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CYCLOPEDIA
or
BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
VOLUMK II.
CYCLOPEDIA
or
BIBLICAL LITERATURE
EDITED BY
IN TWO VOLUMES.
vol. n.
NEW YORK:
MARK H. NEWMAN, 199 BROADWAY.
CINCINNATI:
WILLIAM H. MOORE & CO- 110 MAIN STREET.
CYCLOPEDIA
OF
BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
IBZAN. IDDO.
IBZAN (tV?X, illustrious ; Sept. 'Affaiaadr), two and three miles, beyond which are suburbs
the tenth 'judge of Israel.' He was of Bethle not much less populous than the town itself. The
hem, probably the Bethlehem of Zebulun and not walls, strong and lofty, and flanked with square
of Judah. He governed Beven years. The pro towers, which, at the gates, are placed close to
sperity of Ibzan is marked by the great number gether [see cut, No. 317], were built by the Sel-
of his children (thirty sons and thirty daughters), jukian Sultans of Iconium, who seem to have
ind his wealth, by their marriagesfor they were taken considerable pains to exhibit the Greek in
all married. Some have held, witli little proba scriptions, arid the remains of architecture and
bility, that Ibzan was the same with Boaz : B.C. sculpture, belonging to the ancient Iconium,
1182 (Judg. xii. 8). which they made use of in building the walls.
The town, suburbs, and gardens, are plentifully
I-CHABOD (1133 'K, where is the glory; supplied with water from streams which flow
Sept. 'Axitu/S), son of Phinehas and grandson of from some hills to the westward, and which, to
Kli. He > only known from the unhappy circum the north-east, join the lake, which varies in
stances of iiis birth, which occasioned Otis name to size with the season of the year. In the towp
be given to him. The pains of labour came upon carpets are manufactured, and blue and yellow
his mother when she heard that the ark of God leathers are tanned anil dried. Cotton, wool,
was taken, that her husband was slain in battle, hides, and a few of the other raw productions
and that these tidings hail proved fatal to his which enrich the superior industry and skill of
father Eli. They were death-pains to her ; and the manufacturers of Europe, are sent to Smyrna
when those around sought to cheer her, saying, by caravans.
( Fear not, for thou hast borne a son,' she only The most remarkable building in Konieh is
answered by giving him the name of I-chabod, ad the tomb of a priest highly revered throughout
ding, 'The glory is departed from Israel' (1 Sam. Turkey, called Hazreet Mevlana, the founder of
iv. 19-22): B.C. 1141. The name again occurs the Mevlevi Dervishes. The city, like all those
in 1 Sam. xiv. 3 [Kli]. renowned for superior sanctity, abounds with
ICONIUM ffoaVw), a town, formerly the dervishes, who meet the passenger at every turn
capital of Lycaonia, as it is now, by the name ing of the streets and demand paras with the
:>f Konieli, of Karamnuia, in Asia Minor. It is greatest clamour and insolence. The bazaars
situated in N. lat. 37 51', E. long. 32 40', about and houses liavc little to recommend them to
one hundred and twenty miles inland from the notice (Kinneir's Travels in Asia Minor; Leake's
Mediterranean It was visited by St. Paul in Geography of Asia Minor; Arundell's Tour
a.d. 45, when many Gentiles were converted; in Asia Minor).
but some unlielieving Jews excited against him 1. IDDO (I1!!?, seasonable; Sept.'AJM), a pro
and Barnabas a persecution, which they escaped phet of Judah, who wrote the history of Reho-
with difficulty (Acts xiii. 51 ; xiv. 1, &c). He boam and Abijah ; or rather jierhaps, who, in
undertook a second journey to Iconium in a.d. 51. conjunction with Seraiah, kept the public rolls
The church planted at this place by the ajiostle during their reigns. It seems from 2 Chron. xiii.
continued to flourish, until, by the jiersecutions 22 that he named his Iwok t^TlO, Midrash, or
of the Saracens, and afterwards of the Seljukians. ' Kx position.' Josephus {Antiq. viii. 9. 1) states
who made it one uf their sultanies, it was nearly that this Iddo was the prophet who was sent to
extinguished. But some Christians of the Greek Jeroboam at Bethel, and consequently the same
and Armenian churches, with a Greek merro- that was slain hy a lion for disotiedience to his in
tjolitan bishop, are still found in the suburta of structions (1 Kings xiii.); nnd many commen
the city, not being permitted to reside within the tators have followed this statement.
walls. 2. IDDO, grandfather of the prophet Zecba-
Konie'i is sitnated at the foot of Mount riah (Zech. i. 1 ; Ezr. t. 1 ; vi. 14).
Taurus, upon the border of the lake Trogitis,
in a fertile plain, rich in valuable productions, 3. IDDO (int*), chief of the Jews of the capti
particularly apricots, wine, cotton, flax, and vity established at Casiphia, a place, of which it
grain. The circumference of the town is between is difficult to determine the position. It was tn
vol. II. B
2 1DD0. IDOLATRY.
him that Ezra sent a requisition for Levites and ing his integrity and goodness merely by His
Netliinim, none of whom had yet joined liis words alonea sentiment surely as far as possible
caravan. Thirty-eight Levites and 200 Netlii from the intention of our Divine Master. We
nim responded to his call (Ezra viii. 17-20), must, therefore, necessarily understand a ceitain
B.C. 457. It would seem from tins that Iddo kind of words or discourse, which, under the
was a chief person of the Netliinim, descended appearance of sincerity or candour, is often the
from those Gibeoniles who were charged with the worst possible, and Karab'iHd&t rhv av&pwovj " con
servile labours of the tabernacle and temple. demns a man,"' because it is uttered with an evil
This is one of several circumstances which indi purpose. If, then, we interpret apy6v according
cate that the Jews in f heir several colonies under to established Greek usage, there arises a natural
the Exile were still ruled by the heads of their and very appropriate sense, namely, apy6v is the
nation, and allowed the free exercise of their same as atpyov, otiosus, vain, idle; then, void
worship. of effect, without result, followed by no corre
4. IDDO OV, lovely; Sept. 'ioScrf), a chief of sponding event Therefore f>rjfJ.a hpy6v is empty
the half tribe of Manasseh beyond the Jordan or vain word* or discourse, i. e. void of truth,
and to which the event does not correspond. In
(1 Chron. xxvii. 21). short, it is the empty, inconsiderate, insincere
IDLE. The ordinary uses of this word re language of one who says one thing and means
quire no illustration. But the very serious pas another ; and in this sense apy6% is very fre
sage in Matt. xii. 36 may suitably be noticed in quently employed by theGreeks.' Tins Tittmann
this place. In the Authorised Version it is trans confirms by a number of citations; and then
lated, * I say unto you, that every idle Word that deduces from the whole that the sense of the |>as*
men shall speak, they shall give an account sage under review is: ' Believe me, he who uses
thereof in the day of judgment* The original false and insincere language shall suffer gtievous
is, "On trav ffip-a dpydv, b i&v \aX4)<rwffiv of punishment : your words, if uttered widi sincerity
&vdporKoi, inroBdoffovtrt vtpl avrov \6yov tJm^P? and ingenuousness, shall be approved , but if
KpiVewy. The whole question depends upon they are dissembled, although they bear the
the meaning or rather force of the term firjua strongest appearance of sincerity, they shall be
dpy6v, rendered ' idle word,1 concerning which condemned' (See Tittmann, On the Principal
there has been no little difference of opinion. Causes of Forced Interpretations of the Acto
Many understand it to mean * wicked and in Testament, in Am. Bib. Repository for 1831,
jurious words,' as if apy6p were the same as pp. 481-484).
voyjip6r, which is indeed found as a gloss in Cod. IDOLATRY. In giving a summary view of
126. The sense is there taken to be as follows : the forms of idolatry w hich are mentioned in the
' Believe me, that for every wicked and injurious Bible, it is expedient to exclude all notice of
word men shall hereafter render an account.* those illegal images which were indeed designed
And our Lord is supposed to have intended in this to hear some symbolical reference to the worship
r&ssage to reprehend the Pharisees, who had spoken of the true God, but which partook of the nature
impiously against Him, and to threaten them of idolatry ; such, for example, as the golden calf
with the severest punishments ; inasmuch as every of Aaron (cf. Nell, ix. 18); those of Jeroboam;
one of their injurious and impious words should the singular ephods of Gideon and Micah (Judg.
one day be judged. This interpretation of the viii. 27 ; xvii. 5) ; and the Tcraphim.
word dpySv is, however, reached by a somewhat cir Idolatry was the most heinous offence ngainst
cuitous process of philological reasoning, which is the Mosaic law, which is most particular in de
examined with much nicety by J. A. H. Tittmann, fining the acts which constitute the crime, and
and shown to lie untenable. He adds : 4 This in severe in apportioning the punishment* Thus, it
terpretation, moreover, would not be in accordance is forbidden lo make any image of a strange God ;
with what precedes in verses 33-35, nor with what to prostrate oneself before such an image, or before
follows in verse 37. For it is not any wicked those natural objects which were also worshipped
discourse which is there represented j but the without images, as the sun and moon (Deut. iv.
feigned piety of the Pharisees, and their alTected 19) ; to sutler the altars, images, or groves of idols
real for the public welfare. In order to avoid a to stand (Exod. xxxiv. 13); or to keep the gold
charge of levity and indifference, they had de and silver of which their images were made, and
manded *4 a sign," (TTjjueToy; as if desirous that to suffer it to enter the house (Deut. vii. 25, 26);
both they and others might know whether Jesua to sacrifice to idols, most especially to offer human
was truly the Messiah. Against this dissimula sacrifices; to eat of the victims offered to idols
tion in those who uttered nothing sincerely and by others ; to prophesy in the name of a strange
from the heart, Jesus had inveighed in severe and gou ; unu to ftdopt any of the rites used in idol
appropriate terms in verses 33-35, using the com atrous worship, and to transfer tliem to the wor
parison of a tree, which no one judges to be good ship of the Lord (Deut xii. 30, 31). As for
and useful unless it bears good fruit, and from punishment, the law orders that if an individual
which, if it be bad, no one expects good fruit. committed idolatry he should be stoned to death
But if now the sense of verse 36 is such as these (Deut. xvii. 2-0); that if a town was guilty of
interpreters would make it, there is added in this sin, its inhabitants and cattleshoulu be slain,
it a sentiment altogether foreign to what pre and its spoils burnt together with the town itself
cedes, and 6.py6v becomes not only destitute of (Deut. xiii. 12-18). To what degree also the
effect and force, but involves a sentiment incon whole spirit of the Old Testament is abhorrent
gruous with that in verse 37. For where our from idolatry, is evident (besides legal prohibitions,
Lord says that hereafter every one shall be judged prophetic-denunciations, and energetic appeals like
according to his words, He cannot l>e understood that in Isa- xliv. 9-20) from the literal sense of the
to mean that every one will be capable of prov terms which are used as synonym*! for idols aiui
IDOLATRY, IDOLATRY. 3
their worship. Thus idols are called had found an asylum in Egypt, with having
the ituine (Lev. xix. 4) ; , vanitiesthe rh turned to serve the gods of that country. On the
udrata of Acta xiv. 15 (Jer. ii. 5) ; JIN, nothing restoration of the Jews after the Babylonian cap
tivity, they appear, for the first time in their his
(Isa. lxvi. 3); D^VIpE^, abominations (1 Kings tory, to have been permanently impressed with a
xi. 5) j DvvJ, stercora (Eiek. vi. 4) ; and their sense of the degree to which their former idolatries
worship is called whoredom, which is expressed had been an insult to God, and a degradation of
by the derivatives of H3t- their own understandingan advance in the cul
The early existence of idolatry is evinced by ture of the nation which may in part be ascribed
Josh. xxiv. % where it is stated that Abram and to the influence of the Persian abhorrence of
is immediate ancestors dwelling in Mesopotamia images, as well as to the effects of the exile as a
' served other gods/ The terms in Gen. xxxi. chastisement. In this state they continued until
53, and particularly the plural form of the verb, Am melius Kpiphanes matte the last and fruitless
seem to show that some members of Terah's attempt to establish the Greek idolatry in Pales
family had each different gods. From Josh. xxiv. tine (1 Mace. i.).
14, and Ecek. xx. 8, we learn that the Israelites, The ]>articular forms of idolatry into which
during their sojourn in Egypt, were seduced to the Israelites fell are described under the names
worship the idols of that country ; although we of the different gods which they worshipped [Ash
possess no particular account of their transgression. toreth, Baal, &c] : the general features of their
In Amos v. 25, and Acts vii. 12, it is stated that idolatry require a brief notice here. According
tbey committed idolatry in their journey through to Movers (Die Ph'6niziery i. 148), the religion of
the wilderness; and in Num. xxv. 1, sq., that all the idolatrous Syro-Arabian nations was a
they worshipped the Moabite idol Baal-poor at deification of the powers and laws of nature, an
Shittim. After the Israelites had obtained pos .adoration of those objects in which these powers
session of the promised land, we And that they are considered to abide, and by which they act.
were continually tempted to adopt the idolatries The deity is thus the invisible power in nature
of the Canaauite nations with which they came itself, that power which manifests itself as the
in contact. The book of Judges enumerates generator, sustainer, and destroyer of its works.
several successive relapses into this ein. The This view admits of two modifications: either the
gods which they served during this period were separate powers of nature are regarded as so many
Baal and Ashtoreth, and their modifications ; and different gods, and the objects by which these
Syria, Sidon, Moab, Amnion, and Philistia, are powers are manifestedas the sun, moon, &c.
named in Judg. x. 6, as the sources from which are regarded as their images and supporters ; or
they derived their idolatries. Then Samuel ap the power of nature is considered to be one and
pears to have exercised a beneficial influence in indivisible, and only to differ as to the forms
weaning the people from this folly (I Sam. vii.) ; under which it manifests itself. Both views co
and the worship of the Lord acquired a gradually exist in almost all religions. The most simple
increasing hold on the nation until the time of and ancient notion, however, is that which con
Solomon, who was induced in his old age to per ceives the deity to be in human form, as male
mit the establishment of idolatry at Jerusalem. and female, and which considers the male sex to
On the division of the nation, the kingdom of be the type of its active, generative, and de
Israel (besides adhering to the sin of Jeroboam to structive power ; while that passive power of na
the last) was specially devoted to the worship of ture whose function is to conceive and bring
Baal, which Atiab had renewed and carried to an forth, is embodied under the female form. The
unprecedented height; and although the energetic human form and the diversity of sex lead natu
measures adopted by Jehu, and afterwards by the rally to the different ages of lifeto the old man
print Jehoiada, to suppress this idolatry, may and the youth, the matron and the virginac
have been the cause why there is no later express cording to the modifications of the conception ;
mention of Baal, yet it is evident from 2 Kings and the myths which represent the influences, the
xii'i. C, and xvii. 10, that the worship of Asherah changes, the laws, and the relations of these na
continued until the deportation of the ten tribes. tural powers under the sacred histories of such
This event also introduced the peculiar idolatries gods, constitute a harmonious development of
of the Assyrian colonists into Samaria. In the such a religious system.
kingdom of Judah, on the other hand, idolatry Those who saw the deity manifested by, or
continued during the two succeeding reigns ; was conceived him as resident in, any natural objects,
suppressed for a time by Asa (1 Kings xv. 12); could not fail to regard the sun and moon as the
was revived in consequence of Joram marrying potent rulers of day and night, and the sources of
into the family of Ahab; was continued by Aha/ ; those influences on which all animated nature
received a check from Hesekiah ; broke out again depends. Hence star-worship forms a prominent
more violently under Manasseh ; until Josiah feature in all the false religions mentioned in the
made the most vigorous attempt to suppress it. Bible. Ofthis character chiefly were the Egyptian,
But even Josiah*s efforts to restore the worship of the Canaanite, the Chaldaean, and the Persian re
the Lord were ineffectual; for the later prophets, ligions. The Persian form of astrolatry, however,
Zephaniah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, still continue deserves to be distinguished from the others; for
to utter reproofs against idolatry. Nor did the it allowed no images nor temples of the god, but
capture of Jerusalem under Jehoiachim awaken worshipped him in his purest symbol, fire. It is
This peculiarly sensual people; for Esekiel (viii.) understood that this form is alluded to in most
shows that those who were left in Jerusalem under of those passages which mention the worship of
the government of Zedekiah had given themselves the sun, moon, and heavenly host, by incense, on
up to many kinds of idolatry and Jeremiah heights (2 Kings xxiii. 5, 12; Jer. xix. 13). The
(xliv. 8) charges those inhabitants of Judah who other form of astrolatry, in which the idea of the
4 IDUJLBA.
sun, moon, and planets, is blended with tiie wor was afterwards more formally and permanently
ship of the god in the f>rm of an idol, and with imposed on him on account of his unworthy dis-
the addition of a mythology (as may be seen in jxwal of his birth-right for a mess of red 1entiles
the relations of Baal and Ins cognates to the sun), (Gen. xxv. 30). The region which came to bear
easily degenerates into lasciviousnese and cruel his name, is tiie mountainous tract on the east
rites. side of the great valley* EI Ghor and El Araba,
The images of the gods, the standard terms for extending between the Dead Sea and the Elanitic
which are and tt?% were, as to Gulf of the Red Sea. Some have conjectured
material, of stone, wood, silver, and gold. The that the latter sea was called * Red,' because it
first two sorts are called ^D3, as being- hewn or washed the shore of ' Edom ;* but it never bears in
Hebrew the name of Yam-Edom : it is uniformly
carved; those of metal had a trunk or stock of designated
wood, and were covered with plates of silver or pores.' IntoYam'Suph, t. e. * the Sea of Madre
this district Esau removed during his
gold (Jer, x. 4); or were cast (nSDOV The father's life-time, and his posterity gradually ob
general rites of idolatrous worship consist in tained possession of it as the country which God
burning incense; ill offering bloodies? sacrifices, had assigned for their inheritance in the prophetic
as the dough-cakes (0*312) and libations in Jer. blessing pronounced by his father Isaac (Gen.
vii. 18, and the raisin-cukes (U*2ty <eWK) xxvii. 30, 40; xxxii. 3; Deut. ii. 5-12, 22}.
in Hos. iii. 1 ; in sacrificing victims (1 Kings Previously to their occupation of the country, it
xviii. 20), and especially in human sacrifices was called Tyti* "l!"!, Mount Seir, a designation
[Moloch]. These offerings were made on high indeed which it never entirely lost. The word
places, hilts, and roofs of houses, or in shady fir means Iiairy (being thus synonymous with
groves and valleys. Some forms of idolatrous Eiau), and, when applied to a country, may sig
worship had libidinous orgies fAshtohetii], nify rugged, mountainous, and so says Josephus
Divinations, oracles (2 Kings i. 2), and rabdo- (Antiq. i. 20. 3) : 1 Esau named the country
mancy (Hos. iv. 1 2) form a jurt of many of these " Roughness H from his own hairy roughness."
false religions. The priesthood was generally a But in Gen. xxxvi. 20, we read of an individual
numerous body ; and where jwrsons of Ijoth sexes of the name of Seir, who had befoie this inhabited
were attached to the service of any god (like the the land, and from whom it may have received
tWPTp and TWVlp of Ashtoreth), that service its first appellation. Part of the region is still
w^s infamously immoral. It is remarkable that called Esh-.SAeraA, in which some find a trace of
the Pentateuch makes no mention of any temple Seir, but the two words have no etymological
of idols ; afterwards we read often of such. relation; the former wants the y, a letter whicl
J. N. is never dropped, and it signifies 1 a tract, a pos
IDUM/EA. 'ttovfiala is the Greek form of the session,' and sometimes * a mountain.'
Hebrew name Edom, or, according to .Tosephus The first mention made of Mount Seir in Scrip
{Antuj. ii. 1. 1), it is only a more agreeable mode ture is in Gen. xiv. 0, where Chedorlaomer and
of pronouncing what would otherwise be *ABAfM his confederates are said to have smitten ' the
fcomp. Jprome on Ezek. xxv. 12). In the Sep- Horim in their Mount Seir." Among the earliest
tQAgifit we sometimes meet with 'ESwu, but more human habitations were caves, either formed by
generally with *l8ovjuaia (the people being called nature or easily excavated, anil for the construc
*l5ovu(uoi)i which is the uniform orthography in tion of these the mountains of Edom afTorded
the Apocrypha as well as in Mark iii. ft, the only peculiar facilities. Hence the designation given
passage in the New Testament where it occurs. to the Aboriginal inhabitants Horim, i. e. cave-
Our Authorized Version has in three or four dwellers (from in, a * cave'), an epithet of similar
places substituted for Kdom 1 Idumea,' which is import with the Greek Troglodytes. Even in the
the name employed by the writers of Greece days of Jerome 1 the whole of the southern part at
and Rome, though it is to be noted that they, Idumaea, from Eleutheropolis to Petra anil Aila.
as well as Josephus, include under that name was full of caverns used as dwellings, oil account
the south of Palestine, and sometimes Pales of the sun's excessive beat ' (Jerome on Obadiah,
tine itself, because a large potting, of that coun ver. 1); and there is reason to believe that the
try came into possession of the Kdomites of later possessors of the country in every age occupied
times. similar habitations, many traces of which are yet
Tiie Hebrew D*1X Edom, as the name of the seen in and near Petra, the renowned metrojiolis.
people is masculine (Num. xx. 22 i ; as the name We are informed in Deut. ii. 12, that ' the
of the country, feminine (Jer. xlix. 17). We children of Knu succeeded [inarg. inherited] the
often meet with the phrase Erctz-Edom, 'the Horim when they had destroyed them from be
Land of Kdom,' and once with the poetic form fore them, and dwelt ill their stead, as Israel
Sedch-Edom, 'the Field of Edom 9 (Judg. v. 4). did unto the hind of his possession, which Je
Tin: inhabitants are sometime* styled Beni-Edom, hovah gave unto them/ From this' it may \>e
* the Children of Edom,' and poetically Bath- inferred, that the extirpation of the Horim by
Edom, ' the Daughter of Edom' (Lam. iv. 21, the Esau itea was, like that of the Canaanilet by
22). A single person was called ^CIX Adomi, Israel, very gradual and slow. Some think tlui
' an Edomite ' (Deut. xxiii. 8), of which the femi supposition is confirmed by the genealogical
nine plural TVDTX Adomith occurs in I Kings tables preserved ill the 36th chapter of Genesis
xi. I. The name was derived from Isaac's son fcomp. I Chron. 1.), where we have, along with a
Edom, otherwise called Esau, the elder twin- list of the chiefs of Edom, a similar catalogue of
brother of Jacob [Esau]. It signifies red, anil Horite chieftains, who are presumed to have been
Becms first to have oeen suggested by his appear their contemporaries. Rut for the chronology oi
ance at his birth, when 1 he came out all red ' these ancient documents we possess no data what
'. e. covered with red hair, Gen. xxv. 25), and soever, and very precarious, therefore, must be
IDUM^A. IDVMJEJl. 5
any deduction* that are drawn from them. This acquired more or lets authority over all the tribes.
much, however, we there learn of the political con This oligarchy appears gradually to have changed
stitution of the Sciritc Aborigines, that, tike the into a monarchy, as liap[>ened too among the
Esauites and Israelites, they were divided into Israelites; for in addition to the above mentioned
tribes, and these tribes were sub-divided into lists, lx)th of Horite and Esauitc leaders, we have,
families the very polity which still obtains at Gen. xxxvi. 31, a catalogue of eight kings
among the Arabs by whom Idumaea is now (ifela, Jobab,' Husham, Hadad, Samlah, Saul.
peopled. Each tribe had its own Allufa term Haal-hanon, Hadar or Hadad) who * reigned in
which is unhappily rendered in the English Ver the land of Edom before there reigned any king
sion by * Duke 'for though that lias, no doubt, over the childien of Israel.' It is not necessary
tiie radical meaning of the Latin dux^ a ' leader,' to suppose that this was said by Moses propheti
it now only suggests the idea of a feudal title of cally : it is one of those passages whicli may
nobility. Of these chiefs of the Horites seven are have been inserted by Ezia when finally arranging
enumerated, viz., Lotan, Shobal, Zibeon, Anah, the canon, inasmuch as it occurs also in the first
Dishon, Ezer, and Dishan. The only one of book of Chronicles, of which he is the reputed
these who is spoken of as related to the other is compiler. The period when this change to regal
Anah) the son of Zibeon. The primitive and government took place in Idumrea can only he
pastoral character of the people is incidentally matter of conjecture. In the Song of Moses
brought out by the circumstance that (his Anah, (Exod. xv. 15) it is said that at the tidings of
though a chieftain's son, was in the habit of tend Israel's triumphant passage of the Red Sea the
ing his father's asses. It was when thus employed rulers or princes (Alluf) of Edom trembled with
that he found in the wilderness eth-ha-yemim, ren affright, but when, some forty years afterwards,
dered in the English Version by * the mules,' but application had to be made by the Israelites for
meaning more probably ' the hot springs and leave to traverse the land of Edom, it was to the
thus interpreted, the passage seems to he an inti king (Melck) that the request was addressed
mation that lie was the first to discover the faculty * (Num. xx. 14). The road by which it was
with which asses and other animals are endowed, sought to penetrate the country was termed 4 the
of snuffing the moisture of the air, and thus king's highway ' (ver. 17), supposed by Kobinson
sometimes leading to the opportune discovery to be the Wady el-Ghuwcir, for it is almost the
of bidden waters in the desert. There is in the only valley that affords a direct and easy passage
country to the south-ast of the Dead Sea (which through those mountains. From a comitariswii of
formed port of the Seirite possessions), a place, these incidents it may be inferred that the chauge
KaUirfioe, celebrated among the Greeks and in the form of government took place during the
Romans for its warm baths, and which has been wanderings of the Israelites in the desert, unless
visited by modern travellers (Joseuhus, De Btil. we suppose, with Rosenmiiller, that it was only
Jxul. i. 33. 5; Pliny, Hist Nat. v. 5. 17 ; Legh/s tiws north-eastern part of Edom which was now
TYavels). subject to a monarch, the rest of the country re
Esau first married into two Canaanitish families maining under the sway of its former chieftains.
of the Hittite and Hivite tribes (Gen. xxvi. 34 ; But whether the regal power at this period em
xxxvL 2; in one or other of whicli places, how braced the whole territory or not, perhaps it did
ever, the text seems corrupt) ; but anxious to pro not supplant the ancient constitution, but was
pitiate his otiended j>arents, he next formed a rather grafted on it, like (he authority of the
matrimonial alliance with one of the race of Judges in Israel, and of Said, the (irst king,
Abraham, viz., Mahalath, otherwise called Bashe- which did not materially interfere with the go
math, daughter of Ishmael, and sister of Ne- vernment that previously existed. It further ap
baioth, whose descendants, the Nabathaians, by a pears, from the list of Idumteau kings, that the
singular coincidence, obtained in after times pos monarchy was not hereditary, but elective (for no
session of the land of Edom (Gen. xxviii. 9). one is spoken of as the son or relative of his pre
Esau's first-bom (by Adah or Bashemath, of the decessor) ; or probably that chieftain was acknow
daughters of Heth) was Eliphaz, whose son ledged as sovereign who was best able to vindi
Teman gave name to a district of the country cate Ins claim by force of arms. Every succes-
(Gen. xxxvi. 11,34; IChron. i. 45; Ezek. xxv. tive king appears tit have selected his own seat of
13; Obad. verse 9). The Temanites were re government: the places mentioned as having en
nowned for their wisdom (Jer. xlix. 7, 20 ; liaiuch joyed ibat distinction are Dinhabah, Avith, Pagn
mix. 22, 23;. The chief speaker in the book of or Pai. Even foreigners were not excluded from
Job is another Eliphaz, a Temanite, which is the throne, for the successor of Samlah of Masre-
one of the circumstances that have led many to kah was Saul, or Shaul, ' of Rcchol)oth, on the
place the scene of that story in the land of Edom river.* TJ^e word * Recholwth' means, literally,
[Jou]. The name of Teman was preserved to ttrtetSy and was a not uncommon name given to
the days of Eusebius in that ofThaiman, a small towns; but the emphatic addition of 'the river,'
town five Roman miles from Petra. Another son point! evidently to the Euphrates, ami between
of the first-mentioned Eliphaz was Amalck, who Kakkah and Anah. on that river, there are still
is not to be confounded, however, with the father the remains of a place called by the Arabs Ra-
of the Amalekites, one of the doomed nations of chaljath-Malik-Ibn Tank. In the age of Solo
Canaan, of whom we Iwar so early as the age of mon we lead of one Hadad, who 'was of the
Abraham (Gen. xiv. 7). king's seetl in Edom' (1 Kings xi. 14); from which
As a modem Arab sheikh is often found to ex some have conjectured that by that period thtre
ercise influence far beyond the sphere of his here was a royal dynasty of one particular family ; but
ditary domain, so in the list of the Edomite emirs all that the expression may imply is. that fie was
preserved by Moses we have perhaps only the a blood-relation of tiie last king of the country
names of the more distinguished individuals who Hadad was the name of one of the early sore
6 IDUMiGA. IDUM.EA.
reigns 4 who smote Midian in tlie field of Moab' 17). About tha same |>eriod Rezra, king: of Syria*
(Gen. xxxvi. 35). expelled the Jews from Klath, which (according u>
The unbrotherly feud which arote between the correct reading of 2 Kings xvi. 6) was thence
Esau and Jacoh was prolonged for ages Iwtween forth occupied by the Edomites. In out version
their posterity. The Israelites, indeed, were com it is said, 'the Syrians dwelt in Klath;' but the
manded 'not to abhor an Edomite, for he was Kcri, or marginal Masoretic reading, instead of
their brother' (Dent, xxiii. 7); but a variety of D'EHK* Aramaeans, has DWIJt, Edomites, the
circumstances occurred to provoke and perpetuate letter *1 bansf substituted for 1 ; and thks is fol
the hostility. The first time they were brought into lowed by many MSS., as well as by the Sept. and
direct collision was when the Edomites, though Vulgate, and best accords with historical fact.
entreated by their ( brother Israel,' refused the But then, to make both clauses of the verse to
lalter a passage through their territories; and they corres|>ond, we must, with Le Ofrc and Houbi-
had consequently to make a retrograde and toil gant, rend tlie whole thus: * At that time Kexin,
some march to the Gulf of Klath, whence they king of Aram, recovered Klath to Kdom, and
had to ' compass the land of Kdom' by the moun drove the Jews from Elath ; ami lite Kdomites>
tain desert on the east. We do not again hear of came to Klath, and continued tWre unto this
the Edomites till the days of Saul, who warred day.' Now was fulfilled the other part of Isaac's
atriiinst them with partial sucecss (1 Sam. xiv. prediction, viz. that, in course oi time, Esau
47) ; but their entire subjugation was reserved 'should take his brother's yoke frora off his neck*
for David, who first signally vanquished tlwm in (Gen. xxvii. 40). It ap|>ears from various inci
the Valley of Salt (siipjntsed to be in the Ghor, dental expressions in the later prophets, that the
beside U*dumy the Mountain of Salt) ; and, Edomites employed their recovered power in the
finally, placed garrisons in all their country (2 enlargement of their territory in all directions.
Sam. viii. 14; 1 CIiron, xviii. 11-13; 1 Kings xi. They spread as far south as Dedan in Arabia, and
15. Cornp. the inscription of !'-. 1x. and v. northward to Bozrah in the llhaumu; though it
ff. 9; cviii. 9, 10, where * the strong city' may* is doubtful if tlie Bozrah of Scripture may not
denote Selah or Petra). Then were fulfilled the have been a place in Iduma?a Proper (Isa. xxxiv.
prophecies in Gen. xxv. 23 and xxvii. -10. that G; lxiii. 1; Jer. xlix. 7, 8-20; Ezek. xxv. 13;
tlie * elder should serve the younger;* and also Amos i. 12). When the Chahlimns invaded
the prediction of Balaam (Num. xxiv. IS), that Judah, under Nebuchadnezzar, the Edomites be
Kdom and Seir should be for possessions to Israel- came their willing auxiliaries, and triumphed
Solomon created a naval station at Ezion-gel>er, with fiendish malignity over the ruin of their
at the head of the Gulf of Klath, the modern kinsmen tlie Jews, of whose desolated land they
Akaba(l Kings ix. 26; 2 Chron. viii. 18). To hoped to obtain a large portion to themselves
wards tlie close of his reign an attempt was made (Obad. verses 10-16; Kzefc. xxv. 13-U; xxxv.
to restore the independence of tlie country by one 3-10; xxxvi. 5; Lament, iv. 21). By this cir
Hadad, an Idumrean prince, who, when a child, cumstance the hereditary hatred of the Jews was
had been carried into Egypt at the time of David's rekindled in greater fury than ever, and hence
invasion, and had there married the sister of Tah- the many dire denunciations of the 'daughter of
panlies the queen (1 Kings xi. 14-23) [Hadad]. Kdom,' to be met with in die Hebrew prophets
If Kdom then succeeded in shaking off the yoke, (Ps. exxxvii. 7-9; Obad. ya**im ; Jer. xlix. 7;
it was only for a season, since in the days of Jeho- Ezek. xxv. and xxxv.). Yrvtn tike language of
shaphat, the fourth Jewish monarch fn>m Solomon, Malachi (i. 2, 3), and also from the accounts pre
it is said, * there was no king in Kdom ; a deputy served by Josephus ( Antiq. x. 9. 7 \ it would seem
was king [1 t. e. he acted as viceroy for the king of that the Edomites did not wholly escai* tlie Chal-
Jinlah. For that the latter was still master of the darau scourge, but instead of being carried captive,
country is evident from the fact of his having like the Jews, they not only retained possession of
filled out, like Solomon, a fleet at Kzion-gelwr their own territory, but became masters of the south
(l Kings xxii. 47, 48; % Chron. xx. 30, 37). It of Judah, as far as Hebron (I Mace. v. 6.">, romp,
was, no doubt, his deputy (called king) who with Ezek. xxxv. 10; xxxvi. 3). Here, however,
joined the confederates of Judah and Israel in they were, in course of time, successfully at
their attack upon Moah (2 Kings iii. !*, 12, 26). tacked by the Maccabees, and about B.C* 1~'k
Yet there seems to have been a partial revolt of were finally subdued by John Hyrcanus, who
the Edomites, or at least of the mountaineers of comjttJled them to submit to circumcision and
Seir, even in the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. other- Jewish rites, with a view to incorporate
xx. 22): and under his successor, Jehoram, they them with the nation (1 Mace. v. 3, 66; 2 Mace,
wholly rebelled, and * made a king over them x. 16 ; xii. 32; Joseph. Antiq. xiii. 9. \ \ 15. 4).
selves (2 Kings viii. 20, 22 ; 2 Chron. xxi. 8, 10). The amalgamation, however, of the two races
From its being added that, notwithstanding the seems never to have been effected, for we after-
temjxirary suppression of the rebellion, ' Kdom wanls hear of Antipater, an Iduma?an by birth,
revolted from under the hand of Judah unto this being made by < - m procurator of all Judsca ;
day/ it is prul>able that the Jewish dominion and his son, commonly called Herod the Great,
was never completely reslored. Amazrah, indeed, was. at the time of Christ's birth, king of Juda?a,
invaded the country, and having taken the chief including Iduma?a ; and hence Human writers
city, Selah or Petra, he. in memorial of tta con often speak of all Palestine under that name
quest, changed its name to Joktheel (g. d. sub (Joseph. Antiq. xiv. I. 3; 8.5; xv. 7. 9 ; xvii.
dued of God); and his sncreor, LV.ziali, re 11. 4). Not long before the siege of Jerusalem
tained possession of Klath 2 Kings xiv. 7; 2 by Titus, 20,00: > Iduma?ans were called in to the
Chmn. xxv. 11-14: x.wi. ,1). But in the reign defence of the city by the Zealots; but both par
of Ahaz, hordes of Edomites made incursions into ties gave themselves up to rapine and murder
Judah, and carried away captives (2 Chron. xxv iii. (Joseph. Vc Bell. Jxtd. i. 4. 5; 6. 1 ; vii. 8. 1>
IDUMiEA. IDUHiEA. 7
This is the last mention made of the Edomites Laborde and Linant found access from the south ;
in history. The author of a work on Job, once and since then it has been visited and described
ascribed to Origen, says that their name and Ian- by so many that the names of its localities hare
guage had perished, and that, like the Ammonites become familiar as household words.
and Moabites, they had all become Arabs. In The limit of the wanderings of the Israelites in
the second century Ptolemy limits the name the desert was the brook Zered, after crossing
Idumeea to the country west of the Jordan. which they found themselves in the territory of
Moab (Deut. ii. 13-18). This brook is supposed
to be identical with the Wady-el-Ahsy, which,
rising near the Castle el-Ahsy, on the route to
Mecca of the Syrian caravan upon the high
eastern desert, penetrates through the whole chain
of mountains to near the south-east comer of the
Dead Sea. It was thus the southern border of
Moab and the northern of Edom, whence the
latter region extended southwards as far as to
Elath on the Red Sea. The valley which runs
between the two seas consists first of El-Ghor,
which is comparatively low, but gradually rises
into the more elevated plain of El-Arabah to the
south. The country lying east of this great
\ alley is the land of Idumaea. It is a mountain
tract, consisting at the base of low hills of lime
stone or argillaceous rock, then lofty mountains
of porphyry forming the body of the mountain ;
above these, sandstone broken un into irregular
ridges and grotesque groups of cliffs ; and again
farther back, and higher than all, long elevated
ridges of limestone without precipices. East of
all these stretches ofl* indefinitely the high plateau
of the great eastern desert. Robinson and Smith
estimated the height of the porphyry clifi's at
about 2000 feet above the Arabah; the elevation
of Wady Mfisa above the same is, perhaps, 2000
or 2200 feet, while the limestone ridges further
360. [Revine in Idttmea.] back probably do not fall short of 3000 feet.
The whole breadth of the mountainous tract
* But while, during the captivity of the Jews in between the Arabah and the eastern desert
Babylon, the Edomites had thus been extending does not exceed fifteen or twenty geographical
their territory to the north-west, they were them miles. Of these mountains the most remark
selves supplanted in the southern part of their able is Mount Hot, near the Wady Musa.
ri.n ive region by the Nabathscans, the descendants [Hon, Mount], While the mountains on the
of Ishmael's eldest son, and to the article Nk- west of the Arabah, though less elevated, are
baioth, we must refer the reader for the subse wholly barren, those of Iduuiiea seem to enjoy a
quent history of the land of Edom. sufficiency of rain, and are covered with tufts of
herbs and occasional trees. The wadys, too, are
From the era of the Crusades down to the pre full of trees and shrubs and flowers, while the
sent century the land of Esau was, to Europeans, eastern and higher parts are extensively culti
a terra incognita. Its situation was laid down vated, and yield good crops. Hence Robinson
on the best maps more than a hundred miles from thinks its appearance fulfils the promise made to
the true position, and as if lying in a direction Ksau (Gen. xxvii. 39), ' Thy dwelling sliall be
where it is now known there is nothing but a vast the fatness of the earth and of the dew of heaven
expanse of desert. Volney had his attention from alwve.' Yet many critics are of opinion,
drawn towards it, when at Gaza, by the vague .(e. g. Vater, De Wette, Geddes, Von liohlen)
rejmrU of the Arabs, and in 1807 the unfortunate that *3DC*D should there be rendered * from,1
SeeUen penetrated a certain way into the country, t. e. * far away from, or destitute of,1 the fatness
and heard of the wonders of the Wady M&sa; of the earth, &c. ; and it is immediately added,
but the first modem traveller who 1 passed through ' for thou shalt live by thy sword and it does
the land of Edom ' was Ilurckliardt, in the year not appear that Idumxa was ever particularly
1812. And it has been well remarked by Dr. noted for its fertility. This mountainous region
Robinson (Amer. Bib. Reposit. vol. iii. p. 250), is at present divided into two districts. The
that * hod lie accomplished nothing but his re northern bears the name of Jebal* i. e. ' The
searches in these regions, his journey would have Mountain,1 the GeUil of the Hebrews (Ps.
been worth all the labour and cost expended on Ixxxiii. 8), and the Gebalene of the Greeks and
it, although his discoveries thus shed their Romans. Commencing at Wady ei-Ahsy, it
strongest light upon subjects which were not terminates, according to Iinrckhardt, at Wady
comprehended in the plan or purpose either of el Gbuweir, the largest place in it being Tufileh,
himself or his employers.' Iinrckhardt entered perhajw the Tophel of Deut. i. 1. The southern
Idumeea fmm the north, and in the year 1818 he district is esh S/terah, extending as far as
was followed in the same direction by Messrs. Akabah, and including Shobak, Wady Muta,
Legh, Banket, Irby and Mangles. In 182S Maan, &c. Burckhardt mentions a third dis
8 1DUMJK&. IMMANUEL.
trict, Jebal Hesma ; but Robinson says that ritis, in the Syntagma Commcntl., Part I. p. 194 1
though there is a sandy tract, el-Hisrnah, with but esj*cially, Sketches of Idumea and its presenl
mountains around it, on the east of Akabah, it Inhabitants, by Dr. E. Robinson, in the Amer
does not constitute a separate division. Bib. depository for April, 1833, p. 217; and
The whole of this region is at present occupied the Bib, liescarches of the same writer, vol. ii.
by various tribes of Bedouin Arabs. The chief p. 551.N. M.
tribe in the Jebal is the Hejaya, with a branch of 1LLYRICUM flAAvfHJtrfi'), a country lying
the Kaabineh, while in esh'S/tcrah they are to the north-west of Macedonia, and answering
all of the numerous and powerful tribe of the nearly to that which is at present called Dal-
Haweitat, witli a few independent allies. The matia; by which name indeed the southern part
Bedouins in Idumaca have of late years been par of Illyricum itself was known, and whither St.
tially subject to the Pacha of Egypt, paying an Paul informs Timothy tii.it Titus had gone
annual tribute, which, in the case of the Beni (2 Tim, iv. 10). Paul himself preachol tH
Sukhr, is one camel lor two tents. The fellahin, Gospel in Illyricum, which was at that time
or peasants, are half Bedouin, inhabiting the few a province of the Roman Empire (Rom. xv.
villages, but dwelling also in tents; they too 19>
pay tribute to the Egyptian government, and
furnish supplies of grain. IMMANUEL QfeHfcg?; Sept. 'Eu^oi^A)
Among the localities connected with Kdom or Emuanubl- This word, meaning * God tcitk
which are mentioned in Scripture may be noticed us,' occurs in the celebrated verse of Isaiah (viL
Dinhabah, Boirah, Theman, Maon (now Maan), 14), * Behold, a virgin shall conceive and bear o
Kadesh-bamea (which Robinson identities witli son, and shall call his name Immami i ' In
el-YVeibeh in the Wady el-Jeib), Zephuth (which forty-three MSS. and thirty-nine printed editions,
he supposes to be the pass of Es-Sufah), Elath, the word is given in the separate form ^>X
and Ezion-geher, &c. ; hut the most celebrated but, as Dr. Henderson remarks, * in the ortho
place in all the region was the chief city, Selah graphy of all compound names, the MSS. and
or Petra, for a description of which the reader is editions widely dilier.' In the name itself there is
referred to the latter head [Petra]. no difficulty; but the verse, as a whole, has been
Could the scene of the ttook of Job be with variously interpreted. From the manner in which
certainty fixed in Idumsea. we should then pos the word God, and even Jehovah, is used in the
sess much curious and valuable information re composition of Hebrew names, there is no such jje-
specting both the country and ]>eopie soon after culiarity in that of Immanuel as in itself requires
it had been colonized by the descendants of us to understand that he who bore it must be in
Esau (See Mason Good, Wemyss, and others fact God. Indeed, it is used as a proper name
upon Job). But all that we leani directly of among the Jews at this day. This high sense has,
the ancient Edomites from the historical books of however, been assigned to it in consequence of
Scripture represents them as not, indeed, neglect the application of the whole verse, by tite Evan
ing agriculture or trade (Num. xx. 17), yet, on gelist Matthew (i. 23), to our Divine Saviour.
the whole, as a warlike and predatory race, who, Even if Ibis reference did not exist, the history
according to the prediction of their progenitor of the Nativity would irresistibly lead us to :hv
Isaac, * lived by their sword.' The situation of conclusion that the versewhatever may have
the country afforded peculiar facilities for com leen its intermediate significationhad an ulti
merce, which seems to have been prosecuted from mate reference to Christ.
a very early period. * Bordering,' says Volney, The state of opinion on this point has been
' upon Arabia on the east and south, and Egypt thus neatly summed up by Dr. Henderson, in his
on the south-west, and forming, from north to note on the text :1 This verse has long been a
south, the mart commodious channel of commu subject of dispute between Jews and professedly
nication between Jerusalem and her dejiendencieg Christian writers, and among the latter mutually.
on the Red Sea, through the continuous valleys While the former reject its application to the
of El-Ghor and Kl Araha, Idumasa may be said Messiah altogether,the earlier rabbins explain
to have long formed the emporium of the com ing it of the queen of Ahaz and the birth of his
merce of the East.' The era of its greatest pros son Hezekiah; and the later, as Kimchi and
perity was after the Nabathajans had become Abarhanel, of the prophet's own wife, the great
masters of the country and founded the kingdom body of Christian interpreters have held it to be
of Arabia Petraea, of which the renowned metro- directly and exclusively in piophecy of our
jxilis was Petra. The religion of the early Edom Saviour, and have considered themselves fully
ites was, perhaps, comparatively pure; but in borne out by the inspired testimony of the Evan
process of time they embraced idolatry : in gelist Matthew. Others, however, have departed
2 Chron. xxv. 2U, we read of the 1 gods of Edom,* fiom this construction of the jiassage, and have
one of whom, according to Josephus (Antitj. xv. invented or adopted various hypotheses in sup|>ort
7. 9), was called Kotzi. Witli respect to the of such dissent. Grotius, Faher, Isenbiehl, Heze),
striking fulfilment of the prophetic denunciations Bolteu, Fiitsche, Pluschke, Gesenius, and Hitzig.
OSOD Edom, we need only refer the reader to the suppose either the then present or a future wile
well-known work of Keith, who frequently errs,
however, in straining the sense of prophecy be of Isaiah to be the almah [rendered
yond its legitimate import, as well as in seeking " virgin*'], referred to. Eichhorn, Pauhis, Hensler,
out too literally minute an accomplishment. On and A.mmon, are of opinion that the prophet had
Iduma?a generally, Bee C. B. Michael is, Diss, de nothing more in view than an ideal virgin, and
Antiqui&s. Iduma-or. Hist, in Pott and Rupertis that luith she and her son are merely imaginary
Sylloge Comment. Theologic. Part VI. p. 121 ; ])ersonages, introduced for the purpose of piopbetic
J. D. Michaelis, Comment, de Troglodytis Set- illustration. Bauer, Cube, Steude), and some
INCENSE. INDIA.
nthers, think that the prophet pointed to a young The word which describes the various ingredi
woman in the presence of the king and his ents as being ' tempered together ' literally means
courtiers. A fourth class, among whom are * salted ' (rTOD memullach). The Chaldee and
Richard Simon, Lowth, Koppe, Dathe, Williams, Greek versions, however, have set the example of
Von Meyer, Olshausen, and I)r. J. Pye Smith, rendering it by ' mixed* or 4 tempered,,' as if their
admit the hypothesis of a double sense: one, in idea was that the different ingredients were to be
which the words apply primarily to some female mixed together, just as salt is mixed with any
living in the time of the prophet, and her giving substance over which it u sprinkled. Aiusworth
hirtli to a son according to the ordinary laws of contends for the literal meaning, inasmuch as the
nature ; i>r, as Dathe holds, to some virgin, who law (Lev. ii. 13) expressly says, 4 With all thine
at that time should miraculously conceive; and offerings thou shalt offer salt.1 In support of this
the other, in which they received a secondary he cites Maimonides, who affirms that there was
and plenary fulfilment in the miraculous concep not any thing offered on the altar without salt,
tion and birth of Jesus Christ.' except the wine of the drink offering, and the
INCENSE, a perfume which gives forth its bipod, and the wood; and of the incense lie says,
fragrance by burning, and, in particular, that still mure expressly, that 'they added to it a cab
perfume which was burnt upon the altar of in of salt.1 In accordance with this, it is supposed,
cense [Altah; Cbnser]. Indeed, the burning our Saviour says, ' Every sacrifice shall be salted
of incense seems to have been considered among with salt ' (Mark ix. 49). Ainsworth further re
the Hebrews so much of an act of worship or marks : ( If our speech is to be always with grace,
sacred offering, that we read not of any other seasoned with salt, as the apostle teaches (Col.
use of incense than this among them. Nor iv. 6), how much more should our incense, our
among the Egyptians do we discover any trace ()rayers unto God, be therewith seasoned*' It is,
of burnt perfume but rn sacerdotal use; but lowever, difficult to see how so anomalous a sub
in the Persian sculptures we see incense burnt stance as salt could well be combined in the
iiefore the king. The prohibition of the Hebrews preparation ; and if it was used, as we incline
to make any perfume for private use' to smell to think that it was, it was probably added in the
to 'like that prepared for the altar, merely im act of offering.
plies, we apprehend, that the sacred incense had The above reference to Maimonides reminds us
a peculiarly rich fragrance before being burnt, of the reason which he assigns, in the More Ne~
which was forbidden to be imitated in common vochim, for the use of incense in the Jewish
perfumes. ritual service : * To prevent the stench which
The incense is denoted by the words *!DpD would otherwise have been occasioned by the
miktar (Exod. xxx. 1); *ltDp kitter (Jer. xliv. number of beasts every day slaughtered in the
21); and nHOp kituroth (Exod. xxx. I ; xxxi. sanctuary, God ordained that incense should be
11; E/ek. xvi. IS); all of which are equally burned in it every morning and evening, and
from the root "IQp, which, in Pihel, signifies gene thereby rendered the odour of the sanctuary and of
rally to raise an odour by burning ; and in the the vestments of those that ministered exceedingly
verbal form it is applied not ouly to the offering grateful; which has occasioned the saying of our
of incense lint also ofsacrifices, the smoke or efflu rabbins, That the odour of the incense extended
vium of which is regarded as an acceptable orsweet to Jericho. This, therefore, is another of the pre
odour to God. Indeed, the word which denotes cepts conducing to the reverence and veneration
an incense of spices in Exod. xxx. 1 describes which ought to be entertained for the sanctuary :
an incense of fat in Ps. lxvi. 15. for if the perfume thereof had not been pleasant,
The ingredients of the sacred incense are enume but the contrary, it would have produced con
rated with great precision in Exod. xxx. 34, 35 : tempt instead of veneration, since a grateful
* Take unto thee sweet spices, stacte (^03 netaph), odour pleases and attracts, while an unpleasant
and onycha thecheleph), and galbamim one disgusts and repels.'
