Energy and Buildings 67 (2013) 136142

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Energy and Buildings

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Semi-transparent PV windows: A study for ofce buildings in Brazil

Evelise Leite Didon , Andreas Wagner
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Building Science Group (fbta), Englerstrae 7, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany1

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This research aims to develop a methodology for the evaluation of the potential energy saving and energy
Received 5 February 2013 generation of semi-transparent PV windows in Brazilian ofce buildings. The evaluation is based on
Received in revised form 29 July 2013 computer simulations: a daylighting simulation for the investigation of the available annual daylight
Accepted 3 August 2013
with different window systems using Daysim/Radiance program and the simulation of the energetic
performance using the program EnergyPlus. The simulations were accomplished for two cities in two
Keywords:
different climatic zones of Brazil and compared to a German city. The results show that it is possible
Energy efciency
to reduce the energy consumption for articial lighting and air-conditioning using appropriate control
Semi-transparent photovoltaic window
Building simulation
systems and furthermore to generate energy using semi-transparent photovoltaic panels in windows.
Though only one building geometry was analyzed the results suggest that the potential of this technology
is high in Brazil.
2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The growing consumption of energy in developed and devel-
oping countries is becoming an important issue to be faced by the
economies of these countries. The percentage of energy consump-
tion of buildings relative to the overall energy use has grown in
the last years due to the increasing amount of electrical devices.
In Brazil, 48% of the produced electricity is consumed within
buildings. This consumption is distributed among the residential,
commercial and public buildings. In the case of commercial and
public buildings, HVAC (47%) and articial light (22%) are the main
loads [1].
In recent years, semi-transparent BIPV modules have been used
as part of the facade for energy efciency and esthetic consider-
ations. The use of BIPV inuences the energy demand for heating,
cooling and lighting as well as the thermal and visual comfort inside
the building. A BIPV system can replace traditional building mate-
rials when integrated into the building envelope and it does not
require extra installation space. Some studies have been conducted
on semi-transparent PV modules as windows [29]. For a building
in Tokyo one of the studies showed that energy savings of 54% are
possible using semi-transparent PV modules in windows [6].
PV and BIPV are widely used in countries such as Germany,
Japan, Spain and the United States. In Brazil they are rarely used
up to now [10]. However, due to the large amount of incident solar
Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 72160842178; fax: +49 72160846092.
E-mail addresses: evelise.didone@kit.edu, evelisedidone@gmail.com
(E. Leite Didon), wagner@kit.edu (A. Wagner).
1
http://fbta.arch.kit.edu
radiation, PV systems are very well suited for energy generation in
Brazil and they will probably play a signicant role in the future
energy generation of this country [1114].
This work evaluates the potential for saving and generating
energy in ofce buildings by the use of semi-transparent photo-
voltaic panels in windows. Except the presenting the energetic
behavior of the semi-transparent PV windows they are compared
to other window types used in Brazil to determine the optimal
window type for a given climate and orientation.
2. Methodology
2.1. Building model
A representative model for Brazilian ofce buildings was cho-
sen. The building characteristics, materials and internal heat loads
were obtained from previous studies [15]. For the simulations a
room with a base area of 8 m 11 m and a height of 2.7 m was used
(Figs. 1 and 2). Table 1 presents the summary with the x variables
of the building.
An optional automatic dimming system to control articial
lighting was used in some of the simulations. The system turned
articial lighting on or off when daylight reached 500 lx, according
to NBR 5413 [16].
Simulations were made for models with different window to
wall ratios (WWR) of the main facade: case M1 with WWR < 50%,
which represents the most common window size in Brazilian ofce
buildings and case M2 with WWR > 50%, which represents ofce
buildings with large windows (Figs. 1 and 2).
For each group ve different window systems were analyzed.
One is a single glass window with 6 mm thickness that represents

0378-7788/$ see front matter 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.08.002
 E. Leite Didon, A. Wagner / Energy and Buildings 67 (2013) 136142 137

Fig. 1. Scheme of the model geometry for M1 with WWR < 50% (window
area = 8 m2 ).
Fig. 3. Schematic of the PV window.

regarded the building as detached and the surrounding was not

considered.

