Kirchhoffs Law: -

First Law or Junction Rule: -

I1 I5
I4
I2 I3

It states that in any closed circuit the algebraic sum if the currents meeting at a
point or junction is zero. The currents entering the point is taken as positive and the
currents leaving the point or junction is taken as negative.
Or
It states that in any closed circuit the algebraic sum if the currents entering any
point or junction is equal to the algebraic sum if the currents leaving that point or
junction.
Mathematically
I1 I 2 I 3 I 4 I 5 0
I1 I3 I 2 I 4 I5

Second Law or Loop Rule: -

It states that in a closed circuit in any loop the sum of the products of the
resistances and current flowing through them in a loop of a closed circuit in is equal to
the sum of applied E.M.F in that loop of a closed circuit.

E2 I3
R3
I4 R
4

I2
R5 R2
I5 R1
I1 E1
Mathematically
I1R 1 I 2 R 2 I 3R 3 I 4 R 4 I 5 R 5 E1 E 2
Bridge Circuit: -
A combination of five resistances connected as shown in the figure is called Bridge
Circuit. Let Z is the equivalent resistance of the Bridge Circuit therefore if current I is flowing
through the circuit then according to Ohms Law the potential difference across AD is given by
V IZ 1
Also the potential difference across AD is given by
V VAB VBD
V I1P I I1 R 2
From equation (1) and equation (2) we gets
IZ I1P I I1 R 3
B
I1 I 2
P
I1 I2 R
I A D I
X
I I1 S
Q
C I I1 I 2
At the junction A current I divides into two parts, let I1 passes through resistance P
then according to Kirchhoffs junction rule the current through resistance Q is I I1 . Similarly
at the junction B current I1 divides into two parts, let I 2 passes through resistance X then
current I1 I 2 will pass through resistance R. And again applying Kirchhoffs junction rule at
the junction C the current passing through resistance S is I I1 I 2 .
Now applying Kirchhoffs loop rule in the loop ABCA we gets
I1P I 2 X I I1 Q 0 [Because there is no cell connected in the loop]
I1P I 2 X IQ I1Q 0
I1 P Q I 2 X IQ 4
Similarly in the loop BDCB
I1 I2 R I I1 I2 S I2X 0
I1R I 2 R IS I1S I 2S I 2 X 0
I1R I1S I 2 R I 2S I 2 X IS
I1 R S I 2 R S X IS 5
Solving equation (4) and equation (5) we can find the values of I1 and I 2 in terms of
I and putting these values in equation (3) we can find the value of Z.
For balanced Wheatstone Bridge Circuit the point B and Point C are at the same
potential. Therefore the current flowing through the resistance X is zero, mathematically
I2 0
Therefore from equation (4)
I1 P Q 0 X IQ
I1P I1Q IQ
I1P IQ I1Q
I1P I I1 Q 6
And putting I 2 0 in equation (5) we get
I1 R S 0 R S X IS
 I1R I1S 0 IS
I1R IS I1S
I1R I I1 S 7
Dividing equation (6) by equation (7) we get
I1P I I1 Q

I1R I I1 S
P Q

R S
P R

Q S
This is the principle of Wheatstone Bridge Circuit which states that if the ratio of arms
resistances is same then the current through the cross resistance is zero and the Bridge
Circuit become equivalent to as shown below
B
I1
P
I1 R
I A D I

I I1 S
Q
C I I1
Potentiometer : -
It consists of a long wire of uniform area of cross section, connected across the battery
through an ammeter and a rheostat so that current through the potentiometer wire is kept
constant. Potentiometer is based upon the principle that when constant current is passed
through the wire of uniform area of cross section then the potential difference across any
portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion of the wire.

k E _
A
Rh

l P
B
A
I J
I
V

Suppose in a potentiometer, a wire AB of uniform area of cross section A is connected

across a battery of E.M.F. E through a rheostat R h , a ammeter and key K as shown in the
diagram. When key is closed, let current through the potentiometer wire is I. According to
Ohms Law the potential difference V, across the portion AP of length l of the potentiometer
wire, is given by
V IR 1
Where R is the resistance of potentiometer wire of length l and is given by

R l 2
A
 Here '' is the resistivity of the material of the potentiometer wire. From equation (1)
and equation (2) we get

VI l
A
I
V l 3
A
If the current through the potentiometer wire remains same, then the quantities with in the
bracket are constant, therefore
Vl
` That is if current through the potentiometer wire of uniform area of cross section is
constant, the potential difference along the potentiometer wire is directly proportional to the
length of the wire. This is the statement of principle of potentiometer.