This is very well ; and no doubt the use of
chelbenah) ; these sweet spices with pure incense, which we always find in religions where
frankincense lebonah) : of each shall worship is rendered by sacrifice, had its origin in
there be a like weight. And thou shalt make of some such considerations. But we are not to lose
it a perfume, a confection after the art of the sight of the symUdical meaning of this grateful
apothecary, tempered together, pure and holy.' offering. It was a symbol of prayer. It was
For an explanation of these various ingredienU offered at the time when the people were in the
we must refer to their several Hebrew names in posture and act of prayer; and their orisons were
the present work. The further directions are, supposed to be presented to God by the priest, and
that this precious compound should be made or to ascend to Him in the smoke and odour of that
broken up into minute particles, and that it fragrant offering. This beautiful idea of the in
should be deposited, as a very holy thing, in the cense frequently occurs in Scripture (comp. Ps.
tabernacle 4 before the testimony ' (or ark). As cxli. 2; Mai. i. 11; Zech. xiv. 16; Acts x. 4;
the ingredients are so minutely specified, there Rev. v. 8 : viii. 4).
was nothing to prevent wealthy persons from INCHANTMENTS. [Witchcraft.]
having a similar perfume for private use : mis, INDIA (Wj Sept. *b*ur4). Tliis name
therefore, was forbidden under pain of excom occurs only in Esther i. 1 ; viii. 9, where the Per
munication: 'Ye shall not make to yourselves sian king is described as reigning 1 from India
according to trie composition thereof : it shall unto Ethiopia, over a hundred and seven and
be unto thee holy for the Lord. Whosoever shall twenty provinces.' It is found again, however, in
make like unto that, to smell thereto, shall even the Apocrypha, where India is mentioned among
be cut off from his people ' (ver. 37, 38). the countries which the Romans took from Anti
10 INDIA. INHERITANCE.
ochus and pave to Eumenea (1 Mace. viii. 8). It from these regions the attention of Europeans,
is also with some reason conceived that in Acts i i. and left them in on obscurity which hitherto has
9, we should read 'lvBlcw, India, and not 'IouWw, been little disturbed, although the current of
Judaea. If this could be admitted, an interesting events seems likely ere long to lead to our better
subject of inquiry would arise ; for these dwellers knowledge.
in Indiathat is, Jews of Indiaare described From this it appears that the India of Scripture
as briii,- present in Jerusalem at the Passover. included uo part of the present India, seeing that it
There is much to say in favour of this reading, was confined to the territories possessed by the Per
but more in favour of Idumisa ; for the name of sians and the Syrian Greek*, tliat never extended
that country, 'ISoi^uuay, might, much more easily beyond the Indus, which, since the time of Nadir
than that of India, MfSiae. have been accidentally, Shah, has been regarded as the western boundary
or rather carelessly, corrupted into *lov8cdai/ : and, of India. Something of India beyond the Indus
at the same time, the name of Idumaea would became known through the conquering march of
come better into the list than that of India, seeing Alexander, and still mure through that of Seleu-
that the enumeration is manifestly taken from cus Nicator, who penetrated to the banks of the
east to west; which allows Idumaea with great Ganges; but the notions thus obtained are not
propriety to follow Meso[>otamia, but forhids India embraced in the Scriptural notices, which, both
to do so. Whichever may be right, Judsa can in the canonical and the Apocryphal text, are
not but be wrong ; and, indeed, on the face of the confined to Persian India. (See Heeren's Histo
list, we cannot but see the superfluousness of the rical Researches, i. c. 1, $ 3, on Persian India;
information, that the people of Judaaa were present and Rennet's Geog. of Herodotus).
in their owu city at the Passover. INHERITANCE. The laws and observances
It is evident on the face of the above intima which determine the acquisition and regulate the
tions, and indeed from all ancient history, that the devolution of property, are among the influences
country known as India in ancient times extended which affect the vital interests of states; and it is
more to the west, and did not reach so far to the therefore of high consequence to ascertain the
eastthat is, was not known so far to the east nature and l>earing of the laws and observances
as the India of the moderns. When we read of relating to this subject, which come to us with
ancient India, we must clearly not understand the sanction of the Bible. We may also premise
the whole of Hindostan, but chiefly the northern* that, in a condition of society such as that in
Darts of it, or the countries between the Indus and which we now live, wherein the two diverging
the Ganges ; although it is not necessary to assert tendencies which favour immense accumulations
that the rest of that peninsula, particularly its on the one hand, and lead to poverty and jiau-
western coast, was then altogether unknown. It perism on the other, are daily becoming more
was from this quarter that the Persians and Greeks and more decided, disturbing, and baneful, there
(to whom we are indebted for the eailiest accounts seems to be required on the part of those who
of India) invaded the country; and this was con take Scripture as their guide, a careful study of
sequently the region which first became generally the foundations of human society, and of the
known. The countries bordering on the Ganges laws of property, as they are developed in the
continued to be involved in obscurity, the great divine records which coutain the revealed will of
kingdom of the Prasiaus excepted, which, situated God.
nearly above the modem Bengal, was dimly dis That will, in truth, as it is the source of all
cernible. The nearer we approach the Indus, the created tilings, and specially of the earth and
more clear becomes our knowledge of the ancient its intelligent denizen, man, so is it the original
geography of the country ; and it follows that the foundation of property, and of the laws by which
districts of which at the present day we know the its inheritance should be regulated. God, as the
least, were anciently best known. Besides, the Creator of the earth, gave it to man to be held,
western and northern houndaries were not the cultivated, and enjoyed (Gen. i. 2s. sq. ; Ps.
same as at present. To the west, India was not cxv. 16 ; Eccles. v. 9). The primitive records
then bounded by the river Indus, but by a chain are too brief and fragmentary to supply us with
of mountains which, under the name of Koh any details respecting the earliest distribution
(whence the Grecian appellation of the Indian or transmission of landed property; "but from
Caucasus), extended from Bactria to Makran, or the passages to which reference has been made,
Gedrosio, enclosing the kingdoms of Candahar the im]x>rtajit fact apj>ears to be established
and Cabul, the modern kingdom of Eastern Persia, beyond a question, that the origin of property is to
or Afghanistan. These districts anciently formed be found, not in the achievements of violence, the
part of India, as well as, further to the south, the success of the sword, or any imaginary implied
less perfectly known countries of the Arabi and contract, but in the will and the gift of the com
Haurs (the Arabita; and Oritse of Arrian, vi. 21), mon Creator and bountiful Father of the human
bordering on Gedrosia. This western boundary race. It is equally clear that the gift was made,
continued at all times the same, and was removed not to any favoured portion of our race, but to
to the Indus only in consequence of the victories the race itselfto man as represented by our
of Nadir Shah. great primogenitor, to whom the use of the divine
Towards the north, ancient Inilia overpassed gift was first graciously vouchsafed. The indi
not less its present limit. It comprehended the vidual appropriation of portions of the earth, and
whole of the mountainous region above Cashmir, the transmission of the parts thus appropriated,
Badakshati, Belur Land, the western Iwundary in other words, the consuetudinary laws of pro
mountains of Little Buchario, or Little Thibet, perty, would he determined in each instance by
and even the desert of Cobi, so far as it was the peculiar circumstances in which an indivi
known. The discovery of a passage by sea to dual, a family, or a clan, might find itself placed
the coasts of India has contributed to withdraw in relation to the world and its other inhabitants;
INHERITANCE. INHERITANCE. 11
Dor is it now, in tlie absence of written evidence, male line. Hence too the rise of the rights of
possible to ascertain, and it is useless, if not worse, primogeniture. In the early condition of society
to attempt to conjecture, what these laws were. which is called patriarchal, landed property had
This, however, is certain, that if in any case its origin, indeed, but could not be held of first
they inflicted injury, if they aided the aggran importance by those who led a wandering life,
disement of the few, and tended to the depression shifting continually, as convenience suggested,
of the many, they thereby became unjust, and not from oue spot to another. Cattle were then the
only lost their divine sanction, but, by opposing chief property (Gen. xxiv. 35). But land, if held,
the very purposes for which the earth was given to was held on a freehold tenure; nor could any
man, and operating in contravention of the divine other tenure have come into existence till more
will, they were disowned and condemned of God, complex and artificial relations arose, resulting, in
the tenure of the property was forfeited, and a all probability, from the increase of imputation
recurrence to first principles and a re-distribution and the relative insufficiency of food. When
became due alike to the original donor, and to Joseph went down into Egypt, he apjiears to have
those whom He had intended impartially to be found the freehold tenure prevailing, which, how
nefit. ever, he converted into a tenancy at will, or, at
The enforcement of these principles has, in any rate, into a conditional tenancy. Other in
different periods of human history, been made by timations, are found in Genesis which confirm
the seen hand of God, in those terrible providen the general statements which have just been
tial visitations which upturn the very foundations made. Daughters do not appear to have had any
of society and reconstruct the social frame. The inheritance. If there are any exceptions to this
Deluge was a kind of revocation of the divine rule, they only serve to prove it. Thus Job (the
gift; the Creator took back into his own hands book so called is undoubtedly very old, so that
the earth which men had filled with injustice there is no impropriety in citing it in this con
and violence. The trust, however, was, after that nection) is recorded (xlii. 15) to have given his
terrible punishment, once more committed to daughters an inheritance conjointly with their
man, to be held, not for himself, but for God, brothersa record which of itself proves the sin
and to be so used and improved as to further gularity of the proceeding, and establishes our
the divine will by furthering human good. And, position that inheritance generally followed the
whatever conduct may have been pursued, at any male line. How highly the privileges conferred
period, at variance with the divine purpose, yet it by primogeniture were valued, may be learnt from
is in trust, not in absolute possession, it is for the history of Jacob and Esau. In the patriarchal
God's purposes, not our own, that the earth at age doubtless these rights were very great. Tlie
large, and every portion of the earth, has been eldest son, as being by nature die first fitted for
and is still held. In truth, man is the tenant, command, assumed influence and control, under
nor the proprietor, of the earth. It is the tem his father, over the family and its dependents ;
porary use, not the permanent {MMscssion of it and when the father was removed by death, he
that he enjoys. The lord of ten thousand broad readily, and as if by an act of Providence, took
acres, equally with the poor penniless squatter, is his fathers place. Thus he succeeded to the pro
a sojourner and pilgrim in the land, as all his perty in succeeding to the headship of the family,
fathers were, and is bound, not lea* than the the clan, or the tril>e. At first the eldest son most
other, to remember, not only that projierty has probably took exclusive possession of his father's
its duties as well as its rights, but also that property and power; and when, subsequently, a
its l>est titles are held by a momentary tenure, division became customary, he would still retain
revocable at the will of an omnipotent power, the largest sharea double portion, if not more
and subject to unerring scrutiny, in regard both (Gen. xxvii. 25, 29, 40). That in tlie days
to their origin and their use, in a court where of Abraham other sons partook with the eldest,
the persons of men are not respected, where justice and that too though they were sons of concubines,
is laid to the line, and judgment to the plummet is clear from the story of Hagar's expulsion :
(Isa. xviii. 17). * Cast out (said Sarah) this bondwoman and her
The impression which the original gift of the son ; for tlie son of this bondwoman shall not be
earth was calculated to make on men, the Great heir with my son, even with Isaac ' (Gen. xxi. 10).
Donor was pleased, in the case of Palestine, to The few notices left us in Genesis of the transfer
render, for his own wise purposes, more decided of property from hand to hand are interesting,
and emphatic by an express re-donation to the ana bear a remarkable similarity to what takes
patriarch Abraham (Gen. xiii. 14, sq.). Many place in Eastern countries even at this day (Gen.
years, however, elapsed before the promise was xxi. 22, sq. ; xxiii. 9, sq.). The purchase of
fulfilled. Meanwhile the notices which we have the Cave of Machpelah as a family burying-
regarding the state of property in the patriarch il place for Abraham, detailed in the last passage,
ages, are few and not very definite. The products serves to show the safety of property at that early
of the earth, however, were at an early period ac period, and the facility with which an inheritance
cumulated and held as property. Violence in was transmitted even to sous' sons (comp. Gen.
vaded the possession; opposing violence recovered xlix. 291 That it was customary, during the
the goods. War soon sprang out of the passions father's lifetime, to make a disposition of property,
of the human heart. The necessity of civil go is evident from Gen. xxiv. 35, where it is said
vernment was felt. Consuetudinary laws ac that Abraham had given all he had to Isaac. This
cordingly developed themselves. The head of statement is further confirmed hy ch. xxv. 5, 6,
the family was supreme. His will was law. The where it is added that Abraham gave to the sons
physical superiority which he possessed gave him of his concubines 'gifts, sending them away from
this dominion. The same influence would secure Isaac his son, while lie yet lived, eastward unto
its transmission in the male rather than the fe the east country.' Sometime*, however, so fat
11 INHERITANCE. INHERITANCE.
were the children of unmarried females from of the children of Israel. The observances and
being dUmissed with a gift, that they shared, practices, too, which we have noticed as prevailing
with what we should teim the legitimate children, among the patriarchs would, no doubt, have great
in the father's property and rights. Titus Dan influence on the laws which the Jewish legislator
and Naphtali were sons of Bilhah, Rachel's maid, originated or sanctioned. The laud of Canaan
whom she gave to her husband, failing fo l>ear was divided among the twelve tribes descended
children herself. So Gad and Asher were, under through Isaac and Jacob from Abraham. The
similar circumstances, sons of Zilpah, Leah's division was made by lot for an inheritance
maid (Gen. xxx. 2-14). In the event of the among the families of the sons of Israel, accord
eldest son's dying in the father's lifetime, the ing to the tribes, and to the numtwr and size of
next son took his place; and if the eldest son left families in each tribe. The tribe of Levi, how
a widow, the next son made her his wife (Gen. ever, had no inheritance ; but forty-eight cities with
xxxviii. 7, sq.), the offspring of which union was their suburbs were assigned to the Levites, each
reckoned to the first-bom and deceased son. tribe giving according to the number of cities
Should the second likewise die, the third son that fell to its share (Num. xxxiii. 50; xxxiv. 1;
took his place (Gen.xxxviii.il). While the xxxv. 1). The inheritance thus acquired was
rights of tha first-born were generally established never to leave the tril>e to which it belonged;
and recognised, yet were they sometimes set aside every tribe was to keep strictly to its own iiihi rit-
in favour of a younger child. The blessing of ance. An heiress, in consequence, was not allowed
the fattier or the grandsire seems to have been an to marry out of her own tribe, lest projierty should
act essential in the devolution of power and pro jklss by her marriage into another tribe (Num.
pertyin its effects not unlike wills and testa xxxvi. 6-9). This restriction led to the marriage
ments with us; and instances are not wanting in of heiresses with their near relations: thus the
which (his (so to term it) testamentary bequest daughters of Zelopltehad ' were married unto their
set aside consuetudinary laws, and gave prece father's brother's sons,' *and their inheritance re
dence to a younger son (Gen. xlviii. 15, sq.). mained in the tribe of the family of their father *
Special claims on the jiarental regards were ac (ver. 11, 12; comp. Joseph. Antiq. iv. 7. 5). In
knowledged and rewarded by special gifts, as in general cases the inheritance went to sons, the
the case of Jacob's donation to Joseph (Gen. first-l>orn receiving a double jjortion, 'for he is
xlviii. 22). In a similar manner, bad conduct the beginning of his father's strength.* If a man
on the part of the eldest son (as well as of others) had two wives, one beloved, the other hated, and
subjected him, if not to the loss of his rights of if the first-lwm were the son of her who was
property, yet to the evil influence of his father's hated, he nevertheless was to enjoy ' the right of
dying malediction (Gen. xlix. 3) ; while the good the first-born * (Deut. xxi. 15). If a man left no
and favoured, though younger, son was led by sons, the inheritance passed to his daughters : if
the paternal blessing to anticipate, and protiably there was no daughter, it went to his brothers; iu
also to reap, the richest inheritance of individual case there were no brothers, it was given to his
and social happiness (Gen. xlix. 6-22). father's brothers; if his father had no brothers,
The original promise made to Abraham of the it came into possession of the nearest kinsman
land of Palestine was solemnly repeated to Isaac (Num. xxvii. 8). The land was Jehovah's, and
(Gen. xxvi. 3), tiie reason assigned t>eing, be could not therefore be permanently alienated.
cause 1 Abraham obeyed my voice and kept my Every fiftieth year, whatever land had been sold
charge, my commandments, my statutes, ami my returned to its former owner. The value and
laws;' while it is expressly declared that the price of land naturally rose or fell in proportion
earlier inhabitants of the country were dispos to the number of years there were to elapse prior
sessed and destined to extermination for the to the ensuing fiftieth or jubilee-year. If he wlu
greatness of their iniquity. The possession of sold the land, or a kinsman, could redeem the
the promised land was embraced by Isaac in his land before the year of jubilee, it was to be
dying benediction to Jacob (Gen. xxviii, 3, 4), to restored to him on his paying to the purchaser
whom God vouchsafed (Gen. xxviii. 15 ; see also the value of the produce of the years remaining
xxxv. 10, 11) to give a renewed assurance of the till tiie jubilee. Houses in villages or unwalleU
destined inheritance. That this donation, how towns might not be sold forever; they were re
ever, was held to be dependent for the time and stored at the jubilee, and might at any time be
manner of its fulfilment on the divine will, ap redeemed. If a man sold a dwelling-house situ
pears from Gen. xxxiii. 18, where Jacob, on ated in a walled city, he had the option of re*
coming into the land of Canaan, bought for an deeming it within the space of a full year after it
hundred pieces of money ' a parcel of a Held, at had been sold ; but if it remained unredeemed, it
the baud of the children of Hamor.* Delayed belonged to the purchaser, and did nut return to*
though the execution of the promise was, con him who sold it even at the jubilee (Lev. xxv. R,
fidence never deserted the family of Abraham, so 23). The Levitts were not allowed to sell the
that Joseph, dying in the land of Egypt, assured land in the suburbs of their cities, though they
his brothers that they would be visited of God might dispose of the cities themselves, which,
and placed in possession of Canaan, enjoining on however, were redeemable at any time, and must
them, in this conviction, that, when conducted return at the jubilee to their original possessors
to their possession, they should carry Ids bones (Lev. xxvii. 16).
with them out of Egypt (Gen. 1. 25). The regulations which the laws of Moses esta
A promise thus given, thus repeated, and thus blished rendered wills, or a testamentary dispo
believed, easily, and indeed unavoidably, became sition of (at least) landed property, almost, if no'
the fundamental principle of that settlement of piite, unnecessary; we accordingly find no pro
property which Moses made when at length he vision for anything of the kind. Some difficulty
had effected the divine will in the redemption may have been now and tlien occasioned when
INSPIRATION. INSPIRATION. 13
near relations failed; but this was mel by tlie deemer; together with their power tc enlighten
traditional law, which furnished minute direc and sanctify the heart, and the accompanying
tions ou the point (Misch. Kaba Bathra, iv. 3, witness of the spirit in believers. These are cir
c. 8, 9). Personal properly would naturally fol cumstances of real importance, and the discerning
low the land, or might be bequeathed by word of advocates of inspiration have not overlooked them.
mouth. At a later period of the Jewish polity But the more direct and conclusive evidence that
the mention of wills is found, but the idea seems the Scriptures were divinely inspired, is found in
to have been taken from foreign nations. In the testimony of the witters themselves. And
princely families they appear to have been used, as as the writers did, by working miracles, and in
we learn from Josephus (Antiq. xiii. 16. 1 ; xvii. other ways, sufficiently authenticate their divine
3. 2; De Bell. Jud. ii. 2. 3); but such a prac commission, and establish their authority and in
tice can hardly suflice to establish the general fallibility as teachers of divine truth, their
use of wills among the jieople. In the New Tes testimony, in regard to their own inspiration, is
tament, however, wills are expressly mentioned entitled to our full confidence. For who can doubt
(Gal. iii. 15; Heb. ix. 17). Michaelu (Com that they were as competent to judge of, and
mentaries) i. 431) asserts that the phrase (2 Sam. as much disposed to speak the truth on this sub
xvii. 23 ; 2 Kings xx. 1 : \mk HIV) 'set thine ject as on any other i If then we admit their
house in order' has reference to a will or testa divine commission and authority, why should we
ment, lint his grounds are by no means sufficient, not rely ujxin the plain testimony which they
the literal rendering of the words being, * give give concerning the divine assistance afforded
commands to thy house.' The utmost which them in their work? To reject their testimony in
such an expression could inferentially be held to this case would be to imjieach their veracity, and
comprise in regard to property, is a dying and thus to take away the foundation of the Christian
(mat distribution of personal property; and we religion. And it is well known that those who
know that it was not unusual for fathers to make, deny the justice of the claim which they set up
while yet alive, a division of their goods among to divine inspiration, do, in fact', give up the in
their children (Luke xv. 12; Rosenmull. jUor- fallible truth and authority of the Scriptures, and
genl. v. 197).J. R. B. adopt the principles of deism.
INK, INKHORN. [Writing.] It is, then, of tlie first importance to inquire
what representations are made by the prophets,
INSPIRATION. This word is sometimes and by Christ and liis apostles, respecting the inspi
used to denote the excitement and action of a ration, and the consequent authority, of the sacred
fervent imagination in the poet or orator. Hut Scriptures.
even in tiiis case there is generally a reference to The prophets generally professed to speak the
some supposed divine influence, to which the ex word of God. What they taught was introduced
cited action is owing. It is once used in Scrip and confirmed by a * Thus saith the Lord or
ture to denote that divine agency by which man 'Tlie Lord spake to me, saying.1 And, in one
s endued with the faculties of an intelligent way or another, they gave clear proof that they
>eing, wucn it is said, * the inspiration of the Al- were divinely commissioned, and spoke in tlie
frnighty giveth him understanding.' But the in name of God, or as it is expressed in the New
spiration now to be considered is that which Testament, that God spake by them.
belonged to those who wrote tlie Scriptures, anil But the strongest and most satisfactory proof of
which is particularly spoken of in i Tim. iii. 16, the inspiration and divine authority of the Old
and in *2 Pet. i. 21 : k All Scripture is given by Testament writings, i3 found in the testimony ot
inspiration of God ;' Holy men of God spake as Christ and the apostles.
they were moved by the Holy Ghost,' These pas Tlie Lonl Jesus Christ possessed the spirit of
sages relate specially to tlie Old Testament ; wisdom without measure, and came to bear wit
but there is at least equal reason to predicate ness to tlie truth. His works ptoved that he was
divine inspiration of the New Testament. what lie declared himself to hethe Messiah, the
Tlie definition which Dr. Kuapp gives of in gTeat Prophet, the infallible Teacher. The faith
spiration ii the one we shall adopt He says, which rests on him rests ou a rock As soon then
* It may he best defined, according to tlie repre as we learn how he regarded the Scriptures, we
sentations of the Scriptures themselves, as an ex have reached the end of our inquiries. His word
traordinary d. vine agency upon teachers while is truth. Now every one who carefully attends
giving instruction, whether oral or written, by to the four Gosj.iels will find, that Christ every
which they were taught what and how they where spoke of that collection of writings called
sfutukl write or speak/ Or we may say more the Scripture, as the word of God ; that he re
briefly, that the sacred penmen were completely garded the whole in this light ; that he treated
under the direction of the Holy Spirit, or that they the Scripture, and every part of it, as infallibly
wrote under a plenary inspiration. Dr. Culamy's true, and as clothed with divine authority,thus
definition agrees substantially with that of Dr. distinguishing it from every mere human produc
Kuapp. tion. Nothing written by man can be entitled to
To prove that tlie Scriptures are divinely in the respect which Christ showed to the Scriptures.
spired we might with propriety refer to the Tins, to all Christians, is direct and incontro
excellence of the doctrines, precepts, and pro vertible evidence of the divine origin of the
mises, and other instructions, which they contain ; Scriptures, and is, by itself, perfectly conclusive.
to the simplicity and majesty of their style; to But there is clear concurrent evidence, and
the agreement of the different parts, and the evidence still more sjiecilic, in the writings of the
scope of the whole ; especially to the full dis Apostles. In two texts in particular, divine in
covery tiiey make of man's fallen and ruined spiration is positively asserted. In the first (2
state, and the way of salvation through a Re Tim. iii. 16), Paul lays it down as the charac
U INSPIRATION. INSPIRATION.
terististic of * all Scripture,' that it ' is given by will or agency, the ingenuity, diligence nr fide
inspiration of God' (ffcosrytwTor, * divinely in lity of men, in the use of the means within their
spired); and from tliis results its profitableness. reach, without the supernatural influence of the
Some writers, think that the passage should be spirit, is utterly at variance with the teachings of
rendered thus : All divinely inspired Scripture^ Christ and the Apostles as to the origin of the
or, all Scrijjturc, being divinely inspired, is sacred writings.
profitable. According to the common render As the Christian dispensation surjnsscs the
ing, inspiration is predicated of all Scripture. former in all spiritual privileges and gifts, it is
According to the other, it is presupposed, as the reasonable to presume that the New Testament
attribute of the subject. But this rendering is was written under at least an equal degree of
liable to insuperable objections. For $*6wvfv divine influence with the Old, and that it comes
otoi and wtptXtfios are connected by the con recommended to us by equal characteristics of
junction Kal, and must both be predicates, if infallible truth. But of this there is clear positive
either of them is; and unless one of them is a evidence from the New Testament itself.
predicate there is no complete sentence. Hen In the first place, Jesus Christy whose works
derson remarks that the mode of construction re pnnred him to l>e the great unerring Teacher, and
ferred to * is at variance with a common rule of to ! possessed of all power in Heaven and earth,
Greek syntax, which requires, that when two gave commission to his Apostles to act in his
adjectives are closely joined, as 6t6xvtvrros and steady and to carry out the work of nutruction
u.-r;.t.VtM.,y here are, if there lie an ellijisis of the which he had begun, confirming their authority
substantive verb Vti, this verb must be supplied by investing them with power to |>erform mirar les.
after the former of the two. and regarded as re But how could such a commission have answered
peated after the latter. Now there exists pre the etui proposed, had not the Divine Spirit 10
cisely sucti an ellijisis in the case before us; and guided the Apostles as to render them infallible
as there is nothiug in the context which would and perfect teachers of divine truth?
lead to any exception to the rule, we are bound But, secondly, in addition to this, Jems ex*
to yield to its force.1 And he adds, that 1 the prestly promised to give them the Holy Spirit)
evidence in favour of the common rendering, to abide wtth them continually^ and to yttids
derived from the Fatlters, anil almost all the ver them into atlthe truth. He said to them,' When
sions, is most decided/ It cannot for a moment they shall deliver you up, take no thought how
be admitted, that the Apostle meant to signify or what ye shall speak ; for it shall (re given you
that divine inspiration lieUmgs to a part of Scriji- in the same hour what ye shall s|ieak. For it is
ture, but not to the whole; or that he meant, as not ye that sj>euk, but the Spirit of your Father
Sender supjwses, to furnish a criterion by which that speaketh in you.' Storr and Flatt think this
to judge whether any work is inspired or not, is the idea intended: * The instructions which
namely, its utility. 'That author proceeds fear* ye in general give are derived not so much from
lessly to apply nail criterion to the hooks of the yourselves as from the Holy Spirit. Hence, when
Old Testament, and to lop off eight of them, as ye arc called on to defend your doctrines, ye need
not possessing the requisite marks of legitimacy. feel no anxiety, but may confidently rely on the
Most of the German divines adopt Semler's hypo Holy Spirit to vindicate his own doctrine*, by
thesis.' Kut it id very manifest that such a MM suggesting to you the very words of your defence.'
is not by any means suggested by the |>as*age If these promises were int fulfilled, then Jesus
itself, and that it is utterly precluded by other was not a true prophet. If they were fulfilled, as
parts of the New Testament. F.t neither Christ they certainly were, then the Apostles had the
nor any one of his apostles ever intimates a dis constant assistance of the Holy Spirit, and, whe
tinction between some parts of Scripture which ther engaged in sjieakiug or writing, weie under
are inspired and oilier jwuts winch are not in divine guidance, and, of COUTte, were liable to no
spired. The doctrine which is plainly asserted mistakes either .as to the matter or manner of their
in the text under consideration, and which is instructions.
fully sustained by t he current language of the In the third place, the writers of the Xcto
New Test,iment, is, that all the writings deno* Testament manifestly considered thcmsclccs to
initiated the Scriptures are divinely inspired. be under the guidance of the Holy Spirit and
The other text (2 Pet. i. 21) teaches that ' Pro their instrttctimis, whether oral or written, to be
phecy came not by t lie will of man, but holy men clothed with dninc authority, as the word of
of God spake h they were moved by the Holy God.
Ghost." This passage, which the apostle Peter * We sjieak,' they say, ' as of Goo!.' Again,
applied particularly to the subject of which he * Which things we speak, not in the words which
was speaking, may be consideied as explanatory man's wisdom teachetli, but in wonis which the
of what is intended by inspiration. For to say Holy Ghost teachetli.' They declared what thef
that all Scripture is divinely inspired, and that taught to be the word of God, and the things
men of God wrote it as they were moved by the they wrote to he the commandments of God,
Holy Ghost, is one and the same thing. Now the Apostles, being honest, unassuming,
The various texts in which Christ and the Apos humble men. would never have spoken of them
tles sjieak of Scripture as the word of God, and selves and their writings in such a maimer, had
as invested with authority to decide all questions they not known themselves to be under the un
of truth and duty, fully corresjKind with the texts erring guidance of the Holy Spirit, and their
above considered. instructions perfectly in accordance with the mind
From this view of the subject it follows, that of God.
the Attempt which has been made by a certain From several passages in Paul's epistles to the
class of writers, to account for the production of Corinthians, it has been supposed that, in the
she whole or any part of the Scriptures by the cases referred to, he meant to disclaim inspiration.
INSPIRATION. INSPIRATION. 15
But that those passages will bear another con his mode of operation to each of these cases
struction, and ought to he understood in another against this no objection can be made. It is a
manner, has been satisfactorily argued hy several fact, that the Scriptures exhibit specimens of all
writers, particularly by Haldane and Gaussen in these different kinds of writing and these different
their treatises on inspiration, and by Henderson modes or divine instruction. Still each and
in his lectures. And the writer of this article every part ofwh.it was written was divinely in
would take the liberty to refer also to his lectures spired, and equally so. It is all the word of God,
on the same subject. ami clothed with divine authority, as much as if
It is perfectly consistent with the plenary in it had all been made known and written in one
spiration here maintained, that God operated on way.
the minds of inspired men in a variety of ways, Dr. Henderson, who labours perhaps with too
sometimes by audible words, Bometimea by direct much seal against carrying inspiration to extreme
inward suggestions, sometimes by outward visible lengths, still says that if those who hold to different
signs, sometimes by the Urim and Thummim, modifications of inspiration intend that there are
and sometimes by dreams and visions. This different modifications and degrees of authority
variety in the mode of divine influence detracted given to Scripture, their opinion must meet with
nothing from its certainty. God made known unqualified reprobation from every sincere be
his will equally indifferent ways ; and, whatever liever. He insists that a diversity in the modes
the mode of his operation, he made it manifest to and degrees of divine operation did exist in the
his servants that the things revealed were from work of inspiration, and that this diversity was
him. the result of infinite wisdom adapting itself to
But inspiration was concerned not only in different circumstances. He thinks that, unless
making known the will of God to prophets and we admit such a diversity, we cannot form correct
apostles, but also in giving them - direction in ideas of the subject. But he is confident that the
writing the sacred books. They wrote as they distinction which he endeavours to establish is not
were moved by the Holy Ghost. And in this, in the slightest degree hostile to the divine au
also, there was a diversity in the mode of divine thority of Scripture. He affirms that no part of
influence. Sometimes the Spirit of God moved that holy book was tcritten without miraculous
and guided his servants to write things which they influence ; that all parts were equally inspired;
could not know by natural means, such as new that in regard to the whole volume the great end
doctrines or precepts, or predictions of future was infallibly attained, namely, the commitment
events. Sometimes he moved and guided them to writing of precisely such matters as God de
to write the history of events which were wluilly signed for the religious instruction of mankind}
or partly known to them by tradition, or by the that the sacred jwumen wrote what had for its
testimony of their contemporaries, or by their own object not merely the immediate l>etiefit of indi
observation or experience. In all these cases the vidual persons or churches, hut what would be
Divine Spirit effectually preserved them from all useful to Christians in-all future times; and that
error, and influenced them to write just so much in regard to the most minute and inconsiderable
and in rich a manner as God saw to be best. things which the Scripture contains we are com
Sometimes he moved and guided them to write a pelled to say, this also comethfrom the Lord.
summary record of larger histories, containing The controversy among orthodox divines re
what his infinite wisdom saw to be adapted to the specting what is called verbal inspiration, appears
end in view, that is, the benefit of his people in to arise, in a great measure, from the different
all ages. Sometimes he influenced them to make senses affixed to the phrase. Dr. Henderson, who
a record of important maxims in common use, or is among the most candid and able writers op
to write new ones, derived either from their own posed to the doctrine of verbal inspiration, seems
reason or experience, or from special divine to understand the doctrine as denoting the imme
teaching. Sometimes he influenced them to write diate communication to the writers of every tnorrf,
parables or allegories, particularly suited to make and syllable, and letter of what they wrote, inde
a salutary impression of divine things on the pendently of their intelligent agency and without
minds of men ; and sometimes to record super any regard lo their peculiar mental faculties or
natural visions. In these and all other kinds of habits: while those wlio most earnestly and suc
writing the sacred penmen manifestly needed cessfully contend for the higher views of inspira
special divine guidance, as no man could of him tion, particularly Calamy, Haldane, and Gaussen,
self attain to infallibility, and no wisdom, except consider the doctrine they maintain as entirely
tliat of God, was sufficient to determine what consistent witli the greatest diversity of mental
things ought to be written for permanent use in endowments, culture, and taste in the writers, and
the church, and what manner of writing would with the most perfect exercise of their intelligent
be best fitted to promote the great ends of revela agency,consistent witii their using their own
tion. memory, their own reason, their own manner of
Some writers speak of different modes and thinking, and their own language,consistent,
different kinds, and even different degrees of in too, with their making what they were to write
spiration. And if their meaning is that God the subject of diligent and laborious study,only
influenced the minds of inspired men in different insisting that it teas all under the unerring
ways; that, he adopted a variety of modes in re guidance of the Divine ifyirit.
vealing divine things to their minds; that he In a controversy of such a character as this, we
guided them to give instruction in prose and in may often succeed in removing difficulties, and
jioetry, and in all the different forms of composi in presenting the subject in a light which will lie
tion ; that he moved and guided them to write satisfactory to all concerned, by laying aside an
history, prophecy, doctrines, commands, promises, 'ambiguous word or phrase, and making use of
reproofs, and exhortations, and that he adapted one which will express the idea intended with
16 INSPIRATION. INSPIRATION.
clearness and certainly. Tlie word verbal, in its or tii.:! did not adequately give it expression;*
must common senses, is not well suited to the that the characteristic differences of style, so
present subject. According to ihe \mt philolo apjarent among the sacred writers, were employed
gists its first signification is, * spoken, expressed to by the Holy Spirit for the purposes of inspiration,
tlie cir in words, not written,' But no one sup* and 4 were called forth in a rational way ;' that
poses that wlien God inspired tlie sacred writers the writers, lieing acted ujxm by the Divine
ae generally 8|>oke to tlieni iu audible words. It Spirit, expressed themselves naturally : that while
is, indeed, true, that lie sometimes uttered articu the divine influence adapted itself to wliatever
late words in making known his will, as at Sinai, was peculiar in the minds of inspired men, it
at the baptism of Clirist, and on some otber occa constantly guided them in writing the sacred
sions. In sucli coses lie did, properly speaking, volume.* He declares his belief that the Scrip
make verbal communications, or give verbal in tures were written not under a partial or imiier-
struction But we should hardly call this verbal fecL, but under a plenary and infallible inspira
inspiration. Who can suppose that this was tion ; that they were entirely the result of divine
commonly, if ever, the way, in which God inspired intervention, and are to be regarded as the oracles
holy men of old while engaged in writing the of Jehovah. Referring to 2 Tim. iii. It), he says,
Scriptures 1 Who can sup|x>se tliat he taught * We are fiere expressly taught the divine inspi
them what to write hy speaking words in their ration of the whole of the Old Testament Codex ;
ears, as a man teaches his amanuensis? His in that the Scriptures are inspired as toritten docu
fluence was doubtless inward. He guided them ments ; that they are the result of the special
in writing by an operation in their minds. and extraordinary influence of the Spirit, and
Tlie next meaning of verbal is * oral, uttered contain whatever the Spirit caused to Ik; written
by tlie mouth and this agrees no better with our for our instruction.* Referring to 1 Cor. ii. 13,
subject. Other significations of verbal are, * con he says, 4 It is past all dispute that the ajiostle
sisting iu mere words; resecting words only; here unequivocally ascribes lioth the doctrines
literal,' as in a translation, 1 having word answer which he and his fel!ow-1al>ourers taught, and
ing to word.* Neither of these senses is adapted their manner ofpropounding them, V> the influ
to tlie subject Now it would be nothing strange, ence of the same divine agent that the passage
if applying this word to inspiration, and thus conveys tlie idea 1 that the style, or mode of ex
giving it an unusual sense, should occasion need pression which they used, was such as they were
less perplexity and confusion. For the sake of instructed by the Spirit to employ ;* that * in
avoiding this evil, why would it not lie expedient delivering their doctrines they were under the
to employ such words as will convey the idea constant guidance of the Great Instructor, and
intended clearly and definitely ; and, if necessary, clotlied them iu that garb which be directed
to incur the inconvenience of using an exact ex them to use;' that, in the passage alluded to, tlie
planation, instead of the word or phrase which apostle refers * to the entire character of the style
causes tlie difficulty?* which the first teachers of Christianity were
The real question, and tlie whole question at taught to use in announcing its all imjxirtant
issue, may be stated thus : '//'/ the work of the doctrines.' The passage iu Matt. x. 9, 10, he
Divine Spirit in the sacred penmen relate to the says, implies, * that the subject matter oi ajwlogy
language they used, or their manner of express was to be supplied to the apostles; and they
ing their ideas ; and if to, how far, and in what might he well assured that if this, which was the
tvayr most imjxirtant, was secured by divine instruc
AH those with whom we are concerned in the tion, the mere expression would not be wanting.'
discussion of this question, hold that divine in 1 To remove all ground of hesitation from their
spiration had some respect to the language em minds, our Lord says, it is not ye that speak,
ployed by the inspired writers, at least in the way but t)\e Spirit of your Father which sjteaketh in
of general sujiervtsion. And J)r. Henderson you. By his teaching and superintending influ
shows, in various passages of his excellent lectures, ence, they would always be enabled to express
that there is no material dill'ereiice between Into themselves in a maimer worthy of the divine
and those who profess to maintain higher ground. cause which they were called to defenda man
He allows that, to a certain extent, what is called ner which they could never have attained by the
verbal inspiration, or the inspiration of words, exertion of their unassisted powers; so that, al
took place. ' In recording what was immediately though these jmwers were not to lie superseded,
spoken witli an audible voice by Jehovah, or by but employed, it was to l>e as the organs of the
an angel interpreter; in giving expression to divine agency by which ihey were employed.*
points of revelation which entirely surjtassed the And he concede* that, as to all practical pur-
comprehension of the writers; in recording pro ]Kises, they were favoured with divine influence
phecies, the minute liearings of which they did in composing their writings, as well as in their
not perceive; in short, iu committing to writing public shaking.
any of the dictates of theSpirit. which they could Our author says that on the day of Pentecost,
not have otherwise accurately expressed, the when tlie apostles were filled with the Holy
writers,* he alleges, * were supplied with the Qbost, and spake with other tongues, as the Spirit
words as well as the matter.' He says, that gave them utterance, 1 verbal inspiration in the
even when Biblical writers made use of their own strtctt st sense of the term took place.1 ' The im
faculties, and wrote each one in his own manner, mediate supply of words,' he holds. * was in this
without having their men;al constitution at all and every similar instance absolutely necessary."
disturl>ed, they were yet 1 always secured by And he thinks that direct verbal inspiration was
celestial influence against the adoption of any indisj>eusably requisite in all instances in which
forms of speech, or collocation of words, that prophets and apostles were employed to write
would have injured tlie exhibition of divine truth, what they did not clearly comprehend. The)
INSPIRATION. INSPIRATION 17
passages hi which such terms as the word of Godf book in his own pecidiar style, and that influence
the Lord spake, etc, occur, are, in this view, de may have been as real and as necessary as if the
scriptive of immediate verbal communications. style had been what some would call a divine
He supposes that, in all such cases, words were style. It was a divine style, if the writer used it
literally spoken, or audibly pronounced by God under divine direction. It was a divine style,
himself, or by an angel in his name. In this and it was, at the same time, a human style, and
opinion, however, I think he is mistaken. For the writer^s otm style, all in one. Just as the
unquestionably the word of the Lord often, if not believer's exercises, faith and love, are his own
generally, came to the prophets in the way of acts, and at the same time are the effects of divine
dreams, or other modes of inward suggestion. influence. * In efficacious grace,* says Eduards,
The doctrine of a plenary inspiration of all ' we are not merely passive, nor yet does God do
Scripture in regard to the language employed, as some and we do the rest. But God does all, and
well as the thoughts communicated, ought not to we do all. God produces all, and we act all.
be rejected without valid reasons. The doctrine For that if what he produces, namely, our own
is so obviously important, and so consonant to the acts. God is the only proper author and founda*
feelings of sincere piety, that those evangelical tion : we only are the proper actors. We are, in
Christians who are pressed with speculative ob different respects, wholly passive and wholly
jections against it, frequently, in the honesty of active. In the Scriptures, the same tilings are
their hearts, advance opinions which fairly imply represented as from God atid from us. God is
it. This is the case, as we have seen, with Dr. said to convert men. and men are said to convert
Henderson, who says, that the Divine Spirit and turn. God makes a new heart, and we are
guided the sacred penmen in writing the Scrip commanded to make us a new heartnot merely
tures; that their mode of expression was such as because we must use the means in order 1o the
they were instructed by the Spirit to employ ; effect, but the effect itself is our act and our
that Paul ascril>es not only the doctrines which duty. These things are agreeable to that text,
the apostles taught, but the entire character of H God worketh in you both to will and to do.***
their style, to the influence of the Spirit. He The mental exercises of Paul and of John had
indeed says, that this does not always imply the their own characteristic peculiarities, as much as
immediate communication of the words of Scrip their style. God was the author of John s mind
ture ; and he says it with good reason. For im and all that was peculiar to his mental faculties
mediate properly signifies, acting without a and habits, as really as of Paul's mind and what
medium, or without the intervention of another was peculiar to him. And in the work of inspi
cause or means, not acting by second causes. ration he used and directed, for his own purjioses,
Now ihose who hold the highest views of inspira what was peculiar to each. When God inspired
tion do not suppose that the Divine Spirit, except different men lie did not make their minds and
*in a few instances, so influenced the writers of tastes all alike, nor did he make their language
Scripture as to interfere with the use of their alike. Nor had he any occasion fortius ; for while
rational faculties or their peculiar mental habits they had different mentaJ faculties and habits,
and tastes, or in any way to sujiersede secondary they were as capable of l*eing infallibly directed
causes as the medium through which his agency by the Divine Spirit, and infallibly speaking and
produced the desired effect. writing divine truth, as though their mental facul
In regard to this point, therefore, there appears ties an*j habits had l*en all exactly alike. And
to be little or no ground for controversy. For, if it is manifest that the Sci iptutes. written by such
God so influenced the sacred writers that, either a variety o'Vnspired men, and each part agreeably
with or without the use of secondary causes, they to the peculiar talents and style of the u titer, are
wrote just what he intended, and in the manner not only equally from God, but, taken together,
he intended, the end is secured; and what they are far letter adapted to the purposes of general
wrote is as truly his word, as though he had instruction, and all the objects to lie accomplished
written it with his own hand on tables of stone, by revelation, than if they had been written by
without any human instrumentality. The very one man, and in one atid ihe same manner.
words of the decalogue were all such as God chose. This view of plenary inspiration is fitted to
And they would have l>een equally so if Moses relieve the difficulties and objections which have
had Ijeen moved by the Divine Spirit to write arisen in the minds of men from the variety of
them with his hand. The expression, that God talent and taste which the writers exhibited, and
immediately imparted or communicated to the the variety of style which they used. See, it if
writers the very words which they wrote, is evi said, how each writer expresses himself naturally,
dently not well chosen. The exact truth is that in his own way, just as he was accustomed to do
the writers themselves were the subjects of the when not inspired. And see too, we might say
divine influence. The Spirit employed them as in reply, how each ajwstle, Peter, Paul, or John,
active instruments, and directed them in writing, when speaking before rulers, with the promised
both as to matter and manner. They wrote las aid of the Holy Spirit, spoke laturally, with his
they were moved by the Holy Ghost.' The mat own voice, and in his own way, as he had been
ter, in many cases, was what they before knew, accustomed to do on other occasions when not
and (he manner was entirely conformed to their inspired. There is no more objection to plenary
habits; it was their own. But what was written inspiration in the one case than in the other. The
was none the less inspired on that account. God mental faculties and habits of the ajiostles, their
may have influenced and guided an apostle as style, their voice, their mode of speech, all re
infallibly in writing what he had itefbre known, mained as they were. What. then, had the divine
and that guidance may have been as really neces Spirit to do? What was tfie work which apper
sary, as in writing a new revelation. And God tained to Him? We reply, His work was so to
may have influenced Paul or John to write a direct the apostles in the use of their own t a lent*
VOL. II. c
INSPIRATION. INSPIRATION.
and habits, their style, their voice, and all their Viewed in this light, the Word of God has une
peculiar endowment*, iliat they should speak or qualled Iteauties, and exerts an unequalled power
write, each in his own way, just what God would over our hearts.'
have th**m speak or write, for the good of the The objection to i lie plenary inspiration of the
Church in all ages. Scriptures, from the inaccuracy of the translations
The fact that the individual j>eculiarities of and the vaiiouj readings of the ancient manu
the sacred penmen are everywhere so plainly script copies, is totally irrelevant. For what we
impressed on their writings, is often mentioned as asseit in, the inspiration of the original Scriptures,
an objection to the doctrine, that inspiration ex not of the translations ur the ancient copies. The
tended to their language as well as their thoughts. fact tliat the Scriptures were divinely inspired,
This is, indeed, one of the most common ob cannot be expunged or altered by any subsequent
jections, and one which has obtained a very deep event. The very words of the decalogue were
lodgment in the minds of some intelligent Chris written by the linger of God, and none the less so
tians. It may, therefore, be necessary to take lecause the manuscripts which transmit it to us
some further jiains completely to lcmove it. contain some variations. The integrity of the
And in our additional remarks lelative to this copies has nothing to do with the inspiration ot
and other objections, it will come in our way to the original. It is, however, well known that the
show that audi a writer as Gaussen, who contends variations are hardly worthy to be mentioned.
with great earnestness and ability for the highest But if the copies of the Scriptures which we
views of inspiration, does still, on all important have are not inspired, then how can the in
points, agree with those who advocate lower views spiration of the original writings avail to our
of the subject. Ijeuefit .' The answer is, that, according to the
Gaussen says, ' Although the title of each book best evidence, the original writings have been
should not indicate to us that weare passing from one transmitted 1o us with remarkable fidelity, and
author to another; yet we could quickly discover, that our present copies, so far as anything of con
by the change of their characters, that a new hand sequence is concerned, agree with the writings as
has taken the ]>en. It is perfectly easy to recog they came from inspired men ; so that, through
nise each one of them, although they sjteak of the tiie gracious care of divine providence, the Scrip
same master, teach the same doctrines, and relate tures now in use arc, in all iinj tortant resjecls,
the same incidents/ But how does this prove that the Scriptures which were given by inspiration of
Scripture is not, in all respects, inspired i 4 So far God, and are stamjied with divine authority. In
are we,' says this author, * from overlooking human this matter, we stand on the same footing with the
individuality everywhere impressed on our sacred apodtles. For when they spike of the Scriptures,
books, that, on the contrary, it is with profound they doubtless referred to the copies which had
gratitude, and with an ever-increasing admiration, been made and preserved among the Jews, not to
that we regard tins living, real, human character the original manuscripts written by Moses and
infused so charmingly into every part of the the prophets.
Word of God. We admit the fact, and we see in It has been made an objection to the plenary
it clear proof of the divine wisdom which dictated inspiration of the writers of the New Testament,
the Scriptures.' that they generally quote from the Septuagint
Those who urge the objection above men version, and that their quotations are frequently
tioned are plainly inconsistent with themselves. wanting in exactness. Our reply is, that their
For while they deny the plenary inspiration of quotations are made in the usual manner, accord
some parts of Scripture, because they hare these ing to the dictates of common sense, and always
marks of individuality, they acknowledge inspi in such a way as to subserve the cause of truth ;
ration in the fullest sense in other parts,, particu- and therefore, that the objection is without force.
cularly in the prophecies, where this individuality And as to the Septuagint version, the apostles
of the writers is equally apj>amit. never follow it so as to interfere with the authority
In truth, what can be mure consonant with our of the Hebrew Scriptures. Their references to the
beet views of the wisdom of God, or with the gene Old Testament are just such as the case required.
ral analogy of his works, than that he should make There is a noble freedom in their quotations, but
use of the thoughts, the memories, the j)eculiar that freedom never violates truth or propriety.
talents, tastes, and feelings of his servants in If any one, like Priestley and others of the same
recording his Word for the instruction of men ? school, alleges, that there are in the Scriptures
Why should lie not associate the peculiarities of errors in reasoning and in matters of fact, he opens
their personal character with what they write under the door to the most dangerous consequences. In
his jientonal guidance t But, independently of deed he takes the ground of infidelity. And if any
our reasoning, this matter is decided by the Bible one holds, that some parts are inspired, while other
itself. 'All Scripture is divinely inspired,* and par(s are not inspired, tiien we ask, who shall make
it is all the Word of God. And it is none the less the distinction? And if we begin this work, where
the Word of God, and none the less inspired, will it end? But our present concern is with
because it comes to us in the language of Moses, those who deny that inspiration respected the lan
and David, and Paul, and the Other sacred writers. guage of Scripture.