2.1.1. Semi-transparent PV window

The used semi-transparent PV window consists of a double
glazed window with an encapsulated solar cell layer between the
glass panes. The window is composed of two glass layers with a
thickness of 3 mm separated by an air lled 12 mm wide gap. The
PV cell is placed at the inner side of the exterior glass.
Fig. 2. Scheme of the model geometry for M2 with WWR > 50% (window To increase the photovoltaic performance a low iron solar glass
area = 16 m2 ). was used for the outside pane. For the interior glazing a low-E
coated glass was used to prevent the heat generated by the PV from
Table 1 entering the building (Fig. 3).
Summary with x variables [15]. Two windows with different PV solar cell types were evaluated.
Wall 2.47
One organic solar cell with a cell efciency of 3% and transmittance
Thermal transmittance [W/m2 K]
Roof 2.42 of 30% [D] [19] and a Schott ASI thru solar cell with an efciency
of 5% and a transmittance of 8% [E] [20] (Table 3).
Thermal capacity [kJ/(m2 K)] Wall 200
Roof 187 The encapsulated PV cell was modeled and applied to the outer
glass pane as a thin lm within the Optics 6 program. For this pur-
Absorptance Wall 0.65
Roof 0.70
pose the PV was modeled as an applied lm. For the modeling of
the lm itself a le was made with the spectral data of the PV con-
Average occupancy [m2 /person] 14.7
taining the transmittance, front reectance and back reectance
2
Internal gains [W/m ] Lighting 8.0 for different wavelengths. Then, the le was imported into Optics
Equipment 9.7 6 where the thin lm could be added to the low iron glass. Finally,
Occupation [h] Occupancy 8 am to 6 pm the glass with thin lm was imported into the WINDOW 7 program
Lighting 8 am to 6 pm where the window system could be modeled and simulated. Both
Equipment Schedule programs are a publicly available computer programs for calculat-
HVAC Type Window unit ing optical and thermal performance indices of windows systems
Set point 1824 C [17,18].
Cooling capacity [BTU/h] Autosize
COP [W/W] 2.8
2.2. Building locations

the most common window used in Brazilian ofce buildings. The
other models use a double glazing insulated window (IGU) with dif-
ferent glazing properties (Table 2). All windows have a vinyl frame
with a U-value of 1.70 W/(m2 K).
For the reference model (base) the single glass window was
used. The articial lighting system was switched on throughout
the whole occupation period, no photoelectric sensor or dimming
system and no PV window was used.
The models were evaluated for the four cardinal orientations:
North (0 ), East (90 ), South (180 ) and West (270 ). The simulation
The simulations were carried out for two Brazilian capital cities,
Fortaleza/CE and Florianopolis/SC and compared with the Germany
city Frankfurt. These cities were selected based on their geographic
location and climatic differences (Table 4). The weather data for
the cities were obtained from the website of the U.S. Department
of Energy [21].
A study about the temperature and the solar radiation incident
on the facades facing the four cardinal orientations (East, North,
West and South) was performed to compare the weather charac-
teristics of the three cities [21].

Table 2
Windows properties [17,18].

Window Conguration U-Factor [W/(m2 K)] VT SHGC

[A] Single glass Clear 6 mm 5.82 0.88 0.82

[B] Double glazing Clear 3 mm/air 12 mm/clear 3 mm 2.73 0.81 0.76
[C] Low-E double glazing Low-E 2# 3 mm/air 12 mm/clear 3 mm 1.68 0.70 0.40
[D] Organic PV Low iron 3 mm/organic PV/air 12 mm/low-E 3# 3 mm 1.67 0.23 0.22
[E] A-SI Thru PV Low iron 3 mm/A-SI Thru PV/Air 12 mm/low-E 3# 3 mm 1.67 0.09 0.13
138 E. Leite Didon, A. Wagner / Energy and Buildings 67 (2013) 136142

Table 3
Semi-transparent PV windows layers properties [1720].