Uses of potentiometer: -
1. To compare the E.M.F.s of two cells: -
Suppose in a potentiometer, a wire AB of uniform area of cross section A is connected
across a battery of E.M.F. E through a rheostat R h , a ammeter and key k as shown in the
diagram. When key k is closed, let current I passes through the potentiometer wire is from
A to B.
E
k _
A
Rh
l1 P
A B
I J
E1 I 2
1
E2 3 G

Now connect the positive poles of the two cells of E.M.F. ' E1 ' and ' E 2 ' to the point
A of the potentiometer and negative poles to the terminal 2 and terminal 3 of the two
way key. Connect common terminal 1 of the two ways key to the jockey J through a
galvanometer as shown in the diagram.
When the terminal 1 of the two ways key is connected to the terminal 2 the cell of
E.M.F. ' E1 ' comes in the circuit, then slide the jockey J on the potentiometer wire and
find the balancing point P where the galvanometer shows no deflection. That is no current
is flowing through the cell of E.M.F. ' E1 ' and potential difference across AP is equal to
E.M.F. ' E1 ' of the first cell. Let the balancing length AP is ' l1 ' , then according to
principle of potentiometer
E1 l1 1
Similarly the terminal 1 of the two ways key is connected to the terminal 3 the cell of
E.M.F. ' E 2 ' comes in the circuit, then let the balancing length is ' l 2 ' , then according to
principle of potentiometer
E 2 l2 2
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2) we gets
 E1 l1

E 2 l2
Therefore by finding the values of ' l1 ' and ' l 2 ' we can compare the E.M.F.s of two
cells

2. To find the internal resistance of a cell: -

Suppose in a potentiometer, a wire AB of uniform area of cross section A is connected
across a battery of E.M.F. ' E o ' through a rheostat R h , a ammeter and key ' k1 ' as shown
in the diagram. When key ' k1 ' is closed, let current I passes through the potentiometer
wire is from A to B.
k1 _
A
Rh

l1 P
A B
I J
EI
G
k2
S

Now connect the positive poles of the cell of E.M.F. E and internal resistance r to the
point A of the potentiometer and negative poles to the jockey J through a galvanometer.
Also connect a resistance box and key ' k 2 ' parallel to the cell of E.M.F. E. When key
' k 2 ' is open then slide the jockey J on the potentiometer wire and find the balancing point
P where the galvanometer shows no deflection. That is no current is flowing through the
cell of E.M.F. E and potential difference across AP is equal to E.M.F. E of the cell. Let
the balancing length AP is ' l1 ' , then according to principle of potentiometer
E l1 1
Similarly when the key ' k 2 ' is closed and resistance R is introduced from the
resistance box, then let the balancing length is ' l 2 ' . At the balancing point the galvanometer
shows no deflection. That is no current is flowing through the galvanometer but the current
through the cell of E.M.F. E is not zero. Therefore the potential difference across AP is
equal to the potential difference V across the cell of E.M.F. E which according to principle
of potentiometer is
V l2 2
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2) we get
E l1
3
V l2
Now the internal resistance r of the cell is given by
E
r 1 R
V
 l1
r 1 R [From equation (3)]
l2
l l
r 1 2 R
l2
Hence by finding the values of R, ' l1 ' and ' l 2 ' we can find the internal resistance r
of the cell.

3. To measure the potential difference across the Resistance: -

Suppose in a potentiometer, a wire AB of uniform area of cross section A is
connected across a battery of E.M.F. E through a rheostat R h , a ammeter and key k as
shown in the diagram. When key k is closed, let current I passes through the
potentiometer wire is from A to B.