* It is God who speaks to us. but it is also man ; There are some who maintain that all which
it is man, but it is also God.* The Word of God, was necessary to secure the desired results, was an
in order to be intelligible and profitable to us, infallible guidance of the thoughts of the sacred
1 must be uttered by mortal tongues, and be writers; that with such a guidance they might he
written by mortal hands, ami must put on the palely left to express their thoughts in their own
features of human thoughts. This blending of way, w ithout any special influence from above.
humanity and divinity in the Scriptures reminds Now, if those who take this view of the subject
us of the majesty and the condescension of God. moan that God not only gives the sacred iieiimec
INSPIRATION. INSPIRATION. 19
the very ideas which they are to write, but, in would have been inconvenient, and might have
tome way, secure* tin infallible connection between made a less desirable impression of the evil of sin
those ideas and a just expression of them in words ; and the justice of God, than expressing it more
then, indeed, we have the desired resultan infal briefly in a round number; as we often say, with
lible revelation from God, made in the proper a view merely to make a strong impression, that
language of the writers. But if any one supposes in such a battle 10,000, or 50,000, or 300,000
that there is naturally such an infallible connec were slain, no one supposing that we mean to state
tion between right thoughts and a just expression the number with arithmetical exactness, as our
of them in language, without an effective divine object does not require this. And who can doubt
sujierintettdence, be contradicts the lessons ofdaily that the Divine Spirit might lead the sacred pen
experience. But those to whom we refer evidently men to make use of this principle of rhetoric, and
do not themselves believe in such an infallible to speak of those who were slain, according to the
connection. For when they assign their reason common practice in suchacase.in round numbers?
for denying that inspiration related to the language It is sometimes said that the sacred writers
of the Scripture*, they speak of the different, and, were of themselves generally competent to express
as they regard them, ihe contradictory statements their ideas in proper language, and in this respect
of facts by different writersfor example, the dif had no need of supernatural assistance. But there
ferent accounts of the crucifixion and the resur is just as much reason for saying that they were
rection, and the different accounts of the numbers of themselves generally competent to form their
of the slain in Num. xxv. 9 and 1 Cor. x. 8. own conceptions, and so had no need of super
Who. they say, can l>elieve that the language was natural aid in this respect. It is just as reason
inspired, when one writer says that 24,000 were able to say that Moses could recollect what took
slain, and the other 23,000 i But it is easy to see place at the Red Sea, and that Paul could recol
that the difficulty presses with all its force upon lect that "be was once a persecutor, and Peter
those who assert (lie inspiration of the thoughts. what took place on the mount of transfiguration,
For surely they will not say that the sacred writers without supernatural aid, as to say that they
had true thoughts in their minds, and yet uttered could, without such aid, make a proper record
them in the language of falsehood. This would of these recollections. We believe a real and
contradict their own idea of a sure connection infallible guidance of the Spirit in both respects,
between the conceptions of the mind and the because this is taught in the Scriptures. And it
utterance of them in suitable words, and would is obvious that the Bible could not he what Christ
clearly show that they themselves feel it to be and the apostles considered it to be, unless they
necessary that the divine guidance should extend were divinely inspired.
to the words of inspired men as well as their The diversity in the narratives of the Evan
thoughts. But if Paul, through inadvertence, gelists is sometimes urged as an objection against
committed a real mistake in saying that 23,000 the position we maintain in regard to inspiration,
fell in one day, it must have been a mistake in but evidently without reason, and contrary to
his thoughts as well as in his words. For when reason. For what is more reasonable than to
he said 23,000, had he not the idea of that num expect that a work of divine origin will have
ber in his mind ? If, then, there was a mistake, marks of consummate wisdom, and will be suited
it lay in his thoughts. But if there was no mis to accomplish the end in view. Now it will not
take in either of the writers, then there is nothing be denied that God determined that there should
to prove that inspiration did not extend to the be four narratives of the life and death of Jesus
language. If, however, there was a real mistake, from four historians. If the narratives were all
then the question is not, what becomes of verbal alike, three of them would be useless. Indeed
inspiration, but what becomes of inspiration in such a circumstance would create suspicion, and
any sense. would bring discredit upon the whole concern.
As *o the way of reconciling the two statements The narratives must then be different. And if,
above mentioned, but a few words can be offered besides this useful diversity, it is found that the
here. Some writers attempt to remove the diffi seeming contradictions can be satisfactorily re
culty in this manner. The first writer says, conciled, and it each of the narratives is given
24,000 were slain, meaning to include in that in the peculiar style and manner of the writers,
number all who died in consequence of that rel>el- then alt is natural and unexceptionable, and we
lion. The other writer says, 23,000 fell in one have the highest evidence of the credibility and
day, leaving us to conclude that an addition of truth of the narratives.
1000 fell the next day But it may perhaps he We shall advert to one more objection. It is
more satisfactory to suppose, that neither of the alleged that writers who were constantly under a
writers intended to state the exact number, this plenary divine inspiration would not descend to
being of no consequence to their objects. The the unimportant details, the trifling incidents,
real number might be between 23,000 and 24,000, which are found in the Scriptures. To this it
and it might be sufficient for them to express it may be replied that the details alluded to must
in general terms, one of them calling it 24,000, be admitted to be according to truth, and that
and the other 23,000, that is, about so many,, those tilings which, at first view, seem to be trifles
either of the numbers being accurate enough to may, when taken in their connections, prove to be
make the impression designed. Suppose that the of serious moment. And it is moreover manifest
exact number was 23,579, and that both the that, considering what human beings and human
writers knew it to be so. It was not at all neces affairs really are, if all those tilings which are
sary, in order to maintain their character as men called trifling and unimportant were excluded,
of veracity, tliaf they should, when writing for the Scriptures would fail of being conformed to
such a jntrpose, mention the particular number. fact; they would not be faithful histories of hu
The particularity and length of the expression man life: so that the very circumstance which
e2
so INTERPRETATION. INTERPRETATION.
if demanded as proof of inspiration would be schools of tlte prophets (comp. Knoliel, Der Pro*
come an argument against it. And herein we pheiitmus der Heartier volUttindig daryetteiU,
cannot but admire tlie perfect wisdom which Bretdau, 1W, pt. i. p. 102, sq. ; pt. ii. p. 45. sq.).
guided the sacred writers, while we mark the However, the lenig tilled with the Holy Ghost
weakness and shallowness of the ohjections which was the most ]imminent feature in the Hebrew
are urged against their inspiration. idea of a pruphrt. Tliis is even implied in the
On the whole, after carefully investigating the usual apjiellafion which means a person in
subject of inspiration, we are conducted to the the state of divine inspiration (not a predicter of
important conclusion that 'all Scripture is di future events). Prophet ism ceased altogether as
vinely iu*piml;' liiat the sacred penmen wrote soon as Jehovah, accordiug'to the popular opinion
* as they were moved by the Holy Ghost and censed to communicate his Spirit.
that these representations are to be understood as The ancient Greeks ami Romans kept the idea
implying that the writers had, in all respects, (he of divine inspiration more distinct from the idea
effectual guidance of the divine Spirit. And we of interpretation of the divine will. They, accord
are itill more confirmed in this conclusion be ing to a more natural manner of viewing the sub
cause we find that it begets in those who seriously ject, recognised generally, in the mediator between
adopt it, an acknowledgment of the divine origin Giid and man, more of an ex|>erieiiced and skilful
of Scripture, a reverence for its teachings, and a interpreter than of a divinely-inspired seer. They
practical regard to its requirements, like what distinguished the interpreter and the seer by dif
appeared in Christ and his apostles. Being con ferent names, of which we will speak hereafter.
vinced that the Bible lias, m all parts and in It was the combination of the {tower of interpreta
all respects, the seal of the Almighty, and that tion with inspiration, which distinguished the
it is truly and entirely from God, we are led by Hebrew prophets or seers from those ofother ancient
reason, conscience, and piety to U>w submissively nations. The Hebrew notion of a N'-J ap|)ears,
to its high authority, implicitly to lelieve its among the Greeks, to have been split into its two
doctrines, however incomprehensible, and cor- constituent parts of fidyris, from fxaivftrBat, to rave
uially to obey its precepts, however contrary to (Platonis Pheedrns, 48, ed. Steph. p. 244, a. h.),
our natural incliiLations. We come to it from and of ^{wyirrfa, from 4bryu<T0cu% to erjxntnd.
day to day, not as judges, but as learners, never However, the ideas of films and of ilityirrris
questioning the propriety or utility of any of its could be combined in the same person. Comp.
contents. This precious Word of God is the per Boissonnade, Anecdota Gretca% i. 96. Auutut
fect standard of our faith, and the rule of our life, ovfyryrrr'f)s /wutij ykp %v Kal xPVff^ovs i^rrytlro
our comfort in ailliction, and our sure guide to (comp. Scholia in Aristophanis A'uAes, 330), and
heaven.L. W. Arriani Epictctus, ii. 7, thv udi-rtv rhv i^tryov-
INTERPRETATION (BIBLICAL), and fxtvov rk m}/xc?a; Plato, De Legibus% ix. p. 871,
HERMENEUTICS. There is a very ancient c, fitT ^rryyjTuv ko! ndvrtwv ; Euripidis Phoe-
and wide-spread beliefthat the knowledge ofdivine nisste, v. 101 8, 6 fxdyris ^rjyhtraro, and Iphiyenia
things in general, and of the divine will in parti in Auiide, I. 529. Plutarch ( Vita itfisMts*, cap-
cular, is by no means a common property of the xi.) places ^Tryrrrfjs and Trpotfrrns together; so
whole human race, but only a prerogative of a few also docs Dionysius Halicamassensis, it. 73. The
specially-gifted and privileged individuals. It two first of these examples prove that ^Tryrrral
has l>een considered that this higher degree of were, according to the Greeks, persons who pos
knowledge has its source in light and instruction sessed the gift of discovering the will of the Deity
proceeding directly from God, and that it can from certain appearance*, and of interpreting
be imparted to others by communicating to them signs. Jul. Pollux, vili. 121. ^Tryrrrol 8c <Va-
a key to the signs of the divine will. Since, how \ovyro, oi va vtpi rwv oto<rr)fj.tiwv ftal to twk
ever, persons who in this manner have been indi SAAsw Itpwv 7>i$drrKoi>T* j. Haxpocrmtiofl says, Hnd
rectly taught, are initiated into divine secrets, and Suidas repeats after him, (TryT,T^j & i^rryovfitvos
consequently appear as the confidants of deity, ra Upd. Comp. Bekker, Anecdota Qrwoa, i. 185,
they also enjoy, although instructed only through ifyryovvrai oi c/iireipoi. CreuetT defines the 4tj~
the medium of others, a more intimate communion yvrod, in his SymboliJc und MythoUxjie der Alton
with God, a more distinct perception of his Volker, i. 15, as * persons whose high vocation it was
thoughts, and consequently a mediate conscious to bring laymen into harmony with divine things.'
ness of deity itself. It therefore follows that These tlyryrrral moved in a religious sphere (comp.
persons thus either immediately or mediately Herod, i. 78, ami Xenophontis CyrojMedia, viii.
instructed are supposed to be capable, by means 3, 11). Even the Delphic Apollo, leplying to
of their divine illumination and their knowledge those who sought his oracles, is called by Plato
of the signs of the divine will, to impart to mankind ^rrfrrr-qs ( Pvltt. 'iv 448, b.). Plutarch mentions, in
the ardently-desired knowledge of divine things Vita 77ic*ei, c. 25, ovIwvkoX Upuiv ifyfyrrrai ; rump,
and of the will iff deity. They are considered to also the above-quoted passage of Dionysius Hali
be interpreters or explainers of the signs of the caniassensis, and especiullv Rnhnken (ad Timai
divine will, and, consequently, to Ik* mediators Lexicon, ed. Lugd. Bat. 1789. p. 189, sq.). The
between God and man. Divine illumination and Scholiast on Sophocles (yf/oj-, /. 320) has (fryrjeris
a communicable knowledge of the signs and ex iirl tut 0ciW, and the Scholiast on Eh ctra,
pressions of the divine will, are thus supposed to 426, has the definition 4^-frrrjtrts ttaadipricts 6t'tuv.
he combined in one and the same person. It is in connection with this original signification
This idea is the basis of the Hebrew pro- of the word ^Tryrrrr/s that the expounders of the law
phet. The prophet is a divinely-inspired seer, are styled 4^irrrrrcd; Inxause the ancient law was
and. as such, he is an interpreter and preacher of the derived from the gods, and the law-language had
divine will. He may either be directly called by become unintelligible to the multitude. (Comp.
God, or have been prepared for his office in the Lysias, vi. 10; Diodorus Siculus, xiii. 35 j Rutin
INTERPRETATION. INTERPRETATION. 91
ken, as quoted above; the ;u mutators on Pollux interpres, denoting Alorcas, by whose instrumen
and Harpocration ; and K. Fr. Hermann, Lehr- tality peace was offered. At an earlier period
buch der Grieckitchen Staats-alterthiimer, Mar- interpretes meant only tliose persons by means of
bnrg, 183G, 104, note 4). In Athenseus and whom affairs between God and man were settled
Plutarch there are mentioned l>ookg under the title (comp. Virgilii jfineis, x. 175, and Servius on
7777^7-1*0, which containe<l introductions to the this passage). The word* interpretes and con-
right understanding of sacred signs. (Comp. Vale- jectores became convertible terms :unde etiam
si 11.1. ad Harpocrationit Lexicon, Lipsise, 1 821, somniorum atque ominum interpretes conjectorea
ii. 462.) vocantur :* for which reason the interpreters of
Like the Greeks, the Romans also distinguished dreams and omens are called also
hetween rates and interpret (Cicero, Fragm. ; (Quintil. Instit. iii. 6).
(Iortens.) :Sive vates sive in sacris mitiisque From what we have stated it follows that
tradendis diviua mentis interpretes.' Servius itfryyais and interpretatio were originally terms
(ad Virgilii jf?n. iii. 359) quotes a passage confined to the unfolding of supernatural subjects,
from Cicero, thus :ut ait Cicero, omnis divi- although in Latin, at an early period, ihese terms
nandi peritia in duas partes dividkur. Nam were also applied to profane matters. The Chris
unt furor est, ut in vaticinantibus ; aut ars, ut tians also early felt the want of an interpretation
in aruspicibus, fulguritis sive fulguraloribus, et of their sacred writings, which they deemed to be
auguribus: that is, * the science of divination is of divine origin ; consequently they wanted in-
twofold ; it is either a sacred raving, as in prophets, terpreters and instruction by the aid of which the
or an art, as in soothsayers, who regard the intes- true sense of the sacred Scriptures might be dis-
tiues of sacrifices, or lightnings, or the flight of covered. The right understanding of the nature
birds.' Thearu3picet,fulguriti,fulgiiratoresf&nd and will of God seemed, among the Christians,
augurcs, l>elong to the idea of the interpret deo- as well as at an early period among the heathen,
rum. Comp. Cicero, Vrodomo sxta,c. 41:Equi- to depend upon a right understanding of certain
dem sic accept, in religionibus suscipiendis caput external signs ; however, there was a progress from
esse interpretari quae voluntas deornm immorta- the unintelligible signs of nature to more intelli
lium esse videatur :' I have been taught thus, gible written signs, which was certainly an im
that in undertaking new religious jwrformances portant progress.
the chief thing seems to be the interpretation of The Christians retained about tiie interpreta
the will of the immortal gods.' Cicero (De Divi- tion of their sacred writings the same expressions
natiotie, i. 41) says: Rtruria interpretatur quid which had been current in reference to the inter-
quibusque ostendatur monstris atque portentis. Setation of sacred subjects among the heathen,
* The Hetrusci explain the meaning of all re euce arose the fact that the Greek Christians
markable foreboding signs and portents.' Hence, employed with predilection the words Q-frynais
in Cicero (De Legibus, ii. 27;, the expression, and t^nyrp-fis in reference to the interpretation of
* interpretes religionum.' the Holy Scriptures. But the circumstance that
An example of this distinction, usual among St. Paul employs the term e/tyoji'ei'a yKuffffuv
the Greeks, is found in 1 Cor. xii. 4, 30. The for the interpretation of the y\taa<raa Ka\uv
Corinthians tilled with t lie Holy Ghost were (1 Cor. xii. 10, xiv. 26), greatly contributed that
yKaxrtrais Kakovvrts, speaking in tongues, conse words belonging to the root tpfj.r}t/t{*iv were also
quently they were in the state of a ftdVny; but mode use of. According to Eusebius (Historia
frequently they did not comprehend the sense of Ecclesiastica, iii. 9), Papias, bishop of Hierapolis,
their own inspiration, and did not understand how wrote, as early as about a.d. 100, a work under
to interpret it because they had not the 4pp.rjvela the title of \oytoiy Kvptanoiv irry(}0ts, which
7&tM*<rwr, interpretation oftongues : consequently means an interpretation of the discourses of
they were not i^rjyrjraL Jesus. Papias explained the religious contents
The Romans obtained the interpretatio from of these discourses, which he had collected from
toe Etruscans (Cicero, De Divinatione, i. 2, and oral and written traditions. He distinguished
Ottfried Miiller, Die Etrutker, ii. 8, sq.) ; but between the meaning of t^rryuirBat and Ipunvtvciy,
the above distinction was die cause that the rs from his observation (preserved by
interpretatio degenerated into a common art, Eusebius in the place quoted above), in which he
which was exercised without inspiration, like a gays concerning the K&yta of St. Mathew, written
contemptible soothsaying, the rules of which were in Hebrew, ip}xi\vevffi Re ahra. is e&vvaro fVao"ros,
contained in writings. Cicero (De Divinatione, 4 but every one interpreted them according to his
i. 2) says:Furoris divinationem Sibyllinismax- ability'. In the Greek Church, 6 ^rryirrfis and
ime versibus contineri arbitrati, eorum decern QTryrjTal rov \6yov were the usual terms for
interpretes delectus e civitate esse voluerunt : teachers of Christianity, (See Eusebii Historia
* Supposing that divination by raving was espe Eccletiastica, vii. 30, and Heinichen on this
cially contained in the Sibylline verses, they ap- passage, note 21; Photii Biblioth. Eod. 105;
pointed ten public interpreters of the same.' Cave, Hist. Liter, i. 146). Origen called his com
Tlie ideas of interpret and of interpretatio were mentary on the Holy Scriptures i^rry^riKd ; and
not confined among the Romans to sacred sub Procopius of Gaza wrote a work on several books
jects ; which, as we have seen, was the case among of the Bible, entitled a,xo\at i^nyrp-iKai. How
the Greeks with the corresponding Greek terms. ever, we rind the word tpfinveia employed as a
The words interpret and interpretatio were not synonym of ^77*y^<m, especially among the inha
only, as among the Greeks, applied to the expla bitants of Antioch. tor instance, Gregorius
nation of the laws, but also, in general, to the ex Nyssenussays, concerning KphraimSyrus, ypaxpfy*
planation of whatever was obscure, and even to oK'nv aieptftes vpis \Qtv r}pfi-f}V(ufffv (see Gregorii
A mere intervention in the settlement of affairs ; Nysseni Vita Ephraimi Sgri ; Opera, Paris, ii.
re find in Livy (xxi. 12) pacit p. 1033). Theodorus of Mopsuestia, Theodoret,
33 INTERPRETATION. INTERPRETATION.
and others, wrote commentaries on the sacred and concealed, but explains what is unclear and
Scriptures under the title of tpuyyua (compare A. obscure (see Weigarni, Wortcrbuch der Dent
il. Niemeyer, rfe Isidori Pe/usiuter Vita, Scriptis, srhen Synonymen, 1. Main/., 1810, p. HO sqj.
et Doctrina, Hake, 1825. p. 30'/). Hence it follows that the Ausleger of the Bible
Among the Latin Christians the word interpres occupies a position different from that of the
had a wider range than the con esjtunding Greek ErklHrer, although these terms are frequently
term, and the Latins had no precise term for the employed as if they were synonymous. The
exposition of the Bible which exactly corresjxinded Ausleycr, i^Tjyrp^ls^ opens what is concealed under
with the Greek. The word interpreiatio was the words of the Bible. He unveils mysteries,
applied only in the MUM of occupation or act while the ErklHreryipp.yivtvs, sees in the words of
of an expositor of the Bible, but not in the sense the Bible not merely signs for something concealed
of contents elicited from biblical passages, and hidden, but words the sense of which is to I*
The words tractaro, tractator, and tractatus cleared up whenever it is obscure. The ErkUiret
were in preference employed witli respect to bib- stands on natukaj, ground, but the Auslcger on
lical exposition, and the sense which it elicited. suriiKnatural.
Together with these words there occur commen- From ancient times the church, or raider eccle-
tarius and expositio. In reference to the exege- siastical bodies and religious denominations,
tical work of St Hilary on St. Matthew, the have taken the supernatural position with reference
codices fluctuate Ijetween cammentarius and to the Bible, as, before the Church, the Jews did
tractatus. St. Augustine's tractatus are well in respect of the Old Testament The church and
known; and this father frequently mentions the denominations have demanded Ausleyer, not
divinarum scripturarum tractatores. For in- Erkliirer. They bare supposed that in the authors
stance, lietractationes 1 .23. divitiorum tractatores of Biblical books there did not exint a literary
ehquiorum. Sulpictus Severus, Dial. i. G. activity of the same kind which induces men to
oriyinis ... . qui tractator sacromm peritissimus write down what they have (bought, but have
habebatur. Vincentins Linnensis observes in his always required from their followers the belief
Commonilorium on ICor. xii. 28 :tertio doctores that the Biblical authors wrote in a state of in-
qui tractatores nunc appellantur ; quos hie idem spiration, that is to say, under a jpeculiar and
apostolus etiam prnphetas interdum nuncupat, eo direct influence of the Divine Spirit. Sometimes
quod ]>er eos prophetarum niysteria populis aperi- the Biblical authors were described to be merely
antur :' in the third place teachers who are now external and mechanical instruments of God's
called tractatores ; whom the same apostle some- revelation. But however w ide, or however uar
times styles prophets, because by them the mysteries row the boundaries were, within w hich the ope-
of the prophets are opened to the jreople' (com- ration of God upon the writers was confined by
pare Dufresne, Glossarium media? et infinxa ecclesiastical supjrosition, the origin of the Bibli-
Latinitatis, sub tkactatou et thactatcs ; and cal books was always supposed to he essentially
Baluze, ad Servat. Lupum, p. 479). different from the origin of human conv|osifions ;
However, the occupation of interpres, in the and this difference demanded the application of
nobler stnse of this word, was not unknown to St. peculiar rules in order to understand the Bible.
Jerome; as may be seen from his Pretfatio in There were required peculiar arts anil kinds of
libros Samuelis (Operated. Vallarsi, ix.p. 459) : information in order to discover the sense and
Quicquid enim crebrius vertetido et emendaudo contents of Imoks which, on account of their ex-
solicitius et didicimus et tenemus, nostrum est. traurdinaiy origin, were inaccessible by the ordi-
Et quum iutellexeris, quod antea uesciehas, vel nary way of logical rules, and whose written
interpretem me estimato si grains es, vel vapa- words were only outward signs, behind which a
^>paxrTi)v si ingratus :* for whatever by frequently higher and divine meaning was concealed. Con-
translating and carefully correcting we have sequently, the church and denominations required
learned and retain, is our own. And if you have Deuter, Auslcger, e^fmrrof, or interpreters, of the
understood what you formerly did not know, con- signs by means of which God had revealed his
aider me to be an exjtositor if you are grateful, or will. Thus necessarily arose again in the Chris-
a paraphrast if you are ungrateful.' tian church the art of opening or interpreting the
In modern times tire word interpretatio has sujwrnatural ; which art had an existence in
again come into repute in the sense of scriptural earlier religions, but with this essential diflerence,
exposition, for which, indeed, interpretation is that the signs, by thcojtening of which supexna-
now the standing technical term. tural truth was obtained, were now more simple,
The German language also distinguishes be- and of a metre intelligible kind, than iu earlier
tween the words ausUgen and erhl'dren iu such a religions. They were now written signs, which
manner that the former corresponds to ^rrytioOai belonged to the sphere of speech and language,
and intcrprctari. The word attsleijcn is always through which alone all modes of thinking obtain
used in the sense of rendering perceptible what is clearness, and can be readily communicated to
contained under signs and symbols. Compare others. But the Holy Scriptures in which divine
Dionvsii Halicarnassensis Antiq. Hum. ii. 73: revelation was preserved, differ, by conveying
rots T ifitwraU, ovoaot ufy Xaaoi roiis irtpl ra Qtia divine thoughts, from common language and
trtBatj{j.vus, i^tjyTyral yivovrat koL irpo&^Ttu : * for writing, which convey only human thoughts,
the ignorant, who do not know what belong! to Hence it followed that its sense was much deeper,
divine worship, there are expositors and piophets.' and far exceeded the usual sphere of' human
Tlie word erkldien, on the contrary, means to thoughts, so that the usual requisites for the right
clear up by arguments what has been indistinctly understanding of written documents ap]>eared to
understood, so that what was incomprehensible lie insufficient According to this opinion a
is comprehended. loweii and a higher sense of the Bible wen
The Erkldrer does not develope what is hidden distinguished. The lower sense was that which
INTERPRETATION. INTERPRETATION 33
could be elicited accurding to the rules of restricted this as follows :irdvra (rcuprj kcu ei/64a
grammar; the higher seme was considered to rek irapa rah dcicus ypa<pah, Trivra rh avayxcua
conriftt of deeper thoughts concealed under the brj\a (Homil. iii. c. 4. in Bp. 2 ad Thessalom-
grammatical meaning of the words. These deeper censes) :* In the divine writings everything is
thoughts they endeavoured to obtain in various intelligible and plain, whatever is necessary is
ways, but not by grammatical research. open ' (compare Homil. iii. de Lazaro, and
The Jews, in the days of Jesus, employed for Athanasii Oratio contra gentes ; Opera i. p. 12).
this purpose especially the typico-allegorical in The second expedient adopted by the church
terpretation. The Jews of Palestine endeavoured was to consider certain articles of faith to be
by means of this mode of interpretation especially leading doctrines, and to regulate and de
to elicit the secrets of futurity, which were said to fine accordingly the sense of the Bible wher
be fully contained in the Old Testament. (See ever it appeared doubtful and uncertain. This
Wanner, Antiquitates Hebreeorum^ vol. i. Got- led to the theoi.ogico-ecclesiastical or dog
tingsB, 1743, p. 341, sq. ; Dopke, HermenciUik matical mode of interpretation, which, when
der neutcstameritliehen Schriflstelter, Leipzig, the Christians were divided into several sects,
1829, p. 88, sq., 164, sq. ; Hirschfeld, der Geist proved to be indispensable to the Church, but
der Talmudischen Auslegung der Bibel, Berlin, which adopted various forms in the various sects
1840 ; com p. Juvenal, Hat. xiv. 103 ; Justin by which it was employed. Not only the heretics
Martyr, ApoL i. pp. 52, 61 ; Brerchueider, His- of ancient times, but also the followers of the
torisch-dogmatische Auslegwig des Neuen Testa- Roman Catholic, the Greek Catholic, the Syrian,
mentes, Leipzig, 1806, p. 35, sq.) the Anglican, the Protestant Church, &c, have
The Alexandrine Jews, on the contrary, en endeavoured to interpret the Bible in harmony
deavoured to raise themselves from the simple with their dogmas.
sense of the words, to ipux^^i t0 a higher,1 more The different modes of interpreting the Bible
general, and spiritual sense, rb icveviiaTiK6v (see are, according to what we have stated, the folio* -
D'ahne, Geschietltche DarsteUung der Judisch- ing threethe grammatical, the allegorical
Alexandriniscken Beltgions-Philosophie, Halle, the dogmatical. The grammatical mode of
1834, i. p. 52, sq.; ii. 17. 195, sq., 209, 228, interpretation simply investigates the sense con
341). Similar principles were adopted by the tained in the words of the Bible. The allegorical,
authors of the New Testament (see De Wette, according to Quintiltan's sentence 'aliud verbis,
Ueber die Symbolisch-Typische Lehrartin Brie/a aliud sensu ostendo,' maintains tliat the words of
an die Hebriier, in der Theologischen Zeitschrifl, the Bible have, t>esides their simple sense, another
von Schleiermacher und De Wette, part iii. ; which is concealed as behind a picture, and en
Tholuck, Bcilage zwn Commentar iiber den deavours to find out this supposed figurative sense,
Brief an die HebrHer, 1840). which, it is said, was not intended by the authois
These two modes of interpretation, the alle- (see Olshauseu, Ein Wort iiber tieferen Schrift-
QORICO TYPICAL and the ALLEGORICO-MYSTICAL, sinn, Konigsberg, 1824). The dogmatical mod*
are found in the Christian writers as early as the of interpretation endeavours to explain the Bible
first and second centuries ; the latter as yv&atSj in harmony with the dogmas of the church, fjJ
the former ar a demonstration that all and every lowing the principle of analogia Jidei. Com-
thing, both what had happened, and wliat would ]>are Consilii Tridentmi sess. iv. decret. 2 :Ne
come to pass, was somehow contained in the sacred quis Sacram Scripturam interprctari audeat con
Scriptures (see Justin Martyr, as quoted above, tra eum sensum quern tenuit et tenet sancta
and Tertnllian, Adversus Marcionem^ iv. 2, mater ccclesia, cujus est judicare de vero sensu et
Praedicatio discipulorum suspecta fieri posset si interpretatione Scripturarum Sacrarum :1 Let
non assistat auctoritas :* The preaching of the no one venture to interpret the Holy Scriptures)
disciples might ap(>ear to be questionable, if it in a sense contrary to tliat which the holy mother
was not supported by other authority '). church has held, and does hold, and which has
To these allegorical modes of interpretation the power of deciding what is the true sense and
was added a third mode, which necessarily sprung the right interpretation of the Holy Scriptures.1
up after the rise of the Cathnlico-aj)ostolical Rambach, Institutiones llermeneuttece Sacree^
church, namely, the dogmatical, or tiip.oi.o- Jena?, 1723; Auctoritas, quam hsec analogia
gico-ecclesiaktical. The followers of the fidei in re exegetica hal>et, in eo consist it, ut sit
Catholico-apostolical church agreed tliat all fundamentum ac priucipium generate, ad cujus
apostles and alt apostolical writings had an equal normam omnes Scriptures expositionea, tamquam
authority, because they were all under an equal ad lapidem Lydium, exigendae sunt :' The au
guidance of the Holy Ghost. Hence it followed thority which tiiis analogy of faith exercises upon
that they could not set forth either contradictory interpretation consists in this that it is the foun
or different doctrine*. A twofold expedient was dation and general principle according tu the
adopted in order to effect harmony of interpreta rule of which all Scriptural interpretations are to
tion. The one was of the apparent and relative be tried as by a touchstone.'
kind, because it referred to subjects which appear Ecclesia Anglicana% art. xx. :Kcclksi. non
incomprehensible only to the confined human licet quicquarn instituere, quod verbo Dei scHpto
understanding, but which are in perfect harmony adverserur, nee unuoi Scriptures locum sic ex-
in the divine thoughts. Justin (Dialogiis cum l>nere potest, ut alter! contradicat : 'It ii not
Trypkone, c. 65) says ;Ik irarrA w(iret<rfi,4vos lawful for the church to ordain anything that is
bri ovZffxia ypcufrh fT*p<i ivavrla fVrljr, avrh% /x^ contrary to God's word written, neither may it
rotty fiaWov 6fio\oyf}(rta tA tlpriptva : 1 Being expound one pi,ice of Script uie so as to Ik repug
quite certain that DO Scripture contradicts the nant to another/
other, I will rather confess that I do not under Confessio Scoticay 18: Nullam euim inter
stand what is said therein.1 St. Chrysostom pretationem admittere andemus, quss alicui prin
24 INTERPRETATION. INTERPRETATION.
cipali articulo fidci. aut alicui piano textui confirmed by the history ofall ti mes and countries
Scriptural ant caritatis reguls repuguat, &c. so that we may confine ourselves to the following
* We dare not admit any interpretation wliich few illustrative ottservations. The various ten
contradicts any leading article of faith, or any dencies of the first Christian period were com
plain text of Scripture, or the rule of charity," &c. bined in the second century, so that the principle of
Besides the three modes of interpretation which one general (Catholic) church was gradually
have heen mentioned above, theological writers adopted by most parties. But now, it became
have spoken of typicai., prophetical, kmpha- rather difficult to select, from the variety of doc
TICAL, PHILOSOPHICAL, TRADITIONAL, MORAL, trines prevalent in various sects, those by the
or practical interpretation. Hut all these are application of wliich to biblical interpretation, a
only one-sided developments of some single fea perfect harmony and systematical unity could
ture contained in the above three, arbitrarily be ertectitl. Nevertheless, the wants of science
chosen; and, therefore, they cannot l>e considered powerfully demanded a systematical arrangement
to le separate modes, hut are only modifications of biblical doctrines, even before a general agree
of one or other of those three. The interpretation ment upon dogmatical principles had been
in which all these modes are brought into har effected. The wants of science were especially
mony, has lately been called the panhahhoni- felt among the Alexandrine Christians ; and in
cal, wliich word is not very happily chosen (K. Alexandria, where the allegorical interpretation
H. Germar, Die Panharmonisehc Interpretation had from ancient times l>een practised, it oflered
der Ileiligen Srkrift, Leipaic, 1821 ; and by the the desired expedient which met the exigency of
same antlmr, Beithig zur Allgcmeinen Hemie- the church. Hence, it may naturally be ex
netdik, Altona, 128). plained why the Alexandrine theologians of
The allegorical, as well as the dogmatical, the second and third century, particularly
mode of interpretation, presupposes the gram Clemens Alexandrinus and Origen, interpreted
matical which, consequently, forms the basis of allegorically, and wly the allegorical interpreta
the other two; so that neither the one nor the tion was perfected, and in vogue, even liefore the
other can exist entirely without it. Consequently, dogmatical came into existence. Origen, espe
the grammatical mode of interpretation must have cially in his fourth book, De Prhicipiti, treats
an historical precedence before the others. But on scriptural interpretation, using the following
history also proves that the church has constantly arguments :The Holy Scriptures, inspired by
endeavoured to curtail the province of grammatical God, fonn an harmonious whole, perfect in itself,
interpretation, to renounce it as much as jxissible, without any defects and contradictions, and con
and to rise above it. If we follow, with the exa taining nothing that is insignificant and super
mining eye of an historical inquirer, the course fluous. The grammatical interpretation leaiU to
in which these three modes of interpretation, in obstacles and objections, which, according to the
their mutual dependence upon each other, have quality just stated of the Holy Scriptures, are
generally been applied, it becomes evident that inadmissible and impossible. Now, since the
in op]osition to the grammatical mode, the alle merely grammatical interpretation can neither
gorical was first set up. Sutisequently, the alle remove nor overcome these objections, we must
gorical was almost entirely supplanted by the seek for an exjiedient Wyond the Ixmudaries of
dogmatical ; but it started up with renewed vigour grammatical interpretation. The allegorical in
when the dogmatical mode rigorously confined terpretation oners this exjiedient, and consequently
the spiritual movement of the human intellect, as is above the grammatical. Origen observes that
well as all religious sentiment, within the too man consists of Iwdy, soul, and spirit; and he
narrow hounds of dogmatical desjiotism. distinguishes a triple sense of the Holy Scripture*
The dogmatical mode of interpretation could analogous to this division : ovkqvv rpurtr&s
only spring up after the church, renouncing the airoypojptadat Bu us t^v eavrov tyvxyiv to rwv
original multiplicity of opinions, had agreed iqjon aryitav ypa/i^idTwy vo^fiara* Iva 6 fj.tv air\ovorepot
certain leading doctrines; after which lime, it oiKoSofiTjrai, atrb rys olovel trapKbs rr,s ypcupjjSj
grew, together with the church, into a mighty tree, ovrws bvofxatyvrav Tjji&y ry\v Kp6x*ipov 4k$oxt)V
towering high above every surrounding object, 6 5e tirl iroabv cwa&ef}r}Kt>s. airb ri}s uxnrcpcl
and casting its shade over every tiling. The $VXW ctvrijs' <S 3f ratios Kai t/xotos rots irapa r<p
longing desire for light and warmth, of those who awoo-TSKu) (1 Cor. ii. 6, 7) AeyoueWr co<plav
were sj>ell-l>onnd under its shade, induced them 5e XcOi.ovfj.cv oiri* tov trvtv^arikov vouuu
to cultivate again the allegorical and the gram (TKtav txoyros r^v aeAAorroji/ ayaBdv Storrtp yap
matical interpretation; but they were unable to 6 &v6pmtros avvio'T^Kiv Ik (raifxaros koI tyvxvs Kax
bring the fruits of these modes to full maturity. rrvtv/iaros, rbv axrrbu Ttp6irov not ?; olKovofx-qduaa
Every new intellectual revolution, and every (mh tov 6*ov us avQpwirtnv ffwnjpiay b*o&7}vau
spiritual development of nations, gave a new ypatfrfiv :' The sentiments, therefore, of the Holy
impulse to grammatical interpretation. This im Scriptures are to be impressed upon our minds in
pulse lasted until interpretation was again taken a three-fold manner, in order that whosoever lie-
captive by the overwhelming ecclesiastical power, longs to the simpler sort of persons, may receive
whose old formalities had regained strength, or edification from the flesh of the Scripture thus we
which had been renovated under new forms. call their obvious meaning), but lie who is some
Grammatical interpretation, consequently, goes what more advanced from its soul ; but whosoever
hand in hand with the principle of spiritual pro is jierfect, and similar to those to whom the apostle
gress, and the dogmatical with the conservative alludes, where he says, we speak wisdom"...
principle. Finally, the allegorical interpretation from the spiritual law which contains a shadow
is as an artificial aid subservient to the conserva of good things to come ; for as man consists of
tive principle, when, by its vigorous stability, the spirit, body, and soul, so also the Holy Writ,
latter exercises a too unnatural pressure. This is wliich God has planned to be granted for the
INTERPRETATION. INTERPRETATION. 35
salvation of mankind' (De Princip., if. 1W ; church we hold fast what has been believed every
compare KlauBen, HcrmeneiUik des Neuen Tes- where, always, and by all' (Compare Comtnonit.
tamentesy Leipzig, 1841, p. 104. sq.). ii. ed. Bremensis, 168R, p. 321, sq.) Hencefor
Since, however, allegorical interpretation can ward, interpretation was confined to the mere col
not be reduced to settled rules, but always de lection of explanations, which had first been given
pends ujxm the greater or less influence of by men whose ecclesiastical orthodoxy was un
imagination ; and since the system of Christian questionable. Prcestantius prsesumpta novitate
doctrines, which the Alexandrine theologians non imbui, sed priscornm fonte satiari :* It is
produced by means of allegorical interpretation, better not to be imbued with the pretended no
was in many resjjecta objected to ; and since, in velty, but to be filled from the fountain of the
opposition to Uiese Alexandrine theologians, there ancients' (Cassiodori Instilutiones Divirur, Prttf.
was gradually established, and more and more Compare Alcuini Epistota ad Gislam ; Opera,
(irmly defined, a system of Christian doctrines ed. Frobenius, i. p. 464. Comment, in Jok.
which formed a firm basis for uniformity of inter Prtrf.f ib. p. 460. Claudius Turon, ProlegO'
pretation, in accordance with the mind of the mena in Comment, in libros Return. Haymo,
majority, there gradually sprung up a dogmatical Historia Ecctesiastica, ix. 3, &c). Doubtful
mode of interpretation founded upon the inter cases were decided according to the precedents of
pretation of ecclesiastical teachers, which had ecclesiastical definitions. In his qua? vel dubia
Leen recognised as orthodox in the Catholic vel obscura fuermt id noverimus sequendum
church. This dogmatical interpretation has been quod nec praceptis evangelicis contrarium, nec
in perfect existence since the beginning of the decretis sanctorum invenitur adversum :1 In
fourth century, and then more and more sup- passages which may be either doubtful or obscure,
planted the allegorical, which henceforward was we might know that we should follow that which
left to the wit and ingenuity of a few individuals. is found to be neither contrary to evangelical
Thus St. Jerome, about a.d. 400, could say : precepts, nor opposed to the decrees of holy men*
Regula scripturarum est: ubi manifestissima (Benedicti Capitulara, iii. 58, in Pertz, Monu-
prophetia de futuris texitur per incerta alle- menta Vetcris German. Histor. iv. 2, p. 107).
qoki y non extenuare quae scripta sunt {Com- But men like Bishop Agobardus (a.d. 810, in
ment. in Malachii. 16) :'The rule of scriptures Galandii BibL> xiii. p. 446), Johannes Scotus,
is, that where there is a manifest prediction of Krigena, Druthmar, Nicolaus Lyranus, Roger
future events, not to enfeeble that which is written Bacon, and others, acknowledged the necessity of
by the uncertainty of allegory.' During the grammatical interpretation, and were only want
whole of the fourth century, the ecclesiastico- ing in the requisite means, and in knowledge, for
dogmatical mode of interpretation was developed putting it successfully into practice.
with constant reference to the grammatical. Even During the whole period of the middle ages the
Hilary, in his book De Trinitate, i. properly allegorical interpretation again prevailed. The
asserts:Optimus lector est, qui dictorum mtel- middle ages were more distinguished by sentiment
ligentiam expectet ex dictis potius quam imponat, than by clearness, and the allegorical interpre
et retulerit magis quam attulerit; neque cogat tation gave satisfaction to sentiment and occupa
id videri dictis contineri, quod ante lectionem tion to free mental speculation.
pnesumpserit intelligendum. * He is the best When, in the fifteenth century, classical studies
reader who rather expects to obtain sense from had revived, they exercised also a favourable
the words, than imposes it upon them, and who influence upon Biblical interpretation, and re
carries more away than he has brought, nor forces stored grammatical interpretation to honour. It
that ujion the words which he had resolved to was es]>ecial)y by grammatical interpretation that
understand before he began to read.' the domineering Catholic church was combated
After the commencement of the fifth century, at the period of the Reformation ; but as soon as
grammatical interpretation fell entirely into de the newly sprung-up Protestant church had been
cay ; which ruin was effected partly by the full dogmatically established, it began to consider
development of the ecclesiastical system of doc grammatical interpretation a dangerous adversary
trines <Minrd in all their parts, and by a fear of its own dogmas, and op|>osed it as much as did
of deviating from this system, partly also by the the Roman Catholics themselves. From the middle
continually increasing ignorance of the lan of the sixteenth to the middle of the eighteenth
guages in which the Bible was written. The century this important ally of Protestantism was
primary condition of ecclesiastical or dogmatical subjected to the artificial law of a new dogmati
interpretation was then most clearly expressed by cal interpretation ; while the Roman Catholic
Vincentius Lirinensis (Comtnonit. i.) :Quia church changed the principle of interpretation
videlicet scripturam sacram pro ipsa sua altitu- formerly advanced by Vincentius, into an eccle
dine non uno eodemque senau universi accipiunt, siastical dogma. In consequence of this new
sed ejusdem eloquia aliter atque aliter alius atque oppression the religious sentiment, which had
alius interpretatur, ut prate quot homines sunt, frequently been wounded both among Roman
tot illine sententiae erui posse vidcantur Catholics and Protestants, took refuge in alle
in ipsa catholica ecclesia magnopere curandum gorical inter] -rotation, which then re-appeared
est, ut id teneamus, quod uhique, quod semper, under the forms of typical and mystical theology.
quod ab omnibus creditum est: 'Since the After the beginning of the eighteenth century
Holy Scriptures, on account of their depth, are grammatical interpretation recovered its autho
not understood by all in the same manner, but rity. It was then first re-introduced by the
its sentences are understood differently by different Arminians, and, in spite of constant attacks, to
persons, so that they might seem to admit as wards the conclusion of that century, it decidi dly
many meanings as there are men, we must well prevailed among the German Protestants. It
lake care that within the pale of the Catholic exercised a very l>eneficial influence, although it
26 INTERPRETATION. INTERPRETATION.
cannot be denied iti.it manifold errors occurred in latter case they said that the principles of general
its application During the last thirty years both hermeneutics ought to be applicable to the Holy
Protestants and Romau Catholics have again Scriptures also. Against the above-mentioned
curtailed the rights and invaded the province of train of argument cited from Origen, on which the
grammatical interpretation, by promoting (accord demand of particular Biblical hermeieutics essen
ing to the general reaction of our times) the op* tially rests, the following argument might, with
posing claims of dogmatical and mystical inter greater justice, be opposed ; if God deemed it
pretation (comp. J. Rosenmuller, Ilistoria In- requisite to reveal his will to mankind by means
terpretationis Librorum sacrorum in Ecclesia of intelligible books, he must, in choosing this
Christiana^ Lipsise, 1795-1814, 5 vols.; W. Van medium, have intended that the contents of these
Mildert, An Inquiry into the General Principles books should be discovered according to those
of Scripture Interpretation, in Eight Sermons, general laws which are conducive to the right
&c, Oxford, 1815; G. W. Meyer, Geschichte understanding of documents in general. If this
der Schri/terkldrung sett dcr Wicderherstellung were not the case God would have chosen insuffi
der Wissenscliaften, Gottingen, 1802-9, 5 vols.; cient and even contradictory means inadequate to
Richard Simon. Histoire Critique des principaux the purpose he had in view.
Comnuntateurs du Nouv. Test.y Rotterdam, 1693; Tlie interpretation, which, in spite of all eccle
H. N. Klausen, HermeneiUik des Neuen Testa- siastical opposition, ought to be adopted as being
menteSy Aus dem Dllnischen, Leipzig, 1841, p. the only true one, strictly adheres to tlie demands of
77, sq.; E. F. K. Rosetimuller, Handbuch fur general hermeneutics, to which it adds those par
die Literatur der Bibl**chen Kritik und Exegese, ticular hermeneutical rules which meet the requi
Gottingen, 1797-1800, 4 vols,). sites of particular cases. This has, in modem
The aim of human speech in general may be times, been styled the historico-okamu vticai.
described as the desire to render one's own thoughts mode of interpretation. This appellation has
intelligible to others by means of words in been chosen l>ecause ttie epithet grammatical
their capacity of signs of thoughts. These words seems to I * too narrow and too much restricted to
may be written, or merely spoken. In order to the mere verbal sense. It might be more correct
understand the speech of another, several arts and to style it simply the historical interpretation,
branches of knowledge are requisite. The art of since the word historical comprehend* every
understanding the language of another is called thing that is requisite to be known alnrnt tlie lan
Hermeneutics, (purjyfurtK^ Tf'x^J or ^iritrrl^iT/. guage, the tun of mind, the individuality, &c. of
Every art may be reduced to the skilful applica an author in order rightly to understand hit book.
tion of certain principles, which, if they proceed In accordance with the various notions con
from one highest principle, may be said to be cerning Biblical interpretation which we luive
based on science. stated, there have been produced Biblical her
Here we have to consider not the spoken, but meneutics of rery different kinds; for instance,
tlie written language only. The rules to be ob in tlie earlier period we might mention that of the
served by the interpreter, and the gifts which Donatist Ticonius, who wrote about the fourth
qualify him for the right understanding of written century his Regxdte ad mvestigandam et inveni-
language, are applicable either to all written lan endam Intelligentiatn Scripturarum Septern ;
guage in general, or only to the right understand Angustinus, I)e Doctrina Christiana, lib. i. 3;
ing of particular documents; they are, therefore, Isidorus Hispalensis, Scntent. 419, sq. ; Santis
to be d i v it led into general and particular, or espe~ Pagnini (who died in 1541) Isagoga ad Mysticos
eial rules and gifts. In Biblical interpretation arises Sacra Scripturar Sensus, libri octodecim, G>lon.
the question, whether the general hermeneutical 1540; Sixti Senensis (who died 1699) liiblio-
rules are applicable to the Bible and sufficient Vieca Sancta, Venetiis, 1566. Of this work,
for rightly understanding it, or whether they are in which has beta frequently reprinted, there be
sufficient, and have to undergo some modification. longs to our present subject only Liber tcrtius
Most Biblical interpreters, as we might infer Artcm exponendi Sancta Scripta Catholicis Ex-
from the principle of dogmatical and allegorical positoribus aptissimis lieyulis et Exemplis
interpretation, have declared the general hermen ostendens. At a later period the Roman Catholics
eutical principles to be insufficient for explaining added to these the works of Bellarmine, Martiauay,
the Bible, and required for this purpose esj)eciai Calmet, Jahn, and Arigler.
hermeneu'ical rules, because the Bible, they said, On the part of the Lutherans were added by
which 'uui been written under the direct guidance Matt. Klacius, Claris Scripturm Sacra; Basilea^
of thi_ Holy Ghost, could not l>e measured by the 1537, and often reprinted in two volumes; by
common rules which are applicable only to the Joliann Geriiard, Tractatus de Legitima. Scrip*
lower sphere of merely human thoughts and com turar Sacra? Interpretatione, Jena?, 16 10; hy
positions. Therefore, from the most ancient Solomon Glassius, Philologia? Sacrce* libri
times, peculiar hermeneutical rules, meeting the quinque, Jena?, 1623, and often reprinted; bj
exigency of biblical interpretation, have been set Jacob Rambach, Institutiones Hermeneutical
forth, which deviated from the ndes of general Sacrtr, Jena?, 1723.
hermeneutics. Thus Biblical Hermeneutics were On the part of the Calvinists there were fur
changed into an art of understanding the Bible nished by J. Al ph. Turretinus, De Scripturtr
according to a certain ecclesiastical system in Sacra Interpretatione Tractatus Bipartitus,
vogue at a certain period. Dortregjit, 1723, and often reprinted. In the
The advocates of grammatical interpretation English Church were produced by Herbert Marsh
have opposed these Biblical hermeneutics, as lectures on the Criticism and Interpretation of
proceeding upon merely arbitral y suppositious. the Bible, Cambridge, 1828.
Sometimes they merely limited its assertions, and Since the middle of the last century it has been
sometimes they reiected it altogether. In the usual to treat on the Old Testament hermeneutics
INTRODUCTION. INTRODUCTION. 27
Jul on those of the New Testament in separate (iii. 302), says concerning these seven rules, that
works. For instance, G. W. Meyer, Versuch the author's intention was by means of them to
einer Fcrmeneutik des Alten Testamentes, Lu- open the secret sense of Holy Writ, 1 quasi cla-
beck, 1790; J. H. Pareau, Institutio Interpretis vibus,' as if it were by keys.
Veteris Testamenti, Trajecti, 1822; J. A. Er There arose also a question concerning the ex
nest i, Institutio Intei-pretis Noci Testamenti, tent of Holy Writthat is to say, what belonged,
Li[)sia5, 1701, ed. 5ta.. curante Ammon, 1809. and what did not belong, to Holy Writ ; and also
Translated into English by Terrot, Edinburgh, respecting the contents of the separate biblical
1 833 ; Morus, Super Hermeneutica Novi Testa books, and the order in which they should follow
menti acroases acadcmicarf ed. Eichstaedt, Lipsia?, each other, &c.