Layer Thickness [mm] Conductivity [W/(m K)] Reectance () [%] Absorption () [%] Transmittance () [%] Efciency [%]

Glass outside 3 1.114 8.1 1.2 90.7

Air gap 12 0.024069
Glass inside 3 1.114 42.2 16.6 41.2
Organic 0.05 0.24 10.0 60.0 30.0 3.0
A-SI Thru 2 0.19 12.5 79.5 8.0 5.2

Table 4 with integrated PV window was divided into two parts: energy
Geographical positions of the cities.
consumption and electricity generation. A scheme of the building
City Latitude Longitude Altitude Region/country energy performance analysis can be seen in Fig. 5. The energy ben-
(m) ets of BIPV systems are based on three effects, electricity saving of
Fortaleza/CE 3 78 (S) 38 53 (W) 25 Northeast/Brazil the articial lighting system and the HVAC system and electricity
Florianopolis/SC 27 67 (S) 48 55 (W) 5 South/Brazil generation from the PV.
Frankfurt (Main) 50 05 (N) 8 60 (E) 113 Germany

2.3.1. Energy consumption

As the Brazilian cities Fortaleza and Florianopolis are located
in the southern hemisphere the winter months are between June
and August. In contrast, for the German city Frankfurt, which
is located in the northern hemisphere, the winter months are
between December and February. Florianopolis, on the southern
coast of Brazil, presents temperatures along the year around 20 C.
In the winter months (JuneAugust) the temperatures can be as low
as 5 C. The second city, Fortaleza, is located on the northeast coast.
It shows a higher annual average temperature of around 25 C.
Frankfurt, in Germany, presents the largest temperature range of
the three cities, ranging from 33 C in summer to 9 C in winter. It
is interesting to note that the maximum temperatures for the three
cities are quite similar. They range only between 30 C and 35 C.
As shown in Fig. 4, the solar radiation level changes accord-
ing to the facade orientation. Florianopolis and Fortaleza which
are located in the southern hemisphere show a similar behavior
but with different radiation levels for the same facade. Frankfurt
presents considerably different radiation intensities compared to
the Brazilian cities. The West and East facades show similar radia-
tion levels for the three cities, though the annual change is highest
in Frankfurt. In Fortaleza the highest radiation values are attained
for the West facade, in Florianopolis for the North facade and in
Frankfurt for the South facade. In Fig. 4 are shown some exemplary
temperature and radiation curves for the three cities.
According to Fig. 4, the facades with the highest solar radiation
levels and therefore the best orientations for windows with inte-
grated semi-transparent PV are: North in Florianopolis, East and
West in Fortaleza and South in Frankfurt.
2.3. Building analyses
For the overall energy performance of the building different
window system were investigated. The analysis of the building
For all models the thermal simulations were performed with
EnergyPlus which also calculates all electrical consumptions i.e.
cooling, heating, equipment and lighting. For the models using an
articial lighting control system the data of Daysim/RADIANCE was
used as input for the thermal simulation. This is possible due to the
use of the report provided by Daysim/RADIANCE, which provides
data for assessing daylight and thus delivers hourly data for the
activation of the articial lighting through an automatic control.
In order to determine the daylight present in the work plane, the
internal environment was divided into small rectangular, equally
sized areas in which the averaged intensity is measured centrally.
The so formed grid of measurement points is located on a hori-
zontal surface located 0.75 m above the oor. The measurement
points have a spacing of 1.00 m apart from each other and 0.50 m
distant from the wall. To determine the incident lighting intensity
a photoelectric sensor was placed at all points of the measurement
grid.
The lighting control system of Daysim/RADIANCE contains a
dimming control using a photoelectric sensor. It adjusts the inten-
sity of the articial lighting system, according to the available
daylight, and keeps the lighting level in the environment constant.
The lighting is activated by a single on/off switch near the door and
the photocell consumes 2 W in standby.
2.3.2. Electricity generation
As it is not possible to directly model a semi-transparent PV
window in EnergyPlus it was necessary to calculate the electricity
generation of the PV cells as well as the total energy consumption
separately.
Another drawback of EnergyPlus is that there is no possibility to
obtain temperatures inside a window. This is important, as for a cor-
rect calculation of the generated electricity the PV cell temperature

