3 1.6 1.7 1.1 1.4 1.0 0.6

25
20 0.6 0.9 1.1 0.1 1.6 1.9 0.9 1.5 0.9 0.6

21 0.6 0.9 1.3 0.2 1.5 1.7 0.6 1.4 0.9 0.6

22 0.6 1.0 1.4 0.7 1.6 1.9 1.1 1.2 1.0 0.6

23 0.5 0.9 1.0 0.5 2.0 1.7 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.4

24 0.5 0.9 1.3 0.4 1.8 1.6 0.6 1.4 0.9 0.5

25 0.4 0.9 1.2 0.5 1.8 1.6 0.6 1.5 0.9 0.4

26 0.5 0.9 0.8 1.2 1.7 1.8 0.9 1.3 0.9 0.5

27 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.5 1.5 1.8 0.8 1.7 0.8 0.5

28 0.5 0.8 1.3 0.4 1.6 1.6 1.2 1.3 0.8 0.5

29 0.5 0.7 1.0 0.5 1.7 1.8 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.5

30 0.6 0.8 1.4 0.6 1.8 1.8 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.6

31 0.5 0.9 1.2 0.5 1.5 2.0 1.0 1.2 0.9 0.5

32 0.6 0.9 1.2 0.4 1.8 1.7 1.0 1.2 0.9 0.6

33 0.5 0.9 1.2 0.8 1.5 1.9 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.4

34 0.5 0.9 1.2 0.8 1.7 1.8 0.9 1.3 0.9 0.5

35 0.5 0.8 1.2 1.2 1.6 1.7 0.8 1.4 0.9 0.5

36 0.5 0.9 1.2 1.1 1.7 1.6 1.0 1.4 0.8 0.5

37 0.6 0.8 1.2 0.8 1.8 1.7 0.9 1.3 0.8 0.6

38 0.6 0.8 1.2 0.4 1.8 1.6 0.8 1.3 0.8 0.6

26
 39 0.6 0.9 1.0 0.4 1.9 1.6 0.7 1.3 0.9 0.6

40 0.6 0.8 1.2 0.6 1.7 1.7 0.9 1.3 0.9 0.4

Mean 0.53 0.87 1.20 0.69 1.73 1.72 0.91 1.31 0.86 0.51

Standard 0.092 0.069 0.141 0.291 0.144 0.105 0.249 0.191 0.074 0.088

deviation

Whole creek 1.03

mean flow

(ms)

27


Figure1.3OlivineBasaltsamplefromBrandywineFalls

28


AppendixC:UncertaintyCalculations

The uncertainties involved in our calculations stem from the measurementsoftheheightofthe

waterfall at 722m,thelengthofthewaterfalllipas111mandtheamountofrecessionas

30010m.Theseerrorsarethereforepropagatedthroughouttheequations(1),(2)and(3).

Firstexaminingtheinitialsourceoferrorinequation(2):

Q


FR = WH S (2)

The error of the width and height of the waterfall are first propagated in the first section of

equation(2):

2 2
W H = ( W
W ) + ( H
H )

(
2 2
2
W H = 1
11 ) + ( 72 ) = 73.661

W H = 792 73.661 m

Now,weproceedtopropagatingtheerrortothefulldimensionlessindex(FR):

( )
2 QS
F R = (F R) ( W
WH )
H
+ QS

F R = (1.90264 * 10
5

) ( 73.661
792 )
2
+
( 5.099*

0
1000
114.5*10
6 ) = 1.76958834 * 10
6

5 6
F R = 1.90264 * 10 1.76958834 * 10

29


As we now have the error for our dimensionless index (FR) we can then useitwithinequation

(3)todeterminetheerosionrateerror:

E = 99.7(F R)0.73 (3)

Thedimensionlessindexeserrorispropagatedasfollowing:
0.27
E = (99.7)(0.73)(F R) (F R)

5 0.27 6
E = (99.7)(0.73)(1.90264 * 10 ) (1.76958834 * 10 ) = 0.00242

1
E = 0.03569 0.00242 my

Finally, utilising the erosion rate error in equation (1) todeterminetheuncertaintyoftheageof

thewaterfall:
R
Y = E

Thefinaluncertaintyofthewaterfallsageisdetermined:

2 2
Y = (Y ) ( EE ) + ( Y
Y )

2 2
Y = (8404) ( 0.03569
0.00242
) + ( 300
10
) = 635
Y = 8400 600 years

AppendixD:AdditionalInformation

30
Sedimentinwaterfalls

Sediment in the waterfall has a significant effect on erosion. As riverspickupsediment

and rocks, thatsedimenterodesthesofterrockintheriverbed,leavingonlythehardgranite.As

the velocity of the rivers increases, erosion also increases, furthercarvingouttheriverbed.This

sediment has a strong influence the depthoftheplungepoolaswell,aswhenthewatercrashes

over the knickpoint intotheplungepoolsbelow,thesedimentfurthererodestheplungepoolas

it gets caught in the whirlpool (Scheingross & Lamb, 2016). This is twofold however, as other

sediment at the bottom of the plunge pool has the task of protecting the bedrock from further

erosion. The best measures of the bedrock below this sediment are taken during storms, after

the sediment is swept away from the storm and before new sediment takes its place (Gillies,

2012).

InsightsintotheCheakamusValleyrocktypesandformation.

Cheakamus Valley Basalts. Episodic eruptions produced a thick sequence of flat-lying

sparsely porphyritic olivine basalts (Fig. 4) that overlie an ice-scoured valley floor and locally

bury thin accumulations of fluvioglacial sand and gravel (Mathews, 1958). A whole-rock K-Ar

analysis of the stratigraphically youngest flow of the early episode ofvolcanismgivesadateof

0.05 0.05 Ma (MG36-4). Advance and subsequent retreat of a continental (Salmon Springs

Glaciation) ice sheet is indicated by thin layers of lacustrine silt and clay and underlying till

sandwiched between younger plagiophyric basalts and the earlier olivine basalts north of

Brandywine Falls (Fig. 3). Wood contained in the lacustrinesedimentyieldsaradiocarbondate

of 34,200 800 yr B.P. (GSC- 2169; Green, 1981). This date is correlative with the Olympia

Interstade, the non glacial interval preceding the Fraser Glaciation (Fulton and others, 1976).

The K-Ar and radiocarbon chronologies are not in conflict. The overlying plagiophyric basalts

31
occur as anastomosing flow unitsthatstandasisolatedridgesabovetheglaciatedsurfaceofthe

older flows.Theabsenceoferosionalfeaturesattributabletoglaciationsuggeststhattheseflows

erupted during the waning stages of Fraser Glaciation, possibly by passage of lava along

trenchesthroughtheicesheetformedbyheatedmeltwater(Mathews,1958).

AnimationoftherecessionoftheBrandywineFalls

Theanimationcanbefoundat:https://youtu.be/UQz-kwDNISI

32