1797-1S02, in two volumes, but not completed; About a.d. 550, Cassiodorus wrote his Institu-
K. A. G. Ke'il, Lehrbuch der Ilermeneutik des tiones Divine. He mentions in this work, under
Neticn Testamentes, nach Grundsdtzen der the name of Introductores Divina? Scriptural,
grammatisch-historischen Interpretation, Leipzig, five authors who had been engaged in biblical
1810; the same work in Latin, Lipsise, 1811; investigations, and in his tenth chapter speaks of
T. T. Conyhcare, The Bampton Lectures for them thus :Ad introductores scriptural divina;
the year 1824, being an attempt to trace the eollicita mente redeamus, id est Ti-
History and to ascertain the limits of the se conium Donatistam, Sanctum Augustinum de
condary and spiritual Interpretation of Scripture, doctrina Christiana, Aokianuu, Euchkriuh, et
Oxford, 1824; Schleiermacher, Hermeneutik Junim.um, quos sedula curiositate collegi, ut,
xtnd Kritik mtt besonderer Beziehung aitf das quibus erat similis intentio, in uno corpore adu-
Neue Testament, herausgegeben von Lucke, nati codices clauderentur : 1 Let us eagerly
Berlin, 1838; H. Nik. Klausen, Ilermeneutik return to the guides to Holy Writ ; that is to say,
des Neuen Testamentes, aus dem Diinischen, to the Donatist Ticonius, to St. Augustine on
Leipzig, 1841 ; Chr. Gottlieb Wilke, Die Her Christian doctrine, to Adrian, Eucherius, and
meneutik des Neuen Testamentes systematisch Junillus, whom 1 have sedulously collected, in
dargestellt, J^ipzig, 1843.*K. A. C- order that works of a similar purport might be
INTRODUCTION, BIBLICAL. The Greek combined in one volume.'
word claayayfi, in the sense of an introduction to Henceforward the title, Introductio in Scrip-
a science, occurs only in later Greek, and was turam Sacram, was established, and remained
first used to denote an introduction to the right current for all works in which were solved ques
understanding of the Bible, by a Greek called tions introductory to the study of the Bible. In
Adrian, who lived in the fifth century after Christ. the Western, or Latin church, during a thousand
'Atipidvov eiVceyoryf) t?)s ypaxfnjs is a small book, years, scarcely any addition was made to the col
the object of which is to assist readers who are lection of Cassiodorus ; while in the Eastern, or
unacquainted with biblical phraseology in rightly Greek church, only two works written during this
understanding peculiar words anil expressions. It long jeriod deserve to be mentioned, both hearing
was first edited by David HoGschel, under the title the title, 2iW^ts rrjs 8das ypaifnjs. One of these
of Adriani Isagoge in Sacram Scripturam Grave works was falsely ascribed to Athanasius, and the
cum Scholiis, Augustas Vindolwnae, 1602, 4to. other as falsely to Chrysostom.
This work is reprinted in the London edition of the At the commencement of the sixteenth century
Critici Sacri, torn. viii. ; and in the Frankfort edi the Dominican friar, Santes Pagninus, who died
tion, torn. vi. Before Adrian, the want of similar in 1541, published his Isagoge, by means of which
works had already been felt, and books of a he intended to revive the biblical knowledge of
corresponding tendency were in circulation, hut Jerome and St. Augustine. This work, consider
they did not l>ear the title of el<raywyf\. Melito of ing the time of its appearance, was a great step
Sardis, who lived in the latter half of the second in advance. Its title is, Santis Pagnini Lucensis
century, wrote a book under the title rj KAfls, Isagoge ad Sacras Literas, liber unicus, Colonise,
ln'ing a key both to the Old and to the New Testa 1540, fol.
ment. Tiie so-called A'|ety, which were written The work of the Dominican friar, Sixtus of
at a later period, are books of a similar description. Sienna, who died in 1 599, is of greater importance,
Some ofthese A^{*ts have been printed in Mattha?i's although it is manifestly written under the in
Novum Testamentum Grace, and in Buissonade's fluence of the Inquisition, which had just been
Anecdofa fh'aca, torn. iii. Parisiis, 1831. These restored, and is perceptibly shackled by the de
are merely linguistic introductions; but there was crees of the Council of Trent. Sixtus had the
sinm felt the want of works whicli might solve other intention, worthy of an inquisitor, to expurgate
questions ; such as, for instance, what are the prin from Christian literature every heretical element.
ciples which should guide us in biblical interpre The Index Librorum Frohibitorum, which was
tation. The Donatist Ticonius wrote, about the then first published, had the same object ; hut
year 380, Regular ad investigandam et invenien- Sixtus furnished also a list of books to be used by
dam Intelligentiam Scripturarum Septem. St. a true Catholic Christian for the right understand
Augustine, in his work De Doctrind Christiana, ing of Holy Writ, as well as the principles which
should guide a Roman Catholic in criticism and
* The writer of this article does not seem to interpretation. The title of his work is, Bibliothcca
have become acquainted with a very valuable Sancta ab A. F. Sixto, Senensi, ordinis prardi-
work on the general subject, recently published in catorum, ex jw&cipuis Catholics Ecclesiw auc-
this country, under the title of Sacred Herme- toribus collecta, et hi octo libros digesta, Venetiis,
neutics developed and applied ; including a 1566. This Uwk is dedicated to the Cardinal
History of Biblical Interpretation from the Ghisleri, who ascended the papal throne in 1566,
earliest of the Fathers to the Beformatioti, by under the name of Pius V. : it has frequently
the Rev. S. Davidson, LL.D., Edinburgh, 1843. been reprinted.
28 INTRODUCTION. INTRODUCTION.
The decrees of (he Council of Trent prevented established a claim ujmn the gratitude of all real
the Roman Catholics from moving- freely in the friends of truth ; but he was thanked by none o'
field of biblical investigation, while the Protestants the prevailing ]>arties in the Christian church.
zealously carried out their researches in various The Protestants saw in Simon only an enemy
directions. The Illyrian, Matthias Flaciu.?, in of their church, not the thorough investigator and
his CmM Scripturar Sacra, sen de Sermone Sa friend of truth. To the Roman Catholics, on the
cramm Literarum, which was first printed at other hand, Simon's works ap{>eared to be destruc
Basle, 1567, in folio, furnished an excellent work tive, because they demonstrated their ecclesiastical
on biblical Hermeneutics ; but it was surpassed decrees to be arbitrary and unhistorical. The
by the Prolegomena of Brian Walton, which be Hittoire Critique du Vieux Testament was suj)-
long- to hi* celebrated Biblia Sacra Polyglotta, pressed by the Roman Catholics in Paris imme
London, 1657, six volumes fol. These Prolego diately after its publication, and in Protestant
mena contain much that will always be accounted countries also it was forbidden to reprint it. The
valuable and necessary for the true criticism of Roman Catholic bishop, Bossuet, lamented that
tne sacred text. They have been published sepa Simon had undermined the dogma of tradition,
rately, with notes, by Archdeacon Wrangham, in and had changed the holy fathers into Protestants.
2 vols. -Svo. Thus we have seen that excellent Simon, as an honest investigator and friend of
works were produced on isolated jwrtions of bi truth, remained undisturbed ; but kept aloof from
blical introduction, but they were not equalled in both Roman Catholics and Protestants, by both of
merit by the works in whicli it was attempted to which parties he was persecuted, and died in 1712,
furnish a whole system of biblical introduction. in a merely external connection with the Romish
The following biblical introductions are among church.
the best of those which were published al>out that The churches endeavoured, witn apparent suc
period : Michaelis Waltheri Ojficina Biblica no- cess, to destroy Simon and his writings, in a host
viter adaperta, %c., Lipsiae, first published in of inimical and condemnatory publications, by
1636 ; Abrahami Calovii Criticut Sacer Biblicut, which the knowledge of truth was not in the least
8ee., VitembergH), 1613; J. H. Hottinger, The- promoted. However, the linguistic and truly
saurus Philologicut, set* Clavit Scripturee Sacra, scientific researches of Pocock ; the Oriental school
Tiguri, 1649; Johanuis Henrici Heidegger En in the Netherlands ; the unsurpassed work of
chiridion Biblicum Upoptrrjfj.ovtK6v, Tiguri, 16R1 ; Humphry Hody, De Bibliorum Textibut Ori-
Leusden, a Dutchman, published a work entitled ainalibus Versionibut, %c, Oxonise, 1705, folio;
Pkiloloyut Hebrantt, $c, Utrecht, 1656, and Phi- the excellent criticism of Mill, in his Novum Tet-
lologus Hebrao-Gracut Generality Utrecht, 1670. tamentum Gra*cum cum Lectionibut Variantibut,
All these works have been frequently reprinted. Oxonise, 1707, folio; whicli was soon followed by
The dogmatical zeal of the Protestants was Wetstein's Novum Testamentum Gracum edi-
greatly excited by the work of Louis Capelle, a tionis recepta, cum Lectionibut Variantibut,
reformed divine and learned professor at Saumur, Amstelodami, 1751-2, folio, and by which even
which appeared under the title of Ludovici Cap- Johann Albert Bengel, who died in 1752, waj
pelli Criiica Sacra ; tive de variit qua in veterit convinced, in spite of his ecclesiastical orthodoxy
Testamcnti librit occumtnt lectionibut libri sex. (comp. Bengelii Apparatus Criticut Novi Tea*
EdUa opere ac studio Joannit Cappelli, auctorit tamenti, p. 634, sq.) ; the biblical works by Jo
filiz, Parisiis, 1650. A learned Roman Catholic hann Heinrich Michaelis, especially his Biblia'
and priest of the Oratory, Richard Simon, who Jicbraica ex Manutcriptit et impressis Codicibut,
was bom in 1658, and died in 1712, rightly per Hahe, 1720 ; and Benjamin Kennicott's Vetut
ceived, from the dogmatical bile stirred up by Testamentum Hcbraicum cum variit Lectionibut,
Capelle, that biblical criticism was the most Oxonise, 1776, and the revival of classical philo
effective weapon to be employed against the Pro logy;all this gradually led to results whicli
testantism which had grown cold and stiff' in dog. coincided with Simon's criticism, and showed the
matics. He therefore devoted his critical knowledge enormous difference between historical truth and
of the Bible to the service of the Roman Catholic the arbitrary ecclesiastical opinions which were
church, and endeavoured to inflict a death-blow still prevalent in the works on biblical introduc
upon Protestantism. The result, however, was the tion by Pritius, Blackwall, Carpzov, Van Til,
production of Simon's excellent work on biblical Moldenhauer, and others. Johann David Mi
criticism, which became the basis on which the chaelis, who died in 1791, mildly endeavoured to
science of biblical introduction was raised. Si reconcile the church with historical truth, but has
mon was the (irst who correctly separated the cri DMO rewarded by the anathemas of the eccle
ticism of the Old Testament from that of the New. siastical jiarty, who have pronounced him a heretic.
His works on biblical introduction appeared under By their ecclesiastical persecutors, Richard Simon
the following titles : Hittoire Critique du Vieux was falsely described to lie a disciple of the
Tettament, Paris, 1678. This work was inaccu atheistical Spinoza, and Michaelis as a follower
rately reprinted at Amsterdam by Elzevir in 1679, of both Simon and Spinoza. However, the me
and subsequently in many other bad piratical edi diating endeavours of Michaelis gradually pre
tions. Among these the most complete was that vailed. His Introduction to the New Testament
printed, together with several polemical treatises appeared first as a work of moderate size, under
occasioned by this work, at Rotterdam, in 1685, the title of Johann David Michaelis Einleitung
4to. ;Histoire Critique du Textc du Nouveau in die GbttUchen Schriften des Neuen Bundes,
Tettament, Rotterdam, 1689; Histoire Critique Gottingen, 1750, Svo. It was soon translated into
det Versions du Nouveau Tettament, Rotterdam, English. In the years 1765-6 Michaelis published
1690 ; Histoire Critique det principaux Com- a second and augmented edition of the German ori
mentatettrs du Nouveau Testament, Rotterdam, ginal, in two volumes. The fourth edition, which
1693. By these excellent critical works Simon received great additions, ami in which many alter
INTRODUCTION. INTRODUCTION. 29
atinns were made, appeared in 1788, in two vols. backward in the science of introduction, not only
4to. This edition was translated and essentially by reuniting the Old and New Testament into
augmented by Herliert Marsh, afterwards Bishop of one whole, but by even intermixing the separate
Peterborough, and appeared under the title, Intro writings with each other, in his work entitled
duction to the New Testament, by John David Historisch-kritische Einleitung in siimmtliche
Michaelis, translated from the fourth edition of the kanonische und Apocryphische Schriften des
German, and considerably augmented, Cambridge, Alien und Neuen Testamentes, Erlangen, 1812-
1791-1801, 4 vols. 8vo. Michaelis commenced also 19, in six volumes.
an introduction to th Old Testament, but did not The Isagoge Ilistorico^ritica in Libras Novi
complete it. A portion of it was printed under Fcederis Sacros, Jeuse, 1830, of H. A. Sc!iott, is
the title, Einleitung in die Gbttlichen Schriften more distinguished by diligence than by penetra
des Altcn Bundes, Theil i. Abschnitt 1, Hamburg, tion. The Lehrbuch der Historisch-kritischen
1787. Einleitung in die Bibel A. und N. T. Berlin;
A work by Ed. Harwood, entitled A New In Theil \,Die Allgemeine Einleitung und das Alte
troduction to the Study and Knowledge of the Testament enthaltend, 1817 (fifth edition, 1840);
New Testament, London, 1767-71, was translated Theil 2, Das Neue Testament enthaltend, 1826
into German by Schulz, Halle, 1770-73, in three (fourth edition, 1842), by W. M. Lebrecht de
volumes. In this book tliere are so many hete Wette, is distinguished by brevity, precision,
rogeneous materials, that it scarcely l>elongs to critical penetration, and in some parts by com
the science of introduction. pleteness. This book contains an excellent survey
The study of New Testament introduction was of the various opinions prevalent in the sphere of
in Germany especially promoted also by Johann biblical introduction, interspersed with original
Solomon Sender, who died at Halle in 1791. It discussions. Almost every author on biblical cri
was by Semler's influence that the critical works ticism will find that De Wette has made use of
of Richard Simmi were translated into German, his labours; but in the purely historical portions
and the works of Wetstein re-edited and circulated. the book is feeble, and indicates that the author
The original works of Sender on biblical intro did not go to the first sources, but adopted the
duction are his Apparatus ad liberalem Novi Tes- opinions of others ; consequently the work has no
tamcnti Inierpretationem, Hala*, 1767, and his internal harmony. An English translation of
Abhandlung vonfreierUntersuchung des Canons, this work, with additions by the translator, Theo
4 vols., Halle, 1771-5. dore Parker, has lately apj>eared in America,
Semler's school produced Johann Jacob Gries- under the title of A Critical and Historical In
bach, who died at Jena in the year 1812. Gries- troduction to the Canonical Scriptures of the Old
bach's labours in correcting the text of the New Testament.
Testament are of great value. K. A. Haenlein The word ' introduction ' being of rather vague
published a work called Handbuch der Einlei signification, there was also formerly no definite
tung in die Schriften des Neuen Testamentes, idea attached to the expression Bibi.icai. Ih-
Krlangen, 1794-1802, in two volumes, in which TnonucTiON. In works on this subject (as in
he followed up the lectures of Griesbach. A Home's Introduction) might be found contents
second edition of this work appeared in the years belonging to geography, antiquities, inteqtreta-
1801-9. This introduction contains excellent tion, natural history, and other branches of know
materials, but is wanting in decisive historical ledge. Even the usual contents of biblical intro
criticism. ductions weie so unconnected, that Schleier-
Johann Gottfried Eichhom, who died at Got- maclier, in his Kurzc Darstellung des Thcolo-
tingeu in 1827. was formed in the school of Mi gischen Stadiums, justly called it ein Mancherlei ;
chaelis at Gottin^en, and was inspired by Herder's that is. a farrago or omnium-gatherum. Biblical
poetical views of the East in genera], and of the introduction was u.-ually described as consisting
literature of the ancient Hebrews in particular. of the various branches of preparatory knowledge
Eiclihovu commenced his Introduction when the requisite for viewing and treating the Bible cor
times were inclined to give up the Bible alto rectly. It was distinguished from biblical history
gether, as a production of priestcraft inapplicable and archaeology by being less intimately con
to tiie present period. He endeavoured to bring nected with wiiat is usually called history. It
the contents of the Bible into harmony with mo comprised treatises on the origin of the Bible, on
dern modes of thinking, to explain, and to recom the original languages, on the translations, and
mend them. He endeavoured by means of hypo on the history of the sacred text ; and was divided
theses to furnish a clue to their origin, without into general and special introduction.
sufficiently regarding strict historical criticism. The author of this article endeavoured tore-
Eichhom's Einleitung in das Alte Testament was move this vagueness by furnishing a firm defini
lirst published at Leipsic in 1780-83, in three tion of biblical introduction. In his work,
volumes. The fifth edition was published at Got- Einleitung in das Neue Testament, von Dr. K.
tingen, 1820-24, in live volumes. His Einleitung A. Credner, th. i. Halle, 1836, he defined biblical
in das Ncue Testament was published at Gottin- introduction to be the history of the Bible, and
gen in 1804-27, in five volumes. The earlier divided it into the following paits :
volumes have lieen republished. The external 1. The history of the separate biblical books.
treatment, of the materials, the style, aim, and 2. The history of the collection of these books,
many se]Kirate portions of both works, are masterly or of the canon.
and excellent ; but with regard to linguistic and 3. The history of the spread of these books, or
historical research, they are feeble and over of the translations of it.
whelmed with hypotheses. 4. The history of the preservation of the text.
Leonhardt Bertholdt was a very diligent but 5. The history uf the interpretation of it.
uncritical compiler. He made a considerable step This view of the science of introduction hat
30 INTRQDUCTION. INTRODUCTION.
received much approbation, and is the basis of tische Einlcitung in die Schriften des Alt^n
Reus's Gcschichte der lleiligen Schriften des Testamentes, completed and edited after the
Neuen Testamentes, Halle, 1842. The results death of the author, by Welte, Carlsruhe, 1840;
of the critical examination of the books of the and in L'Introduction Historique et Critique
New Testament are comprehended in the follow aux Litres dc I'Ancien et du Xouveatt Testa-
ing work, Das Neuc Testament nach scinem meat, par J. B. Glaire. Paris, 1839, four volumes.
Zweck, Vrsprunge und Inkalt, von A. R. Credner, The work of the excellent Feilmoser, who died in
Giessen, 1 Si 1-3, in two volumes. 1 83 1, Einlcitung in die Wicker des NtucM liundes,
The critical investigation which prevailed in in the second edition, Tubingen, 1830, forsakes
Germany after the days of Miohaelis, lias of late the position of a true Roman Catholic, inasmuch
been opjiuscd by a mode of treating biblical intro as it is distinguished by a noble ingenuousness
duction, not so much in the spirit of a free search and candour. All these last- mentioned works
after truth as in an apologetical and polemical prove that the science of introduction cannot
style. This course, however, has not enriched pros[)er in ecclesiastical fetters. K. A. C.
biblical science. To this class of books belong [It seems desirable to add to this article a short
a number of monographs, or treatises on separate view of the woiks on Biblical Introduction which
subjects; also the Handbuch dcr Historiech-kri- have appeared in England. These are mostly of
tischen Einlcitung in das Altc Testament, Erlan- small importance in comparison with the great
gen, 1836, by H. A. C. Haverniek, of which there works on the subject which have been produced
have been published two parts, in three volumes, on the Continent ; and hence few of them i,. re
und of which an English translation is in pre engaged the notice of the Contributor to whom
paration ; and also H. K. Ferd. Guericke's Ein- we are indebted for the preceding article.
Icituny in das Xcue Testament, Halle, 1843, in Collier's Sacred Interpreter, 2 vols. trvo. 1746,
which too frequently an anathema against here was one of our earliest publications of this kind.
tics serves as a sulistitute for demonstration. The It went through several editions, and was trans
aiwlogetical tendency prevails in the work of lated into German in 1750. It relates Kith to
G. Hamilton, entitled A General Introduction the Old and New Testament, and is described
to the Study of the Hebrew Scriptures, &c, by Bishop Marsh as 'a good popular preparation
Dublin, 1814; in Thomas Hartwell Home's for the study of the Holy Scriptures.'
Introduction to the ,Critical Stttdy and Know I -.miner's History of the Apostles and Ecan-
ledge of the Holy Scriptures, &c., London, 1818, gelistSs 3 vols. 8vo. 1756-7, is described by the
four volumes (the eighth edition, lfi39, five vo same critic as an admirable introduction to the
lumes); and in J. Cook's Inquiry into the Books New Testament. * It is a storehouse of literary
of the Xeic Testament, Edinburgh, 1824. information, collected with equal industry und
The Roman Catholics also have, in modern fidelity.' From this work, from the English
times, written on biblical introduction, although translation of Michael is's Introduction, 1761,
the unchangeable decrees of the Council of Trent and from Dr. Owen's Observations on the Gos
hinder all free, critical, and scientific treatment of pels, 1761, Dr. Percy. Bishop of Dromore, com
the subject. The Roman Catholics can treat bibli piled a useful manual, called A Key to the Xew
cal introduction only in a polemical and aiwloge Testament, which has gone through many edi
tical manner, and are obliged to keep up the atten tions, and is much in request among the candi
tion of their readers by introducing learned archae dates for ordination in the Established Church.
ological researches, which conceal the want of free The Key to the Old Testament, 1790, by
movement. This hitter mode was adopted by Dr. Gray, afterwards Bishop nf Bristol, was writ
J. Jahn (who died at Vienna in 1816) in his Ein- ten in imitation of Percy's compilation ; but it
Idtung indicGuttlichen Hiieher des alten liundes, is a much more elal>orate ]>eifiirinance than the
Vienna, 1793. two volumes, anil 1802, three Key to tlie Xew Testament. It is a compilation
volumes ; and in his Introductio in Lihros Sacros from a great variety of works, references to
Veteris Testamcnti in epitomen redacta, Viennai, which are given at tlie loot of each page. Bishop
1805. This work has been republished by K. Marsh s}>eaks of it as * a very useful publication
Ackermann, in what are asserted to be the third for students of divinity, who will find at one
and fourth editions, under the litle of Introductio view what must otherwise be collected from
in Libros Sacros Veteris Testamenti, usibus oca- many writer?.' It is still popular, the tenth
demicis accommodata, Vienna?, 1823, and 1839. edition having been published in 1841. But a
Hut these so-called new editions are full of altera professed compilation, which contains in its latest
tions and mutilations, which remove every free edition no reference to any work published for
expression of Jahn, who belonged tu the liberal above half a century ]>ast, must necessarily be far
period of the Emperor Joseph. behind tlie present state of our informal ion on the
Johann l^eonhard Hug's Einlcitung in das Xeue subjects of which it treats
Testament, Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1808, two Dr. Harwood s Introduction to the Study and
volumes, third edition, 1826, surpasses Jahn's Knowledge of the Xew Testament, 2 vols. Bvo.
work in ability, and has obtained much credit 1767, 1771, although noticed by our contributor,
among Protestants by its learned explanations, is not properly an introduction to the New Tea*
although these frequently swerve from the point tament, in tlie usual anil proper sense of I lit* term.
in question. Hug's work has been translated It does not describe the books of the New Testa
into English by the Rev. D. G. Wait, LL.D. ; ment, but is a collection of dissertations relative
but this translation is much surpassed by that partly to the character of the sacred writers, Jew
of Fosdick, published in the United State*, ish history and customs, and to such parts of
and enriched by the addenda of Moses Stuart. heathen antiquities as have reference to the New
The polemical and apologetical style prevails Testament.
hi the work of J. G. Herbs), Hisiorisch-kri- The tirst volume of Bishop Tomliue's Elementt
IOTA. IRON. 81
if Christian Theology contains an' introduction perish, but the least word shall not perish out of
both to the Old and to the New Testament, and thee.' This is, in fact, a parallel not only to the
has been published in a separate form. It is usage but the sentiment, as conveyed in Matt,
euiteil to its purpose as a manual for students in v. 18f * One jot, or one tittle, shall in no wise pass
divinity ; but the standard of present attainment from the law.' (
cannot l very high if, as Marsh states, * it may IRON. This word, wherever it occurs in the
be read with advantage by the most experienced
divine.' English Version, answers to , or to its Chal-
The works of Dr. Cook, the Rev. G. Hamilton, daic to alStjpos in the Sept ; and to ferrum in
and llit Rev. T. H. Home, are mentioned in the the Vulg., except where it gives an explanatory
above article; but the slight notice of Home's translation, as 'falcatos currus' (Judg. iv. 3),
Introduction which it contains will scarcely though it sometimes gives the literal translation
satisfy those who are aware that it is the largest of the same term, as 4 ferreos currus' ('Josh. xvii.
and most important work of the kind which we 18). The use of the Greek and Latin words, in
oossess. We cheerfully subscribe to the opinion classical authors of every age, fixes their mean
of Bishop Marsh, that it is ' upon the whole a ing. That ai&ijpos means iron, in Homer, is
very useful publication, and does great credit to plain from his simile derived from the quenching
the industry and researches of the indefatigable of iron in water, which he applies to the hissing
author.' We may' add, that it lias worthily noise produced in piercing the eye of Polyphemus
occupied for above a quarter of a century a high with the pointed stake (Odys. ix. 391). Much
and influential place in our theological literature; stress has been laid upon the absence of iron
during which it has satisfied the current demand among the must ancient remains ofEgypt ; but the
fur the kind of information which it offers, and speedy decomposition ofthis metal, especially when
has done much to form a class of students who buried in the nitrous soil of Egypt, may account
now lake their stand upon it, and look with desire for the absence of it among the remains of the
to the fields beyond, where lie the vast treasures early monarchs of a Pharaonic age (Wilkinson's
in every department of biblical literature which Ancient Egypt., iii. 246). Tubal-Cain is the
the wonderful activity of continental research first-mentioned smith, 'a forger of every instru
has of late years accumulated. Had the able ment of iron' (Gen. iv. 22). From that time we
and pious author more largely availed himself of meet with manufactures in iron of the utmost
these important sources of information, the value variety (some articles of which seem to be anti
of his work to a large and rapid] y-increasing cipations of what are commonly supposed to be
class of students would have been very much modem inventions) ; as iron weapons or instru
enhanced. A very useful abridgment of this ments (Num. xxxv. 7; Job xx. 24); barbed
Introduction, in 1 vol. 12mo., appeared in 1829 irons, used in hunting (Job xli. 7); an iron bed
under the title of A Compendious Introduction stead (Deut. iii. 11); chariots of iron (Josh. xvii.
to the Study of the Bible. Another manual, 16, and elsewhere); iron weights (shekels)
under the title of A Scripture Help, 1806, by the (1 Sam. xvii. 7); barrows of iron (2 Sam. xii.
Rev. E. Bickersteth. has been received with emi 31); iron armour (2 Sain, xxiii. 7); tools
nent favour ; and we have seen the first volume (I Kings vi. 7 ; 2 Kings vi. 5) ; boms ( 1 Kings
of an admirable work for junior student* pub xxii. 11); nails, hinges (1 Chron. xxii. 3); fet
lished in the United States in 1835 under the ters (Ps. cv. 18); bars (Ps. cvii. 16); iron bars
title of Introduction to the Criticism and Inter' used in fortifying the gates of towns (Ps. cvii. 16;
preta Hon of the Bible, by C. E. Stowe. We Isa. xlv. 2) ; a pen of iron (Job xix. 24 ; Isa.
know not whether the second volume has yet xvii. 1); a pillar (Jer. i. 18); yokes (Jer.
appeared]. xxviii. 13); pan (Ezek. iv. 3) ; trees bound with
IOTA (Autb. Vers. 'Jot '), the smallest letter of iron (Dan. iv. 15); gods of iron (Dan. v. 4);
the Greek alphabet (t); derived from the He threshing-instruments (Amos i. 3) ; and in later
times, an iron gate (Acts xii. 10); the actual
brew Jod(%) and the Syriac jttdh (*), and em cautery (1 Tim. iv. 2) ; breastplates (Rev. ix. 9).
ployed metaphorically to express the minutest The mineral origin of iron seems clearly al
trifle. It is, in fact, one of several metaphors luded to in Job xxviii. 2. It would seem that in
derived from the alphabetas when alpha, the ancient times it was a plentiful production of
first letter, and omega, the last, are employed to Palestine CDeut. viii. 9). There appear to have
express the beginning and the end. We are not been furnaces for smelting at an early period in
to suppose, however, that this proverb was exclu Egypt (Dent. iv. 2p). The requirement that the
sively apposite in the Greek language. The altar should be made of * whole stones over which
same practical allusion equally existed in He no man had lilt up any iron,' recorded in Josh,
brew, some curious examples of which may be viii. 31, does not imply any objection to iron as
seen in Wetstein and Lightfoot One of these such, but seems to be merely a mode of directing
may here suffice :In the Talmud (SanJied. xx. 2) that, in order to prevent idolatry, the stones must
it is fabled that the book of Deuteronomy came not undergo any prejuiration by art Iron was
and prostrated itself before God, and said, * O prepared in abundance by David for the building
Lord of the universe, thou hast written in me thy of the temple (I Clirou. xxii. 3), to the amount of
law. but now a testament defective in some part* one hundred thousand talents (1 Chron. xxix.7),
is defective in all. Behold, Solomon endeavours or ratlier-' without weight' (I Chron. xxii. 11).
to root the letter jod out of me' (t. e. in the text, Working in iron was considered a calling
(2 Chron. ii. 7) [Smith]. Iron seems to have
DtO HIT vh, 'be shall not multiply wives' been better from some countries, or lo have under
(Dent. xvi. 17). 'The holy, blessed God an- gone some hardening preparation by the inha
twered-- Solomon, and a thousand such as he, shall bitants of them, such as were the people called
31 ISAAC. ISAAC.
Chalylies, living near the Euxine Sea (Jer. xv. sages before referred to, and nave hence conjectured
12); to have l*een imported from Tarshish to that we have here to do, not with history, but
Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 12), and 'bright inm' fnim historical legends (Winer, Handtrorterb.). We
Dan and Javan (ver. 19). The sujierior hardness are unable to Hud anything of a nature to excite
of iron above all other substances is alluded to in suspicion or alate confidence, there being scarcely
Dan. ii. 40. It was found among tlte Midian- any variations, and certainly none but such as
ites (Num. xxxi. 22), and was part of the wealth might easily arise on a purely historical ground."
distributed among the tribes at their location in The first fact that we read of in the history of
tue land (Josh. xxii. 8). Isaac, is the command given to his father to offer
Iron is metaphorically alluded to in the fol the youth* thy win, thine only son Isaac, whom
lowing instances:affliction is signified by the thou lovest*for a burnt-offering on a mountain
furnace for smelting it (Dent. iv. 20); under the in the laud of Moriah. Abraham proceeded to
eame figure, chastisement (Ezek. xxii. 18, 20, 22); obey the divine direction, and was on the point of
reducing the earth to total barrenness by turning laying Isaac, when his hand was withheld by the
it into iron (Deut. xxviii. 23); slavery, by a yoke interposition of God, a ram for sacrifice being
of iron (Deut. xxviii. 48) ; strength, by a bar of provided instead.
it (Job xl. 18); the extreme of hardness (Job xli. This event has found no few detractors. Eich-
27) ; severity of government, by a rod of iron hom {Bibl. f. Bibt. Lit. i. 45, sq.) regarded the
(Ps. ii. 9) ; affliction, by iron fetters (Hs. cvii. 10); whole as a vision ; Otmar (Henkes s Mag. ii. 517),
prosperity, by giving silver for iron (Isa. lx. 17); as the explanation of an hieroglyph ; Hruns
jxditical strength (Dan. ii. 33); obstinacy, by an (Pauius Memorab. vi. 1, sq.) finds the source
iron sinew in the neck (Isa. xlviii. 4) ; giving of it in the Phoenician custom of sacrificing
supernatural fortitude to a prophet, making him children. Some compare (Rosenmiiller, Mor-
an iron pillar (Jer. i. 18); destructive power of genl. i. 95) with this narrative the Grecian 6tory
empires, by iron Jeeth (Dan. vii. 7) ; deterioration of Iphigenia, and other fables of a similar kind.
ofcliaracter, by becoming iron (Jer. vi. 28 ; Kzek. The general aim of certain writers has been, as
xxii. 18), which resembles the idea of the Iran they consider it, to relieve the Bible from the
age; a tiresome burden, by a mass of inm (Ec odium which the narrated circumstances are in
clus. xxii. 15); the greatest oltacles, by walls of their opinion fitted to occasion. That the passage
iron (2 Mace. xi. 9) ; the certainty with which a is free from every possible objection, it may he
real enemy will ever show his liatred, by the rust too much to assert I it is, however, equally clear
returning upon iron (Ecclus. xii. 10). Iron that many of the objections taken to it arise from
seems used, as by the Greek poets, metonymtcally viewing the facts from a wrong position, or under
for the sword (Isa. x. 3 4J, and so the Sept. under the discolouring medium of a foregone and ad
stands it, jxdxaiPa- The following is selected as verse conclusion. The only proper way is to
a beautiful comparison made to iron (Hrov. consider it as it is represented in the sacred ]>age.
xxvii. 17), 'Iron (literally) uniteth iron; so a The command, tlien, was expressly designed to
man uniteth the countenance of his friend,' gives try Abraham's faith. Destined as the patriarch
stability to his apjiearance by his presence. A was to l>e the father of the faithful, was lie worthy
most graphic description of a smith at tcork is of his high and dignified jmsitinn? If bis own
found in Ecclus. xxxviii. 28.J. F. D. obedience was weak, he could not train others in
faith, trust, and love : hence a trial was neces
ISAAC (pnV? ; Sept, Io-okik), son of Abraham sary. That he was not without holy dispositions
and Sarah, horn in his parents' old age. The was already known, and indeed recognised in the
promise of a son had Ixvn made to them when divine favours of winch he had been the object ;
Abraham was visited by the Lord in the plains bur was he prepared to do ami to sutler all God's
of Mumre, and appeared so unlikely to he ful will? Religious perfection and his position alike
filled, seeing that both Abraham ami Sarah were demanded u perfect heart : hence the kind of
' well stricken in years," that its utterance caused trial. If lie were willing to surrender even his
the latter to laugh incredulously- Being reproved only child, and act himself both as offerer and
for her unbelief, she denied that she had laughed. priest in the sacrifice of the required victim, if
The re.tson assigned for the sjtecial visitation thin lie could so far conquer his natural affections, so
promised was, in effect, that Abraham was pious, subdue the father in his heart, then there could he
and would train his offspring in piety, so that he no doubt that Ins will was wholly reconciled to
would become the founder of a great nation, and (iod's, and that he was worthy of every trust,
all the nations of the e;irth should be blessed in confidence, and honour. The trial was made,
him. the fact was ascertained, the victim was nut slain.
In due time Sarah gave birth to a son, who re What is there in tins to which either religion or
ceived the name of Isaac. The reason assigned morality can take exception? This view is lioth
In Gen. xxi. 6 for the adoption of this name, has confirmed and justified by the words of God
reference to the laughter occasioned by the an (Gen. xxii. 16, sq.), * because tlmu bast not with
nouncement of the divine intention*and Sarah held thy only son, in blessing I will bless tliee,
said, God hath made me to laugh, all that hear and in multiplying I wiU multiply thy seed as
will laugh with me'the laugh of incredulity the stars of the heaven, and in thy seed shall all
being changed into the laugh of joy (comp. Gen. the nations of the eartli be blessed.*
xxi. (>; xviii. 12; xvii. 17). In the last passage We remark also that, not a part, but the entire,
Abraham is said to have laughed also when in of tlie transaction must l>e taken under consider
formed of God himself that he and Sarah should ation, and esjiecially the final result. If we
have a son, though lie was a hundred and his dwell exclusively on the commencement ol it,
wife ninety years old. there apjtears to be some sanclion given to human
Some writers have seen a discrepancy in the pas sacrifices ; but the end, and the concluding and
ISAAC. ISAIAH. r.3
ever-enduring fact, has tlie directly opposite bea> justified by Isaac on the grounds which prompted
ing. Viewed as a whole, the transaction is in him to resort fo it.
truth an express prohibition of human sacrifices. Another jiarallel event in the lives of Abraham
Isaac passed his youthful days under the eye and Isaac may be found by comparing together
of his falher, engaged in the care of Hocks and Gen. xxvi. 26, sq., and xxi. 22, sq. If these
herds up and down the plains of Canaan. At parallels should excite a doubt in the mind of
length ins father wished to see him married. any one as to the credibility of the narratives, let
Abraham therefore gave a commission to his old him carefully peruse them, and we think that
est and most trustworthy servant to the effect tiiat, the simplicity and naturalness which pervade
in order to prevent Isaac from taking a wife from and characterize them will effectually substan
among the daughters of the Canaanites, lie should tiate the reality of the recorded events, and ex
proceed into Mesopotamia, and, under the divine plode the notion that fiction has had anything to
direction, choose a partner among his own rela do in bringing the narrative into its present shape.
tives for his beloved son. Kebekah, in conse Isaac, in his old age, was, by the practices of
quence, becomes Isaac's wife, when he was now Rebekuh and the art of Jacob, so imposed upon
forty years of age. as to give his blessing to the younger son Jacob,
In connection with this marriage an event is instead of to the first-born Esau, and with that
recorded which displays the peculiar character blessing to convey, as was usual, the right of
of Isaac, while it is in keeping with the general headship in the family, together with Ins chief
tenor of the sacred record regarding liitn. Pro possessions. In the blessing which the aged pa
bably in expectation of the early return of his triarch pronounced on Jacob it deserves notice
father's messenger, and somewhat solicitous as to how entirely the wished-for good is of an earthly
the result of the embassy, he went out to meditate and temporal nature, while the imagery which is
in the field at the eventide. While there engaged employed serves to show the extent to which the
in tranquil thought, he chanced to raise his eyes, poetical element prevailed as a constituent part of
when lo ! he beheld the retinue near at hand, and the Hebrew character (Gen. xxvii. 27, sq.). Most
soon conducted his bride into his mother's tent. natural, too, is the extreme agitation of the poor
In unison with all this is the simple declaration blind old man, on discovering the cheat which
of the history, that Isaac 1 loved her.' Isaac was had been put upon him :'And Isaac trembled
evidently a man of kind and gentle dispositions, very exceedingly, and said(lo Esau), Who? where
of a calm and reflective turn of mind, simple in is he that hath taken venison and brought it me,
his habits, having few wants, good rafher than and I have eaten, and have blessed him ? Yea,
great, fitted to receive impressions and follow a and he shall be blessed.' Equally natural is the
guide, not to originate important influences, or reply of Esau. The entire passage is of itself
perform deeds of renown. If his character did enough to vindicate the historical character and
not take a bent from the events connected with entire credibility of those sketches of the lives of
his father's readiness to offer him on Mount the patriarchs which Genesis presents.
Moriah, certainly its passiveness is in entire agree Hie stealing, on the part of Jacob, of his
ment with the whole tenor of his conduct, as set father's blessing having angered Esau, who seems
forth in that narrative. to have looked forward to Isaac's death as afford
Isaac having, in conjunction witli his half- ing on opportunity for taking vengeance on his
brother Ishmael, buried Abraham hii father, ' in unjust brother, the aged patriarch is induced, at
a giKxl old age, in the cave of Machpdab,1 took his wife's entreaty, to send Jacob into Mesopo
tip a somewhat permanent residence ' by the well tamia, that, alter his own example, his sou might
Laliai-roi,' where, being blessed of God, lie lived take a wife from amongst his kindred and jieople,
n prosperity ami at ease. One source of regret, 1 of the daughters of Laban, thy mother's brother.'
nowever, he deeply felt Rebekuh was barren. This is the. last important act recorded of Isaac.
In time, two sons, Jacob and Esau, are granted Jacob having, agreeably to his father's command,
to his prayers. As the hoys grew, Isaac gave a married into Laban's family, returned, after some
pieference to Esau, who seems to have possessed time, and found the old man at Mamre, in the
those robuster qualities of character in which his city of Arhah, which is Hebron, where Abraham
father was defective, and therefore gratified him and Isaac sojourned Here, * lieing old and full
by such dainties as the pursuits of the chuce en of days ' (li*0), Isaac 4 gave up the ghost, and
abled the youth to offer; while Jacob, 'a plain died, and was gathered unto his people, and his
man dwelling in tents,' was an object of spe sons Esau and Jacob buried him ' (Gen. xxxv.
cial regard to K.elekaha division of feeling and 27, sq.). On the subjects treated of in this article
a kind of partiality which became the source of the following works may lie consulted:H. A.
much domestic unhappiness, as well as of jealousy Zeibich, l&aaci ortus infab.Orionis Vestigia; De
and hatred between the two sons. Welte, Krit. d. Is. Oesch. p. 133, sq. ; Niemeyer,
A famine compels Isaac to seek food in some CharakterUtik der Bibcl, 2nd jjart ; Kwald's Is
foreign hind. Divinely warned not to go down raelite^ p. 33S, sq. J. R. U.
to Egypt, the patriarch applies to a petty prince
of Philistia, by name Abimelech, who permits ISAIAH (iTytr* ; Sept. 'rWar). I. Times
him to dwell at Genu. Here an event, took place and circumstances of the Prophet Isaiah.The
which has a parallel in the life of his father Abra heading of this book places the prophet undet
ham. Kebekah was his cousin : afraid lest she the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze-
should lie violently taken from him, and his own kiah, kings of Judah ; and an examination of
life sacrificed to the lust of Abimelech. he repre the prophecies themselves indejwudent] v ul' the
sented her as his sister, employing a latitude of heading, leads us to the same chronological re
meaning which the word 'sister' admits in Oriental sults. Chapter vi., in which is related the call ot
usage. The subterfuge was discovered, and is Isaiah, not to his prophetic office, but to a higher
VOL. II. D
34 ISAIAH. ISAIAH.
degree of it, is thus headed : * In the year m which they were sawn asunder(Vxpi<rfh}<rav), which seems
king Uzziah died I saw the Lord/ &c. The col to harmonize with 2 Kings xxi. 16, * moreover
lection of prophecies is chronologically arranged, Manasseh shed innocent blond very much.*
and the utterances in the preceding chapters (i. to 3. The authenticity of the second porf.on of
vi.) belong, for chronological and other reasons, to the prophecies of Isaiah being admitted, the
an earlier period, preceding the last year of the nature of this portion would seem to confirm the
reign of Uzziah, although the utterances in chap idea that its author had lived under Manasseh.
ters ii. iii. iv. and v. have been erroneously assigned The style of the second portion, it is asserted, is
to the reign of Jutham. We have no document so different from that of the first, that both could
which can, with any degree of certainty, or even of not well have l>eeu composed by the same author,
probability, be assigned to that reign. We by no except under the supposition that a considerable
means assert that the prophetic ministry of Isaiah time intervened between the composition of the
was suspended during the reign of Jotham, but first and second portion. The contents of the lat
merely that then apparently the circumstances of tersuch as the complaints respecting gro*s idol
the times did not require Isaiah to utter pre atry, the sacrifice of children to idols, the wicked
dictions of importance tor all ages of the church. ness of rulers, &c.seem to be applicable neither
We certainly learn from the examples of Nathan, to the times of the exile, into which the prophet
Klijah, and felisha, that a jwwerful prophetic mi might have transported himself in the spirit, nor
nistration may be in u}teration, although the pre to the period of the pious Hezekiah, but are quite
dictions uttered, rinding their accomplishment applicable to the reign of Manasseh.
within the times of the prophet, do not point to These arguments, however, do not stand a strict
subsequent ages. As, liowever, the position of scrutiny. The first can only pmve that Isaiah
afl'airs was not materially changed under the survived Hezekiah ; but even this does not follow
reign of Jotham, we may say that the first two with certainty, because in 2 Chron. xxxii. 32,
utterances have a bearing upon that reign also. where Isaiah's biography of Hezekiah is men
These two prophecies contain the sum and sub tioned, the important words * first and last' are
stance of what Isaiah taught during twenty years omitted; while in chap. xxvi. 22, we read, 'Now
of his life. If these prophetic utterances belong the rest of the acts of Uzziah, first and i.ast,
ing to the reign of Uzziah had not been extant, did Isaiah, the son of Amoz, write.* If we take
there would, doubtless, have been written down and into consideration tins important omission, we can
preserved similar discourses uttered under the easily believe that Isaiah diet! before Hezekiah,
reign of Jotham. As, however, the former utter although he wrote his biography up to a certain
ances were applicable to that reign also, it was point ; more especially if we iiear in mind that,
unnecessary to preserve such as were of similar according to the l>ooks of Kings and Chronicles,
import. the latter years of the reign of Hezekiah were de
The continuation of prophetic authorship, or void of imiwrfant events. We certainly find, in
the writing down of uttered prophecies, depended all ages of literature, biographies ofjiersons written
upon the commencement of new historical deve during their life-time.
lopments, such as took place under the reigns of We may well supjtose that the history of He
Anas and Hezekiah. Several prophecies in the zekiah terminated with the glorious aid granted
seventh and following chapters belong to the to him in his war with the Assyrians, and with
reign of Ahaz ; and most of the subsequent pro the events immediately consequent upon tli&t
phecies 1o the reign of Hezekiah. The prophetic war.
ministry of Isaiah under Hezekiah is also de In reply to the second argument, we oltserve,
scribed in an historical section contained in chap that it is not certain that the word iirpitrB^frav^
ters xxxvi.-xxxix. The data which are contained they were saicn asunder, is used in Hebrews
in this section come down to the fifteenth year with reference to Isaiah. The statement in the
of the reign of Hezekiah; consequently we are Fathers, and in Oriental writers, is entirely de
in the possession of historical documents pmviug duced from the Jewish tradition, which is
that the prophetic ministry of Isaiah was in opera throughout of so doubtful a character that no
tion during about forty-seven or fifty years, com conclusive argument can lie based upon it.
mencing in the year B.C. 763 or 739, and extend With regard to the third argument, we remark,
ing to the year B.C. 713. Of this jteriod, from that the difference discernible, if we compute the
one to four years belong to the reign of Uzziah, latter witli the former {tortious ol" Isaiah, can, and
sixteen to the reign of Jotham, sixteen to the reign ought to be, differently accounted for. Such
of Ahaz, and fourteen to the reign of Hezekiah. merely external attempts at explanation, when ap
St'audlein, Jahn, Bertholdt. and Gesenius, liave, plied to Holy Writ, always apjwar unsatisfactory
in modern times, advanced the opinion that if closely examined. We invaiiably find that the
Isaiah lived to a much later period, and that his real cause of the external appearance lie* deejier,
life extended to the reign of Manosseh, the suc and in the nature of the subject itself. For
cessor of Hezekiah. For this opinion, the fol instance, the peculiarity of Deuteronomy arises
lowing reasons are adduced : from the special bearing of that book upon the
1. According to 2 Chron. xxxii. 32, Isaiah other books of the Pentateuch, and the peculiar
wrote the life of King Hezekiah. It would hence style of the Apocalypse arises from its relatiou
appear that he survived that king. to the gospel of St. John. The appeal to such
2. We find a tradition current in the Talmud, merely external arguments always proceeds from
in the Fathers, and in Oriental literature, that an inability to understand the essence of the
Isaiah suffered martyrdom in the reign of Ma- matter. In reference to the censures occurring
nasseh, by being sawn asunder. It is thought in the later portion of Isaiah, we olwrve, that they
that an allusion to this tradition is found in the might also nave a bearing upon the corruptions
Epistle to the Hebrews (xi. 37), in the expression prevalent iu former reigns, and that they wens
ISAIAH. ISAIAH. Sfl
not necessarily confined to manifestations of Micah entered upon his prophetic office under
wickedness occurring at the time when they were the reign of Jotham, consequently somewhat later
written down. These censures might also refer than Isaiah commenced his prophetic career.
to the gross perversions under Ahaz; and it is Obadiah, who is placed among the minor pro
also unlikely that the personal piety of Hezekiah phets, between Joel and Micah, was likewise a
entirely extinguished all abuses among his people. contemporary of Isaiah. It is not accidental
We certainly do not find that the personal that Isaiah and all these prophets commence the
piety of King Josiah had that eflect upon all his series of those whose prophetic utterances were
uhjects. written down and preserved. Nor is there any
Several other arguments adduced against the reason to assert that the preceding age was
opinion that Isaiah died during the reign of Ma- neglectful of the preservation of prophetic litera
tiasseh, are certainly of little weight. For in ture, although even Ewald, in his Propfietmi (i.
stance, the argumentum e silcntio, or the proof p. 54, Stuttgard, 1840), asserts that beyond the
derived from the silence of the historical hooks prophetic literature which we possess there lay an
respecting Isaiah during the reign of Manosseh. earlier, which was more comprehensive. There
This argument is of no importance at all, since, is, however, no une genuine proof sufficient to
at any rate, the death of Isaiah is nowhere men evince that there were written prophecies before
tioned in the Bible; from which circumstance Isaiah and his conternporaries. Hosea relets
we infer, that, on account of his advanced age, he (viii. 12), not to earlier prophetic writings, but to
had retired from active life. the books of Moses. This has been proved by
Of somewhat more weight is the objection that, Hengstensberg (lieitntf/e, part ii. p. 60-1, sq).
according to the supposition that Isaiah died Isaiah ii. and Micah iv. do not rest upon an ear
under Manasseh, too great an age would be lier prophetic production which was lost; but
ascribed to trie prophet. Although we were to Isaiah rests upon Micah as Jeremiah does opou
8um>ose that Isaiah, as well as Jeremiah, was Obadiah ; and it is not the case that both prophets
called to the prophetic office at an early age rest upon a third unknown prophet. At the period
T>erhap* in his twentieth yearlie, nevertheless, in when these prophets commenced their career* pro
the fifteenth year of Hesekiab, up to which date phetUm itself had attained a new epoch, at which
we can prove his ministrations by existing docu a great number of important prophets were ranged
ments, would have reached quite or nearly to his beside each other. The alTairs of the Israelites
seventieth year, which is the usual duration of became at this period more interwoven with those
human life; consequently, at the time of the acces of the great Asiatic empires, which then began
sion of Manasseh he would have been alnmt to bring about the threatened judgments of the
eighty-four years old; and if, with the defenders Lord u[K>n his people. Henceforward, also, the
of the tradition, we allow that lie exercised the prophetic office was to be conducted on a grander
prophetic functions for about seven or eight years scale. To the prophets it was now assigned to
during the reign of Manasseh, he must at the declare and to interpret the judgments of tlie
|)eriod of his martyrdom have attained to the age Lord, in order to render the people conscious us
irf ninety-two. This, indeed, is quite possible. well of his chastising justice as of his preserving
The example of the prophet Hoseo, who exercised mercy. A larger field was now opened to the
his prophetic calling during sixty years, and that strictly prophetic office, which consisted in utter
of the priest Jehoiado, who, according tu 2Chron. ing predictions of the future. The admonitions
xxiv. 13, was a hundred and thirty years old to repentance were now also supported by more
when he died, prove the possibility of the age as powerful motives. The hopes of a coming Mes
cribed to Isaiah. siah were revived. To the worldly power, which
The chief argument against the tradition, how threatens destruction to the external theocracy, is
ever, is contained in the inscription of the book henceforth opposed the kingdom of God, destined
itself. According to this inscription all tlie to conquer and to govern the world through the
praphecies of Isaiah in our collection ure iircluded Messiah. This consolation was offered to those
within Hit- pm, i'l from Uzziah to Hexekiah. Not who would otherwise have lieen driven to despair.
one of the prophecies which ure headed by an Now only was prophetism able to develop its full
inscription of their own is placed after the fif power and become important for all subsequent
teenth year of Hezekiah; and the internal evi ages. This persuasion induced tlie prophets to
dence leads us in uoue beyond (his period. write their prophecies, and it caused these docu
Hence we infer that the prophetic ministry of ments also to l>e carefully preserved. The reason
Isaiah terminated soon after its fullest develop why tlie earlier prophets did not commit their
ment, to which it attained during tlie period of the utterances to writing is tlie same that, with two
Assyrian invasion, in the reign of Hezekiah. exceptions, led Isaiah not to write under Uzzioh,
According to these statements Isaiah belongs aud to omit writing his utterances under Jotham
to the cycle of the most ancient prophets whose altogether.
predictions have been preserved in writing. He Little is known respecting the circumstances
was a contemporary of Hosea, Amos, and Jonah, of Isaiah's life. His father's name was Amot.
although younger than those prophets, who be The fathers of the church coufound him with the
longed to the kingdom of Israel. He was like prophet Amos, because they were unacquainted
wise a contemporary and co-worker of the prophet with Hebrew, and in Greek the two names are
Micah in the kingdom of Judah. We infer also spelled alike. The opinion of the Rabbins, thai
from the circumstance that the prophecies of Joel Isaiah was a brother of King Amaxiah, rests also
are inserted among the books of the minor pro on a mere etymological combination. Isaiah
phet! before those of Micah, that Isaiah must resided at Jerusalem, not far from the temple.
nave been a contemporary df Joel, since the minor We learn main chapters vii. and viii. that he
prophets nrp chronologically arranged. was married. Two of his sons are mentioned,
n2
ISAIAH. ISAIAH.