Fig. 4. Annual behavior of temperature and solar radiation for the three cities.
 E. Leite Didon, A. Wagner / Energy and Buildings 67 (2013) 136142 139

Fig. 5. Flowchart for the determination of the building performance.

must be known. Hence some external heat transfer calculations

were necessary to determine the PV cell temperature.
These were done using the following simplications. I.e. the
window frame and temperature conduction through the window
frame are not considered, neither is the heat stored inside. The glass
temperature and the temperatures inside the window system are
calculated for each time step of the building simulation assuming
non-transient conditions for that instant of time.
As in EnergyPlus the available daylight as well as the ther-
mal balance should be calculated correctly the window model was
adapted. A semi-transparent PV window transmits light, generates
heat and electricity. But as it is not possible in EnergyPlus to con-
sider energy with a window the amount of electricity generated
from the incident light must be either transformed into a heat gain,
transmitted light or reected light. Transforming it into transmit-
ted light would cause an overestimation of the available daylight Fig. 6. Detailed scheme for solar radiation balance.
inside. Increasing the absorption by the amount of the generated
electricity would cause an extra heating up of the window and thus
lead to an overestimation of the required cooling energy.
Therefore the generated electricity was considered as an
additional reectance of the front surface of the outside glass. Con-
sequently the reection of the outside glass, as it is used within
EnergyPlus is calculated by:

EP =  + (1  )PV (1)