k E _
A
Rh

P
A B
I J
I
G

Io R
C D
Suppose we want to find the potential difference across the resistance R through
which current ' Io ' is passing from point C to point D as shown in the figure. Connect the
point C to point A and point D to jockey J through a galvanometer. Now slide the
jockey J on the potentiometer wire and find the balancing point P where the galvanometer
shows no deflection. That is no current is flowing through the galvanometer and between
point A and point C. Therefore the potential difference across AP is equal to potential
difference V across the resistance R. Let the balancing length AP is ' l' , then according
to principle of potentiometer
V IR o 1
Here R o is the resistance of the potentiometer wire of length l and is given by
l
Ro [The symbol '' is the resistivity of the potentiometer
A
wire]
Putting this value in equation (1) we get
l
V I
A

l
V I
A
Hence by finding the values of I, A, ' l' and '' we can find the potential; difference
V across the current carrying resistance. Potentiometer is preferred than Voltmeter to
 measure the potential difference, as during measurement of potential difference,
Potentiometer draws no current from the circuit. Therefore the potentiometer always gives
the accurate value of the potential difference where as Voltmeter reading is always less than
the actual potential difference. Because Voltmeter when connected parallel to the circuit
draws some current from the circuit, therefore the current through the circuit decreases and
hence the potential difference will decrease.

Grouping of cells: -
1. Series Combination: -
In series combination, the negative terminal of one cell is connected to the positive
terminal of the other cell and so on. Let two cells of E.M.F.s E1 , E 2 and internal
resistances r1 , r2 respectively are connected to an external resistance R as shown in the
figure. As the internal resistances of the two cells are in series, therefore the internal
resistance r of the equivalent cell is given by
r r1 r2 1

I
E 1 r1 E 2 r2 I
E r
I R I R

If I is the current flowing through the circuit then according to Kirchhoffs Loop Rule
Ir1 Ir2 IR E 1 E 2
I r1 r2 R E 1 E 2
I r R E 1 E 2 2
Let the E.M.F. of the equivalent cell is E then same current I will flow when
equivalent cell is connected to external resistance R. Again applying Kirchhoffs Loop
Rule we get
Ir IR E
I r R E 3
From equation (2) and equation (3) we get
E E1 E 2 4

2. Parallel Combination: -
In parallel combination, the negative terminals of all the cells are connected to one
point and the positive terminals to the other point. Let parallel combination of two cells of
E.M.F.s E1 , E 2 and internal resistances r1 , r2 respectively are connected to an external
resistance R as shown in the figure. As the internal resistances of the two cells are in
parallel, therefore the internal resistance r of the equivalent cell is given by
1 1 1

r r1 r2
1 r2 r1

r r1r2
 r1r2
r 1
r1 r2

I1E 1 r1
I
A
I 2 r2
B
I
E r
P
E F
E2 I R
I
D C
R
Let the current flowing through the first cell is I1 , through the second cell is I 2 and
through the resistance R is I. Therefore applying Kirchhoffs Junction Rule at the
junction P we get
I1 I 2 I 2
In the loop ABCDA applying Kirchhoffs Loop Rule we get
I1 r1 IR E 1 3
Multiply both sides by ' r2 '
I1 r1 r2 IRr2 E 1 r2 4
Similarly applying Kirchhoffs Loop Rule in the loop CDEFC we get
I 2 r2 IR E 2 5
Multiply both sides by ' r1 '
I 2 r1 r2 IRr1 E 2 r1 6
Adding equation (4) and equation (6) we get
I1 r1 r2 IRr2 I 2 r1 r2 IRr1 E 1 r2 E 2 r1
I1 r1 r2 I 2 r1 r2 IRr2 IRr1 E 1 r2 E 2 r1
I1 I 2 r1r2 IR r2 r1 E1r2 E 2 r1
Ir1 r2 IR r1 r2 E 1 r2 E 2 r1 [From equation (2) I1 I 2 I ]
Divide by r1 r2
Ir1 r2 IR r1 r2 E1 r2 E 2 r1

r1 r2 r1 r2 r1 r2
Ir1 r2 E r E 2 r1
IR 1 2
r1 r2 r1 r2
r1r2 E r E 2 r1
I R 1 2
r1 r2 r1 r2
r1r2
Putting the value of from equation (1) we get
r1 r2
E r E 2 r1
I r R 1 2 7
r1 r2
Let the E.M.F. of the equivalent cell is E then same current I will flow when
equivalent cell is connected to external resistance R. Again applying Kirchhoffs Loop
Rule we get
I r R E 8
Comparing equation (7) and equation (8) we get
 E 1 r2 E 2 r1
E
r1 r2

3. Mixed combination: -
4. h