Shear-jashul and Maher-shalal-hash-l>az. These last, did Isaiah the prophet, tlie son of Amoz,
igniHcant names, which he gave to his sons prove write.' The second historical work of Isaiah was a
how much Isaiah lived in his vocation. He did biography of King Hezekiah, which was subse
not consider his children to merely to quently inserted in tlie annals of Judah and Israel.
himself, hut rendered them living admonitions These annals consisted of a series of pmphetlc
to tlie people. In their names were contained the monographies, winch were received partly entire,
two chief points of his prophetic utterances : one partly in altstructs, and are tlie chief source from
recalled to mind the severe and inevitable judg which the information contained in the Chrnniclcj
ment wherewith the Lord was aUmt to visit tlie is derived. In this work of Isaiah, although its
world, and especially his ]ieople ; the other, which contents were chiefly historical, numerous prophe
signifies 1 The remnant shall return,' pointed out cies were inserted. Hence it is called in 2 Chron.
the mercy with which the Lord would receive the xxxii. 32, lrtW JnTl. The Vision of Isaiah. In
elect, and with which, in the midst of apparent a similar manner the biography of Solomon by
destruction, he would take care to preserve his Ahijah, is called in 2 Chron. ix. 29, * the prophecy
people and his kingdom. Isaiah calls his wile of Ahijah.' Tlie two historical works of Isaiah
ntC*93, prophetess. This indicates that his mar were lost, together with the annals of Judah and
riage-life was not in opposition to his vocation, and Israel, into which they were embodied* Whatever
also that it not only went along with his vocation, these annuls contained that was of importance for
but that it was intimately interwoven with it. all uges, has l>een preserved to us by being received
This HUM cannot mean the wife of a prophet, into tlie historical Itonks of the Old Testament, and
hut indicates that the prophetess of fawn had a the predictions of the most distinguished prophets
prophetic gift, like Miriam, Deborah, and Huldah. have been formed into separate collections. After
Tlie apj>cl!ation here given denotes the genuine this was efleeted, less care was taken to preserve the
ness of their conjugal relation. more diffuse annals, which also comprehended
Even the dress of the prophet was subservient to many statements, of value only for jiarticular
his vocation. According to chap. xx. 2, he times and places.
wore a garment of tiair-clnth or sackcloth. This III. The integral authenticity of theprophecies
seems also to have been the costume of Elijah, ofIsaiah.The Jewish synagogue, and the Chris
According to 2 Kings i. 8 ; and it was the dress of tian church during all ages, have considered
John the Baptist. Hairy sackcloth is in the it as an undoubted fact that the projriiecies which
Bible the symbol of repentance (comjwire Isa. xx. bear the name of Isaiah really originated from that
1 1. 12, and 1 Kings xxi. 27). Tins costume of tlie prophet. Even Spinoza did not expressly assert
prophets was a scrmo prophetictts realis, a pro in his Tractattts Theologico- Politicus (viii. 8),
phetic preaching by fact. The prophetic preacher that the book of Isaiah consisted of a collection
comes forward in the form of personified repent originating from a variety of authors, although it
ance. What he does exhibits to the people what is usually considered that he maintained this
they should do. Before he has owned his lips opinion. But in the last quarter of the eighteenth
his external appearance proclaims ^uravo^r*, century this prevailing conviction apfveared to
repent. some divines to be inconvenient. In the theology
II. On the Historical toorks of Isaiah.Be of Hie natural man it passed as certain, that nature
sides the collection of prophecies which has been was complete in itself, and that prophecies, as
preserved to us, Isaiah also wrote two historical well as miracles, never had occurred, and were
works. It was jrart of the vocation of the prophets even imixwsible. Whoever is spell-bound within
to write the history of the kingdom of God, to the limits of nature, and has never felt the influ
exhibit in this history the workings of tlie law of ence of a sujiernatural principle upon his own
retribution, and to exhort to the true worship of the heart, is inca]>ahle of understanding the super
Lord. History, as written by the prophets, is itself natural in history, and feels a lively interest in
retroverted prophecy, and, as such, offers rich ma Betting it aside, not only on account of its appear
terials for prophecy strictly so-called. Since all the ing to him to be strange and awful, but also l*cause
acts of God proceed from his essence, a complete su|K*rnatural events are facts of accusation against
understanding of the past implies also the future; the merely natural man. Tlie assumption of the
and, vi'-e versa, a complete understanding of the impossibility of miracles necessarily demanded
future implies a knowledge of the past. Most ot that the,-genuineness of the Pentateuch should be
the historical hooks in the Old Testament have rejected ; and, in a similar manner, the assumption
been written by projihets. The collectors of the of the impossibility of prophecy demanded that a
Canon placed mart of these U>oks under the head great portion of the prophecies of Isaiah should be
prophets ; hence, it appears that, even rejected likewise. Here also the w ish wa father
when these historical works were re-modelled by to the thought) anil interest led to the decision of
later editors, these editors were themselves pro critical questions, the arguments for which were
phets. The Chronicles are not placed among the subsequently discovered. All those who attack
bK*33 : we may, therefore, conclude that they the integral authenticity of Isaiaii agree in consi
were not written by a prophet But their author dering tlie book to Ik? an anthology, or gleanings
constantly indicates that he composed his work of prophecies, collected alter the Babylonian exile,
from abstracts taken verbatim from historical mo although they differ in their opinions respecting
nographies written by the prophets; consequently the origin of this collection. Kopjie gave gentle
the books of Rath, Ezra. Nenemiah, and Esther, hints of this view, which was first explicitly sup
are the only historical books of the Old Testament ported by Eichhorn in hie Introduction. Eicii-
which dil not originate from prophets. horn advances the hyjiotliesis that a collection of
The first historical work of Isaiah was a bio- Isaian prophecies (which might have been aug
rraphy of King Uzziah (comp. 2 Chron. xxvi. mented, even l>efore the Babylonian exile, by se
22), 1 Now the rest of the acts of Uzziah, first and veral not genuine additions) formed the basis of
ISAIAH. ISAIAH. 37
the present anthology, and that the collectors, Divines, who were not linked to these critics by
after the Babylonian exile, considering that the the same dogmatical interest, undertook to defend
scroll on which they were written did not form a the integrity of Isaiah, as Hensler, Jesaias neu
volume proportionate to the size of the three other iibersetzt, 1788; Piper, hxtegritas Jesaite, 17*93;
proplietic scrolls, containing Ezekiel, Jeremiah, Beckhaus, Ucber die integritat tier Prophcti&chcn
and ttte minor prophets, annexed to the Isaian Schrtften, 1790; Jahn, in his Enleitung, who
collection all other uracles at hand whose authors was the most able among the earlier advocates ;
were nut known to the editors. In this supposition Dereser, m liis Bearbeitung des Jesaias iv, 1 ;
of tlte non* identity of date and authorship, most Greve, Vaticinia Jesaue, Amsterdam, 1810. All
learned men, and lately also Hitzig and Kwald, these works have at present only an historical
followed Eichhorn. Gesenius, on the contrary, value, because they have been surpassed by two
maintained, in his introduction to Isaiah, that all recent monographies. The first is by Jo. Ulr.
the Don-Isaian prophecies extant in that book Madler, De Auihetitia Oraculorum Jesaice, ch.
originated from one author and were of the xl.-lxvi., Copenhagen, 1R25. Although this work
same date. Umbreit and Kc>3ter on the main professedly defends only the latter portion of
point follow Gesenius, considering chapters iL to the book of Isaiah, there occur in it many argu
lxvi. to be a continuous whole, written by a ments applicable also to the first ]>ortion. The
pseudo-Isaiah who lived about the termination of standard work on this subject is that of Kleinert,
the Babylonian exile. In reference to other por Dc Aechiheit des Jesaias, vol. i., Berlin, 1829.
tions of the book of Isaiah the authenticity of It is, however, very diffusa, and contains too
which has been questioned, Umbreit expresses many hypotheses. The comprehensive work of
himself doubtingly, and Koster assigns them to Schleier, Wurdiguny der Eintcurfe gegen die Al-
Isaiah. Gesenius declines to answer the question, testamentlicheii Weissagungeu im Jesaiasf chap,
how it happened that these ]x>rtions were ascribed xiii. and xiv., of course refers more especially to
to Iaiah, but Hitzig felt that an answer to it these chapters, but indirectly refers also to all the
might be expected. He accordingly attempts to other portions whose authenticity has been at
explain why such additions were made to Isaiah tacked. Since the objections against the various
and not to any of the other prophetical books, parts of Isaiah are all of the same character, it is
by the extraordinary veneration in which Isaiah very inconsistent in Koster, in his work Die Pro-
was held. He says that the great authority of phetm rfes alien Testamentes, to defend, in page
Isaiah occasioned important and distinguished 102, the genuineness of chaps, xiii., xiv., and
prophecies to be placed in connection with xxi.; but, nevertheless, in pages 117 and 297,
his name. But he himself soon after destroys to ascribe chaps, xl.-lxvi. to a pseudo-Isaiah.
the force of this assertion by observing, that the After this survey of the present state of the
great authority of Isaiah was especially owing to inquiry, we proceed to furnish, first, the external
those prophecies which were falsely ascribed to arguments for the integral authenticity of Isaiah.
him. A considerable degree of suspicion must, 1. The most ancient testimony in favour of
however, attach to the boasted certainty of such Isatah's being the author of all the portions of the
critical investigations, if we notice how widely collection which bears his name, is contained in the
these learned men differ in defining what is of heading of the whole (i. 1), * The vision of Isaiah
Isaian origin and what is not, although they are the son of Amoz, which he saw concerning Judah
all linked together by the same fundamental and Jerusalem, in the days of Uzziah, Jotham,
tendency and interest There are very few por Ahaz, Hezekiah, kings of Judah.1 It is here
tions in the whole collection whose authenticity clearly stated that Isaiah was the author of the
lias not been cal led in question by some one or other following prophecies, uttered during the reign of
of the various impugners. Almost every part lias four successive kings. This inscription is of
been attacked either by Doederlein,or by Kichhoru great importance, even if it originated not from
(wh(., especially in a later work entitled Die Isaiah, but from a later compiler. If we adopt
llebrdischen Prophctcny Gbttingen, 1810 to 1819, the latest date at which this compilation could
goes farther than all the others), or by Justi (who, have been made, we must fix it at the time of ils
among the earlier adversaries of the integral reception into the canon in the days of Ezra and
authenticity of Isaiah, uses, in his Vcrtnischte Nehemiah. Consequently the compiler could
Schi iften (vols. i. and ii.), the most comprehensive not Ive -eparated by many years from the pseudo-
and, apparently, the best grounded arguments), Isaiah who is said to have prophesied just before
or by Paulus, Rosenmuller, Bauer, Bertholdt, Babylon was conquered, or who, according to
De H'ette, Gesenius, Hitzig, Ewald, Umbreit, or most critics, wrote even after the fall of Babylon.
others. The only portions left to Isaiah are It is not credible that a compiler living so near
chajw. i. 3-9, xvii., xx., xxviii., xxxi., and the times of the author, should have erroneously
xxxiii. All the other chapters are defended ascribed these prophecies to Isaiah, who lived so
by some and rejected by others ; they are also much earlier, especially if we bear in mind that
referred to widely different dates. In the this so-called pseudo-Isaiah must have been a
most modern criticism, however, we observe very remarkable person in an age so devoid of the
an inclination again to extend the sphere of proplietic spirit as tliat in which he is said to have
Isaian authenticity as much as the dogmatic lived.
principle antl system of the critics will allow. It is still less credible that a pseudo-Isaiah
Modern criticism is inclined to admit the genuine should himself have fraudulently ascribed his
ness of chaps, i. to xxiii., with the only excep prophecies to Isaiah. None of the adversaries of the
tion of tlie two prophecies against Babylon in authenticity of the book make such an assertion.
chaps, xiii. and xiv., and in chap. xxi. 1-10. If the compiler lived before the exile, the in
Cha|u. xxviii.-xxxiii. arc allowed to be Isaian by scription appears to be of still greater importance.
Kwald, Umbreit, and others. That tlie collection was made so early ia very
39 ISAIAH. ISAIAH.
likely, from the circumstance that Jeremiah anil Jltn has no plural (comp. Hitzig's Commentary
other prophets apparently made use of the pro on ch. i. 1 ; Ewald, Propheteny i. p. 5T).
phecies of Isaiah. This fact indicates that the The inscription in ch. j. 1 bos a general bear
prophecies of Isaiah early excited a lively in ing ujwn the whole collection. Then follows the
terest, and tliat the rompiler must have lived at a first jxirtion, which contains, as it were, the general
period earlier than that which is ascribed to the prophetic programme. Thereupon follows a series
pseudo-Isaiah himself. From all this we infer of prophecies directly l>earing upon Judah and
that the compiler lived before the exile. The Jerusalem, commencing again with a particular
adversaries themselves felt the weight of this argu heading (ii. I). To this succeeds a series of pro
ment. They, therefore, attempted to remove it phecies indirectly Waring upon Judah anil
by various hypotheses, which received a semblance Jerusalem, but directly upon foreign nations.
of probability from, the circumstance that even The first of this series has again its own heading
the considerate Vitringa had called in question (stiii. 1).
the authenticity of the heading. Vitringa con Gesenius, advancing in the direction to which
jectured that this heading belonged originally to Vitringa had pointed, although lie grants the
the first chapter alone. He further conjectured integral authenticity of ch. i. I, nevertheless
that it originally contained only the words, pro maintains that this heading belonged originally
phecy of Isaiah, the son of Amoz, which he saw onJy to chs. i.-xii., in which were contained
concerning Judah and Jerusalem. The follow genuine prophecies of Isaiah. To this collection
ing words, he says, were added by the compiler, he asserts, were afterwards subjoined tW antho
who enlarged the jiarticular inscription of the first logies contained in the following chapters, and
chapter to a general one of the whole collection. the heading was then misunderstood as applying
According to Vitringa the inscription does not to the whole volume. This opinion is more in
8uir*tlie whole Itook, the contents of which are consistent than that of Vitringa, Bince there occur
not confined to Judah and Jerusalem alone. This in the first twelve chapters two prophecies against
hail been felt even by Kimchi, who, anticipating foreign nations; one against the Assyrians, iu
the objection, observes, qu<rcun%ue contra gentes ch. x. and another against Rphraim, in ch. ix.
profert, ea omnia propter Judam dicit. What Vitringa, Gesenius, and their followers, are also
soever Isaiah utters against the nations, he says refuted by the {taraltel jjassage in the heading of
on account of Judah. Judah anil Jerusalem are Amos, 1 The words of Amos, which he saw con
the chief subject, and. in a certain sense, the only cerning Israel.' The prophecies of Amos in
subject of prophecy. There is no prophecy con general are here said to lie concerning Israel,
cerning other nation* without a Waring u]>on the although there are, as in Isaiah, several against
covenant - people. If this Waring should be foreign nations, a series of which stands even at
wanting in any portion of prophecy, that portion the commencement of the book. To this we may
would be a piece of divination and soothsaying. add the similarity of the headings of other pro
No prophet against foreign nation* prophesied con phetical books. For instance, the commencement
cerning them with the view to spread his predictions of Jeremiah, Hosea, Micah, and ^ephaniah.
among them, because the mission of all prophets is Ewald sjmils the argument of Vitringa still
to Israel. The predictions against foreign nations more than Gesenius, by extending the original
are intended to preserve the covenant-people from collection to ch. xxiii., and thus introducing
des)>air, and to strengthen their faith in the omni- within the cycle beaded by the inscription, whose
potence and justice of their God. These predictions genuineness he grants, most of the predictions
are intended to annihilate the reliance upon poli against foreign nations. Whoever subjoined the
tical combinations and human confederacies. subsequent portions'to the so-called original col
They are intended to lead Israel to the question, lection, did ii only liecausc he perceived that
'Ifthey do these things in the green tree, what shall these portions could be brought under the general
be done in the dry V If this is the punishment of headiit;. He could onJy have bten induced to
those who are less intimately allied with God, make the so-called additions, because he per
what shatl then become of us to whom He nas ceived that the heading applied to the whole: con
more clearly revealed Himse'ff But they are sequently neither Gesenius nor Ewald rid them
also intended to indicate the future conversion of selves of the troublesome authority of ch. i. I j
the heathen, and to open to the view of the faithful the words of which have the more weight, since
the future glory of the kingdom of God, and its all critics ascribe to the headings ofthe prophetical
fiital victory over the kingdom* of this world ; and hooks a far greater authority than to the head
thus to extirpate all narrow-minded nationality. ings of the Psalms, and agree in saying that
God shall I* revealed not only as Jehovah but also nothing but the most stringent arguments should
as Rlohim. His relation to Israel is misunder induce us to reject the statements contained in
stood, if that relation is exclusively kept in view these prophetical headings.
without any regard to the universe. Therefore 2. Jt cannot be proved that there ever existed
the whole collection is justly entitled Prophecies any so-called prophetic anthology as has been
concerning Judah and Jerusalem. No matter supposed to exist in the book of Isaiah. We find
whether this inscription originated from Isaiah nothing analogous in the whole range of pmphctic
nimself of from an ancient compiler. That the literature. It is generally granted that the col
word Htn means not merely a vision, but also a lections Waring the names of Jeremiah ami
collection of visions and prophecies, may be Eiekie] contain only productions of those authors
learned from 2 Chron. xxxii. 3'2, and Nab. i. 1. whose name they bear. In lie book of the minor
It means a collection of prophecies and vision* prophets, the property of each is strictly distin
united like a picture in an historical frame guished from tlie rest by headings. The authen
(comp. Jer. xiv. 11), although it may aho denote ticity of only the second jxirtion of Zechariah has
one separate prophecy, as in Obadiah, vers? 1. been attacked; and this with very feeble argn
ISAIAH. ISAIAH.
ments, which have been refuted. De Wette him xl.-lxvi. have no heading of their own ; which
self has, in the latest editions of his Introduction, proves that the compiler annexed them as Isaian,
confessed that on this point he is vanquished. and intended them lo be read as such. The so-
But even if it could be proved that the pro called spurious portions in the first part of Isaiah
phecies of Zechariah belonged to two different were, according to the opinion of Kwald (p. 62),
authors, namely, as Bertholdt and Gesenius sup intermixed with the genuine, because the com
pose, to the two Zccliariahs, each of whom hap- piler really supposed them to belong to Isaiah.
]>ened to Ite the son of a Berechiah, this identity Tims Kwald admits that the intermixed pieces
of names might be considered an inducement for have tiie testimony of the compiler in favour of
uniting the productions of the two authors in one their authenticity. To deny that this testimony
collection : still this case would not be analogous extends also to the second part, is an arbitrary
to what is asserted to be the fact in Isaiah. In assumption. Nmv, if this testimony is granted,
Isaiah, it is alleged not only that a series of we are content. With it we gain this much, that
chapters belonging to a different author were sub the attacked portions have the presumption of
joined, commencing about chap, xxxiv., but it genuineness in their favour, and that, therefore,
is affirmed that, even in the first thirty-three chap very substantial reasons are required for denying
ters, the genuine and spurious portions are inter their Isaian origin. This is all that we want.
mixed. Before we admit that the compilers 3. According to the opinion of several critics,
proceeded here in a manner so unreasonable, and all the spurious portions of Isaiah belong to one
so contrary to their usual custom, we mast ex and the same author. But it so happens that the
pect some cogent proof to be adduced. Gesenius portion which is most emphatically declared to
declares that he would not attempt to touch this be spurious, namely, chaps, xiii, ami xiv., bear
problem. Tin's is as much as to admit the vali an inscription which expressly ascribes them to
dity of our objection. Kichhom supposes that the Isaiah. Now, as the internal arguments against
spurious additions were made because the scroll the authenticity of all the portions which are
otherwise would not have been tilled up. But said to be spurious, are nearly identical, if the
this fuga vacxd, this abhorrence of a vacuum, opposition to chaps, xiii. and xiv. is given up, it
does not explain the intermixture of the spurious cannot with consistency be maintained against
with the genuine. It does not explain why the the other portions. This argument serves also as
additions were not all subjoined at the end of the an answer to those who ascril>e the |H>rtions which
genuine portions. Dasderlein creates for himself they consider spurious to several authors. The
a second Isaiah, son of Amoz, living at the con contents of these portions are similar. They
clusion of the exile. But even this fiction does contain predictions of the fall of Babylon, and of
not explain why the property of these two pro the redemption of Israel from captivity. What
phets was intermixed in spite of their being ser ever proves the genuineness of one of these pot*
rated from each other by two centuries, aud so tions. indirectly proves the others also to be
intermixed that it is now difficult to say which genuine.
belongs to which. Augusti sup|)Oses that the 4. According to Josephus (Antiq. xi. c. 1,
spurious pieces were added to the genuine on ac 1, 2) Cyrus was induced by the prophecies of
count of their being written entirely in the spirit Isaiah respecting him to allow the return of the
and style of Isaiah. But in this he seems to Jews, and to aid them in rebuilding the temple.
contradict himself, since he bases his attack The credibility of Josephus, who in regard to
against their authenticity upon the assertion that facts of ancient history is not always to be relied
they differed from Isaiah in spirit and manner. upon, is here sup|>orted by two circumstances.
The style of Isaiah was certainly not the style of First, t lie favour shown by Cyrus to the Jews,
the age in which the pseudo-Isaiah is said to have whicli remains inexplicable except by the fact
lived. Justi supposes that the prediction con mentioned, in combination with the influence of
cerning the Babylonian exile, in chap, xxxix., led Daniel. In modern times, the favour of Cyrus
to the addition of the whole of the second portion. to the Jews lias been called a prudential measure ;
But this hypothesis is improbable and without but it does not appear what he could either hope
analogy, and it does not explain the intermix or fear from a people so enfeebled as the Jews
ture of the genuine with the spurious in the weie at that ]>eriod. It has been added that
first portion. Cyrus was favourable to the Jews on account of
How untenable all these hypotheses are may Iw the similarity between the Persian and the Jewish
readily perceived from the fact that each of them religion ; but there is no historical proof that
remained the almost exclusive property of its the Persians, on any other occasion, favoured the
author, and that each following savant felt him Jews on account of their religion. The favours
self ] mmpted to discover a new hypothesis, until shown to Nehemiah on behalf of Israel were only
Gesenius endeavoured to stop them by cutting personal favours, owing to his position at the
the Gordiau knot. Hitzig, however, again at Persian court. We allow that all this would be
tempted to unloose it, but, as we have already insufficient to prove the correctness of the above
seen, unsuccessfully. Kwald maintains that the statement in Josephus, but it must render us in
compiler never intended that chaps, xl.-lxvi. clined to admit its truth.
should beloni,' to Isaiah, and that the lust twenty- The second argument is much stronger : it is,
six chapters had been subjoined merely in order that the statement of Josephus is supported by
to preserve them the better. But it is untrue the edict of Cyrus (Ezra i.). This edict pre-sup-
that the first portion is unconnected with these ]xes the fact related by Jos phus, so that Jalin
chapters. The first portion terminates with the calls the passage in Josephus a commentary on the
prediction of the Babylonian exile, and the se first chapter of Ezra, in which we read that Cyrus
cond commences with the annunciation of a announces in his edict, that he was commanded
Cuture redemption from this captivity. Chaps. by Jehovah to build him a temple in Jerusalem,
40 ISAIAH. ISAIAH.
and that he received all the conquered kingdoms ing chapter of Jeremiah to be spurious. Tliis if
of the earth as a gift from Jehovah. This can certainly a desr>erate stroke, because the chapter
not refer to any other predictions of the prophet, is otherwise written in the very characteristic
hut only to what are called the spurious portions style of that prophet. This desperation, how
of Isaiah, in which the Lord grants to Cyrus all ever, gives us the advantage afforded by an in
his future conquests, and appoints hiin to be the voluntary testimony iu favour of those portion
restorer of his temple (comp. xli. 2-4; xliv. 21- of Isaiali which have been attacked. The words
28; xlv. 1-13; xlvi. II] xlviii. 13-15). The of Isaiah, in ch. li. 15, ' I am the Lord thy God
edict adopts almost the words of these passages who moves the sea that its waves roar,' are re
(comp. the synopsis in the alwve-tnentioned work peated in Jer. xxxi. 35. The image of the cup
of Kleinert, p. 142). Iu reply to this, our adver of fury in Isa. li. 17, is in Jer. xxv. 14V3a\ trans
saries assert that Cyrus was deceived l>y pseudo- formed into a symbolic act, according to his
prophecies forged in the name of Isaiali ; hut if custom of embodying the imagery of earlier pro
Cyrus could he deceived in so clumsy a manner, phets, and especially that of Isaiah. In order to
he was not the man that history represents him ; prove that other prophets also made a similar use
and to have committed forger? is so contrary to of Isaiah, we refer to Zephaniah it. 15, where we
what was to be exacted from the author of chaps, And Isaiah's address to Babylon applied to
xl.-lxvi., that even the feelings of our opponents Nineveh, * Therefore hear now this, thou that an*
revolt at the supj>osition that the pseudo-Isaiah given to pleasures, that dwellest carelessly, thai
should have forged vaticinia post evcntum iu the sayest in thine heart I am, and none else l>e*ide
name of tiie prophets. Had these prophecies me,' &c. Zephaniah, living towards the termina
been written, as it is alleged, only in sight of the tion of projriietism, lias, like Jeremiah, a depend-
conquest of Babylon, Cyrus would have been ent character, and has here even related the
deceived before the eyes of the author, and this characteristic and difficult word *DDK Kijper
could not have been effected without collusion on (]). 138) has clearly demonstrated that the passage
the part of the author. This collusion would he cannot be original in Zephaniah. The words of
undeniable, since the author again and again Isaiali (lii. 7), 1 How Iteautiful upon the mountains
repeats that he was proclaiming unheard-of facts, are the feet of him that bringeth good tidings,
which were beyond all human calculation. that publisheth peace,' are repeated by Nahum
ft. In the hooks of the prophets who lived after in ch. i. 15 (ii. 1); and what he adds, 'the
Isaiah, and before the period of the so-called wicked shall no more pass through thee,* agrees
pseudo-Isaiah, we find imitations of those pro remarkably with Isa. lii. 1, 'for henceforth shall
phecies which have been ascribed to the latter. no more come into thee the uncircumcised and
Since Gesenius has demonstrated that all the por the unclean.' Nahum iii. 7 contains on allu
tions which have been considered spurious are to sion to Isa. li. 19. Beside these references to the
be ascribed to only one author, it can be shown ixjrtious of Isaiah which are said to be spurious,
that they were all in existence before the time we Bod others to the portions which are deemed
assigned to the pseudo-Isaiah, although we can genuine (compare, for instance, Nahum i. 13,
produce the imitations of only some of these por with Isa. x. 27).
tions. But even those opponents who ascribe G. Again, the most ancient production of Jew
these portions to different authors must grant that ish literature after the completion of the canon,
their objections are invalidated, if it can be shown furnishes proof of the integral authenticity of
that later prophets have referred to these portions, Isaiah. The book of Jesus Sirach, commonly
because the arguments employed against them called Ecclesiasticns, was written as early us the
closely resemble each other : consequently these third century before Christ, as Hug has clearly
prophecies stand and fall together. The verbal demonstrated, in opposition to those who place it
coincidence between Jeremiah and the so-called in the second century before Christ. In Eccle
pseuilo-Isaiah is in this respect most important. siastical xlviii. 22-25, Isaiah is thus praised:
Jeremiah frequently makes use of the earlier * For Hezekiah had done the thing that pleased
prophets, and be refers equally, and in the same the Lord, and was strong in the ways of David
Banner, to the portions of Isaiah whose genuine his father, as Isaiah the prophet, who was great
ness has been questioned, as to those which are and faithful iu his vision, had commanded him.
deemed authentic (comp. Kilper, Jeremias libro- In his time the sun went backward, and he
rum sacrorum interpret atr/ve vindex, pp. 132- lengthened the king's life. He saw by on ex
155). The most striking is the coincidence of Jere cellent spirit what should come to pass at the
miah 1. 51, with (he predictions against Babylon in last, and he comforted them that mourned in
Isaiah. Jeremiah here gives to God the appella Sion. He showed what should come to rasa for
tion ^"C^ fiSmp, the Holy One of Israel, ever, and secret things or ever they came.'
whicli frequently occurs in Isaiah, especially in This commendation especially refers, as even
the portions whose authenticity is questioned, but Gesenius grants, to the disputed portions of the
is found only three times in the other books of the prophet, in winch we find predictions of the most
distant futurity. The comfort for Ziou is found
Old Testament. Isaiah uses the appellation bfcCTB* more particularly in the second part of Isaiah.
Cnp with peculiar predilection, because it which begins with the wonts 1 Comfort ye, comfort
points out the omnipotent covenant-fidelity of the ye, my people.' The author of this second pari him
Lonl ; which was to be considered, especially as self says (xlviii. 31 ' I have declared the former
it guarantees the truth of the contents of those things from the negiuning ; and they went forth onl
prophecies whicli are attacked by our opponents. of my month, and I showed them.' Thus we per
This circumstance is so striking that Von Coellu ceive that Jesus Sirach, the learned scribe, con
and Do VVette, on this account, and in contradic fidently attributes the debated passages to Isaiah
tion to every argument, declare even the correspond in such a manner as plainly indicates that then
ISAIAH. ISAIAH. 41
was no doubt in his days respecting the integral clusion of the exile there should have sprung up
authenticity of that book, which has the testimony a fresh prophetic literature of great extent. In
of historical tradition in its favour. Jesus Sirach tins period we hear only the echo of piophecy.
declares his intention (Ecclus. xliv.-l.) to praise That one of the later prophets of whom we possess
the most celebrated men of his nation. The most, namely Zechariah, leans entirely upon Jere
whole tenor of these chaplers shows that he does miah and Ezekiel, as upon his latest predecessors.
not confine himself to celebrated authors. We There is not a vestige of an intervening prophetic
therefore say that the praise which he bestows literature. The feebleness of our opponents is
upon Isaiah is not intended for the book jjersoni- manifested by their being obliged to have recourse
iied, but for tiie person of the prophet. If Jesus to such unhistorical fictions in order to defend
Sirach had entertained doubts resecting the their opinions.
genuineness of those prophecies on which, in par Thus we have seen that we possess a series of
ticular, he bases his praise, he could not have external arguments in favour of the integral au
sj lauded the prophet. thenticity of Isaiah. Each of these arguments is
In tiie Jewish synagogue the integral authen ofimnortance, and, in their combination, they have
ticity of Isaiah has always been recognised. a weight which could only be counterbalanced
This general recognition cannot be accounted foi by insurmountable difficulties in the contents of
except by the power of tradition based upon these prophecies. We now proceed to show that
truth; and it is supported as well by the New there are no such difficulties, and that the internal
Testament, in which Isaiah is quoted as the arguments unitewith the external in demonstrating
author of the whole collection which bears his the authenticity of Isaiah as a whole.
name, as also by the express testimony of Jo- 1, The portion^ of Isaiah which have been de
sepbus, especially in his Antiquities (x. 2. 2, clared by our opponents to be spurious are, as we
and xi. 1. 1). After such confirmation it would have already said, almost entirely such as con
be superfluous to meutiou the Talmudists. tain prophecies of an especially definite character.
7. According to the hypothesis of our oppo It is this very defmiteness which is brought for
nents, the author or authors of the spurious por ward as the chief argument against their genuine
tions wrote at the end of the Babylonian exile. ness. Those of our adversaries who go farthest
They confess that these portions belong to the assert in downright terms that predictions m the
finest productions of prophetism. Now it is very stricter sense, such, namely, as are more than a
remarkable that in the far from scanty historical vague foreboding, are impossible. The more
accounts of this period, considering all circum considerate of our opponents express this argu
stances, no mention is made of any prophet to ment in milder terms, saying, that it was against
whom we could well ascribe these prophecies. the usage of the Hebrew prophets to prophesy with
This is the more remarkable, because at that so much individuality, or to give to their prophe
period prophetism was on the wane, and the few cies so individual a bearing. They say that these
prophets who still existed excited on that account prophecies were never anything more than general
the greater attention. What Ewald (p. 57) prophetic descriptions, and that, consequently,
writes concerning the time about the conclusion where we find a definite reference to historical
of the Babylonian exile, is quite unhistorical. facts quite beyond the horizon of a human being
He says, 1 In this highly excited period of liberty like Isaiah, we are enabled by analogy to declare
regained, and of a national church re-established, those portions of the work in which they occur
there were rapidly produced a great number of to be spurious.
prophecies, circulated in a thousand ]>amphlets, Although this assertion is pronounced with
many of which were of great poetical beauty.* great assurance, it is sufficiently refuted by an
What Ewald states about a new flood of prophetic impartial examination of the prophetic writings.
writings which then poured forth, is likewise un Our opponents have attempted to prove the spuri-
historical. History shows that during the exile ousness of whatever is in contradiction witli this
prophetism was on the wane. What we read in assertion, as, for instance, the book of Daniel ; but
the hooks of Jeremiah and Ezekiel proves that there still remain a number of prophecies an
these prophets were isolated ; and from the book nouncing future events with great definiteness.
of Ezra we learn what was the spiritual condition Micah, for example (iv. 8-10), announces the
of the new colony. If we compare with their Babylonian exile, and the deliverance frwn that
predecessors the prophets who then prophesied, exile, one hundred and fifty years before its ac
Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, we cannot say complishment, and before the commencement
much about a revival of the prophetic spirit to of any hostilities between Babylon and Judah,
wards the conclusion of the exile. Everything and even before Babylon was an independent
concurs to show that the efficiency of prophetism state. All the prophets, commencing with the
was drawing towards its end. The later the pro earliest, predict the coming destruction of their
phets are, the more do they lean upon the earlier city and temple, and the exile of the people. All
prophets ; so that we are enabled to trace the the prophets whose predictions refer to the Assy
gradual transition of prophetism into the learning rian invasion, coincide in asserting that the
of scribes. Prophetism dug, as it were, its own Assyrians would not be instrumental in realising
grave. The authority which it demands for its these predictions; that Judah should be delivered
earlier productions necessarily caused that the from those enemies, from whom to be delivered
later were dependent upon the earlier ; and the seemed impossible ; and this not by Egyptian aid,
more this became the case during the progress of which seemed to be the least unlikely, but by an
time, the more limited became the field for new immediate intervention of the Lord; and, on the
productions. It is not only unhistorical, but, contrary, all the prophets whose predictions refer
according to the condition of the later productions to the successors of the Assyrians, the Chaldeea
of prophecy, quite impossible, that about the con unanimously aunounce that these were to fYilfil the
42 ISAIAH. ISAIAH.
ancient prediction, ami exhort to resignation to Lord f No human combinations can lead to suck
this inevitable fate. These are facts quite beyond results. Savonarola, for instance, was a pious
human calculation. At the period when the man, and an acute observer ; but when he fancied
Chalihean empire had reached the summit of its himself to be a prophet, and ventured to predict
power, Jeremiah not only predicts in general events which should come to pass, he was im
terms its fall, and the destruction of its chief city, mediately refuted by facts (comp. Biographic
but also details particular circumstances con SavoTtarola's, von Rudelbach).
nected therewith; for instance, the conquest of If we had nothing of prophetic literature, be
the town by the Medes and their allies; the en side the portions of Isaiah which have been at
trance winch the enemy effected through the dry tacked, they alone would affonl an ample refuta
bed of the Euphrates, during a night of general tion of our opponents, because they contain, in
revelry and intoxication; the return of the chapter liii., the most remarkable of Old Testa
Israelite* after the reduction of the town; the ment prophecies, predicting the passion, death,
utter destruction and desolation of this city, and glory of our Saviour. If it can be proved
which took place, although not at once, yet cer that this one prophecy necessarily refers to Christ,
tainly in consequence of the first conquest, so we can no longer feel tempted to reject other pro
that its site can scarcely be shown with certainty. phecies of Isaiah, on account of their referring too
In general, all those proud ornaments of the explicitly to some event, like that of the Babylo
ancient world, whose destruction the prophets pre nian exile. As soon as only one genuine pro
dicted Nineveh, Babylon, Tyre, Memphis, the phecy has been proved, the whole argument of
chief cities of the Moabites and Ammonites, and our opponents falls to the ground. This argu
many othershave perished, and the nations to ment is also opposed by the authority of Christ
whom the prophets threatened* annihilation and his apostles; and whoever will consistently
the Ammonites, Moabites, Philistines, and Idu- maintain this opinion must reject the authority
mxanshave entirely disappeared from the stage of Christ. The prophets are described in the New
of history. There is not a single city nor a single Testament not as acute politicians, or as poets
people, the fate of which has been at variance with full of a foreboding genius, but as messengers of
prophecy. All this is not a casual coincidence. God raised by His Spirit above the intellectual
The ruins of all these cities, every vestige of the sphere of mere man. Christ repeatedly mentions
former existence of those once flourishing nations, that the events of his own life were also destined
are loud-speaking witnesses, testifying to the fu to realise the fulfilment of prophecy, saying, 4 this
tility of the opinion which raises into a fact the must come to pass in order that the Scripture may
subjective wish that prophecy might not exist. be fulfilled.* And after his resurrection, he inter
Zechartah clearly describes the conquests of Alex prets to hisdisciples the prophecies concerning him
ander ( ix. 8). He foretel Is that the Persian empire, self. Peter, shaking of the prophets, says, in his
which he specifies by the symbolic name Hadrach, First Epistle (i. 11), ' Searching what, or what
shall be ruined ; that Damascus and Hamath manner of time the Spirit of Christ, which was in
shall be conquered ; that the bulwarks of the them, did signify, when it testified beforehand the
mighty Tyre shall be smitten in the sea, and sufferings of Christ, and the glory that should
that the city shall be bumed ; that Gaza shall follow ;' and, in his Second Epistle (i. 21), * For
lose its king, and ttiat Ashdod shall be j>eopled the prophecy came not in old time by the will of
with the lowest rabble; and that Jerusalem stall man ; but holy men of God spake as they were
be spared during all these troubles. These prophe moved by the Holy Ghost *vwb ryt^fiaros ayiov
cies were fulfilled during the expedition of Alex ptpifityot.
ander (comp. Jahn's Einleitung, vol. i. p. 84, sq.; Since we have shown that there are in the Holy
vol. ii. p. 349, sq.). Eichhom despaired of being Scriptures definite prophecies, the d priori argu
able to explain the exact correspondence of the ment of our opponents, who pretend that prophecy
fulfilment with the predictions; he, therefore, in is useless, loses its significance. Even if we could
his work. Die Hebr'dischcn Propheteny endeavours not understand the purjiose of prophecy, the in
to prove that these prophecies were veiled historical quiry respecting its reality should nevertheless be
descriptions. He has recourse to the most violent independent of such u priori reasoning, since the
operations in order to support this hypothesis ; cause of our not understanding it might l>e in
which proves how fully he recognised the agree ourselves. We frequently find, after we have been
ment of the prophecies with their fulfilment, and raised to a higher position, the causes of facts
that the prophecies are more than general poetical which at an earlier period we could not compre
descriptions. The Messianic predictions prove hend. A later age frequently understands what
that the prophecies were more than veiled histo was hidden to the preceding. However, the pur
rical descriptions. There is scarcely any fact in pose of definite predictions is not hidden to those
Gospel history, from the birth of our Saviour at who recognise the reality of the divine scheme for
Bethlehem down to his death, which is unpre- human salvation.
dicted by a prophetical passage. There iB one truth in the opinion of our oppo
Eichhom's hypothesis is also amply refuted by nents. The predictions of the future by the pro
the unquestioned portion of Isaiah. How can phets are always on a general basis, by which
it be explained that Isaiah confidently predicts they are characteristically distinguished from
the destruction of the empire of Israel by the As soothsaying. Real prophecy is based upon the
syrians, and the preservation of the empire of idea of God. The acts of God are based upon
Judah from these enemies, and that he with cer his essence, and have therefore the character of
tainty knew beforehand that no help would be necessity. The most elevated prerogative of the
afforded to Judah from Egypt, that the Assyrians prophets is that they have possessed themselves of
would advance to ttie gates of Jerusalem, and his idea, that they have penetrated into his es
there be destroyed only by the judgment of the sence, that they have become conscious of the
ISAIAH. ISAIAH. 43
eternal laws by which the world is governed. pride, and all its consequences. And, according
For instance, if they demonstrate that sin is the to the eternal laws by which God governs the
perdition of man, that where the carcase is, the world, an overbearing spirit is the certain fore
eagles will be assembled, the most important runner of destruction. Th* future liberation of
point in this prediction is not the how but the Israel might also be theologically foreseen; and
what which first by them was clearly communi- we cannot look upon this prediction as so abrupt
rated to the people of God, and of which the as a prediction ofthe deliverance of other nations
lively remembrance ia by them kept up. But would have been, and as, for instance, a false pie-
if the prophets bad merely kept, to the that, and diction of the deliverance of Moab would have
had never spoken about the How, or if, like Savo appeared. Even the Pentateuch emphatically in
narola, they had erroneously descritted this how, forms us that the covenant-people cannot be given
they would be unfit effectually to teach the that up to final perdition, and that mercy is always
to those people who have not yet acquired an inde concealed behind the judgments which befall
pendent idea of God. According to human weak- them.
iless, the knowledge ofthe vonn is requisite in order 2. Attempts have been made to demonstrate
to fertilize the knowledge of the essence, especially the spuriousness of several portions from the cir
in a mission to a people among whom formality cumstance that the author takes his position not
so much predominated as among the ]>eople of in the period of Isaiah, but in much later times,
the Old Covenant. The position of the prophets namely, those of the exile. It has been said,
depends upon these circumstances. They had * Let it be granted that the prophet had a know-
not, like the priests, an external warrant. There ledgeof futurity : in that case we cannot suppose that
fore Moses (Deut. xviii.) directed them to produce he would predict it otherwise than as future, and
true prophecies as their warrant. According to he cannot proclaim it as present.' The prophets,
verse 22, the true and the false prophet are dis however, did not prophesy in a state of calculat
tinguished by the fulfilment or non-fulfilment of ing reflection, but fab rrvev^aros aylov $cpOfx*voi,
prophecy. This criterion is destroyed by tlie * borne along by the Holy Ghost.' The objects offer
modern opinion respecting prophetism. Without ed themselves to their spiritual vision. On that
this warrant, the principal point of prophetical account they are frequently called seers, to whom
prea-ching, the doctrine of the Messiah, could not futurity appears as present Even Hebrew gram
l>e brought to the knowledge of the people, as mar has long ago recognised this fact in the terms
being of primary importance. Without this ful prretcrita prophetica. These prophetical praeter
filment the prophets had no answer to those who tenses indicate a time ideally past, in contra-dis-
declared that the hopes raised by them were fan tinction to the time which is really past. Every
tastic and fanatical. chapter of Isaiah furnishes examples of this
His true that, accord ing to what we have stated, grammatical fact. Even in the first there is con
the necessity of prophecy arises only from the tained a remarkable instance of it. Interpreters
weakness of man. Miracles also are necessary only frequently went astray, because they misunder
on account ofthis weakness. Prophecy is necessary stood the nature of prophecy, and took the prep-
onl y under certain conditions ; but these conditions tcrita prophetica as real praeterites ; consequently,
were fully extant during the jwriod of the ancient they could only by some inconsistency escape
Covenant. During the New Covenant human from Eichhorn's opinion, that the prophecies were
weakness is supported by other and more powerful veiled historical descriptions. The prophets have
means, which were wanting during the time of the futurity always before their eyes. Prophetism,
Old Covenant ; especially- by the operation of therefore, is subject to the laws of poetry more
the Spirit of Christ upon the hearts of the faithful ; than to those of history (compare the ingenious
which operation is by far more powerful than that remarks on the connection of poetry and pro
of the Spirit of God during the Old Covenant; phetism in the work of Steinbeck, Dvr Dichter
consequently, definite predictions can be dispensed ein Sehcr, Leipzig, 1836). Prophetism places
with, especially since the faithful of the New us in medias res, or rather the prophet is
Testament derive benefit also from the prophecies placed in medias res. The Spirit of God ele
granted to the |>eople of the Old Testament. vates him above the terra jirma of common
The predictions of futurity in the Old Testa reality, and of common inception. The pro
ment have also a considerable bearing upon the phet beholds as connected, things externally
< ontemporaries of the prophet. Consequently, separated, if they are linked together by their in
they stand not so isolated and unconnected as ternal character. The prophet beholds what is
our opponents assert. The Chaldajans, for in distant as near, if its hidden basis, although con
stance, who are said to threaten destruction to cealed to the eyes of flesh, already exists. This
Israel, were, in the days of Isaiah, already on the was, for instance, the case with Israel's captivity
stage of history ; and their juvenile power, if com- and deliverance. Neither happened by chance.
mred with the decline of the Assyrians, might Both events proceeded from the*justiceand mercy
lead to the conjecture that they would some time of God, a living knowledge of which necessarily
or other supplant the Assyrians in dominion over produced the beholding knowledge of the same.
Asia. Babylon, certainly, was as yet under Assy The prophet views things in the light of that
rian government ; but it was still during the life God who calls the things that are not as though
time of the prophet that this city tried to shake off they were, and to whom the future is present.
their yoke. This attempt was unsuccessful, but 3. What the prophet says about what is present
the conditions under which it might succeed at a to him (namely, about that which appears to him
future period were already in existence. The future in the form of the present time), is correctly and
exaltation of this city might be foreseen from minutely detailed; and what he describes as
history, and its future fall from theology. In a future, are ideal and animated hopes which far
pagan nation success is always the forerunner of exceed terrene reality. Hence our opponent!