With EP is reectance used in EnergyPlus; , glass absorption; PV ,

solar cell efciency; and  is glass reection.
The reason therefore is: (1  ) is the normalized fraction of
light that reaches the PV and which is partly converted into elec-
tricity. The major part of the solar energy is transformed into heat
only about 3% will generate electricity for organic solar cell and 5.2%
for A-SI Thru and this fraction is added as additional reection. Fig. 7. Detailed scheme for heat transfer.
As the EnergyPlus simulation fully integrates the heat gains
caused by the PV window and gives as output variables the surface
To calculate the temperature of the PV layer, the temperature
temperature of the window (see also Section 2.1.1), the convective
inside the outer glass pane has to be calculated by solving the heat
heat transfer to the outside and the radiation heat loss to the out-
balance equations below [8].
side, the calculation of the PV temperature is uncomplicated. Only
From the heat balance of the outside glass surface, given in Eq.
the heat uxes and temperatures inside the window system have
(2), the heat transfer into the glass pane, q cond1 , can be calculated.
to be calculated and it is only necessary to calculate the heat uxes
from one direction to the PV as the surface temperature of the out- q conv0 + q rad0 + q cond1 = 0 (2)
side glass already includes absorptions and heat transfers inside
the window. With the heat transfer out of Eq. (2) the core temperature of the
Fig. 6 shows details of the model where the incident solar radia- outside glass pane, G , is calculated using Eq. (3), readily rewritten
tion on the external surface is partially reected (), transmitted () in Eq. (4).
and absorbed () by the outside glass pane and PV layer. In Fig. 7 the
1
locations where temperatures were calculated and the incoming q cond1 = (G s ) (3)
and outgoing heat transfers used in the equations are shown. R(1/2)glass
140 E. Leite Didon, A. Wagner / Energy and Buildings 67 (2013) 136142
Fig. 8. Energy generated.
G = q cond1 R(1/2)glass + S
The heat transfer between the outside glass pane and the encap-
sulated PV, node PV , is determined from the heat balance of the
outside glass pane Eq. (5). To solve Eq. (5), for the temperature of the
PV layer, the absorbed solar energy in the rst glass pane must be
calculated using Eq. (6). For the calculation of the absorbed energy
the reection and absorption coefcients of the glass are used.
q cond1 + q cond2 + q abs1 = 0
q abs1 = q sol (1 )
Finally the searched PV temperature is calculated by Eq. (7) refor-
mulated in Eq. (8).
1
q cond2 = (PV G )
R(1/2)glass,(1/2)PV
PV = R(1/2)glass,(1/2)PV (q cond1 q abs1 ) + G
With q conv , is convective heat [W/m2 ]; q rad , radiated heat [W/m2 ];
q cond , heat conduction [W/m2 ]; q abs , absorbed heat [W/m2 ]; S , out-
side glass surface temperature [ C]; G outside glass temperature
[ C]; PV , solar cell temperature [ C]; and R is thermal resistance
[(m2 K)/W].
The generated electricity [22] can then be calculated by mul-
tiplying the result of (9) by the window area. The temperature
coefcient of maximum power output, K, was obtained from the
PV manufacturer. The value for organic PV is +0.05%/ C and for A-SI
Thru is 0.2%/ C [23,24]:
q el = q sol (1 )(1 )PV [1 + K(PV 25)]
With q el is generated electricity [W/m2 ];
q sol , solar radiation
[W/m2 ]; PV , solar cell temperature [ C]; PV , solar cell efciency;
, glass absorption; , glass reection; and K is temperature coef-
cient of maximum power output.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. PV energy generation
The energy generated by the semi-transparent PV window for
the M2 ofce model is presented in Fig. 8. For all orientations the
Brazilian cities show more potential to generate energy with PV
windows than the German city. Fortaleza achieves the highest value
with both PV window types: 798.6 kWh/year with the ASI Thru PV
and 493.6 kWh/year with organic PV. As expected regarding the
climatic data, east and west facades present the highest levels of
energy generation.
According to the higher cell efciency of the ASI Thru PV in the
others cities the highest energy generation was also achieved with
Fig. 9. PV temperature for window with organic PV.
this PV window. In Florianopolis the north facade yields the highest
(4) energy generation with 750.3 kWh/year and in Frankfurt the south
facade with 591.8 kWh/year, both with the ASI Thru window. In
all cases the generated electricity of the M1 ofce model (window
with 8 m2 ) is almost the half as for M2 model (window with 16 m2 ).
Fig. 9 shows the annual course of the maximum temperature of
the PV window in comparison with Low-E window and the outside
temperature. The graphics is for a West facade in Fortaleza where
the highest PV temperature with organic PV was obtained. The PV
(5) temperature can reach about 69 C in summer months, which is
35% more than the low-E window temperature and 54% more than
(6) the maximal outside temperature of 32 C.
3.2. Building consumption
(7) Figs. 10 and 11 show the energy consumption and savings for the
four facades for all models. The ve window models were compared
(8) with the [base] model in order to compare the used and generated
energy.
The energy consumption of the installed electrical equipment is
not presented in the graphics since the value is 3638.04 kWh/year
in all cases. A heating system was integrated in the simulation but
it remained unused. In Fortaleza only cooling is required due to the
climatic conditions and in Florianopolis the internal gains of the
electrical equipment and occupancy were sufcient to heat up the
room in winter months.
The use of photoelectric sensors and a dimming system to con-
trol articial lighting according to daylight availability resulted in
a decrease of the consumed electricity and consequently reduced
(9) the HVAC load in all cases compared to the base model.
The Brazilian cities presented different total energy consump-
tions according to the facade orientation. In Florianopolis, the south
Fig. 10. Energy consumption and savings for the model M2 in Florianopolis.
 E. Leite Didon, A. Wagner / Energy and Buildings 67 (2013) 136142 141

Table 5
Classication of the windows performance by city and orientation.