44 ISAIAH. ISAIAH.
attempt to prove that the present time in those to the later Hebrew style. Berthoidl Umbreir,
portions which they reject, is not ideal but real ; and others base upon this their argurmui, that
and thai the author was actually an eye-witness of the Song of Solomon was written after (he Baby
the exile, because, they say, if the prophet merely lonian exile. They even maintain that it could
placed himself in the period of the exile, then this not have been written before that period. On the
present time would *~-e ideal, and in that case there contrary, the two most recent commentators,
could bo no difference between this ideally present Kwald and Doepke, say most decidedly that tiie
time and the more distant future. Hut we question Song of Solomon, in spite of its Araraaisnn, was
this fact most decidedly. The descriptions of the written in the days of Solomon.
person of Messiah in the second part of Isaiah are Hirzel, in his work De CJuildaismi liiblici
far more circumstantial than the descriptions of origint\ Leipsic, 1830, has contributed consider
tlie person of Cyrus. Of Cyrus these prophecies ably to the formation of a correct estimate of this
furnish a very incomplete description. Whoever argument. He has proved that iu all *\w t>ooks
does not Mil up from history what is wanting, ni - of the Old Testament, even in the most ancient,
tains a very imperfect idea of Cyrus. But there there occur a few Chaldaisms. This may be
is sufficient information to show the relation explained by the fact that the patriarchs wer>
between history and prophecy; and nothing more surrounded by a population whose language wa
was required than that the essence of prophecy Chaldee. Such Chaldaisms are especially found
should be clear. The form might remain obscure in poetical language in which unusual expressions
until it was cleared up by it* historical fulfilment. are preferred. Consequently, not a few isolated
The Messiah, on the contrary, is accurately de Chaldaisms, but only their decided prevalence,
picted, especially in ch. liii., so that there is or a Chaldee tincture of the whole style, can prove
scarcely wanting any essential trait. It is quite that a book has lx*eii written after the exile. No
natural that there should l>e greater clearness and body can assert that this is the case in those
definiteness here, because the anti-type of redemp jiortions of Isaiah whose authenticity lias been
tion stands in a far nearer relation to the ideal than questioned. Even our opponents grant that the
is the case with Cyrus, so that form and essence Chaldaisms in tliis portion are not numerous.
less diverge. After what have erroneously been called Chal
The assertion that the animated hopes, ex daisms are subtracted, we are led to a striking
pressed in the second part of Isaiah, had been very result, namely, that the unquestionable Chal
imperfectly fulfilled, proceeds from the erroneous daisms are more numerous in tlie portion! of
supposition that these hopes were to be entirely Isaiah of which the genuineness is granted, I hail
fulfilled in the times immediately following the in the portions which have t>een called spurious.
exile. But if we must grant that these prophecies Hirzel, an entirely unsuspected witness, mentions
refer both to the deliverance from captivity, and in his work De Chaldoismo^ p. 9, that there are
to the time of the Messiah in its whole extent, found only four real Chaldaisms in the whole of
from the lowliness of Christ to the glorious com Isaiah ; and that these all occur in the portions
pletion of his kingdom, then the fulfilment is which are declared genuine; namely, in vii. 14
clearly placed before our eyes; and we may (where, however, if the grammatical form is
expect that whatever is yet unfulfilled, will, in rightly understood, we need not admit a Chal-
due time, find its accomplishment. In this hope daism) ; xxix. 1 ; xviii. 7 ; xxi. 12.
we are supported by the New Testament, and still 5. The circumstance that the diction in the
more by the nature of the matter in question. attacked portions of Isaiah belongs to the first,
If the prophecies of Isaiah were nothing but arbi and not to the second period of the Hebrew lan
trary predictions on his own external authority, guage, must render us strongly inclined to admit
without any internal warrant, one might sjieak their authenticity. It has been said that these
here of an evasion of the difficulty ; but as the portions were written during, and even after, the
matter stands, this objection proves only that those Babylonian exile, when the ancient Hebrew lan
who make it are incajable of comprehending guage fell into disuse, and the vanquished people
the idea which pervades the whole representation. began to adopt the language of their conquerors,
The entire salvation which the Lord has destined and that thus many Chaldaisms penetrated into
to his people has been placed before the spiritual the works of authors who wrote in ancient He
eye of the prophet. His prediction is not entirely brew. Since this is not the case in tlie attacked
fulfilled in history, so that we could say we have portions of Isaiah, granting the assertions of our
now done with it, but every isolated fulfilment opponents to lie correct, we should l>e compelled
is again a prediction defactoy supporting our hope to suppose that their author or authors had inten
of the final accomplishment of the whole word of tionally abstained from the language of their
prophecy. times, and purjwsely imitated the purer diction of
4. Our opponents think that they have proved former ages. That this is not quite impossible
that a portion of Isaiah is not genuine, if they we leam from the prophecies of Haggai, Malachi,
can show that there occur a few Aramaic words and especially from those of Zeebariah, which are
arid forms of speech, which they endeavour to ex nearly as free from Chaldaisms as the writings
plain from the style prevalent in a period later before the exile. But it is improbable, in this
case, because the iweudu-Isaiah is stated to have
That this argument is very feeble even our been in a position very different from that of the
Opponent! have granted in instances where it can prophets just mentioned, who belonged to the
be adduced with by far greater stringency than in newly returned colony. The pseudo-Isaiah has
the questioned portions of Isaiah. This appears been placed in a position similar to that of* the
especially from the example of the Song of Solo strongly Chaldaizing Kzekiel and Daniel; and
mon, iu which there occur a considerable Dumber even more unfavourably for the attainment of
of Aramaic words and expressions, said to belong purity of diction, because he had not, like
ISAIAH. ISAIAH. 45
rwmsWts, spent his youth in Palestine, but is said from ; for instance, in the prophecies of Jeremiah
to have . . .. : t up in a country iu which th:> against foreign nations, the style is more elevated
Aramaean language wiu spoken; consequently, and elastic than in the home-prophecies. How
it would liave been more difficult for liim to little this difference of style can prove, we may
write pure Hebrew than for Kzekiel und Daniel. learn by comparing with each other the prophecies
In audition to this it ought to lie mentioned that which our opponents call genuine; for instance,
nn artificial abstinence from the language of their ch. ix. 7-x. 4. The authenticity of this pro
timed occurs only in those prophets who entirely phecy is not subject to any doubt, although it has
lean upon an earlier prophetic literature; but not that swing which we tind in many prophecies
that union of purity in diction with independence, of the first part. The language has as much ease
which is manifest' in the attacked portions ol as tliat in the second part, with which this piece
Isaiah, is nowhere else to be found. has several repetitions in common. The difference
The force of this argument is still more in of style in the prophecies against foreign nations
creased when we observe that the pretended pseudo- (which predictions are particularly distinguished
Isaiah has, in other respects, the characteristics by sublimity), from that in chapters i.-xii., which
>f the authors before the exile; namely, their are now generally ascribed to Isaiah, appeared
clearness of jierception, and their freshness and to Bertholdt a sufficient ground for assigning the
beauty of desciiptioii. This belongs to Dim, even former to another author. But in spite of this
according to the opinion of all opponents. These difference of style it is, at present, again generally
excellences are not quite without example among admitted that they belong to one and the same
the writers after the exile, but they occur in none author. It consequently appears that our oji-
of them in the same degree ; not even in Zechariah, ponents deem the difference of style alone not a
who, bcaide*, ought not to lie comjtared with the sufheient argument for proving a difference of
|ein!i)-I s.iiaii. because he does not manifest the authorship; but only such a difference as does
same independence, but leans entirely upon the not arise from a difference of subjects and of
earlier piopheta. To these charactciistics of the moods, especially if this difference occurs hi an
writers before the exile belongs also the scarcity author whose mind is so richly endowed as that
of vision! and symbolic actions, ami what is con of Isaiah, in whose works the form of the style is
nected therewith (because it proceeds likewise proituced directly by the subject. Ewald cor
from the government of the imaginationJ, the rectly observes (p. 173), 'We cannot state that
naturalness anil correctness of poetical images. Isaiah had a peculiar colouring of style. He is
"What Umbreit says concerning the undispntedly neither the especially lyrical, nor the especially
genuine portions of Isaiah fully applies also to elegiacal, nor the especially oratorical, nor the
the disputed portions : 1 Our prophet is more an especially admonitory prophet, as, perhaps, Joel,
orator than a symbolic seer. He has subjected Hosea, or Micah, in whom a particular colouring
the external imagery to the internal government more predominates. Isaiah is cajKible of adapting
pt the woid. The few syminds which he exhibits his style to the most different subject, and in this
are simple and easy to be understood. In the pro* consists his greatness and Ins most distinguished
Jihcts during and after the exile visions and syni- excellence.'
xdic actions prevail, and their images frequently The chief fault of our opponents is, that they
peat a grotesque Babylonian impress. Only those judge without distinction of persons; and here
authors, after the exile, have not mil character, distinction of persons would be prnpar. They mea
whirse style, like that of Haggai and Malachi, sure the productions of Isaiah with the same mea
does not rise much above piose. A combination sure that is adapted to the productions of less-
bf Vivacity, originality, and vigour, with natural gifted prophets. Jeremiah, for example, does not
ness, simplicity, and correctness, is not found in change his tone according to the difference of
any prophet during and after the exile.' Nothing subject so much that it could h< *-nistaken by uti
but very strong arguments could induce us to as experienced Hebraist. Of Isaiah, above ally we
cribe to a Inter period prophecies winch rank in might lay what Pichte wrote in a letter to a
language and style with the literary monuments of friend in Koiiigsberg ; 'Strictly speaking, I have
lite eatIter period. In all the attacked portions no style, because 1 have all styles ' (Fichtes'
of Isa-ah independence and originality are mani i.tbrn von teinem Sofnic, th. i. p. 196). If
fest in such a degree, as to make them harmonize we ask how the differenee of style dependl upon
nut only with the prophets l>efure the exile iu the difference ol' subject, the answer must l>e very
general, but es|>ecially with the earliest cycle of favourable to Isaiah, in whose book (he style does
these prophet*. If these portions were spurious, not so much differ according to the so-called
they would form a perfectly isolated exception, genuineness or spuriousness, as rather according
which we cannot admit, since, as wo have before to the subjects of the first and second parts. The
shown, the leaning of the later prophets upon the peculiarities of the second juirt arise from the
earlier rests upon a deep-seated cause arising from subjects treated therein ; and from ihe feelings In
the very nature of prophetism. A prophet form which these subjects give rise. Here the prophet
ing such an exception would stand, as it wen*, addresses Dot so much the multitude who live
without the cycle of the prophets. We cannot around him, its the future people of the Lord,
imagine such an exception. purified by his judgments, who are about to
0. A certain difference of style between the spring from the {nXo-fi). that is. the small number
portions called genuine and those called spurious of the elect who were contemporaries of Isaiah.
does not prove what our opponents assert. Such Here he does not speak to a mixed congregation,
a difference may arise from various causes in the but to a congregation of bretlnen whom he com
produi (ions of one ami the same author. It is fre forts. The commencement, ' Comfort ye, comfort
quently occasioned by a difference of the subject- ye,, my people,' is the theme of the whole. Hencs
matter, and by a difference of mood arising there arise the gentleness and tenderness of itylej and
13 ISAIAH. ISAIAH.
die frequent repetitions. Gnnforting love lias under the feet of higher criticism, and deprives it
many words. Hence the addition of many epi of all fiower of demonstration. In this manner
thets to the name of God, which are so many every linguistic jJienomenon may easily be re
shields by which the stmkes of despair are warded moved, when it is contrary to preconceived opi
off, and so many bulwarks against the attacks of nions. Hut everything in Isaiah npjtears so
the visible world which was driving to despair* natural, liears so much the impress of originality,
The sublimity, abruptness, and thunders of the is so free from every vestige of patch-work, that no
first part rind no place here, where the object of one can conscientiously maintain this hvjiorhesi*.
Isaiah is not to terrify and to shake stout-hearted We have still to consider the other conjecture
sinners, but rather to bring glad tidings to the of our opponents. If we had before us a prophet
meek ; not to quench the smoking flax, nor to strongly leaning, like Jeremiah anil Zechariah,
break the bruised reed. But wherever there is a upon preceding prophets, that conjecture might
similarity of hearers and of subject, there we meet be deemed admissible, in case there were wther
also a remarkable similarity of style, in both the arguments atlbrding a probabdity for denying
first and second mi' ; as, for example, in the that Isaiah was the author of these portionsa
description of the times of Messiah, and of tlte supposition which can here have no place. But
punishments, in which (Ivi.-lix.) the prophet has here we have a prophet whose independence mid
the wliule nation l>efore his eyes, and in which originality are acknowledged even by our op
he addresses the careless sinners by whum he is ponents. In him we cannot think of imitation,
surrounded. especially if we consider his peculiarities in
We attach no importance to the collections of connection with the other peculiar character
isolated words and expressions which some critics istics of Isaiah, and of what has been said to
have gleaned from (lie disputed parts of Isaiah, belong to a pseudo-Isaiah ; we refer here to the
and which an: not found in other portions that above-mentioned works of Halle and of Kleineit
are deemed genuine. We might here well apply (p. 231, sq.). In both portions of Isaiah there
what Krtiger wrote on a similar question in pro occur a numl>er of words which are scarcely to
fane history (De aut/wntia ct integritate Anub. be found in other places; also a frequent repe
XemtphontiSi Halle, 1824, p- 27;: Hoc argu- tition of the same word iu the parallel niemliers
mentandi genus perquam lubiimim est. Si quid of h verse. This repetition very seldom occurs
numerus valsret, urgeri posset, quod in his lib/ is in other writers (compare the examples collected
a?nplius quadraginta vocabula leguntut\ qtue in by Kleiuert, p. 239). Other writers usually
reltquis Xenophontis optribusfrostra quetrantitr. employ synonymes in the parallel memU-rs of
Si quia propter vocabula alibi ab hoc scripture rel verges. It further belongs to the characteristics
alia potetttUe, vet prorsus nan usurpsto, A nabasin of Isaiah to employ words iu extraordinary ac
ab eo profsctanx neget, hoc rations admissa quod- ceptations; for instance, JHT is used euiitemiihi-
vis aliwt ejus ojnts injuria ei tribal, ostendi ously for brood; DlK, for rabbit ; ETJ\ tor a
potest ; that is, ' This is a very slippery mode of shoot, Isaiah also employs extianruin.il y con
reasuhing. IT number were of importance, it structions, and has the j>cculiar custom of ex
might be urged that in these b Niks occur more plaining his figurative expressions by directly
than fury words for which one searches in v.tin subjoining the prosatcal equivalent* This custom
in the oilier works of X.enophon. But if it has induced many interpreters to supj*oe that
should be denied on account of those words explanatory glosses have l>en inserted in Isaiah*
which this author has either employed in a dif Another peculiarity of Isaiah is that lie inter
ferent sense, or has not made use of at all, that sperses his prophetic orations with hymns; that
the Anabasis was written by him, it could, by the lie seldom lelates visions, strictly to-called, and
same reasoning, be shown that every oilier woik seldom perfoims symbolic actions; and that he
was falsely attributed to him.' employs figurative expressions quite peculiar lo
7. We find a number of characteristic |>eculi- himself, as, for example, pasted-up sues, fur spiii-
arities of style which occur both in what is ac tiiid darkness ; morntng-rvd, fur approaching liaji-
counted genuine and what is styled spurious in piness ; the remnant ofolive-trees, rim yards. Hud
Isaiah, and which indicate the identity of the orchards, for the remnant of the people which have
author. Certain very peculiar idioms occur been spared during the judgments of God; re
again and again in all pails of die book. Two of jected tendrils or branches, for enemies whicll
them are particularly striking. The appellation have been slain.
of God, * the Holy One of Israel,' occurs with Iu addition to this we find an almost verbal
equal frequency in what has liven ascribed to harmony between entire passages; for instance,
Isaiah and in what has been attributed to a |>seudo- the Messianic description commencing xi. r>,
Isaiah; it is found besides in two passages in compared with Ixv. 25.
which Isaiah imitates Jeremiah, and only three IV. The origin of the present Collection, and
times in the whole of the leuiainder of the Old its arrangement.No definite account respecting
Testament. Another peculiar idiom is that ' to the method pursued in colled ing into luniks the
be called' stands constantly for * to be." These utterances of the Prophets has been handed douit
are phenomena of language which even our oppo to us. Concerning Isaiah, as well as tin- rest, these
nents do not consider casual ; but they say that the accounts are wanting. We do not even know
later poet imitated Isaiah, or that they originated whether he collected his prophecies himself, lint
from the hand of a uniformUing editor, who took we have no decisive argument against this opinion.
an active part in modelling the whole. Hut The argument (if Kleinei t, in his above-mentioned
there cannot be shown any motive fur such inter woik fp. 112). is of slight importance. He says,
ference; and we find nothing analogous to it in If Isaiah himself had collected his prophecies,
the whole of the Old Testament. Such a sup there would nor be wanting some which are not
position ruts away the linguistic ground from to be found in the existing book. To this we
ISAIAH. ISAIAH. 47
reply, that it can by no means be proved with because we know that he was the author of histo
any degree of probability that a single prophecy rical works; and it is not likely that a man
of Isaiah has been lost, the preservation of which accustomed to literary occupation would have
would have been of importance to jxisterity, and left to others to do what he could do much better
whicli Isaiah himself would have deemed it neces himself.
sary to preserve. Kleinert nptieals to the fact, HUzig has of late recognised Isaiah as the col
that there is no prophecy in our collection which lector and arranger of his own prophecies. But
can with certainty be ascribed to the days of he supposes lhat a number of pieces were inserted
Jotham ; and lie thinks it incredible that the pro at a later period. The chronological arrangement
phet, soon after liaving been consecrated to his of these prophecies is a strong argument in favour
office, should have passed full sixteen years with of the opinion that Isaiali himself formed them
out any revelation BOB God. This, certainly, is into a volume. There is no deviation from this
unlikely; but it is by no means unlikely that arrangement, except in a few instances where pro
during this time he uttered no prophecy which he phecies of similar contents are placed together ;
thought proper to preserve. Nay, it appears very but there is no interruption which might appear
probable, if we compare the rather general cha attributable to either accident or ignorance. There
racter of chapters i.-v., the contents of which is not a single piece in this collection which can
would apply to the days of Jotham also, since satisfactorily be shown to belong to another place.
during his reign no considerable changes took All the portions, the date of which can be ascer
place; consequently the prophetic utterances tained either by external or internal reasons, stand
moved in the same sphere with tho.e preserved to in the right place. This is generally granted with
us from the reign of Uzziah. Hence it was na respect to the first twelve chapters, although many
tural that Isaiah should confine himself to the persons erroneously maintain that ch. vi. should
communication of some important prophetic ad stand at the beginning.
dresses, which might as well represent the days Chajis. i.-v. belong to the later years of Uzziah ;
of Jotham as those of the preceding reign. We chap. vi. to the year of his death. What follows
must not too closely identify the utterances of the next, up to chap. x. 4, belongs to the reign of
prophets with their writings. Many prophets have Ahaz. Chaps. x.-xiL is the first portion apper
spoken much and written nothing. The minor taining to tne reign of Hezekiab. Then follows
prophets were generally content to write down the a series of prophecies against foreign nations, in
quintessence alone of their numerous utterances. which, according to the opinions of many, the chro
Jeremiah likewise, of his numerous addresses under nological arrangement has been departed from, and,
Josiah, gives us only what was most essential. instead of it, an arrangement according to con
The critics who suppose that the present book tents has l>een adopted. But this is not the case.
of Isaiah was collected a considerable time after The predictions against foreign nations are also in
the death of the prophet, and perhajw afler the their right chronological place. They all belong
exile, lay especial stress upon the assertion that to t he reign of Hezekiali, and are placed together
the historical section in the 26th and following because, according to their dates they Itelong to the
chapters was transcribed from '2 Kings xviii.-xx. same period. In the days of Hezekiali the nations
This sup]Mition, however, is perfectly unfounded. of Western Asia, dwelling on the banks of the Eu
According to Kwald (p. 39), the hand of a later phrates and Tigris, more and more resemble*! a
compiler betrays itself in the headings. Kwald threatening tempest. That the prophecies against
lias not, however, adduced any argument suffi foreign nations belong to this period is indicated by
cient to prove that Isaiah was not the author of the home-pn phecy in ch. xxii., which stands among
these headings, the enigmatic character of which the foreign prophecies. The assertion that the lirst
seems moie to befit the author himself than a twelve chapters are a collection of home-pro
compiler. The only semblance of an argument phecies is likewise refuted by the fact that there
is that the heading 1 Oracle (better translated occur in these chapters two foreign prophecies.
burden) concerning Damascus' (xvii. 1), does not The prophetic gift of Isaiah was more fully un
agree with the prophecy that follows, which refers folded in sight of the Assyrian invasion under the
rather to Samaria. But we should consider that reign of Hezekiali. Isaiah, in a series of visions,
the headings of prophecies against foreign nations describes what Assyriawould do, as a chastising roil
are always expressed as concisely as possible, and in the hand of the Lord, and what the successors of
that it was incompatible with the usual brevity the Assyrians, the Chaldees, would perform, accord
more fully to describe the subject of this prophecy. ing to the decree of God, in order to realise divine
We should further consider that this prophecy re justice on earth, as well among Israel as among the
fers to the connection of Damascus with Samaria, heathen. The prophet shows that mercy is hidden
in which alliance Damascus was, according to behind the clouds of wrath. There is no argument
chap, vii., the prevailing power, with which to prove that the great prophetic picture in chaps,
Kphraim stood and fell. If all this is taken into xxiv.-xxvii. was not depicted under Hezekiali.
account, the abave heading will be found to agree Chaps, xxviii.-xxxiii. manifestly twlong to the
witli the prophecy. According to the Talmudist-j, same reign, but somewhat later than the time in
the lx>uk of Isaiali was collected by the men of which chaps, x., xi., and xii. were written. They
Hezekiali. But this assertion rests merely upon were comjrosed about the time when the result of
Prov. xxv. 1, where the men of Hezekiali are said the war against the Assyrians was decided. Willi
to have compiled the Proverbs. The Talmudists the termination of this war terminated also the
do not sufficiently distinguish between what might public life of Isaiali, who added an historical
be and what is. They habitually state hare possi section in chaps, xxxvi.-xxxix., in order to faci
bilities as historical facts. litate the right understanding of the prophecies)
To us it seems imjiossible that Isaiah left it uttered by him during the most fertile period of bis
to others to collect his prophecies into a volume, prophetic ministry. Then follows the conclusion
4S ISAIAH. ISAIAH.
of his work on earth. The second part, which to them to behold futurity, and to foresee the
contains hi* prophetic legacy, is addressed to the blessings and judgments which would ultimately
small congregation of the faithful strictly so find their full accomplishment in the days ol
called. This part is analogous to the last Messiah. The Hebrew appellation nebiim is by
sjieeches of Moses in the fields of Moa(>, and to far more expressive than the Greek jms)I|)Ii
the last speeches of Christ in the circle of liis which denotes only a part of their office, and
disciples, related by John. Thus we have every which has given rise to many misunderstandings.
where order, and such an order as could scarcely The word (from the root N23, which occurs in
have procet-ded from any one but the author. Arabic in the signification of to inform, to explain*
V. Contents, Character, and Authority of the to speak) means, according to the usual significa
Book of Isaiah.It was not the vocation of the
prophets to change anything in the religious con tion of the form ^*tOp, a person into whom God
stitution of Moses, which had been introduced by has spoken ; that is, a person who communicates
divine authority ; and they were not called upon to the people what God has given to him. The
to substitute .anything new in its place. They Hebrew word indicates divine inspiration. What
had only to point out the new covenant to be is most essential in the prophets is their speaking
introduced by the Redeemer, and to prepare the Iv trvfvfMart ; consequently they were as much
minds of men for the reception of it. They in their vocation when they rebuked and admo
themselves in all their doings were subject to the nished as when they predicted future events. The
law of Moses. They were destined to be extra correctness of our explanation may be seen in the
ordinary ambassadors of God, whose reign in Is definition contained in Deut. xviii. IS, where
rael was not a mere name, not a mere shadow of the Lord says, ' I will raise them up a prophet
earthly royalty, but rather its substance and from among their brethren like unto thee, ami will
essence. They were to maintain the government put my words in his mouth ; and he shall speak
of God, by punishing all, both high and low, who unto them all that I shall command him.1
manifested contempt of the Lawgiver by offending The prophet here mentioned is an ideal person.
against his laws. It was esj>ecial!y their vocation to It is prophetism itself personiSsd. It is a charac
counteract the very ancient delusion, according to teristic mark that God gives his word into the
which an external observance of rites was deemed mouth of the prophet, by means of which he is
sufficient to satisfy God. This opinion is contrary placed on an equality with the priest, who is like
to many passages of the law itself, which admonish wise a bearer of the word of God. The prophet is
men to circumcise the heart, and describe the sum at the same time distinguished from the priest,
of the entire law to consist in loving God with the who receives the word of God from the Scriptures,
whole heart; which make salvation to depend while the prophet receives it without an inter
upon being internally turned towards God, and vening .medium. The internal communications
which condemn not only the evil deed, hut also of God to the prophets are given to them only as
the wicked desire. The law had, however, at the being messengers to his people. By this circum
Mist assumed a form corresponding to the wants stance the prophets are distinguished from mystics
of the Israelites, and in accordance with the sym and theosophers, who lay claim to divine commu
bolical spirit of antiquity. But when this form, nications especially for themselves. Prophetism
which w.is destined to be the living organ of the has an entirely practical and truly ecclesiastical
Spirit, was changed Into a corpse by those who character, remote from all idle contemplativeness,
were themselves spiritually dead, it offered a point all fantastic trances, anil all anchorctism.
of coalescence for the error of those who contented In this description of the prophetical calling
themselves with external observances. there is also contained a statement of the contents
The prophet! had also to oppose the delusion of of the prophecies of Isaiah. He refers expressly
those who looked up:m the election of the people in many places to the basts of the ancient cove
of d'od as a preservative against the divine judg nant, that is, to the law of Moses ; for instance,
ments ; who supposed that their descent from the in viii. 16, 20, and xxx. 9, 10. In many other
patriarchs, with whom God had made a covenant, passages his utterance rests on the same basis,
was an equivalent for the sanctification which although he does not expressly state it. Alibis
they wanted. Even Moses had strongly opposed utterances are interwoven with references to the
this delusion ; for instance, in Lev. xxvi. and Deut. law. It is of importance to examine at least one
xxxii. David also, in the Psalms, as in xv. and chapter closely, in order to understand how pro
xxiv., endeavours to counteract this error, which phecies are related to the law. Let us take as
again anil again sprang up. It was the vocation an example the first. The beginning ' Hear,
of the pro| ihets to insist upon genuine piety, and to O heavens, and give ear O earth,' is taken from
show thai a true attachment to the Lord necessarily Deut. xxxii. Thus the prophet points out that
manifest* itself by obedience to his precepts ; that his prophecies are a commentary upon the Magna
this obedience would lead to happiness, and dis- Gharta of prophetism contained in the hooks of
olwdience t> misfortune and distress. The pro Moses. During the prosperous condition of the
phets were appointed to comfort the faint-hearted, state under Uxxiah and Jotham, luxury and im
by announcing to them the succour of God, and morality had sprung up. The impiety of Aha/
to bring glad tidings to the faithful, in order to had exercised the worst influence upon the whole
strengthen their fidelity. They were commissioned people. Great part of the nation hail forsaken
to invite (he rebellious to return, by pointing out the religion of their fathers and embraced gross
to them future salvation, and by teaching them idolatry; and a great numlier of those who wor
that without conversion they could not be par shipped God externally had forsaken Him in
takers of salvation j and in order that their admo their hearts. The divine judgments were ap
nitions and vehukes, their consolations and awaken proaching. The rising power of Assyria was
ings, might gain more attention, it was granted appointed to be the instrument of divine justice.
ISAIAH. ISAIAH. 49
Among the people of God internal demoralisation some fathers of the church were inclined to style
was always the forerunner of outward calamity. him rather evangeli&t than prophet. Kwald
This {msitioii of atTairs demanded an en.rgetic pointedly describes (p. 169) the human basis of
intervention of prophetism. Without prophetism Messianic execrations in general, and of those of
the ticKoyr}, the number of the elect, would have Isaiah in particular:1 He who experienced in his
been constantly decreasing, and even the judg own royal soul what infinite power could be
ments of the Lord, if prophetism had nut fur granted to an individual spirit in order to influ
nished their interpretation, would have been mere ence and animate many, he who daily observed
facts, which would have missed their aim, and, in Jerusalem the external vestiges of a spirit
in many instances, might have had an effect like that of David, could not imagine that the
opposite to that which was intended, because future new congregation of the Lord should ori
punishment which is not recognised to be punish ginate from a mind belonging to another race
ment, necessarily leads away from God. The pro than that of David, and that it should be main
phet attacks the distress of his nation, not at the tained and supported by any other rider than a
surface, but at the root, by rebuking the prevail divine ruler. Indeed every spiritual revival must
ing corruption. Pride and arrogance appear to proceed from the clearness and firmness of an ele
him to be the chief roots of all sins. vated mind ; and this especially applies to that
He inculcates again and again notto rely upon most sublime revival for which ancient Israel
the creature, but upon the Creator, from whom longed and strove. This longing attained to
all temporal and spiritual help proceeds; that in clearness, and was preserved from losing itself in
order to attain salvation, we should despair of our indefiniteness, by the certainty that such an ele
dwn and all human power, and rely upon God. vated mind was to be expected.'
He opjxwes those who expected help through Isaiah, however, was not the first who attained
foreign alliances with powerful neighbouring na to a knowledge of the personality of Messiah.
tions against foreign enemies of the state. Isaiah's vocation was to render the knowledge of
The people of God have only one enemy, and this personality clearer and more definite, and
one ally, that is, God. It is foolish to seek for to render it more efficacious upon the souls of the
aid on eaith against the power of heaven, and to elect by giving it a greater individuality. The
fear man if God is our friend. The panacea ]>erson of the Redeemer is mentioned even in Gen.
against all distress and danger is true conversion. xlix. 10, ( The sceptre shall not depart from
The politics of the prophets consist only in point Judah, nor a lawgiver from between bis feet, until
ing out this remedy. The prophet connects with Shiluh (the tranquilliser) come; and unto Him
his rebuke and with his admonition, his*threaten- shall the gathering of the people be1 (i. e. Him
ings of divine judgment upon the stiff-necked. shall the nations obey). The personality of
These judgments are to be executed by the inva Messiah occurs also in several psalms which were
sion of the Syrians, the oppression ofthe Assyrians, written before the times of Isaiah; for instance, in
the Babylonian exile, and by the great final the 2nd and 110th, by David; in the 45th, by
separation in the times of the Messiah. The idea the sons of Korah ; in the 72nd, by Solomon.
which is the basis of all these threatenings, is pro Isaiah has especially developed the perception of
nounced even in the Pentateuch (Lev. x. 3), the prophetic and the priestly ofhee of the Re
* I will be sanctified in them that come nigh me, deemer, while in the earlier annunciations of the
and before all the people I will be glorified ;' and Messiah the royal office is mine prominent ; al
also in (lie words of Amos (iii. 2), 1 You only though in Psalm ex. the priestly office also is
have 1 known of all the families of the eartli ; pointed out. Of the two states of Christ, Isaiah
therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities.' has expressly described that of the exinanition of
That is, if the people do not voluntarily glorify the suffering Christ, while, before him, his state of
God, He glorifies Himself against them. Partly glory was made more prominent. In the Psalms
in order to recal the rebellious to ol>edience, the inseparable connection between justice and
partly to comfort the faithful, the prophet opens a suffering, from which the doctrine of a suffering
prosi>ect of those blessings which the faithful por Messiah necessarily results, is not expressly ap
tion of the covenant-people shall inherit In plied to the Messiah. Vie must not say thai
almost all prophetic utterances, we find in regular ltaiah first perceived that the Messiah was to
succession three elementsrebuke, threatening, suffer, but we must grant that this knowledge was
and promise. The prophecies concerning the de in him more vivid than in any earlier writer ; and
struction of powerful neighbouring states, partly that this knowledge was first shown by Isaiah to
belong, as we have shown, to the promises, be be an integral portion of Old Testament doctrine.
cause they are intended to prevent despair, which, The following are the outlines of Messianic
as well as false security, is a most dangerous prophecies in the book of Isaiah :A scion of
hindrance to conversion. David, springing from his family, after it has
In the direct promises of deliverance the pur fallen into a very low estate, but being also
pose to comfort is still more evident This de of divine nature, shall, at first in lowliness,
liverance refers either to burdens which pressed but. as a prophet filled with the spirit of God,
upon the people in the days of the prophet, or to proclaim the divine doctrine, develope the law
burdens to come, which were already announced in truth, and render it the animating principle
by the prophet; such, for instance, were the op of national life; he shall, as high priest, by his
pressions of the Syrians, the Assyrians, and finally, vicarious suffering and his death, remove the
of the Chaldacans. guilt of his nation, and that of other nations,
The proclamation of the Messiah is the inex and finally rule as a mighty king, not only over
haustible source of consolation among the pro the covenant-people, but over all nations of the
phets. In Isaiah this consolation is so clear that eaith who will subject themselves to his peaceful
VOL. II. a
30 ISAIAH. ISAIAH.
sceptre, not by violent compulsion, but induced the never-failing cliaracters of his prophecies*
by love and gratitude. He will make both the Kven Eichhorn mentions, among the first merits
moral and the physical consequences of sin to of Isaiah, the concinuity of his expressions, the
cease; the whole earth shall be tilted with the beautiful outline of his images the fine exe
knowledge of the Lord, and all enmity, hatred, cution of his speeches. In reference to lichness
and destruction shall he removed even from the of imagery he stands between Jeremiah and
brute creation. This is the survey of the Messianic Eiekiel. Symbolic actions, which frequently
preaching by Isaiah, of which he constantly occur in Jeremiah and Etekiel, seldom occur in
renders pnmiinent those jmrtions winch were most Isaiah. The same is the case with visions, strictly
calculated to impress the |>eople under the then so called, of which there is only one, namely,
existing circumstances. The tlrst jiart of Isaiah that in chapter vi. ; and even it is distinguished
is directed to the whole j)eople, consequently the by its simplicity and clearness above that of the
glory of the Messiah is here dwelt upon. The later prophets. But one characteristic of Isaiah
fear lest the kingdom of Gml should be over is, that he likes to give signsthat is, a fact then
whelmed by the power of heathen nations, is re present, or near at liand as a pledge for the more
moved by pointing out the glorious king to come, distant futurity ; and that he thus supports the
who would elevate the now despised and appa- feebleness of man (comp. vii. 20; xxxvii. 30 ;
rently mean kingdom of God above all the king xxxvii'i. 7, sqq.). The instances in chapters vii.
doms of this world. In the second p.u t, which is and xxxviii. show how much he was convinced
more particularly addressed to the iKKoyf}, the of his vocation, and in what intimacy he lived
elect, than to the whole nation, the prophet ex with the Lord, by whose assistance alone he.
hibits the Messiah more as a divine teacher and could effect what lie offers to do in the one
high-priest. The prophet here preaches righteous passage, and what he grants in the other. The
ness through the blood of the servant of God, who spiritual riches of the prophet are seen in the va
will support the weakness of sinners and take riety of his stvle, which always befits the subject.
upon Himself their sorrows. When lie rebukes and threatens, it is like a storm,
VVe may show, by an example in chap. xix. 18- and, when he comforts, his language is as tender
25, that the views of futurity which were granted and mild as (to use his own words) that of a
to Isaiah were great and comprehensive, and that mother comforting her son. With regard to style,
the Spirit of God raised him above all narrow- Isaiah is comprehensive, and the other prophets
minded nationality. It is there stated that a time divide his riches.
should come when all the heathen, subdued by the Isaiah enjoyed an authority proportionate to
judgments of the Lord, should l>e converted to him, his gifts. "We learn from history how great this
ami l)eing placed on an equality with Israel, with authority was during his life, especially under
equal laws, would equally partake of the kingdom the reign of Hezekiah. Several of his most defi
of God, and form a brotherly alliance for his wor nite prophecies were fulfilled while he was yet
ship. Not the whole mass of Israel is destined, alive; for instance, the overtlirow of the king
according to Isaiah, to future salvation, but only doms of Syria and Israel ; the invasion of the
the small number of the converted. This truth Assyrians, and the divine deliverance from it;
he enounces must definitely in the sketch of his the prolongation of life granted to Hezekiah ; and
prophecies contained in chapter ri. several predictions against foreign nations. Isaiah
Isaiah describes with equal vivacity the divine is honourably mentioned in the historical liooks.
justice which punishes the sins of the nation with The later prophets, especially Nahum, Habakkuk,
inexorable severity. Holy, holy, holy, is the Zephauiah, Jeremiah, Haggai, Zechariah, and
Lord of Sabaoth, is the key-note of his prophe Malachi, clearly prove that his book was dili
cies. He describes also the divine mercy ami co gently read, and that his prophecies were atten
venant-fidelity, by which then is always preserved tively studied.
a remnant among the people : to them punish The authority of the prophet greatly increased
ment itself is a means of salvation, so that life after the fulfilment of" his prophecies by the Baby
everywhere proceeds from death, and the congre lonian exile, the victories of Cyrus, and the de
gation itself is led to full victory and glory. liverance of the covenant-people. Even Cyrus
Isaiah saw the moral and religious degradation (according to the above-mentioned account in Jo-
of his people, and also its external distress, both sephus, Antiq, xi. I. $ 1, 2) was induced to set the
then present and to come (chap. vi.). But this Jews at liberty by the prophecies of Isaiah concern
did not break his courage ; he confidently ex ing himself. This prediction of Isaiah made so
pected a better futurity, ami raised himself in God deep an impression upon him that lie probably took
above all that is visible. Isaiah is not afraid when from it the name by which he is generally known
the whole nation and its king tremble. Of this in history. Jesus Sirach fzlviii. 22-35) besTOWl
we see a remarkable instance in chapter vii., and splendid praise uj>on Isaiah, and both Pliilo and
another in the time of the Assyrian invasion under Josephus sjeak of him with great veneration. He
Hezek'iah, during which the courage of his faith attained the highest degree of authority after the
rendered him the saviour of the commonwealth, times of the New Testament had proved the most
and the originator of that great religions revival important part of Ids pntphecies, namely, the Mes
which followed the preservation of the state. The sianic, to l>e divine. Christ and the apostles quote
faith of the king and of the people was roused by DO pronhecics so frequently as those of Isaiah, iti
that of Isaiah. order to prove thai He who had appeared was one
Isaiah stands pre-eminent above all other pro and the same with Him who had been promised.
phets, as well in the contents and spirit of his The fathers of the church abound in praises of
predictions, as also in their form and style. Sim Isaiah.K. W. H.
plicity, clearness, sublimity, and freshness, are 1SHBI, or ISHBI-BENOB. [Giants.]
ISH-BOSHETH. ISHMAEL. 51
ISH-BOSHETH (n^3 B>"K, man of shame; nion, whether this vacancy took place before or
Sept. 'UfrooSi), a son of king Saul, and the only- alter the reign of Ish-bosheth. Some think it was
one who survived him. In 1 Chron. viii. 33, and before, it being then a matter of dispute whether
lte or Mephibosheth, the sou of Jonathan, should be
ix. 39, this name is given as made king; but others hold that after his death
Baal was the name of an idol, accounted alwmi- five years elapsed before David was generally
liable by the Hebrews, and which scrupulous per recognised as king of all Israel. If the reign of
sons avoided pronouncing, using the word bosheth, Ish-bosheth be limited to two years, the latter is
' shame ' or 1 vanity/ instead. This explains why doubtless the best way of accounting for the other
the name Eshbaal is substituted for Ish-bosheth, five, since no ground of delay in the accession of
Jeruhbaal for Jerubbesheth (comp. Judg. viii. 35 Ish-lxwheth is suggested in Scripture itself; for the
with 2 Sam. xi. 21), and Merib-baal for Mephi- claim of Mephibosheth, the ton of Jonathan,
iKnlteth (comp. 2 Sam. iv. 4 with 1 Chron. viii. 34 which some have produced, ^miLr that of a
and ix. 40). Ish-bosheth was not present in the lame boy five years old, whose father never
disastrous battle at Gilboa, in winch his lather and reigned, against a king's sou forty years of age,
lathers perished; and, too feeble of himself to would have Iteen deemed of little weight in
seite the sceptre which had fallen from the hands Israel. Besides, our notions of Abner do not
of Saul, lie owed the crown entirely to his uncle allow us to suppose that under him the question
Abner, who conducted him to Mahanaim, be of tl.e succession could have remained rive years
yond the Jordan, where he was recognised as in al>eyance. But it is the more usual, and
king by ten of the twelve tribes. He reigned perhaps the better course, to settle this question
seven, or, as some will have it, two yearsif a by supposing that the reigns of David over Judah,
power so uncertain as his can be called a reign. and of Ish-bosheth over Israel, were nearly con
Even the semblance of authority which he pos temporaneous, and that the two years are men
sessed he owed to the will and influence of Ab tioned as those from which to date the commence
ner, who himself kept the real substance in his ment of the ensuing eventsnamely, the wars be
own hands. A sharp quarrel between them led at tween the house of Saul and that of David.
last to the ruin of Ish-bosheth. Although accus
tomed to tremble lefore Abner, even his meek 1. ISHMAKL C^Hjrpf'?, God hears, Sept.;
temper was roused to resentment by the disco 1l<rfiafj\)1 Abraham's eldest son, bom to him by
very that Abner had invaded the harara of his Hagar; the circumstances of whose birth, early
late father Saul, which was in a peculiar manner history, and final expulsion from his father's tents,
sacred under his care as a son and a king, By are related in the articles Abraham, Hauar
this act Abner exposed the king to public con [See also Isaac, Inheritance]. He afterwards
tempt; if it did not indeed leave himself open to made the desert into which he had been cast
the suspicion of intending to advance a claim to his abode, and by attaching himself to, and ac
the crown on ins own behalf. Abner highly re quiring influence over, the native trilies, rose to
sented the rebuke of Ish-bosheth, and from that time great authority and influence. It would seem to
contemplated uniting all the tribes under the have been the original intentiou of his mother
ceptie of David. Ish-bosheth, however, reverted to to liave returned to Egypt, to which country
his ordinary timidity of character. At the lirst de she belonged ; but this being prevented, she
mand of David, he restored to him his sister Miclial, was content to obtain for her son wives from
who had l>eeu given in marriage to the son of Jesse thence. Although their lots) were cast a|wirt, it
by Saul, and had afterwa-ds been taken from him does not ap|>ear that any serious alienation existed
and bestowed upon another. It is, perhajw, right between Ishmael and Isaac ; for we read that fhey
to attribute this act to his weakness; although, as both joined in the sepulchral rites of their father
David allows that he was a righteous man, it may Abraham (Gen. xxv. 9). This fact has not been
have been owing to his sense of justice. On the noticed as it deserves. It is full of suggestive
death of Abner Ish-bosheth lust a.11 heart and matter. As funerals in tiie East take place almost
hope, and jierished miserably, being murdered in immediately after death, it is evident that Ish-
his own palace, while lie took his mid-day sleep, mael must have been called from the desert to
by two of his officers, Baanah and Rechab. They the death-l>ed of his father; which implies that
sped with his head to David, expecting a great relations of kindness and resjject had been kept up,
reward for their deed ; but the monarchas both although the brevity of the sacred narrative pre
right feeling and good policy requiredtestified vents any special notice of this circumstance.
the utmost horror and concern. He slew ttie Ishmael had, prot>ably, long before received an
murderers, and placed the head of Ish-bosheth endowment from his father's property, similar to
with due respect in the sepulchre of Abner : h.c. that which had been bestowed u|>on the sons of
I0i8 (2 Sam. li. 8-11 iii. 6-39; iv.). There Keturah (Gen. xxv. 6). Nothing more is re
is a serious difficulty in the chronology of this corded of him than that he died at the age of 137
reign. In 2 Sam. iL 10 Ish-bosheth is said to have years, and was the father of twelve sons, who gave
reigned two years; which some understand as the their names to as many tribes (Gen. xvii. 20;
whole amount of his reign. And as David xxvii. 9). He hail also two daughters, one of
reigned seven and a half years over Judah before whom became the wife of Esau.
he became king of all Israel upon the deatli of It has been shown, in the article Arabia, (hat
Ish-bosheth, it is conceived by the Jewish chro- Ishmael has no claim to the honour, which is
nologer (Seder Olam liabbay p. 37), as well as by usually assigned to him, of being the founder of
Kimchi and others, that there was a vacancy of the Arabian nation. That nation existed before
five years in the throne of Israel. It is not, he was bom. He merely joined it, and adopted
however, agreed by those who entertain this opi its habits of life and character; and the tribe*
s2
52 ISHMAKL. ISRAEL.
which sprung fr%m him formed eventually an returned, and treacherously slew the too-confiding
important section of tlie triltes of which it was Gedaliah, who had lieen made governor of th
composed. The celebrated prophecy which de- miserable remnant led in the land [Gkuamah].
s'tIIm-s ilif habits of life which he, and in him Much more slaughter followed this, and Ishmael.
his descendants, would follow, is, therefore, to with many people of consideration as captives,
be regarded not as describing habits which he hastened to return to the Ammonites. But he
would tirst establish, but such as he would was overtaken near the pool of (Nueofl by Joha-
adopt. The description is contained in the nan, a friend of Gedaliah, and was compelled to
address of the angel to Hagar, when, before abandon his prey and escape for his life, with
the birth of Ishmael, she tied from the tents of only eight attendants, to Baalis, k tug of the Am
Abraham:* Behold, thou art with child, and monites, with whom he appears to have bad a
shall bear a son, and shalt call his name Ishmael secret understanding in these tiansactions : B.C.
(God hears), because the Lord hath heard thine 588 (Jer. xli.).
affliction. And mt shall be a wild man : his ISLE, ISLAND pjjj Sept. rrjiros, Vulg.
lurid shall be against every man, and every insula"). The Hebrew word is invariably trans
man's hand against him, and be shall dwell in lated, either by the former or by the latter of these
the presence of all his brethren' (Gen. xvi. 11, English words, which, having the same meaning,
12). This means, in short, that he and his will be considered as one. It occurs in the three
descendants should lead the life of the Bedouins following Bcnses. First, that ofdry land in opposi
of the Arabian deserts; and how graphically tion to water; as ' I will make the rivers islands'
this description portrays their habits, may be (Isa. xlii. 15). In Isa. xx. 6, the Isle of Ashdod
seen in the article Arabia, in the notes on these means the country, and is so rendered in the
verses in the 1 Pictorial Bible,* and in the works margin. In Isa. xxi'ii. 2, b, 'the isle 'means the
of Niebuhr, Burckhardt, Lane, &c; and, more country of Tyre, and in Kzek. xxvii. 6, 7, that of
particularly, in the Arabian romance of Antar, Chittim and Elisha. (See also Job xxii. 30).
which presents the most perfect picture of real Secondly; it is used both in Hebrew and Eng
Bedouin manners now in existence. The last lish, according to its geographical meaning, for a
clause, ' He shall dwell in the presence of all his country surrounded by water, as in Jer. xlvii. 4,
brethren,* is pointedly alluded to in the brief 1 the isle (margin) of Canhtor,' which is probably
notice of his death, which states that * he died that of Cyprus. 1 The isles of the sea * (Esth. x.
in the presence of all his brethren* (Gen. xxv. 18). 1) are evidently put in opposition to ' the land,'
Of this expression various explanations have been or continent. In Ps. xcvii. 1, 4 the multitude of
given, but the plainest is the most probable : the isles' seem distinguished from the earth or
which is, that Ishmael and the tril>es springing continents, and are evidently added to complete
from him should always be located near the the description of the whole world. Thirdly;
kindred tribes descended from Abraham. And the word is used by the Hebrews to designate all
this was a promise of benefit in that age of mi those countries divided from them by the sea. In
gration, when Abraham himself had come from Isa. xi. 1 1, after an enumeration of countries lying
beyond the Euphrates, and was a stranger and on their own continent, the words, 1 and the islands
sojourner in the land of Canaan. There was thus, of the sea,' are added in order to comprehend
in fact, a relation of some importance U-tween those situate beyond the ocean. The following
this promise and the promise of the heritage of are additional instances of this usage of the word,
Canaan to another brand) of Abraham's off which is of very frequent occurrence (Isa. xln.
spring. It had seemingly some such force as 10; lix. 18; lxvi. 19; Jer. xxv. 22; Ezek. xxvii.
thisThe heritage of Canaan is, indeed, des 3. 15; Zeph. ii. 11). It is olaerved by Sir I.
tined for another son of Abraham ; but still the Newton (on Daniel, p. 270), 1 By the earth the
lot of Ishmael, and of those that spring fmm him, Jews understood the great continent of all Asia
shall never be cast far apart from that of his and Africa, to which they had access by land ;
brethren. This view is confirmed by the circum and by the isles of the sea they understood the
stance, that the Israelites did, in fact, occupy the places to which they sailed by sea, particularly
country bordering on that in which the various all Europe.*J. F. 0.
tribes descended from Abraham or Terah had
settledthe Israelites, Kdomites. Midiauites, Mo- ISRAEL faFff)] Sept. 'lo-po^A) is the
abites, Ammonites, &c. Most interpreters tind in sacred and divinely bestowed name of the pa
this jiassage, a promise that the descendants of triarch Jacob, and is explained to mean, * A
Ishmael should never be subdued. But we are prince with God,* from ITC\ principatum tenuit.
unable to discover this in the text ; and, more Winer (Heb. Lexicon) interprets it pugnator Dei,
over, such has not been the fact, whether we from another meaning of the same root. Al
regard the Ishmael ites apart from the other though, as applied to Jacob personally, it is an
Arabians, or consider the promise made to Ish honourable or |>oetical appellation, it is the com
mael as applicable to the whole Arabian family. mon prose name of his descendants; while, on
The Arabian tribes are in a state of subjection at the contrary, the title Jacob is given to them only
ttiis moment; and the great Waliabee confederacy in poetry. In the latter division of Isaiah (after
among them, which not many years ago filled the 39th chapter), many instances occur of the
Western Asia with alarm, is now no longer two names used side by side, to subserve the
heard of. parallelism of Hebrew poetry, as in eh. xl. 27;
2. ISHMAKL, a prince of the royal line of xli. 8. 14,20,21; xlii. 24; xliii. 1,22, 28, &c. ;
Judah, who found refuge among the Ammonites so, indeed, in xiv. 1. The modern Jews, at least
from the ruin which involved his family and in the East, are fond of being named Israeli in
nation. After the Chaldteans had departed he preference^) Yahudi, as more honourahle.
ISRAEL. ISRAEL. 6J
The separation of the Hebrew nation into two intimacy of Jeroboam with the king of Egypt
parts, of which one was to embrace ten of the may have determined his preference for the form
tribes, and be distinctively named Israel, had its of idolatry (the calves) which he established at
origin in the early power and ambition of the Dan and Bethel. In whatever else his successors
tribe of Ephraim. The rivalry of Ephraim and difiered, they one and all agreed in ujiholding
Judah tivgan almost from the first conquest of the tliis worship, which, once established, appeared
land ; nor is it unsiguificant, that as Caleb be essential to their national unity. Nevertheless it
longed to the tribe of Judah, so did Joshua to is generally understood to have been a worship of
that of Ephraim. From the very beginning Jehovah, though under unlawful and degrading
Judah learned to act by itself ; but the central forms. Worse by far was the worship of Baal,
position of Ephraim, with its fruitful and ample which came in under one monarch only, Ahab,
soil, and the long-continued authority of Joshua, and was destroyed after his son was slain, by
must have taught most of the tribes west ofthe Jor Jehu. A secondary result of the revolution was
dan to louk up to Ephraim as their head ; and a the ejection of the tribe of Levi from their lands
still more important sujieriority was conferred on and cities in Israel ; at least/such as remained
the same tribe by the fixed dwelling of the ark at were spiritually degraded by the compliances re
Shiloh for so many generations (Josh, xviii. &c). quired, and could no longer offer any resistance
Judah could boast of Hebron, Macpelah, Beth to the kingly power by aid of their sacred cha
lehem, names of traditional sanctity ; yet so could racter. When the priestf^ tribe had thus lost
Ephraim point to Shechem, the ancient abode of independence, it lost also the power to assist the
Jacob ; and while Judah, being on the frontier, crown. The succession of Jeroboam's family
was more exposed to the attack of the powerful was hallowed by no religious blessing; and when
Philistines, Ephraim had to fear only those his son was murdered, no Jehoiada was found to
Canaanites from within who were not subdued or rally his supporters and ultimately avenge his
conciliated. The haughty behaviour of the cause. The example of successful usurpation
Ephraimites towards Gideon, a man of Manasseh was so often followed by the captains of the
(Judg. viii. I), sufficiently indicates the preten armies, that the kings in Israel present to us an
sions they made. Still fiercer language towards irregular series of dynasties, with several short
Jephthah the Gileadite (Jud. xii. 1) was retorted and tumultuous reigns. This was one cause of
by less gentleness than Gideon had shown ; and disorder and weakness to Israel, and hindered it
a bloody civil war was the result, in which their from swallowing up Judah : another was found
pride met with a severe punishment. This may in the relations of Israel towards foreign powers,
in part explain their quiet submission, not only which will presently be dwelt upon.
to the priestly rule of EU and his sons, who had We must first attend to the chronology ; in
their centre of authority at Shiluh, but to Samuel, discussing which Israel and Judah must be taken
whose administration issued from three towns of together. It lies on the face of the narrative that
Benjamin. Of course his prophetical character the years of reign assigned are generally only
and ]>ersonal excellence eminently contributed to broken years : thus Nadah is said to have come
tliis result ; and it may seem that Ephraim, as to the throne in the second and to have been
well as all Israel besides, became habituated to slain in the third year of Asa, and yet to have
the predominance of Benjamin, so that no serious reigned Uco years (I Kings xv. 25, 28); conse
resistance was made to the supremacy of Saul. quently every reign is liable to a deduction not
At his death a new schism took place through exceeding eleven months. Instances will also
their jealousy of Judah ; yet, in a few years* appear in which reigns are u/irferrated by a frac
time, by the splendour of David's victories, and tion of a year: it is doubtful whether this is
afterwards by Solomon's peaceful power, a per another sort of phraseology, or is an error properly
manent national union might seem to have been bo called. Some have further maintained (as Mr.
effected. But the laws of inheritance in Israel, Greswell) that the reigns of kings were counted,
excellent as they were for preventing ]>ermanent at least occasionally, from the beginning of the
alienation of landed prn])erty, and the degradation Jewish year. To illustrate the efl'ect of tliis: sup
of the Hebrew poor into praedial slaves, neces pose a king of England to come to the throne in
sarily impeded the perfect fusion of the tribes, Septeml*r, an event which hapjiened in the fol
by discouraging intermarriage, ami hindering the lowing March might lie assigned to the second
union ofdistant estates in the same hands. Hence, year of his reign, though he would not have com
when the sway of Solomon began to be felt as a pleted even a single year. The great objections to
tyranny, the old jealousies of the tribes revived, applying this principle are, I. that we have no proof
and Jeroboam, an Ephraimite (1 Kings xi. 2*>), that it was actually used ; 2. that it introduces
being suspected of treason, fled to Shishak, king great vagueness, since we do not once know at
of Egypt. The death of Solomon was followed what season of the year any king began his reign;
by a defection of ten of the tribes, which esta 3. that it solves none of the greater difficulties en
blished the separation of Israel from Judah countered, and that it is not worth while appealing
(b.c. 975). to it for the smaller ones. Even if applied, the
This was the most important event which had total etlect of it on the chronology is almost inap
befallen the Hebrew nation since their conquest preciable, for the limits of possible error remain
of Canaan. The chief territory and population perhaps exactly as without it. The once favourite
were now with Jeroboam, but the religious sanc system, of imagining a king to rule conjointly
tion, the legitimate descent, lay with the rival with his father, when it is not intimated in the
monarch. From the ]clttical danger of allowing Scripture, is now deservedly exploded by all the
the ten trilies to go up to the sanctuary of Jem- ablest chronologers.
salem, the princes of Israel* as it were in self- The following table contains the materials foi
defence, set ap a sanctuary of their own ; and tlte chronology furnished in the Scriptures:
51 ISRAEL ISRAEL.
Sn.it.. Assyria.
32. [Jericho.]
xiv. 4. 1 ; Strabo, xvi. 2. 40). Herod the Great, it will lie seen that .the Jericho which existed in
in the beginning of Ins career, captured and the time of our Saviour was a great and important
sacked Jericho, but afterward* strengthened and cityprobably more so than it had ever been
adorned it, when he had redeemed its revenues since its foundation. It was once visited by him,
from Cleopatra, on whom the plain had lieen be when lie 1 -i . i will) Zaccheus, and healed the
stowed by Antony (Joseph. Antiq. xv. 4. 1, 2). blind mau (Luke xviii. 35-13; xix. I 7; Malt,
He appears to have often resided here, probably xx. 29-34; Mark x. 4(i-52). Jeiiclw was after
in winter : he built over the city a fortress wards made the head of one of the to]Archies,
called Cyprus, between which and the former and was visited by Vespasian before he left the
palace lie erected other palaces, and called country, who stationed there the tenth legion in
thein by the names of his friends (Joseph. Antiq. garrison (Joseph. De Bell. Jud. iii. 3. 5 ; iv. fi. 1 ;
xvi. 5. 2; De Bell. Jud. i. 21. 4, 9). Here also v. 2. 3). Eusebius and Jerome describe Jericho
was a hippodrome or circus, in which the Bame as having been destroyed during the siege of
tyrant, when lying at Jericho on his death-bed, Jerusalem, on account of the pertidy of the in
caused the nobles of the laud to be shut up, for habitant!, but add that it was afterwards re
massacre alter his death. He died here; but Ids built; but, as Josephus is silent respecting this
bloody intention was not executed (Joseph. Antiq. event, Dr. Robinson regards it as doubtful. That
xvii. 6. 5 ; De Bell. Jud. i. 33. 6-8). The palace the town continued to exist as a place of import
At this place was afterwards rebuilt more magni ance, appears from the names of five bishops oi
ficently by Archelani ( Antiq. xvii. 31). Uy this Jericho which have been collected {Orient Christ.
JERICHO. JERICHO. 87
lii. 654). The emperor Justinian built here a this 10 wanting; and everything bears the mark
Xenudochium, apjttxently for pilgrims, and also of abject, and, which is unusual in the East, of
a church, dedicated to the Virgin; and the mo* squalid poverty. There are some fine tig-trees
nastery of St. John, near the Jordan, was already near the village, and some vines in the gardens.
in existence (Procop. De sEdific. Justintani, v. 9). But the most distinguishing feature of the whole
The town, however, appears to have been over plain is a noble grove of trees which borders the
thrown during the Mohammedan conquest ; for village on the west, and stretches away north
Adamnanus, at the close of the seventh century, ward to the distance of two miles or more.
describes the site as without human habitations, This grove owes its existence to the waters of
and covered with corn and vines. The celebrated one of the fountains, the careful distribution of
palm-groves still existed. In the next century a which over the plain by canals and aqueducts
church is mentioned ; and in the ninth century did once, and might still, cover it with abund
several monasteries appear. About the same ance. One of these fountains is called by the
time the plain of Jericno is agaiu noticed for its natives Ain es-Sultan, but by pilgrims the
fertility and peculiar products; and it appears Fountain of Elias, being supposed to be the
to have been brought under cultivation by the same whose bitter waters were cured by that
Saracens, for the sake of the sugar and other pro prophet. Dr. Robinson thinks there is reason
ducts for which the soil and climate were more for this conclusion. It lies almost two miles
suitable than any other in Palestine. Ruins NAY. from the village. It bursts forth at the
of extensive aqueducts, with pointed Saracenic foot of a high double mound, situated a mile or
arches, remain in evidence of the elaborate irri more in front of the mountain Quarantana. It
gation and culture of this fine plainwhich is is a large and beautiful fountain of sweet and
nothing without water, and everything with itat pleasant water. The principal stream runs to
a period long subsequent to the occupation of the wards the village, and the rest of the water finds
country by the Jews. It is to this age that we its way at random in various streams down the
may probably refer the origin of the castle and plain. Beyond the fountain rises up the bold
village, which liave since been regarded, as repre perjvndicular face of the mountain Quarantana
senting Jericho. The place has been mentioned (Kuruntul), from the foot of which a line of low
by Iravellers and pilgrims down to the present hills runs out N.N.K. in front of the mountains,
time as a poor hamlet consisting of a few houses. and forms the ascent to a narrow tract of table-
In the fifteenth century the square castle or tower laud along their base. On this tract, at the foot
l>egau to pass among pilgrims as the house of of the mountains, about two and a half miles
Zaccheus, a title which it bears to the present N N.W. from the Ain es-Sultan, is the still larger
day. fountain of l)uk, the waters of which are brought
The village thus identified with Jericho now along the base of Quarantana in a canal to the
bears the name of Rihah, and is situated al>out top of the declivity at the back of Ain sj Sultan,
the middle of the plain, six miles west from the whence they were formerly distributed to several
Jordan, in N. laL 31 57', and E. long. 35 33'. mills, and scattered over the upper part of the
Dr. OHn describes the present village as * the plain (Robinson's Bib. Researches, n. 2Si, 285).
meanest and foulest of Palestine.' It may per Under the mountains on the western confine
haps contain forty dwellings, formed of small of the plain, altnut two miles west of Rihah, and
loose stones. The wall*, which threaten to tumble just whcie the road from Jerusalem comes down
down at a touch, are covered with flat roofs, com into the plain, are considerable ruins, extending
posed of reed or straw plastered over with mud. I. '.i on the north and south side of the road.
Around most of these dwellings a little yard is There ts nothing massive or imposing in these
inclosed with dry thorn-bushes. The village remains, although they doubtless mark the site
nas a similar bulwark, which, insufficient as it of an important ancient town. The stones are
dp[>ears to oiler resistance to an invader, is quite small and unwrought, and have the appearance
effectual against the marauding Bedouins, with of being merely the refuse, which was left as
their bare feet and legs, or any other enemy in worthless by those who bore away the more valu
too great haste to burn it. The most important able materials to be employed in the erection of
object is the castle or tower already mentioned, new buildings. Mr. Buckingham was the first
which Dr. Robinson supposes to have been con to suspect that these were the ruins of the ancient
structed to protect the cultivation of the plain Jericho. He shows that the situation agrees bet
under the Saracens. It is thirty or forty feet ter with the ancient intimations than does that
square, and about the same height, and is now of the modem village, near which no trace of
in a dilapidated condition. The pilgrims, as we ancient ruins can be found (Travels in Pales-
have seen, regard it as the house of Zaccheus; tine, p. 293). Since this idea was started the
and they also point to a solitary palm-tree, the matter has been examined by other travellers ;
only survivor of the groves which once gave the and the conclusion seems to be that Rihah is
town one of its distinguishing names, as the iden certainly not the ancient Jericho, and that there
tical sycamore which was climbed by the same is no site of ancient ruins on the plain which so
personage to view the Saviour as he passed. well answers to the intimations as that now de
Rihah may contain about two hundred in scribed; although even here some drawback to a
habitants, who have a sickly aspect, and are satisfactory conclusion is felt, in the alienee of
reckoned vicious and indolent. They keep a few any traces of those great buildings which be
cattle and sheep, and till a little land for grain longed to the Jericho of king Herod. We should
as well as for gardens. A small degree of in like to examine this matter more in detail lhait
dustry and skill bestowed on this prolific soil, would be satisfactory to any but an antiquarian
favoured as it is with abundant water for irri reader ; but shall he content to introduce the
gation, would amply reward the labour. But concise and clear view of the qucstiou which has
88 JERICHO. JEROBOAM.
been giren by Dr. Olin in his very useful Tra that had been denounced against such an act of
vel* in (he East. 'Travellers concur in calling this daring impiety. " Helaid the foundation thereof in
wretched place (Rihah) Jericho, though I am not Ahirum hii first-bom. and set up the gate* thereof
aware that any reason exists far believing that it in his youngest son Segtib, according to the word
occupies the site of the ancient city of that name. of the Lord which he spake by Joshua, the son of
Here are no ruins to indicate the former presence Nun1' (1 Kings xvi. 31). Previous to this, how
of a considerable town ; nothing but the tower to ever, and almost immediately after the death of
induce a suspicion that anything much better Joshua, reference is made to the city of palm-
than the present filthy village ever existed opoB trees, which was captured by Eglun, kiug of
the spot. The situation does not agree with that Moab (Judg. iii. 131 and it was nearly 100
of the ancient city, which, according to Josephus, years before the rebuilding by Hiel that David's
was close to the mountain, and nearer, by several ambassadors, who had been so grievously insulted
miles, to Jerusalem. The ruins already descrilted, by the king of Ammon, weredirected " to tarry at
at the foot of the mountain, where the Jerusalem Jericho until their lieards were grown*' (2 Sam. x.
road enters the plain, not improbably mark the 5). We are to infer, from these several state
site of ancient Jericho. Their distance from the ments, that Jericho was rebuilt soon after its de
Jordan and from Jerusalem agrees well with that struction by Joshua, but not ujtun its ancient
of the Jericho of the age of Josephus, which he foundationsa change by which the penalty was
states to have been sixty furlongs from the river, avoided. The malediction had probably fallen
and one hundred and fifty from the capital. into oblivion, or, if remembered, was likely to ho
This site also satisfies his description in being treated with contempt in the infidel and idola
situated " in the plain, while a naked and Warren trous age when Hiel restored the original city.
mountain hangs over it." The exact position It was, according to the common chronology,
of the ancient city is not definitely stated in the ah >ut thirty years subsequent to this restoration
Bible, though it is always spoken of as at a con- tiiat Elisha healed the fountain from which the
siderable distance from the Jordan. The position city derived its supply of water. It is probable that
at the foot of the mountain was in accordance the accursed site had been again abandoned, upon
with the customs of that early age, and of Pa the catastrophe that followed the impious attempt
lestine esjtecially, where nearly all the cities of of Hiel, for the existing city seems to have been
which mention is made in its early history occu at some distance from " the spring of the waters,"'
pied strong positions, either embracing or adjaceut which produced sterility and disease (2 Kings ii.
to a mountain elevation, on which a citadel was 21). It may have occupied, at the era of
erected for defence. The language of Josephus Klisha's miracle, the same site as it did when
seems, indeed, to imply that Jericho, in his day, visited by our Saviour, and described by Jo
did not occupy the same ground as the city de sephus.*
stroyed by Joshua, and that the description quoted
above refers to the later city. He says, in de JEROBOAM (ttyyV ; Sept. 'Upu$odu\ son
scribing the fountain healed by Elisha, that it of Nebat, and first kiug of Israel, who became
'* arises near the old city, which Joshua, the son king d.c. 975, and reigned 22 years.
of Nun, took ;'* language which must, perhaj*, He was of the tribe of Ephraim, the son
be understood to imply that the later town occu of a widow named Zeruiah, when he was no
pied a different site. It was highly probable, ticed by Solomon as a clever and active young
after the terrible malediction pronounced against man, and was appointed one of the superin
those who should rebuild the accursed place, that tendents of the works which that magnificent king
some change should l>e made in the location, was carrying on at Jerusalem. This appointment,
though not so great as to late the peculiar advan the reward of his merits, might have satisfied his
tages of the ancient site. Kiel, the Bethelite, as ambition had not the declaration of the prophet
we know, braved the propheti-; curse, and rebuilt Ahijah given him higher hoj>es. When informed
the city upon its old foundations; but the same that, by the dtvincappointment, he was to become
cause might still operate, and with additional Icing over the ten tribes about to be rent from the
effect, after his punishment, to induce more pious house of David, he was not content to wait pa
or scrupulous men to prefer a place less obnoxious tiently for the death of Solomon, but began to
to the divine displeasure, Both sites, that near form plots and conspiracies, the discovery of
the fountain and the one upon the Jerusalem which constrained him to flee to Egypt to escape
road, give evidence of having been unciently condign punishment. The king of that country
covered with buildings. They were probably was but too ready to encourage one whose success
occupied successively, or both may have been must necessarily weaken the kingdom which had
embraced at once within the compass of a large become great and formidable under David and
city and its suburbs. In order to render the Solomon, ami which had already pushed its fron
several notices of Jericho contained in the Bible tier to the Red Sea fl Kings xi. 20-40).
consistent with eacli other, and with the descrip When Solomon died, the ten tribes sent to call
tion in Josephus, it seems necessary to suppose Jeroboam fh>m Egypt; and he appears to have
more than one change of situation. Joshua headed the deputation which came before the sou
" burned the city with fire, and all that was of Solomon with a demand of new securities for the
therein," and said, u Cursed be the man before the rights which the measures of the late king had com-
Lord that riseth up and huihieth this city Je promised. It may somewhat excuse the harsh an
richo: he shall lay the foundation thereof in his swer of Rehol>oam, that the demand was urged by
fir*t-lom, and in his youngest son shall 1m? set up a body of men headed by one whose pretensions
the gates thereof." It was about 520 years after were so well known and so odious to the house of
this, in the impious reign of Ahab, that Hiel re David. It cannot he denied, lhat in making their
built the city, and suffered the fearful penalty applications thus offensively, they struck the first
JEROBOAM. JERUSALEM. 89
How; although it is possible that they, in the take away the remnant of the house of Jeroboam
first instance, intended to use the presence of Jero as a man takcth away dung, fill it be all gone'
boam for no other purpose than to frighten the (1 Kings xiv. 1-18).
king into compliance. The imprudent answer of The son died so soon as the mother crossed the
Rehoboam rendered a revolution inevitable, and threshold on her return ; and as die death of
Jeroboam was then called to reign over the ten Jeroboam himself is the next event recorded, it
tribes, by the style of ' King of Israel' (1 Kings would seem that he did not long survive his son.
xii. 1-20). He died in B.C. 954 (1 Kings xiv. 20).
The general course of his conduct on the throne Jeroboam was perhaps a less remarkable man
has already been indicated in the article Israel, than the circumstance of his being the founder of
ind need not be repeated in this place. The a new kingdom might lead us to expect.' The
hading object of his policy was to widen the tribes would have revolted without him ; and he
breach between the two kingdoms, and to rend was chosen king merely because he had been
risunder those common interest* among all the pointed out by previous circumstances. His
descendants of Jacob, which it was one great government exhibits but one idea-that of raising
object of the law to combine and interlace. To a barrier against the re-union of the tribes. Of
ttii* end he scrupled not to sacrifice the most this idea he was the slave and victim ; and
sacred and inviolable interests and obligations of although the barrier which he raised was effectual
;!ie covenant people, by forbidding his subjects to for its purpose, it only served to show the weak
result to the one temple and altar of Jehovah at ness of the man who could deem needful the rro-
Jet usalem, and by establishing shrines at Dan and tection for his separate interests which such a
iit'th-elthe extremities of his kingdomwhere barrier offered.
' gulden calves' were set up as the symbols of 2. JEROBOAM, thirteenth king of Israel, son
Jehovah, to which the people were enjoined to of Joash, whom, in B.C. 824, he succeeded on the
resort and bring their offerings. The pontifi throne, and reigned forty-one years. He followed
cate of the new establishment he united to his the example of the first Jeroboam in keeping up
crown, in imitation of the Egyptian kings. He the idolatry of the golden calves. Nevertheless
was officiating in that capacity at Beth-el, offering the Lord had pity upon Israel, the time of its
incense, when a prophet appeared, and iu the ruin was not yet come, and this reign was long
name of the Lord announced a coming time, as and flourishing. Jeroboam brought to a success
yet far off, in which a king of the house of David, ful result the wars which his father had under
Jusiah by name, should burn upon that unholy taken, and was always victorious over the Syrians.
altar the bones of its ministers. He was then He even took their chief cities of Damascus and
piej aring to verify, by a commissioned prodigy, Hamath, which had formerly been subject to the
the truth of the oracle he had delivered, when the sceptre of David, and restored to the realm of
King attempted to arrest him, but was 6mitten Israel the ancient eastern limits from Lebanon to
with palsy in the arm he stretched forth. At the the Dead Sea. He died in B.C. 783 (2 Kings
same moment the threatened prodigy took place, xiii. 15; xiv. 16,23-29).
flic altar was rent asunder, and the ashes strewed The Scriptural account of this reign is too short
f.ir around. This measure had, however, no to enable us to judge of the character of a prince
abiding effect The policy on which he acted under whom the kingdom of Israel seems to have
lay too deep in what he deemed the vital iuteresfs reached a degree of prosperity which it had never
of his separate kingdom, to be even thus aban before enjoyed, and was not able long to preserve.
doned : and the force of the considerations which JERUB-BAAL. [Gideon.]
determined Ins conduct may iu part be appre-
(Hated from the fact that no subsequent king of JERUSALEM (D^B'-IT, habitation ofpeace;
Israel, however well disposed in other respects, Sept. 'ItpoixraXfipt ; Vulg. Bierotolyma ; Arab.
ever ventured to lay a finger on this schismatical El Kud), the Jewish capital of Palestine. It is
establishment. Hence 1 the sin of Jeroboam the mentioned very early in Scripture, being usually
son of Nebat, wherewith he sinned and made supposed to be the Salem of which Melchizedek
Israel to sin,' became a standing phrase in de was king. Such was the opinion of the Jews
scribing that iniquity from which no king of themselves; for Josephus, who calls Melchizedek
Israel departed (1 Kings xii. 25-33 ; xiii.). king of Solyma, observes that this name was after
The contumacy of Jeroboam eventually brought wards changed into Hierosolyma. All the fathers
upon him the doom which he probably dreaded of the church, Jerome excepted, agree with Jose
beyond all othersthe speedy extinction of the phus, and understand Jerusalem and Salem to
dynasty which he had taken so much pains and indicate the same place. The Psalmist also says
incurred so much guilt to establish on firm (Ixxvi. 2) : 'In Salem is his tabernacle, and his
foundations. His son Abijali being sick, he sent dwelling-place in Sion.'
his wife disguised to consult the prophet Ahijah, The mountain of the land of Moriah, which
who had predicted that he should be king of Abraham (Gen. xxii. 2) reached on the third day
Israel. The prophet, although he had liecome from Beersheba, there to offer Isaac, is, according
blind with age, knew the qufen, and saluted her to Josephus (Antiq. i. 13. 2), the mountain on
with' Come in, thou wile of Jeroboam, for I which Solomon afterwards built the temple (2
am sent to thee with heavy tidings.' These were Chron. iii. 1).
not merely that the son should diefor that was The name Jerusalem first occurs in Josh. x. I,
intended in mercy to one who alone, of all the where Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, is men
house of Jeroboam, had remained faithful to his tioned as having entered into an alliance with
God, and was the only one who should obtain other kings against Joshua, by whom they were
an honoured gravebut that his race should all overcome (comp. Josh. xii. 10).
be violently and utterly extinguished : ' I will In drawing the northern border ofJudah, we find
90 JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM.
Jerusalem again mentioned (Josh. xv. 8 ; comp. children of Judah could not drive out the Jebu
Josh, xviii. 16). This border ran through the sites inhabiting Jerusalem ; and we are farther
valley of Ben Hinnom ; the country on the south informed (Judg. i. 21) that the children of Benja
of it, as Bethlehem, belonged to Judah ; but the min did not expel them from Jerusalem. Probably
mountain of Zion, forming the northern wall of the Jebusites were removed by Judah only front
the valley, and occupied by the Jebusites, apper the lower city, but kept possession of the moun
tained to Benjamin. Among the cities of Benja tain of Zion, which David conquered at a later,
min, therefore, is also mentioned (Josh, xviii. 2R) period. Jerusalem is not again mentioned till
* Jehus, which is Jerusalem ' (comp. Judg. xix. 10 ; the time of Saul, when it is stated (1 Sam. xvii.
1 Chrun. xi. 4). 54) that David took the head of Goliath and
After the death of Joshua, when there remained brought it to Jerusalem. After David, who had
for the children of Israel much to conquer in previously reigned over Judah alone in Hebron,
Canaan, the Lord directed Judah to fight against was called to rule over all Israel, he led his
the (' in. unites : and they took Jerusalem, smote forces against the Jebusites, and conquered the
it witli the edge of the sword, and set it on 6re castle of Zion, which Joab first scaled (1 Sam.
(Judg. i. 1-8). After that, the Judahites and v. 5-9; 1 Chron. xii. 4-8). He then fixed his
the Benjamitea dwelt with the Jebusites at Jeru abode on this mountain, and called it 1 the city
salem ; for it is recorded (Josh. xv. 63) that the of David.' Thither he carried the ark of the cove
s'.
363. [Jerusalem.}
nant ; and there he built unto the Lord an altar chiefly, that it was in his own tribe of Judah, in
in the threshing-floor of Araunah the Jebusite, on which his influence was the strongest, while it
the place where the angel stood who threatened was the nearest to the other tribes of any site he
Jerusalem with pestilence (2 Sam. xxiv. 15-25). could have chosen in Judah. The peculiar
But David could not build a house unto the strength also of the situation, enclosed on three
name of the Lord his God for the wars which sides by a natural trench of valleys, could not be
were about him on every side (2 Sam. vii. 13; without weight. Its great strength, according to
1 Kings v. 3-5). Still the Lord announced to the military notions of that age, is shown by the
him, through the prophet Nathan (2 Sam. vii length of time the Jebusites were able to keep
10), 1 I will appoint a place for my people possession of it against the force of all Israel.
Israel, and will plant them, that they may dwell David was doubtless the best judge of his own
in a place of their own and move no more.' From interests in this matter; but if those interests had
this it would seem that even David had, then at not come into playnmd if he had only considered
least, no assurance that Jerusalem in particular the best situation fur a metropolis of the whole
was to be the place which had so often been spoken kingdom, it is doubtful whether a more centrical
of as that which God would choose for the central situation with respect to all the tribes would not
seat of the theocratical monarchy, and which it have been far preferable, es]>ecially as the law re
became after Solomon"s temple had been built. quired all the adult males of Israel to repair three
The reasons which led David to fix upon Jeru times in the year to the place of the Divine pre
salem as the metropolis of his kingdom have been sence. Indeed, the burdensome character of this
alluded to elsewhere [Israel; Judah]; being, obligation to the more distant tribes, seems to havt
JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM. 91
been one of the excuses for the revolt of the Ion the city flourished, and under had kings it
tribes ; us it certainly was for the establishment of suffered greatly. Under Rehoboam (b.c. 973)
schismatic altars in Dan ami Beth-el (1 Kings xii. it was conquered by Shishuk, king of Egypt,
28). Many travellers have suggested that Samaria, who pillaged tlie treasures of the temple (2
which afterwards became the metropolis of tlie Chron. xii. 9). Under Amaziah it was taken
sejurated kingdom, was far preferable to Jerusalem by Jchoash, king of Israel, who broke down 400
fur the site of a capital city : and its centrical cubits of the wall of the city, and took all the
situation would also have been in its favour as a gold and silver, and all the vessels that were
metropolis for all the tribes. But as the choice of found in the temple (2 Kings xiv. 13, 14).
David was subsequently confirmed by the Divine Uzziah, son of Amaziah, who at tirst reigned well,
appointment, which made Mount Moriah the site built towers in Jerusalem at the corner-gate, at
of the temple, we are bound to consider the choice the valley-gate, and at the turning of the wall,
as having been providentially ordered with refer and fortified them (2 Chron. xvi. 9). His son,
ence to the contingencies that afterwards arose, Jotham, built the high gate of the temple, and
by which Jerusalem was made the capital of the reared up many other structures (2 Chron. xvii.
separate kingdom of Judah, for which it was well 3, 4). Hezekiah (b.c. 728) added to the other
adapted. honours of his reign that of an improver of Jeru
The promise made to David received its accom salem. His most eminent work in that cha
plishment when Solomon built his temple upon racter was the stopping of the upper course of
Mount Moriah. By him and his father Jerusalem Gihon, and bringing its waters by a subterraneous
had been made the imperial residence of the king aqueduct to the west side of the city (2 Chron.
of all Israel : and the temple, often called ' the xxxii. 30). This work is inferred, from 2 Kings
house of Jehovall,' constituted it at the same time xx., to have been of great importance to Jeru
the residence of the King of kings, the supreme salem, as it cut off a supply of water from any
head of the theocratical state, whose vicegerents besieging enemy, anil l>estowed it upon the inha
the human kings were taught to regard them bitants of the city. Hezefciahs son, Mauasseh,
selves. It now belonged, even less than a town in his later and best years, built a strong and
of the Levites, to a particular tribe : it was the very high wall on the west-side of Jerusalem
centre of all civil and religious affairs, the very (2 Chron. xxxiii. 14). The works in the city
place of which Moses spoke, Deut. xii. 5: ' The connected with the names of the succeeding kings
place which the Lord your God shall choose out of Judah were, so far as recorded, confined to the
of all your tribes to put his name there, even unto defilement of the house of the Lord by Imd kings,
his habitation shall ye seek, and thither thou and its purgation by good kings, till about 100
shalt come ' fcomp. ix. 6 ; xiii. 14 ; xiv. 23 ; xvi. years after Manasseh, when, for the abounding
11-16; Pa, cxxii.). iniquities of the nation, the city and temple were
Jerusalem was not, indeed, politically im abandoned to destruction. Alter a siege of three
portant : it was not the capital of a powerful years, Jerusalem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar,
empire directing the aflairs of other states, hut it who razed its walls, and destroyed its temple and
stood high in the bright prospects foretold by palaces witli fire (2 Kings xxr. ; 2 Chron. xxxvi. ;
David when declaring his faith in the coming of Jer. xxxix.). Thus was Jerusalem smitten with
a Messiah (Ps. ii. 6 ; 1. 2; Ixxxvii.; cii. 16-22; the calamity which Moses had prophesied would
ex. 2). In all these passages the name Zion is befal it, if the people would not keep the com
used, which, although properly applied to the mandments of the Lord, but broke his covenant
southernmost part of the site ofJerusalem, is often (Lev. xxvi. 14; Deut xxviii.).
in Scripture put poetically for Jerusalem gene The ten tribes forming the kingdom of Israel
rally, and sometimes for Mount Muriah and its had teen already upwards of 130 years trans
temple. ported to Assyria, when Judah also was exiled to
The importance and splendour of Jerusalem Babylon. The castle of David, the temple of
were considerably lessened after the death of Solo Solomon, and the entire city, lay in ruins, and
mon ; under whose son, Reholmam, ten of the to all appearance there was an end of the
tribes rebelled, Judah and Benjamin only re people as well as of the holy city, which the
maining in their allegiance. Jerusalem was then Lord had chosen to himself. But God, before
only the capital of the very small state of Judah. whom a thousand years are as one day, gave to
And when Jen>t>oam instituted the worship of the afflicted people a glimpe beyond the present
golden calves in Beth-el and Dan, the ten tribes calamity and retributive judgment, into a dis
went no longer up to Jerusalem to worship and tant futurity. The same prophets who foretold
sacrifice in the house of the Lord (1 Kings xii. the destruction of Jerusalem, also announced the
26-30). consolations of a coming time.
After this time the history of Jerusalem is con Moves had long liefore predicted that if in the
tinued in the historv of Judah, for which the land of their captivity they repented of their evil,
second book of the Kings and of the Chronicles tiiey should l>e brought back again to the land
are the principal sources of information. out of which they had been cast (Deut. xxx.
After the time of Solomon, the kingdom of 1-5; comp. 1 Kings viii. 46-53; Neh. i. 8. Ii).
Judah STM almost alternately ruled by good The Lord also, through Isaiah, condescended to
In--. * who did that which was right in the sight point out the agency through which the restora
of fle I, pi." and by such as were idolatrous and tion of the holy city was tu l>e accomplished,
evil dH|>ml ; and the reinn of the same king and even named long before his birth the very
often varied, and was by turns good or evil. The person, Cyrus, under whose orders this was
condition of the kingdom, and of Jerusalem in to I* effected. * Thus saith the Lord of Cy
particular a* its metropolis, was very much rus : He is my shepherd and shall perform all
affected by these mutations. Under good kings my pleasure, even taying to Jerusalem, Thou
92 JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM.
ahalt be built ; and to the temple, Thy founda Darius Hystaspis, and the Jews reminding him
tion shall be laid' (Isa. xliv. 28; comp. Jer. iii. of the permission given by Cyrus, he decided in
% 7, 8; xxiii. 3 ; xxxi. 10; xxxii. 36", 37). their favour, and also ordered that the expenses
Among the remarkably precise indications of the work should be defrayed out of the public
should be mentioned that in which Jeremiah revenue (Exra vi. 6). In the sixth year of the
(xxv. 9-12) limits the duration of Judah's cap reign of Darius the temple was finished, when
tivity to 70 years. they kept the Feast of Dedication with great joy,
These encouragements were continued through and next celebrated the Passover (Ezra vi. 15, 16,
the prophets, who themselves shared the captivity. 19). Afterwards, in the seventh year of the se
Of this number was Daniel, who thus prayed : 1 O cond Artaxerxes, Ezra, a descendant of Aaron,
Lord, let thine anger be turned away from thy city came up to Jerusalem, accomjianied by a large
Jerusalem, thy holy mountain : because for our number of Jews who liad remained in Babylon.
stns, and for the iniquities of our fathers, Jeru He was highly patronised by the king, who not
salem and thy people are become a reproach to only made him a large present in gold and silver,
all that are about us. O Lord, hear, forgive ; but published a decree enjoining all treasurers
defer not, for thine own sake, for thy city and thy of Judaea speedily to do whatever Ezra should
people are called by thy name' (Dan. ix. 16. 19). require of them; allowing him to collect money
While the prophet was yel speaking it was re throughout the whole province of Babylon for
vealed to him, that the streets and the walls of the wants of the temple at Jerusalem; and also
Jerusalem should be built again, even in trou giving him full power to appoint magistrates in
blous times (ver. 35). his country to judge the people (Ezra vii. viii.)
Daniel lived to see the reign of Cyrus, king of At a later period, in the twentieth year of king
Persia (Dan. x. i.), and the fulfilment of his Artaxerxes, Nehemiah, who was his cuvbcartr.
prayer. It was in the year b.c. 536, * in the first obtained permission to proceed to Jerusalem, and
year of Cyrus,1 that in accomplishment of the to complete the rebuilding of the city and its wall,
prophecy of Jeremiah, the Lord stirred up the which he happily accomplished, despite of all the
spirit of this prince, who made a proclamation opposition which he received from the enemies of
throughout all his kingdom, expressed in these Israel (Neh. i. ii. iv. vi.). The city was then ca
remarkable words : 'The Lord God of heaven hath pacious and large, but the people in it were few,
given me all the kingdoms of the earth, and As and many houses lay still in ruins (Neh. vii. 4).
has charged me to build him a house at Jeru At Jerusalem dwelt the rulers of the people and
salem, which is in Judah. Who is there among 1 certain of the children of Judah and of the
you of all his people ? his God be with him, and children of Benjamin but it was now deter
let him go up to Jerusalem, and build the house mined that the rest of the people should cast lots
of the Lord God of Israel 1 (Ezra i. % 3). This to bring one of ten to the capital (Neh. xi. 1-4).
important call was answered by a considerable All strangers, Samaritans, Ammonites, Moahites.
number of persons, particularly priests and Le- &c, were removed, to keep the chosen ]>eople
vites ; and tne many who declined to quit their from pollution; ministers were appointed to the
houses and possessions in Babylonia, committed temple, and the service was jierformed according
valuable gifts to the hands of their more zealous to the law of Moses (Ezra x. ; Neii. viii., x., xii.,
brethren. Cyrus also caused the sacred vessels Of the Jerusalem thus by such great and
of gold and silver which Nebuchadnezzar had long-continued exertions restored, very splendid
taken from the temple to be restored to Shesh- prophecies were uttered by those prophets who
bazzar, the prince of Judah, who took them to flourished after the exile : the general pur|H>rt of
Jerusalem, followed by 42,360 people, beside their which was to describe the temple and city as
servants, of whom there were 7337' (Ezrai. 5-11). destined to be glorified far beyond the tanner,
On their arrival at Jerusalem they contributed by the advent of the long and eagerly expected
according to their ability to rebuild the temple; Messiah, * the desire of all nations ' (Zech. ix. 9 ;
Jeshua, the priest, and Zerubbabel, reared up an xii. 10 ; xiii. 3 ; Hagg. ii. 6, 7 ; Mai. iii. 1 1 )
altar to offer burnt-offerings thereon ; and when in Thus far the Old Testament has been our
the following year the foundation was laid of the guide in the notices of Jerusalem. For what fal
new house of God, * the people shouted for joy, lows, down to its destruction by the Romans, we
but many of the Levites who had seen the first must draw chiefly upon Josephus, and the Ii kjUs
temple, wept with a loud voice' (Ezra iii. 2, 12). of the Maccabees. The difficulty here, as liefoir,
When the Samaritans expressed a wish to share is to separate what projierly l>elongs to Jerusalem
in the pious labour, Zerubbabel declined the from that which belongs to the country at large.
offer ; and in revenge the Samaritans sent a de For as Jerusalem was invariably affected by
putation to king Artaxerxes of Persia, carrying whatever movement took place in the country of
a presentment in which Jerusalem was described which it was the capital, its history might be
as a rebellious city of old time, which, if re made, and often has been made, the history of
built, and its walls set up again, would not pay Palestine.
toll, tribute, and custom, and would thus enda It issaid by Josephus (Antiq. xi. R), that when
mage the public revenue. The deputation suc the dominion of this jiart of the world passed from
ceeded, and Artaxerxes ordered that the building the Persians to the Greeks, Alexander the Great
of the temple should cease. The interruption thus advanced against Jerusalem to punish it tor the
caused lasted to the second year of the reign of fidelity to the Persians which it had man i tested
Darius (Ezra iv. 24), when Zerubbabel and while he was engaged in the siege of Tyre
Jeshua, supported by the prophets Haggai and His hostile purposes, however, were averted by
Zechariah, again resumed the work, and would the ap|iearance of the high-priest Jaddua at the
not cease though cautioned by the Persian go head of a train of priests in their sacred ftotmentt.
vernor of Judsea. On the matter coming before Alexander recognised in him the figure which in
JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM.
a dream hail encouraged him to undertake the have regarded as the prejudices of the Jewish
conquest of Asia. He llterefore treated him with people.
respect and reverence, spared the city against Under their new masters the Jews enjoyed for a
which his wratli had been kindled, and granted time nearly as much tranquillity as under the
to the Jews high and important privileges. The generally benign and liberal government of the
historian adds that the high-priest tailed not to Ptolemies. But in b.c. 176, Seleucus Philopator,
apprise the conqueror of those prophecies in Da hearing that great treasures were hoarded up in the
niel by which his successes had been predicted. temple, and being distressed for money to carry on
The whole of this story is, however, liable to sus his wars, sent his treasurer, Heliodorus, to bring
picion, from the absence of any notice of the cir away these treasures. But this personage is rejjorted,
cumstance in the histories of this campaign which to have been so frightened and stricken by an ap
we possess. parition that he relinquished the attempt ; and Se
After the death of Alexander at Babylon leucus left; the Jews in the undisturbed enjoyment
(b.c. 321), Ptolemy surprised Jerusalem on the of their rights (2 Mace, isI. 4-40 ; Joseph. Antiq,
Sabbath day, when the Jews would not fight, plun xii. 3. 3). His brother and successor, Antiochus
dered the city, and carried away a great number Epiphaues, however, was ofanother mind. He took
of the inhabitants to Egypt, where, however, from up the design of reducing them to a conformity
the estimation in which the Jews of this period of manners and religion with other nations ; or,
were held as citizens, important privileges were in other words, of abolishing those distinctive
bestowed upon them (Joseph. Antiq. xii. 1^,. In features which made the Jews a peculiar people,
the contests which afterwards followed for the socially separated from all others. This design
possession of Syria (including Palestine), Jeru was odious to the great body of the people, al
salem does not appear to have been directly in though there were many among the higher classes
jured, and was even spared when Ptolemy gave who regarded it with favour. Of this way of
np Samaria, Acco, Joppa, and Gaza to pillage. thinking was Menelaus, whom Antiochus had
The contest was ended by the treaty in B.C. 302, made high-priest, and who was expelled by the
which annexed the whole of Palestine, together orthodox Jews with ignominy, in b.c. 169, when
with Arabia Petnea and Coele-Syria, to Egypt. they heard the joyful news that Antiochus had
Under easy subjection to the Ptolemies the Jews been slain in Egypt The rumour proved un
remained in much tranquillity for more than a true, and Antiochus on his return punished them
hundred years, in which the principal incident, as by plundering and profaning the temple. Worse
regards Jerusalem itself, was the visit which was evils befel them two years after : for Antiochus,
paid to it, in b.c, 245, by Ptolemy Euergetes, on out of humour at being compelled by the Ro
his return from his victories in the East. He mans to abandon his designs upon Egypt, sent
ottered many sacrifices, aud made magnificent his chief collector of tribute, Apollonius, with a
present* to the temple. In the wars between detachment of 22,000 men, to vent his rage on
Antiochus the Great and the kings of Egypt, Jerusalem. This person plundered the city, and
from bc. 221 to 197, Judaea could not fail to razed its walls, with the stones of which he built a
sutler severely ; but we are not acquainted with citadel that commanded the temple mount. A
any incident in which Jerusalem was principally statue of Jupiter was set up in the temple; the
concerned, till the alleged visit of Ptolemy Phi- peculiar observances of the Jewish law were abo
lnpator in b.c. 211. He offered sacrifices, and lished ; and a persecution was commenced against
gave rich gifts to the temple, but venturing to all who adhered to these observances, and refused
enter the sanctuary, in spite of the remonstrances to sacrifice to idols. Jerusalem was deserted by
of the high-priest, he was seized with a super priests and people, and the daily sacrifice at the
natural dread, and lied in terror from the place. altar was entirely discontinued. (1 Mace. i. 29-
It u said th.it on his return to Egypt he vented 40; 2 Mace. v. 24-26; Joseph. Antiq. xii.
his rage on the Jews of Alexandria in a very bar 5.4).
barous manner [Alexandria]. But the whole This led to the celebrated revolt of the Mac-
story of his visit and its results rests upon the calces, who, after an arduous and sanguinary
sole authority of the third book of Maccabees struggle, obtained possession of Jerusalem (b.c.
(chaps, i. and ii.), and is therefore not entitled to 163), and repaired and purified the temple, which
implicit credit. Towards the end of this war the was then dilapidated and deserted. New utensils
Jews seemed to favour the cause of Antiochus ; were provided for the sacred services : the old
and after he had subdued the neighbouring coun altar, which had been polluted by heathen abo
try, they voluntarily tendered their submission, minations, was taken away, and a new one erected.
and rendered their assistance in expelling the The sacrifices were then recommenced, exactly
Egyptian garrison from Mount Zion. For this three years after the temple had been dedicated to
conduct they were rewarded by many important Jupiter Olympius. The castie, however, remained
privileges by Antiochus. He issued decrees di in the hands of the Syrians, and long proved a sore
recting, among other things, that the outworks of annoyance to the Jews, although Judas Maccabxus
the temple should be completed, and that all the surrounded the temple with a high aud strong wall,
materials for needful repairs should be exempted furnished with towers, in which soldiers were sta
from taxes. The peculiar sanctity of the temple tioned to protect the worshippers from the Syrian
was also to be respected. No foreigner was to jjass garrison (1 Mace. i. 36, 37 ; Joseph. Antiq. vii. 1\
the sacred walls; and the city itself was to lie Eventually the annoyance grew so intolerable
protected from pollution: it being strictly for that Judas laid siege to the castle. This attempt
bidden that the llesh or skins of any beasts which brought a powerful army into the country under
the Jews accounted uncleau should be brought the command of the regent Lysias, who, however,
into it (Joseph. Antiq. xii. 3. 3). These were very being constrained to turn his arms elsewhere,
liberal concessions to what the king himself must made peace with the Jews ; but when he was ad*
94 JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM.
mitted into the city, and observed tlie strength of Jerusalemthe Jerusalem as improved by the
the place, he threw down the walls, in violation of magnificent tastes and profuse expenditure of
the treaty (1 Mace. vi. 48-05). In the ensuing Herodwas probably as different from the Jeru
war with IJacchides, the general of Demetrius salem before his time as the Loudon of 1841 is
Sorer, in which Judas was slain, the Syrians from the London of 1R00. And perhaps the dif
strengthened their citadel, and placed in it ference was even greater, for our great fanes still
the sons of the principal Jewish families as exist; whereas the temple, which always formed
hostages (1 Mace. ix. 52, 53 ; Joseph. Antiq. xhi. the great architectural glory of Jerusalem, was
L 3). The year after (b.c. 159) the temjwrising taken down and rebuilt by Herod the Great,
high-priest Alcimus directed the wall which sepa- with a magnificence exceeding that of Solo
rated the court of Israel from that of the Gen mon's (Mark xiii. 1 ; John ii. 20; see Tkmpi.e).
tiles to be cast down, to afford the latter free It was in the courts of the temple as thus rebuilt,
access to the temple : but he was seized with palsy and in the streets of the city as thus improved,
as soon as the work commenced, and died in great that the Saviour of men walked up and down.
agony (1 Mace. ix. 51-57). * When, a few years Here lie taught, here he wrought miracles, here
after, Demetrius and Alexander Balas sought to he suffered ; and this was the temple whose
outbid each other for the support of Jonathan, the * goodly stones 1 the apostle admired (Mark
hostages in the castle were released ; and subse xiii. 1), and of which he foretold that ere the
quently all the Syrian garrisons in Judaea were existing generation had passed away not one stone
evacuated, excepting those of Jerusalem and should be left upon another. Nor was tike city
Bethzur, which were chiefly occupied by apostate in this state admired by Jews only. Pliny calls
Je.vs, who were afraid to leave their places of it * longe clarissimam urbium orient is, non Ju
refuge. Jonathan then rebuilt the walls of Jeru daea; modo' {Hist Nat. v. 16).
salem, and repaired the buildings of the city, Jerusalem seems to have been raised to this
besides erecting a palace for his own residence greatness, as if to enhance the misery of its over
(1 Mace. x. 2-4; Joseph. Antiq. xiii. 2. 1). The throw. So soon as the Jews had set the Beal to
particular history of Jerusalem for several years their formal rejection of Christ, by putting him
following is little more than an account of the to death, and invoking the responsibility of his
efforts of the Maccabsan princes to obtain jjos- blood upon the heads of themselves and of their
session of the castle, and of the Syrian kings to children (Matt, xxvii. 25), its doom went forth.
retain it in their hands. At length, in b.c. 142, After having been the scene of horrors without
the garrison was forced to surrender by Simon, example, it was, in a.d. 70, abandoned to the
who demolished it altogether, that it might Romans, who razed the city and temple to the
not again be used against the Jews by their ground, leaving only three of the towers and a
enemies. Simon (lien strengthened the fortifica part of the western wall to show how strong a place
tions of the mountain on which the temple stood, the Roman arms had overthrown. Since then the
ami built there a palace for himself (1 Mace xiii. holy city has lain at the mercy of the Gentiles,
43-52; Joseph. Antiq. xiii. 6. 6). This building and will so remain * until the times of the Gen
was afterwards turned into a regular fortress by tiles are fulfilled/
John Hyrcanns, and was ever after the resi Modern History.The destruction of Jeru
dence of the Maccaba;;in princrs (Joseph. Antiq. salem by the Romans did not cause the she to be
xv. 11. 4). It is caned by Jo-.ephus Mbe castle utterly forsaken. Titus left there in garrison (lie
of Baris,' in bis history of'the Jews; till it was whole of the tenth legion, besides several squad
strengthened and enlarged by Herod the Great, rons of cavalry and cohorts of foot. For these
who called it the castle of Autonia, under which troops, and for those who ministered to their wants,
name it makes a conspicuous figure in the Jewish there must have been dwellings ; and there is ni
wars with the Romans. reason to suppose that such Jews or Christians as
Of Jerusalem itself we find nothing of conse appealed to have taken no part in the war were
quence, till it was taken by Pompey in the summer forbidden to make their abode among the ruins,
of d.c. (>3,and on the very day observed by the Jews and building them up so far as their necessities
as one of lamentation and fasting, in commemora might require. But nothing like a restoration of
tion of the conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchad the city could have arisen from this, as it was not
nezzar. Twelve thousand Jews were massacred in likely that any but poor people, who found an
the temple courts, including many prhsts, who interest in supplying the wants of the garrison,
died at the very altar rather than Busjwnd the were likely to resort to the ruins under such cir
sacred rites (Joseph. Antiq. xiv. 1-4). Oti this cumstances. However, we learn from Jerome that
occasion Pompey, attended by Ins generals, went for fifty years after its destruction, until the time
into the temple and viewed the sanctuary ; but he ofAdrian, there still existed remnants of the city.
left untouched all its treasures and sacred ihings, But during all this period there is no mention of
while the walls of the city itself were demolished. it in history.