City Orientation Window

[A] Single glazing window [B] Double glazing window [C] Low-E window [D] Organic PV window [E] ASI Thru window

Florianopolis North 12 12 3 4 5
East 2 1 3 4 5
South 5 2 4 1 3
West 2 1 34 34 5

Fortaleza North 1 3 5 2 4
East 1 2 34 34 5
South 1 2 34 34 5
West 1 2 3 4 5

facade showed the lowest nal energy consumption although the

consumption caused by lighting was highest. This agrees with the
expectations as it is the orientation that receives least sunlight due
to its geographical location. In Fortaleza, the orientation with the
lowest consumption values is north. In general, Fortaleza shows
higher total energy consumption than Florianopolis and more elec-
tricity is generated by the PV window. But Florianopolis showed a
higher percentage of energy saving considering the energy gener-
ated and consumed.
The window systems caused a different energy consumption
behavior of the building. The use of a PV window can save up to
43% of energy. In some cases, the use of a low-E window saves
more energy than a PV window, as for the North facade in Fortaleza
with an energy saving of 37% against 29%. In others cases the low-
E window achieved values similar to the organic PV window [D].
The single glass [A] and double glass [B] windows presented similar Fig. 12. Energy consumption for the M1 and M2 cases for the North facade in Flori-
energy saving values in most cases. anopolis.
The use of semi-transparent PV windows resulted in an energy
saving for HVAC, since the window has a solar transmittance of A summary classication of the windows performance is pre-
only 30% and 8%, respectively for [D] and [E] cases. Consequently, sented in Table 5. For the classication, the number 5 represents
less solar radiation enters the building and less cooling energy is the best performance and number 1 the worst performance.
required. However, due to the reduced visible transmission the
energy consumption for articial lighting increases. This could be
4. Conclusion
partly compensated using the lighting control system.
Fig. 12 shows the inuence of the window size on the over-
The present work examined the potential of different win-
all energy consumption for the M1 and M2 case for the North
dow systems for energy reductions including daylighting control
facade in Florianopolis. The window with a WWR < 50% has a higher
for ofce buildings for two Brazilian cities with different climate.
consumption for lighting since less daylight enters the building,
Though only one building geometry was analyzed the results sug-
compared to a WWR > 50%. In contrast the bigger window causes
gest that it exists a high potential for this technology in Brazil.
a higher consumption for HVAC as more heat reaches the inside.
The EnergyPlus program is a useful tool for building energy
In summary, the windows without PV and a WWR < 50% showed a
performance analysis in combination with BIPV installations.
lower total energy consumption than the ones with a WWR > 50%.
As semi-transparent photovoltaic windows cannot be simulated
Whilst the PV windows with a WWR > 50% lead to a lower overall
directly the generated electrical energy has to be calculated using
energy consumption, since the energy generated by PV was two
a spreadsheet program. Finally the combination of EnergyPlus and
times higher.
Daysim/RADIANCE allows an integrated simulation including day-
lighting analysis by calculating the annual energy consumption
with EnergyPlus, using the data created by Daysim.
The results demonstrate a considerable potential for solar
energy generation in the two Brazilian cities. In Fortaleza more
energy was generated than in Florianopolis. But the total energy
saving in Florianopolis is with 43% higher than in Fortaleza with
39%. Adapting the building typology and materials according to
the climatic characteristics of the building site can reduce energy
consumption for lighting and HVAC.
Finally, the evaluated window systems show different results
according to the facade and the city. The single glass window, which
is the most commonly used window type in Brazilian ofce build-
ings, showed similar values as the double glass window. The low-E
window presented the overall best performance for the South
facade in Florianopolis and the North facade in Fortaleza, which are
the facades that receive less solar radiation. For the other facades
Fig. 11. Energy consumption and savings for the model M2 in Fortaleza. the PV window presented overall best energetic performance.
142 E. Leite Didon, A. Wagner / Energy and Buildings 67 (2013) 136142
Acknowledgement
We would like to acknowledge the Research Funding Institution,
CAPES, for providing nancial support to accomplish this project.
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