From this time the Jews are to be considered as Up to a.d. 131 the Jews remained tolerably
under the dominion of the Romans (Joseph. Antiq. quiet, although apparently waiting any favour
xiv. 4. 5), The treasures which Pompey had able opportunity of shaking off the Roman yoke.
spared were seized a few years after (b.c. 51) by The then emperor, Adrian, seems to have been
Crassus. In the year u.c. 43, the walls of the aware of this state of feeling, and, among other
city, which Pompey had demolished, were rebuilt measures of precaution, ordered Jerusalem to be
by Antipater, the father of that Herod the Great rebuilt as a fortified place wherewith to keep in
under whom Jerusalem was destined to assume check the whole Jewish population. The works
the new and more magnificent aspect which it had made some progress, when the Jews, unable
bore in the time of Christ, and which constituted to endure the idea that their holy city should be
the Jerusalem which Josephus describes. Thu occupied by foreigners, and that strange gods
JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM. 95
should be set up within it, broke out into open to rebuild their temple. They accordingly began
rebellion under the notorious Barchochebas, who to lay the foundations in a.d. 362 ; but the speedy
claimed to be the Messiah. His success was at death of the emperor probably occasioned that
first very great ; but he was crushed before the abandonment of the attempt, which contemporary
tremendous power of the Romans, so soon as it writers ascribe to supernatural hindrances. The
could be brought to bear upon him ; and a war edicts seem then to have been renewed which
scarcely inferior in horror to that under Vespasian excluded the Jews from the city, except on the
and Titus was, like it, brought to a close by the day of annual wailing.
capture of Jerusalem, of which the Jews had ob In the following centuries the roads to Zion
tained possession. Tins was in a. n. 1 35, from which were thronged with pilgrims from all parts of
period the final dispersion of the Jews lias been Christendom, and the land abounded in monas
often dated. The Romans then finished the city teries, occupied by persons who wished to lead a
according to their first intention. It was made a religious life amid the scenes which had been
Roman colouy, inhabited wholly by foreigners, sanctified by the Saviour's presence. After much
the Jews being forbidden to approach it on pain struggle of conflictin^dignities Jerusalem was, in
of death : a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus was a.d. 451, declared a patriarchate by the council
erected on Mount Moriah, and the old name of of Chalcedon. In the next century it found a
Jerusalem was sought to be supplanted by that second Constantine in Justinian, who ascended
of JEWa Capitolina, conferred upon it in honour the throne a.d. 527. He repaired and enriched
of the emperor, A'A ins Adrianus, and Jupiter Ca the former structures, and built upon Mount
pitolinus. By this name was the city known till Moriah a magnificent church to the Virgin, as a
the time of Constantine, when that of Jerusalem memorial of the persecution of Jesus in the temple.
again became current, although /Elia was still its He also founded ten or eleven convents in and
public designation, and remained such so late as about Jerusalem and Jericho, and established an
a.d. 536, when it appears in the acts of a synod hospital for pilgrims in each of those cities.
held there. This name even passed to the Mo But these prosperous days were soon to end.
hammedans, by whom it was long retained ; and The Persians, who had long harassed the empire
it was not till after they recovered the city from the of the East, penetrated into Syria in a.d. 614,
Crusaders that it became generally known among and after defeating the forces of the Emperor
them by the name of El-Khudsthe holywhich Heraclius, took Jerusalem by storm. Many thou
it still bears. sands of the inhabitants were slain, and much of
From the rebuilding by Adrian the history of the city, including the finest churchesthat of
Jerusalem is almost a blank till the time of Con the holy sepulchre among themwas destroyed.
stantine, when its history, as a place of extreme When the conquerors withdrew they took away
solicitude and interest to the Christian church, the principal inhabitants, the patriarch, and the
properly begins. Pilgrimages to the Holy City now true cross; but when, the year after, peace was
became common and popular. Such a pilgrimage concluded, these were restored, and the Em]ieror
was undertaken in a d. 326 by the emperors mo Heraclius entered Jerusalem in solemn state,
ther Helena, then in the 80th year of her age, who bearing the cross upon his shoulders.
built churches on the alleged site of the nativity The damage occasioned by the Persians was
at Bethlehem, and of the resurrection on the Mount speedily repaired. But Arabia soon furnished a
of Olives. This example may probably have more formidable enemy in the Khalif Omar,
excited her son to the discovery of the site of the whose troop! appeared before the city in a.d. 636,
holy sepulchre, and to the erection of a church Arabia, Syria, and Egypt having already been
thereon. He removed the temple of Venus, with brought under the Moslem yoke. After a long
which, in studied insult, the site had been en siege the austere khalif himself came to the camp,
cumbered. The holy sepulchre was then puri and the city was at length surrendered to him in
fied, and a magnificent church was, by his order, a.d. 637. The conqueror of mighty kings en
built over and around the sacred spot This tered the holy city in his garment of camel's hair,
temple was completed and dedicated with great and conducted himself with much discretion and
solemnity in a.d. 335. There is no doubt that the generous forltearance. By his orders I lie magni
spot thus singled out is the same which has ever ficent mosque which still bears his name was built
since been regarded as the pi.ire in which Christ upon Mount Moriah, upon the site of the Jewish
was entombed ; but the correctness of the identifi temple.
cation then made has been of lute years much Jerusalem remained in possession of the Ara
disputed, on grounds which have been examined bians, aud was occasionally visited by Christian
in the article Golgotha. The very cross on pilgrims from Europe till towards the year 1000,
which our Lord suffered was also, in the course of when a general bet iff that the second coming
these explorations, believed to have been disco of the Saviour was near at hand, drew pilgrims
vered, under the circumstances which have already in unwonted crowds to the Holy Laud, and cre
been described [Choss]. ated an impulse for pilgrimages thither, which
By Constantine the edict, excluding the Jews ceased not to act after the first exciting cause had
from the city of their fathers* sepulchres, was so l>een forgotten. The Moslem government, in order
far repealed that they were allowed to enter it to derivesome profit from this enthusiasm, imposed
once a-year to wail over the desolation of * the the tribute of a piece of gold as the price of
holy and beautiful house,' in which their lathers entrance into the holy city. The sight, by such
worshipped God. When the nephew of Constan large numbers, of the holy place in the hands
tine, the Emperor Julian, abandoned Christianity of infidels, the exaction of tribute, and the in
for the old Paganism, he endeavoured, as a mat sults to which the pilgrims, often of the highest
ter of policy, to conciliate the Jews. He allowed rank, were exposed from the Moslem rabble, ex
them free access to the city, and permitted them cited an extraordinary ferment in Euroj>e, and led
JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM.
to thoae remarkable expeditions for recovering the David of Kerek, who seized the city, strangled
Holy Sepulchre from the Mohammedans, which, the Christian inhabitants, and cast down the
under the name of the Crusades, will always till newly erected walls and fortress. Four years
a most important and curious chapter in the his afte: , however (a.d. 1243), Jerusalem was again
tory of ihe world. made over to the Christians without any restric
The dominion over Palestine had jwissed in tion, and the works appear to have been restored
a.d. 960 from the khalifs of Bagdad to the Fate- and completed ; for they are mentioned as exist
mite khalifs of Egypt, who, in their turn, were ing when the city was stormed by the wild Kha-
dispossessed in a.d. 1073 by the Turkmans, who rismian hordes in the following year; shortly after
had usurped the powers of the eastern khalifat. which the city reverted for the last time into the
The severities exercised hy these more tierce and 1lands of its Mohammedan masters, who hare kept
uncivilized Moslems upon both the native Chris it to the present day.
tians and the European pilgrims supplied the From this time Jerusalem appears to have sunk
immediate impulse to the first eastern exjwdition. very much in political and military importance;
But by the time the crusaders, under Godfrey of and it is scarcely named in the history of the
Bouillon, appeared before Jerusalem, on the 17tli Memluk sultans who reigned over Egypt and the
of June, 1099, the Egyptian khalifs had recovered greater part of Syria in the fourteenth and fif
possession of Palestine and driven the Turkmans teenth centuries. At length, with the rest of
beyond the Euphrates. Syria and Egypt, it passed under the sway of the
After a siege of forty days, the holy city was Turkish sultan Selim I., who paid a hasty visit
taken by storm on the 15th day of July ; and a to the holy city from Damascus after his return
dreadful massacre of the Moslem inhabitants fol from Egypt. From that time Jerusalem has
lowed, without distinction of age or sex. As soon formed a part of the Ottoman empire, and during
as order was restored, and the city cleared of the this period has been subject to few vicissitudes :
dead, a regular government was established by its history is accordingly barren of incident.
the election of Godfrey as king of Jerusalem. The present walls of the city were erected by
One of the tint cares of the new monarch was to Suleiman the Magnificent, the successor of Se
dedicate anew to the Lord the place where His lim, in a.d. 154'2, as is attested by an inscription
Presence had once abode ; and the mosque of over the Jaffa gate. So lately as a.d. 1808, Ihe
Omar became a Christian cathedral, whicn the church of the holy sepulchre was partially con
historians of the time distinguish as ' the temple sumed by tire; but the damage was repaired with
of the Lord 1 ( Templum Domini). The Christians great lalxmr and expense by September, 1810,
kept possession of Jerusalem eighty-eight years. and the traveller now finds in this imposing fa
During this long period they appear to have bric no traces of the recent calamity.
erected several churches and many convents. Of In a.d. 1832, Jerusalem became subject 1u
the latter few, if any, traces remain ; and of the Mohammed Ali, the pasha of Egypt, the holj
former, save one or two ruins, the church of the city opening its gates to him without a siege
holy sepulchre, which they rebuilt, is the only During the great insurrection in the districts of
memorial which attests the existence of the Jerusalem and Nabulus, in 1834, the insurgents
Christian kingdom of Jerusalem. In a.d. 1187 seizetl upon Jerusalem, and held possession of it
the holy city was wrested from the hands of for a time ; but by the vigorous operations of the
the Christians by the Sultan Saladiu, and the government order was soon restored, and the city
order of tilings was then reversed. The cross reverted quietly to its allegiance on the approach
was removed with ignominy from the sacred of Ibrahim Pasha with his troops. In 1841
dome, the holy places were puritied from Chris Mohammed Ali was deprived of all his Syrian
tian stain with rose-water brought from Damascus, possessions by European interference, and Jeru
and the call to prayer by the muezzin once more salem was again subjected to the Turkish govern
sounded over the city. From that time to the ment, under which it now remains. It is not,
present day the holy city has remained, with perhaps, the happier for the change. The only
slight interruption, in the hands of the Moslems. subsequent event of interest has been the esta
On the threatened siege by Richard of England in blishment of a Protestant bishopric at Jerusalem
1192, Satadin took great pains in strengthening its by the English and Prussian governments, and
defences. New walls and bulwarks were erected, the erection upon Mount Zioii of a church, cal
and deep trenches cut, and in six months the culated to hold 500 persons, for the celebration
town was stronger than it ever had been, and the of divine worship according to the ritual of the
works had the tirmness and solidity of a rock. English church. For the history of Jerusalem see
But in a.d. 1219, the Sultan Melek'el Moaddin History com Jerusalem, Strasbourg, 1518 ; Spald
of Damascus, who then had possession of Jeru ing, Gesch. d. ChristL Konigsreich* Jerusalem^
salem, ordered all the walls and towers to be Berlin, 1803; Deyling, fl\Hm Capxtolinee Origg.
demolished, except the citadel and the enclosure et Historic Lips. 1743; Poujoulat, llistoirc de
of the mosque, lest the Franks should again be Jerusalem, Brux. 1812; Kaumer's Palastina ;
come masters of the city and find it a place of Robinson's Bib. Researches in Palestine*
strength. In this defenceless state Jerusalem con Before proceeding to inquire into the ancient
tinued till it was delivered over to the Christians state of the city, and to describe its present con
in consequence of a treaty with the emperor dition, it will be well to furnish the reader with a
Frederick II., in a.d. 1229, with the understand general description of the site, that he may be en
ing that the walls should not be rebuilt. Vet leu abled to follow the details with the more precision.
years later (a.d. 1239) the barons and knights ot For this purpose we shall avail ourselves of the
Jerusalem began to build the walls anew, and to able sketch given by Professor Robinson in his
erect a strong fortress on tiie west of the city. liesearches (i. 380-384).
But the works were interrupted by the emir Gbnbkal Topooraphy.* Jerusalem lies near
JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM. 97
the summit of a broad mountain-ridge. This ridge, of ground, having at some distance on his left the
or mountainous tract, extends, without interrup shallow northern |>art of the valley of Jehoshaphat;
tion, from the plain of Esdraelon to a line drawn close at hand on his right the basin which forms
between the south end of the Dead Sea and the the beginning of the Valley of Hinuom. Fur
south-east comer of the Mediterranean ; or, more ther down both these valleys become deep, narrow,
properly, perhaja, it may be regarded as extend and precipitous ; that of Hinnom bends south and
ing as far south as to Jebel Araif in the Desert, again east nearly at right angles, and unites
where it sinks down at once to the level of the with the other, which then continues its course
gxeat western plateau. This tract, which is every to the Dead Sea, Upon the broad and elevated
where nut less than from 20 to 25 geographical promontory within the fork of these two valleys
miles in breadth, is, in fact, high uneven table lies the holy city. All around are higher hills;
land. It everywhere forms the precipitous west on the east the Mount of Olives ; on the south
ern wall of the great valley of the Jordan and the the Hill of Evil Counsel, so called, rising directly
Dead Sea; while towards the west it sinks down from the Vale of Hinnom ; on the west the ground
by an off-set, into a range of lower hills, which lie rises gently, as above described, to the borders of
between it and the great plain along the co;Lst of the great VVady ; while on the north, a bend of
the Mediterranean. The surface of this upj)er the ridge, connected with the Mount of Olives,
region is everywhere rocky, uneven, and moun bounds the prospect at the distance of more than
tainous j and is, moreover, cut up by deep valleys a mile. Towards the S$V. the view is somewhat
which run east or west on either side towards the more open ; for here lies the plain of Rephaim,
Jordan or the Mediterranean. The line of division, commencing just at the southern brink of the
or water-shed, between the waters of these valleys valley of Hinnom, and stretching off S.W. , where
a term which here applies almost exclusively it runs to the western sea. In the N.W. too, the
to the waters of the rainy seasonfollows lor the eye reaches up along Hie upper jiart of the valley
most part the height of land along the ridge ; yet of Jehoshaphat ; and from many points can dis
not so hut that the heads of the valleys, which cern the mosque of Neby Samwii, situated on a
run off in different directions, often intcrlap for lofty ridge beyond the great Wady, at the distance
a considerable distance. Thus, for example, a of two hours.
valley which descends to the Jordan, often has The surface of the elevated promontory itself,
its head a mih? or two westward of the commence on which the city stands, slopes somewhat steeply
ment of other valleys which run to the western towards the east, terminating on the brink of the
sea. valley of Jehoshaphat From the northern part,
From the great plain of Esdraelon onwards near the present Damascus gate, a depression or
towards the south, the mountainous country rises shallow wady runs in a southern direction, hav
gradually, forming the tract anciently known as ing on the west the ancient hills of Akra and
the mountains of Ephraim and Judah ; until, in Zion, and on the east the lower ones of Bezetha
the vicinity of Hebron, it attains an elevation of and Moriah. Between the hills of Akra and
nearly 3000 Paris feet above the level of the Me Ziou another depression or shallow wady (still
diterranean Sea. Further north, on a line drawn easy to l>e traced) comes down from near the Jaffa
from the north end of the Dead Sea towards the gate, and joins the furmer. It then continues
true we-it, the ridge has an elevation of only about obliquely down the slope, but with a deeper
2500 Paris feet; and here, close upon the water bed, in a southern direction, quite to the pool of
shed, lies the city of Jerusalem. Its mean geo Siloam and the valley of Jehoshaphat. This
graphical position is in lat. 31 4G' 43" N., and is the ancient Tyropoeon. West of its lower part
long. 35 13' E. from Greenwich. Zion rises loftily, lying mostly without (he modem
Six or seven miles N. and N.W. of the city is city ; while on the east of the Tyropoeon and the
spread out the open plain or basin round about valley first mentioned, lie Bezetha, Moriah, and
el-Jib (Giheon), extending also towards cl-Bireh Ophel, the last a long and comparatively narrow
(Beeroth) ; the waters of which Bow off at its S.E. ridge, also outside of the modern city, and termi
part through the deep valley here called by the nating in a rocky point over the pool of Siloam.
Arabs Watly Beit Hanina; but to which the These three last hills may strictly be taken as
monks and travellers have usually given the name only parts of one and the same ridge. The
of the ' Valley of Tur^itine," or of the Terebinth, breadth of the whole site of Jerusalem, from the
on the mistaken sup|K>sition that it is the ancient brow of the valley of Hinnom, near the Jaffa gate,
Valley of Elah. This great valley passes along in to the brink of the valley of Jehoshaphat, is about
a S.W. direction, an hour or more west of Jerusa 1020 yards, or nearly half a geographical mile;
lem ; and finally opens out from the mountains of which distance 318 yards are occupied by the
into the western plain, at the distance of six or area of the great mosque el-Uaram esh-Sherif.
eight hours S.W. from the city, under the name North of the Jaffa gate the city wall sweeps
of Wady es Surar. The traveller, on his way round more to the west, and increases the breadth
from Ramleh to Jerusalem, descends into and of the city in that part.
crosses this deep valley at the village of Kulouieh The country around Jerusalem is all of lime
on its western side, 'an hour and a half from the stone formation, and not particularly fertile. The
latter city. On again reaching the high ground rocks everywhere come out above the surface,
on its eastern side, he enters upon an open tract which in many jiaits is also thickly strewed with
lion iug gradually downwards towards the east; loose stones ; and the aspect of the whole region
and sees before him, at the distance of about two is barren and dreary ; yet the olive thrives here
miles, the walls and domes of the holy city, and abundantly, and fields of grain are seen in the
beyond them the higher ridge or summit of the valleys and level places, but they are less pro
Mount of Olives. The traveller now descends ductive than in the region of Hebron and Nabu-
gradually towards the city along a broad swell lus. Neither vineyards nor fig-trees flourish on
VOL. II. a
M JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM.
the high ground around the city, though the latter fathom ; their whole history is a history of mira
are found in the gardens below Siloam, and very cles ; the precepts of their sacred book are the most
frequently in the vicinity of Bethlehem.* profound, and the l>est adapted to every station in
Ancient Jerusalem,Every reader of Scrip which man can 1m? placed : they moderate him in
ture feels a natural anxiety to form some notion prosperity, sustain hi in in adversity, guide him in
of the apj>earance and condition of Jerusalem, as health, console him in sickness, sup|xirt him at
it existed in the time of Jesus, or rather as it the close of life, travel on with him through
stood before its destruction by the Romans. There death, live with him throughout endless ages of
are unusual difficulties in the way of satisfying eternity, and Jerusalem lends its name to the
this desire, although it need not be left altogether eternal mansions of the blessed in heaven which
ungratitied. The princijial sources of these diffi man U admitted to enjoy through the atonement
culties have been indicated by different travellers, of Christ Jesus, who was bom of a descendant of
and by none more forcibly than by Richardson Judah.1
(Travels, ii. 251). 1 It is a tantalizing circum If writers who have actually visited Jerusalem
stance, however, for the traveller who wishes to re have encountered inch difficulties, to those wIk)
cognise in his walks the site of particular buildings, never saw the piare it must be still more diffi
or the scenes of memorable events, that the greater cult, if not irn]K)ssible, to arrive at definite con
part of the objects mentioned in the description, clusions respecting the ancient city. It is certain
both of the inspired and*f the Jewish historian, that our knowledge of its ancient state must pro
are entirely razed from their foundation, without ceed upon an accurate knowledge of its present
leaving a single trace or name behind to point out condition. But if we compare the accounts of
where they stood. Not an ancient tower, or gate, different travellers, and the plans which many of
or wall, or hardly even a. stone remains. The them have laid down, the irreconcilable differences
foundations are not only broken up, but every between them produce a discouraging convic
fragment of which they were composed is swept tion of the insufficiency of the l>asis thus offered
away, and the spectator looks upon the bare rock for the foundation of any fixed conclusions. And
witii hardly a sprinkling of earth to point out her even if there were agreement in the accounts of
gardens of pleasure, or groves of idolatrous devo the superficies, something more than this would be
tion. A few gardens still remain on the sloping requiredsomething more than ever perhapi will
base of Mount Zion, watered from the pool of be realized while the site continues to be trodden
Siloam : the gardens of Gethsemane are still in a under foot by the Gentiles. Much was done by
sort of ruined cultivation; the fences are broken Dr. Robinson and others during the period of the
down and the olive-trees decaying, as if the hand rule of the Pasha of Egypt, in which greater
wliich dressed and fed them were withdrawn : the facilities were offered for exploration than are
Mount of Olives still retains a languishing likely to l>e soon again obtained. But a far more
verdure, and nourishes a few of those trees from minute and searching examination of the site
which it derives its name; but all mund about than was even then realized is necessary for the
Jerusalem the general aspect is blighted and pnrjK>ses of antiquarian comparison. For instance,
larren : the grass is withered : the bare rock looks the surface is in many partscovered to a vast depth)
through the scanty sward, and the grain itself, and the character and properties ofparticular spots
like the starving progeny of famine, seems in are necessarily much altered, by the accumulated
doubt whether to come to maturity or die in the rubbish of ages. Some notion of this may he
ear. Jerusalem has heard the voice of David and formed from the fact that in seeking a foundation
Solomon, of prophets and apostles; and He who for the Protestant church on Mount Zion, super
spake as man never spake has taught in her syna incumbent rubbish to the depth of fil ty feet was
gogues and in her streets. Before her legislators, dug through before reaching the solid rock (Olin,
her poets, and her apostles, those of all other coun ii. '251). It would therefore ap]*;ir that not only
tries became dumb, and cast down their crowns, a very minute survey, bill numerous excavations,
as unworthy to stand in their presence. Once she would be necessary to the ends of a really satis
was very rich in every blessing, victorious over all factory investigation.
her enemies, and resting in peace, with every man To the obscurity originating in these causes may
sitting under his own vine, and under his own be added that which aiises ftoni the many ambi
fig-tree, with none to disturb or to make him afraid. guities in the description left by Josephus, the
Jerusalem was the brightest of all the cities of the only one which we possess, and win eh must
east, and fortified alwne all other towns ; so strong form the ground-work of most of our notices
that the Roman conqueror thereof, and the respecting the ancient city. There are indeed
master of the whole world besides, exclaimed, on some manifest errors in his account, which the
entering the city of David, and looking up at the critical reader is able to detect without having the
towers which the Jews had abandoned, " Surely, means to rectify.
we liave had God for our assistance in the war ; for In describing Jerusalem as it stood just before its
what could human hands or human machines do destruction by the Romans, Josephus stares that the
against these towers? It is no other than God city was built upon two hills, between which lay
who has expefTed the Jews from their fortifications.'11 the valley Tyrojxron (Cheesemongers Valley), to
It is impossible for the Christian traveller to lock which the buildings on both hills came down.
upon Jerusalem with the same feelings with which This valley extended to the fountain of Siloam.
he would set himself to contemplate the ruins of The hill on which the upper town stood was much
Thebes, of Athens, or of Rome, or of any other higher than the other, anil straigbter in its extent.
city which the world ever saw. There is in all On account of its fortifications, David called it
the doings of the Jews, their virtues and their the Fortress or Castle ; but in the time of Josephus
vices, their wisdom and their folly, a height and a it was known by the name of the Upper Market,
depth, a breadth and a length that angels cannot The other hill, on which was situated the lower
JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM. 89
town, was called Akra. It was in liie form of a comparing the information derived from Josephus
horseshoe or crescent. Opposite to Akra was a with his own more detailed account, declares that
third, and naturally lower hill (Moriah), on the main features depicted by the Jewish historian
which the temple was built; and between this may still be recognised. * True,' he says, * the
and Akra was originally a broad valley, which valley of the Tyropojon, and that between Akra
the inhabitants of Jerusalem rilled up in the time and Moriah, have been greatly filled up with the
of Simon Maccabseus for the purpose of connect rubbish accumulated from the repeated desolations
ing the town witli the temple. At the same time of nearly eighteen centuries. Yet they are still
they lowered the hill Akra, so as to make the distinctly to be traced : the hills of Zion, Akra,
temple rise above it Both the hills on which the Moriah, and Bezetha, are not to be mistaken;
upper and lower towns stood were externally sur while the deep valleys of the Kidron, and of
rounded by deep valleys, and here there was Hinnom, and the Mount of Olives, are permanent
no approach because of the precipices on every natural features, too prominent and gigantic in
side. deed to be forgotten, or to undergo any perceptible
The single wall which enclosed that part of the change' (Bibl. Researches, i. 414).
city skirted by precipitous valleys, began at the The details embraced in this general notice
tower of Hippicus. On the west it extended must be more particularly examined in connec
(southward) to a place called Bethso, and the tion with modem observations; for it is to be
gate of the Essenes; thence it kept along on the remembered that the chief or only value of these
south to a point over against Siloam ; and thence observations consists in the light which they throw
on the east was carried along by Solomon's Pool on the ancient condition ami history of the site.
and Ophla (Ophel), till it terminated at the The Walls.Some questions of much in
eastern portico of the temple. Of the triple terest are connected with the attempt to deter
walls, we are told that the first and oldest of these mine the course and extent of the ancient walls
began at the tower of Hippicus, on the northern of Jerusalem. These questions chiefly relate to
part, and extending (along the northern brow of the site of the crucifixion of our Lord, and of the
Zion) to the Xystus, afterwards terminated at the sepulchre in which he was laid. If the site at
western portico of the temple. The second wall present indicated lie the right one, then certainly
began at the gate of Geunath (apparently near there has been much alteration ; for it is consider
Hippicus), and encircling only the northern part ably within the modem walls, although we kr.cw
of the city, extended to the castle of Antonia at that our Lord suffered and was entombed without
the north-west comer of the area of the temple. the gate. This ]rt of the subject has, however,
The third wall was built by Agrippa at a later been examined in the article Golgotha; and
lieriod : it also had its beginning at the tower of the conclusion there maintained on the point of
II ippicus, ran northward as far as the tower Pse- chief interest connected with the walls, limits
j'hmosj ; and thence sweeping round towards the the inquiry to which the present notice must be
ii.it tii-east by east, it turned afterwards towards directed.
the south, and was joined to the ancient wall at The first, or most ancient wall, appears to have
or in the valley of the Kidron. This wall enclosed the whole of Mount Zion. The greater
enclosed the hill Bezetha. part of it, therefore, must have formed the exterior
From other passages we learn that the Xystus, and sole wall on the south, overlooking the deep
named in the above descriptions, was an open valleys below Mouut Zion ; and the northern part
pluce in the extreme part of the upper city, where evidently passed from the tower of Hippicus on
the people sometimes assembled, and that abridge the west side, along the northern brow of Zion,
connected it with the temple (De Bell. Jud. ii. and across the valley, to the western side of the
16. 3 ; vi. 6. 2; vi. 8. 1 ; comp. Anliij. xiv. 4. 2). temple area. It probably nearly coincided with
Further, we are informed that on the western side the ancient wall which existed before the time of
of the temple area were four gates ; one leading David, and which enabled the Jebusites to main
over the valley to the royal palace (on Zion) tain themselves in possession of the upper city,
adjacent to the Xystus, probably by the bridge long after the lower city had been in the hands of
just mentioned ; two conducting to the suburb the Israelite*. Mouut Zion is now unwalled, and
(or new city) on the north ; and the remaining one is excluded from the modem city. Some traces
leading to * the other city,' first by steps down of this wall were visible in the time of Benjamin
into the intervening valley, and then by an ascent of Tuiiela, who says that the stones of the foun
(Joseph. AtUiq. xv. II. 5; xx. 8. 11). By this dation were then taken away for building (Itiner.
* other city ' can be meant only the lower city or ed. Asher. i. 73). No trace of it can now be per
Akra. The hill Bezetha, which was last enclosed, ceived, but by digging through the rubbish, the
lay quite near on the north of the temple (Joseph. foundations might jwihaps be discovered.
J)e Bell. Jud. v. 5. 8). From the account of the The account given by Josephus, of the second
operations of the Romans under Titus, it may wall, is very short and unsatisfactory. This is
also be collected that the interior und most the more to be regretted, as on the course taken by
ancient of the three waHs on the north lay the eastern part of that wall rests the question,
between Akra and the upper city, forming the whether that which is now shown as the site of
defence of the latter in this part. It was, doubt Calvary and the Holy Sepulchre was anciently
less, the same wall which ran along the northern beyond the wall or not. The difficulties of this
brow of Zion. question are very great, the historical evidence
It would be only going over this statement in being just as strongly in favour of the present site
other words to explain the results which it offers ; as the topographical evidence is against it. It
and there is the less need of doing so, as they only cannot be denied that the breadth of the city, in a
serve to support the conclusions which have long site limited by nature, and where, therefore, every
been regarded as established. Dr. Robinson, in foot of ground was precious, would be greatly and
100 JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM.
inconveniently narrowed by drawing the line so would seem then also to have been excluded;
at to place the present holy sepulchre beyond the for Eusebius and Cyrill, in the fourth century,
walls. But on the other hand it must be ad speak of the denunciation of the prophet being
mitted that the phrase 4 beyond the walls' is often fulfilled, and describes Zion as 'a ploughed field1
interpreted with a larger meaning than necessary. (Mich. iii. 2).
When applied to executions, gihbetings, or any We know from Josephus that the circumference
purpose not allowable within the walls, we have of the ancient ctty was 33 stadia, equivalent to
always understood, from the analogous usages in nearly three and a half geographical miles. The
all walled towns, that it denotes the slope or any circumference of the present walls does not ex
other practicable space immediately under the ceed two and a half geographical miles ; but the
wall, and so near to it that a slight advance of extent of Mount Zion, now without the walls, and
the wall would include the site. The fastening the tract on the north formerly enclosed, or partly
of trie bodies of Saul and his sons to the wall of so, by the third wall, sufficiently account for
Beth-shan may illustrate this view of the case, the difference.
which tends in some degree to lessen the difficulty The history of the modem walls has already
of the question. For our present purpose it is suf been given in the sketch of the modern history of
ficient to indicate the evident fact (hat this second the city. The present walls have a solid and
wall enclosed the whole of the lower city, or Akra, formidable appearance, especially when cursorily
excepting that part of the eastern side of it which observed from without ; and they are strengthened,
fronted the Temple area on Mount Moriah, and or rather ornamented, with towers and battlements
the southern side, towards the valley which sepa- after the Saracenic style. They are built of lime
rated the lower from the upper city. In short, it stone, the stones being not commonly more than a
was a continuation of the external wall, so far foot or fifteen inches square. The height varies
as necessary, on the west and north, and on so with the various elevations of the ground. The
much of the east as was not already protected by lower parts are protiahly about twenty-five feet
the strong wall of the Temple area. The precise high, while in more exposed localities, where the
course of this wall might ]>erhaj>s be determined ravines contribute less to the security of the city,
by excavations. It is indeed our strong convic tliev have an elevation of sixty or seventy feet.
tion that one good excavation along one of the two 6 atks. Much uncertainty exists respecting
streets which intersect the Via Dolorosa would the ancient gates of Jerusalem. Many gates are
go far to settle for ever the only question of real named in Scripture; and it has been objected that
interest connected with the subject. It is likely they are more in number than a town of the size
that the foundations of the old wall still exist ; of Jerusalem could requireesj>ecially as they
and if it lay at any point within the present wall, all occur within the extent embraced by the first
those foundations must pass under this street, and and second walls, the third not then existing.
an excavation of not greater extent than those It has, therefore, l>een suggested as more than
which are made every day in London for sewerage, probable that some of these gates were within the
would bring them to light, and show whether the city, in the walls which separated the town from
alleged site of Calvary lay within or without the the temple, and the upper town from the lower,
wall. in which gates certainly existed. On the other
Although these were the only walls that ex hand, considering the circumstances under which
isted in the time of our Saviour, we are not to the wall was rebuilt in the time of Nehemiah, it is
infer that the habitable city was confined within difficult to sup[xe that more than the outer wall
their limits. On the contrary, it was because the was then constructed, and certainly it was in the
city had extended northward far beyond the wall then built that the ten or twelve gates men
second wall that a third was built to cover the tioned by Nehemiah occur. But these may be
defenceless suburb : and there is no reason to considerably reduced by supposing that two or
doubt that this unprotected suburb, called Be- more of the names mentioned were applied to the
zetha, existed in the time of Christ. This wall siime gate. If this view of the matter be taken,
is described as having also begun at the tower of no better distribution of these gates can be given
Hippicus: it ran northward as far as to the tower than that suggested by Raumer.
Psephiuos, then passed down opposite the sepul a. On the north side.
chre of Helena (queen of Adiabene), and being 1. The Old Gate, probably at the north-east
carried along through the royal sepulchres, turned comer (Neb. iii. 6 ; xii. 39).
at the corner tower by the Fullers' monument, 2. The Gate of Ephraim or Benjamin (Jer.
and ended by making a junction with the ancient xxxviii. 7; xxxvii. 13; Neh. xii. 9 ; 2 Chron.
wall at the valley of the Kidron. It was begun xxv. 23). This gate doubtless derived its names
ten or twelve years after our Lord*! crucifixion from its leading to the territory of Ephraim and
by the elder Herod Agrippa, who desisted from Benjamin ; and Dr. Robinson supposes it may
completing it for fear of otlending the Emperor possibly l>e represented by Home traces of ruins
Claudius. But the design was afterwards taken which he found on the site of the present gate of
up and completed by the Jews themselves, al Damascus. #
though on a scale of less strength ami magnifi 3. The Comer-gate, 300 cubits from the
cence. Dr. Robinson thinks that he discovered former, and apparently at the north-west corner
some traces of this wall, which are descrilHil in 2 Chron. xxv. 9; 2 Kings xiv. 13; Zech. \iv.
his great work (Bibl. Itesearches, i. ifiti), and are ! 0). Probably the Gate of the Furnaces is the
indicated in our plan of Jerusalem. same (Neh. iii. 2 ; xii. 38).
The same writer thinks that the wall of the b. On the west side.
new city, the ^lia of Adrian, nearly coincided 4. The Valley-gate, over against the Dragon-
with that of the present Jerusalem : and the por fountain of Gihon (Neh. ii. 13 ; iii. 13 ; 2 Chron.
tion of Mount Zion which now lief outside, xxxvi. 9). It was probably about the north-west
JERUSALEM. 101
comer of Zion, where there appears to have been On the north there were also two gates ; and
always a gate, and Dr. Robinson supposes it to all the middle-age writers speak of the principal
be the same with the Geunath of Josephus. of them as the gate of St. Stephen, from the notion
c. On the south side. that the death of the protnmartyr took place near
5. The Dung gate, perhaps the same as Jo- it. This was also called the gate of Kphraim, in
sephus'sGate of the Essenes (Neh. ii. 13 ; xii. 311 reference to its probable ancient name. Arabic
It was 1000 cubits from the valh*y-gate (Neh. writers called it Bab ^Amud el-Ghurab, of which
iii. 14), mid the dragon-well was between them the present name, Bab elr Amud, is only a con
(Nelu ii. 13). This gate is probably also iden traction. The present gate of St. Stephen is on
tical with * 1 he gate between two walls' (2 Kings the east of the city, and the scene of the martyr
xxv. 4 ; Jer. xxxix. 4 ; Lam. ii. 7). dom is now placed near it ; but there is no
6. The Gate of the Fountain, to the south account of the change. Further east was the
east (Neh. ii. 14; iii. 15); the gate of the foun gate of Benjamin {Porta Benjamtnis), corre
tain near the king's pool (Neh. ii. 14); the gate sponding apparently to what is now called the
of the fountain near * the pool of Siloah by the gate of Herod.
king's garden' (Neh. iii. 15). The same gate is pro On the east there seem to have been at least
bably denoted in ail these instances, and the pools two gates. The northernmost is described by
seem to have been also the same. It is also ixw- Adamnanus as a small j>ortal leading down to the
sible that this fountain-gate was the same other valley of JehoshaphaU It was called the gate of
wise distinguished as the brick-gate (or potter's Jehoshaphat, from the valley to which it led. It
gate), leading to the valley of Hinnom (Jer. xix. seems to be represented by the present gate of St.
% where the Auth. Ver. has * east-gate'). Stephen. The Arabian writers call it Bab el-
>. On the east side. Usbat, Gate of the tribes, Iteing another form of
7. The Water-gate (Neh. iii. 26). the jnodern Arabic name Bab es-Subat. The
8. The Prison-gate, otherwise the Horse-gate, present gate of St. Stephen has four linns sculp
near the temple (Neh. iii. 28; xii. 39, 40). tured over it on the outside, which, as well as the
9. The Sheep-gate, ]irobahly near the sheep- architecture, show that it existed before the pre
pool (Neh. iii. 1-32; xii. 29). sent walls. Dr. Robinson suggests that the
10. The Fish-gate was quite at the north-east original 'small portal 1 was rebuilt on a larger
(Neh. iii. 3; xii. 39; Zeph. i. 10; 2 Chron. scale by the Franks, when they built up the walls
xxxiii. 14). of the city, either in a.d. 1 178 or 1239. The
It will be observed that in two of the cases tire is the famous Golden Gate {Porta
distances of the gates from each otlier are men
tioned. Thus the comer-gate (3) was only 300
cubits from the gate of Kphraim ("2), and the
dung-gate (5) was 1000 cubits from the valley-
gate (4). This suggests that the gates were really
nearer to each other than the objections already
stated would assume, and the 4 hundred-gated
Thebes' may be recollected as warranting a doubt
whether the ancient Orientals bad the same ob
jection to gates which are now entertained. At
all events, if the circumference of the wall of
Jerusalem, before tlie third wall was added, be
assumed to have been two miles and a half, or equal
to the present wall, theu this extent would have
allowed ten gates at the highest named distance 884. [The Golden Gate.]
of 1000 cubits apart, and more than thrice that
number at the lowest named distance of 300 aured) in the eastern wall of the temple area. It is
cubits. now called by the Aral* Bab ed-Dahariyehf but
In the middle ages there appear to have been formerly Bab er-Rahmeh, 'Gate of Mercy.' The
two gates on each side of the city, making eight name Golden Gate apjwars to have come from a
in all ; and this number, leing only two sitort sup]>osetl connection witii one of the ancient gates
of those assigned in the above estimate to the of the temple, which ure said to have been co
ancient Jerusalem, seems to vindicate that esti vered with gold; t*it this name cannot !* traced
mate from the objections which have been urged back beyond the historians of the Crusades.
against it. This gate is, from its architecture, obviously of
On the west side were two gates, of which the Rum. in origin, and is conjectured to have be
principal was the Porta David, Gate of David, longed to the enclosure of the temple of Jupiter
often mentioned by the writers on the Crusades. which was built by Adrian upon Mount Moriah.
It was called by the Arabs Bab el-Mihrab, and Tl*e exterior is now walled up ; but being double,
corresponds to the present Jafi'a gate, or Bab el~ the interior forms within the area a recess, which is
Khulil. The other was the gate of the Fuller's used for prayer by the Moslem worshiper. Dif
Field {Porta Villa FuUonis), so called from Isa. ferent reasons are given lor the closing of this gate.
vii. 3. This seems to be the same which others It was probably because it was found inconvenient
call Porta Judieiaria, and which is described as that a gate to the mosque should be open in the
being in the wall over against the church of the exterior wall. Altliou^h not walled up, it was
holy sepulchre, leading to Silo (Neby Samwil) kept closed even when the Crusaders were in pos
and Gileon. This seems to be that which the session of the city, and only optned once a year
Arabian writers call Serb. There is no trace of on Palm Sunday, in celebration of our Lord's sup
it in the presen* wall. posed triumphal entry through it to the temple.
103 JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM.
On the south side were also two gates. The This part, a little to the south of the Jaffa Gate, ii
easternmost is now called by the Franks the now occupied by the citadel. It is an irregular
Dung-gale, and by the natives Bab el~Mugharibeh. assemblage of square towers, surrounded on the
The earliest mention of this gate is by Brocard, inner side towards the city by a low wall, and
about a.d. 1283, who regards it as the ancient having on the outer or west side a deep fosse. The
Water-gate. Further west, between the eastern towers which rise from the brink of the fosse are
of Zion and the gate of David, the Cru- protected on that side by a low sloping bulwark
a gate which ttiey call the Gate of or buttress, which rises from the bottom of the
to one which now hears the trench at an angle of forty-five degrees. This
part bears evident marks of antiquity, and Dr.
It thus appears that before the rebuilding of Robinson is inclined to ascribe these massive out
the walls of Jerusalem by the Turks in the six works to the time of the rebuilding and fortifying
teenth century, the principal gates of the city of the city by Adrian. This fortress is described
were much the same as at the present day. But by the middle age historians as the tower or citadel
of the seven gates mentioned as still existing, of David. Within it, as the traveller enters the
three, the Dung Gate, the Golden Gate, and He city by the Jaffa Gate, the north-eastern tower
rod's Gate, are closed. Thus there are only four attracts his notice as bearing evident marks of
gate* now in use, one on each side of the town, higher antiquity tlian any of the others. The
all of which have lieen enumerated. St. Stephen's, upper par! is, indeed, modern, but the lower part
on the east, leads to the Mount of Olives, Bethany, is built of larger stones, bevelled at the edges, and
anil Jericho. From the nature of the gnmnd, apparently still occupying their original places.
taken in connection with the situation of the This tower has been singled out by the Franks,
temple, a little south, there must always have been and bears among them the name of the Tower of
a great thoroughfare here. Zion Gate, on the south David, while they sometimes give to the whole
side of the city, connects the populous quarter fortress the name of the Castle of David. Taking
around t he Armenian convent with that part of all the circumstances into account, Dr. Robinson
Mount Zion which is outside the walls, and which thinks that the antique lower portion of this tower
is much resorted to as leiug the great field of is in all probability a remnant of the tower of
Christian burial, a? well as for its traditionary Hippicus, which, as Josephus states, was left
sanctity as the site of David's tomb, the house of standing by Titus when he destroyed the city.
Caiaphas, house of Mary, &c. The Jaffa Gate, This discovery, however, is not new: the identity
on the west, is the termination of the important having been advocated by Raumer anil others be
routes from Jaffa, Bethlehem, and Hebron. The fore Dr. Robinson travelled.
formation of the ground suggests thi9 as one of Josephus describes two other towersthose of
the great thoroughfares of the ancient city, which Phasaelus and Mariamne, both built by Herod,
could here l)e approached from the quartets just one of them being named after a friend, and the
indicated much more conveniently than at any other after his favourite wife. They stood not far
other point. The Damascus Gate, on the north, fiom Hippicus, upon tlie first or mosi ancient wall,
is also planted in a vale, which in every age of which ran from the latter tower eastward, along
Jerusalem must have been a great public way, and the northern brow of Zion. Connected with these
the easiest approach from Samaria and Galilee. towers and Hippicus was the royal castle or
Tow khs.The towers of Jerusalem are ol'ten palace of ihe first Herod, which was enclosed by
mentioned in Scripture and in Josephus. There this wall on the north, and on the other sides by a
is, indeed, no general account of them ; but some wall (bitty cubits high. The whole was furnished
of the princi|>al are described, and we may rea with great strength and regal splendour, and fur-
sonably infer that the others resembled them, more uished with halls, and galleries, and cisterns, and
or less, in form and arrangement. Most of the apartments without nmnl>er (Joseph. De Bell.
towers mentioned by Jo-ephus were erected bv Jml. \ . 1. ;'. ; : v. 4. 4). These were the three
Herod the Great, and were, consequently, stand mighty towers which Titus left standing as mo
ing in the time of Christ. It was on these, there numents of the strength of the place which had
fore, that his eyes often rested when he approached yielded to his arms. But nothing now remains
Jerusalem, or viewed its wall* and towers from save the altove-mentioned supposed remnant of tlie
the Mount of Olive*. Of all these towers, the tower of Hippicus.
most important is that of Hippicus, which Jcwe- A fourth tower, called Psephinos, is mentioned
phus, as we have already seen, assumed as the by Josephus (De Bell. Jud. v. 4. 2, 3) It stood
starting-point in his description of all the walls of at the north-west comer of the third or exterior
the city. Herod Rave to it the name of a friend wall of the city. It did not, consequently, exist
who was slain in battle. It was a quadrangular in the time of Christ, seeing that the wall itself
structure, twenty-live cubits on each side, and was built by Herod Agrippa, to whom also the
built up entirely solid to the height of thirty cubit*. tower may be ascribed. Jt was of an octagonal
Above this solid part was a cistern twenty cubits; form, seventy cubits high, and from it could be
and then, for twenty-five cubits more, were cham seen Arabia towards the risiug sun. and the inhe
bers of various kinds, with a breastwork of two ritance of the Hebrews quite to the sea. This
cubits, and battlements of three cubits upon the shows that it must have stood upon tlie high swell
top. The altitude of the whole tower was conse of ground which extends up north-north-west from
quently eighty cubit*. The stones of which it the north-west corner of the present city. In this
was built were very large, twenty cubits long by quarter there are ancient substructions, apparently
ten broad and live high, anil (probably in the of towers and other fortifications, and although
upper part) were of white marble. Dr. Robinson none of them may be actually those of Psephinos,
has shown that this tower should be sought at the Dr. Robinson conceives that the tower stood some*
north-west corner of the upper city, or Mount Zion. where in this vicinity.
JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM. 103
The above are the only towers which the his Waters of Jerusalem.In his account of
torian particularly mentions. But in describing the siege of Jerusalem by Pompey, Strabo sayt
the outer or third wall of Agrippa, he stales that that the town was well provided with water within
U had battlements of two cubits, and turrets of the walls, but that there was none in the en
three cubits BOOM : and as the wall was twenty virons (Geog. vri. 2, 40). Probably the Roman
cubit* high, this would make the turrets of the troops then suffered from want of water, as did
height of twenty-five cubits or nearly thirty-eight other armies which laid siege to Jerusalem. In
feet. Many loftier ami more substantial towers the narratives of all such sieves we never read of
than these were erected on each of the walls at the besieged sufl'ering from thirst, although driven
regulated distances, and furnished with every re to the most dreadful extremities and resources by
quisite for convenience or defence. Of those on the hunger, while the besiegers are frequently de
third or outer wall are enumerated ninety; on the scribed as sufiering greatly from want of water,
middle or second wall, forty; and on the inner and as being obliged to fetch it from a great dis
or ancient wall, sixty. tance. The agonies of thirst sustained by the
Puunc Buildings.The temple was in all first crusadeis in their siege of Jerusalem will be
ages the great glory and principal public build remembered ly most readers from the vivid pic
ing of Jerusalem, as the heathen temple, church, or ture drawn by Tasso, if not from the account fur
mosque, successively occupying the same site, has nished by William of Tyre. Vet when the town
been ever since the Jewish temple was destroyed. was taken plenty of water was found within it.
That temple is reserved for a separate article This is a very singular circumstance, and is
[Temple], and there are few other public edifices perhaps (inly in part explained by reference to the
which require a particular description. Those most system of preserving water in cisterns, as at this
connected with Scripture history are the palace of day, in Jerusalem.
Herod and the tower of Antonia. The former has Solomon's aqueduct near Bethlehem to Jeru
already U'en noticed- In the time of Christ it was salem could have been no dependence, as its
the residence of the Roman procurators while in waters might easily have been cut oil" by the be
Jerusalem ; and as such provincial residences siegers. All the wells also are now outside the
tvere called by tle Romans Pr&toria, this was town ; and no interior fountain is mentioned save
the prajtorium or judgment-hall of Pilate (Matt, that of He/ekiah, which is scarcely fit for drink
xxvii. 27; Mark xv. 10; John xviii. 2S). In ing. At the siege by Titus the well of Siloam
frontof the palace was the tribunal or 'judgment- may have lieen in jfossession of the Jews, i. e.
seat,' where the procurator sat lo hear and deter within the walls; but at the siege by the Cru
mine the cause.-*; and where Pilate was seated when saders it was certainly held by the besieging
our Lord was brought hefore him. It was a raised Franks; and yet the latter periahed from tliiist,
jlavement of mosaic work {kiQ6<Ttparrov\ called while the besieged had ' ingentes copias aquae.'
in the Hebrew Gahbathat or * an elevated place' We cannot here go through the evidence which
[Judgment-Hall]. by combination and comparison might throw some
The tower or castle of Antonia stood on a steep light on this remarkable question. There is, how
rock adjoining the north-west comer of the temple. ever, good ground to conclude that from very an
It lias already been mentioned (p. 94) that it cient times there has been under the temple an
originated under the Maccabees, who resided in unfailing source of water, derived by secret and
it. The name of Boris BopOj or Bap?y), subterraneous channels from springs to the west of
which it obtained, was originally the Persian name the town, and communicating by other subterra
of a royal palace ; but which, according to Je neous passages with the pool of Siloam and the
rome {Kpist. ad Princtp. ii. 639), was afterwards fountain of the Virgin in the east of the town,
idopted in Palestine, and applied to all the large whether they were within or without the walls of
quadrangular dwellings built with turrets and the town.
walls. As improved by Herod, who gave it the The existence of a perennial source of water
name of Antonia, after his patron Mark Antony, below the temple has always been admitted.
this fortress had all the extent and appearance of Tacitus knew ol \\ (Hist. v. 12); and Ansteas, in
a palace, being divided into ajiartments of every describing the ancient temple, informs us that 'the
kind, with galleries and baths, and also broad supply of water was unfailing, inasmuch as there
halls or barracks for soldiers; so that, as having was an abundant natural fountain (lowing in the
every thing necessary within itself, it seemed a interior, and reservoirs of admirable construction
city, while in its magnificence it was a palace. under ground, extending five stadia round the
At each of the four corners was a tower, one of temple, with pipes and conduits unknown to all
which was seventy cubits high, and overlooked the except those to whom the service was entrusted,
whole temple with its courts. The fortress com by which the water was brought to various parts
municated with the cloisters of the temple by of the temple and again conducted oft'.1 The
secret passages, through which the soldiers could Moslems also have constantly affirmed the exist
enter and quell any tumults, which were always ence of this fountain or cistern. But a reserve has
apprehended at the time of the great festivals. It always been kept up as to the means by which it is
wad to a guard of these soldiers that Pilate re supplied. This reserve seems to have been main
ferred the Jews as a 'watch' for the sepulchre tained by the successive occupants of Jerusalem
of Christ. This tower was also 'the castle' into as a point of civic honour ; and this fact alone
which St. Paul was carried when the Jews rose intimates that there was danger to the town in its
against him in the temple, and were about to becoming known, and points to llie fact that the
kill him ; and where he gave his able and manly supply came from without the city by secret
account of his conversion and conduct (Acts xxi. channels, which it was of importance not to dis
27-40 ; xxii.). This tower was, in fact, the citadel close. Yet we are plainly told in the Bible that
of Jerusalem. Hezekiah 'stopped theupperwater-courseofGihon.
104 JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM.
and brought it down to the west tide of the city the splendid structures or the beautiful laws
of David' (I Kingi i. 33.38): from 2 Chrun. spread out around them.
xxxii. 30, it seems that all the neighbouring foun The south-west quarter, embracing that part of
tains were thus * stopped* or covered, and the Mount Ziou which is within the modem town, is
brook which they had formed diverted by subter to a great extent occupied by the Armenian con
raneous channels into the town, for the express vent, an enormous edifice, which is th** only con-
purpose of preventing besiegers from finding the picuous object in this neighlwurhood. The
* much water* which previously existed outside the north-west is largely occupied by the Latin con
walls (comp. also Ecclus. xlviii. 17). Perhaps, vent, another very extensive establishment. About
likewise, the prophet Ezekiel (xlvii. 1- 12) alludes midway between these two convents is the castle
to this secret fountain under the temple when he or citadel, close to the Bethlehem gate, already
sneaks of waters issuing from the threshold of tlu mentioned. The north-east quarter ofJerusalem
temple towards the east, and flowing down to is but partially built up. and it has more the aspect
wards the desert as an abundant and beautiful of a rambling agricultural village than that of a
stream. This figure may l>e drawn from the crowded city. The vacant spots here are green
waters of the inner source under the temple, being witli gardens and olive-trees. There is another
at the time of overflow discharged by I he outlets large vacant tract along the southern wall, and
at Siloain, into the Kidron, which takes the east west of the Haram, also covered with verdure.
ward course thus described. Near the centre of the city also appear two or
There are certainly wells, or rather shafts, in three green spots, whicli are small gardens. The
and near the temple urea, which are alleged to church of I he Holy Sepulchre is the only conspi
derive their waters through a passage of masonry cuous edifice in this vicinity, and its domes are
four or five feet high, from a chamber or reservoir striking objects. There are no buildings which,
cut in the solid rock under the grand mosque, in either from their size or beauty, are likely to en
which the water is said to rise from the rock into gage the attention. Eight or ten minarets mark
a basin at the bottom. The existence of this re the position of so many mosques in different ports
set voir and source of water is affirmed by all of the town, but they are only noticed because of
Moslems, and coincides with the preceding inti their elevation above the surrounding edifices.
mations, hut it must be left for future explorers Upon the same principle the eye rests for a mo
to clear up all the obscurities in which the matter ment upon a great number of low domes, which
is involved. form the roofs of the principal dwellings, and
The ordinary means taken by the inhabitants to relieve the heavy unifotmity of the flat plastered
secure a supply of water have been described roofs which cover the greater mass of more humble
under the article Cistern ; and the reader habitations. Many ruinous piles and a thousand
may be referred for interesting details to Rau- disgusting objects are concealed or disguised by
mer's PalHstina, pp. 329 333; Robinson's lie- the distance. Many inequalities of surface, which
searches^ i, -479-516 ; and Olin's Travels, ii. exist to so great an extent that there is not a level
168-181. street of any length in Jerusalem, are also uu-
Moukun Jerusalem. In proceeding to fur perceived.
nish a description of the present Jerusalem, we From the same commanding point of view a
shall, lor the most part, place ourselves under the few olive and fig-trees are seen in the lower part
guidance of Dr. Ol in, whose account is not only of the valley of Jehoshaphat, and scattered over
the most recent, hut is by far t he most complete the side of Olivet from it* ba<>c to the summit.
and satisfactory which has of late years been pro They are sprinkled yet more sparingly on the
duced. southern aide of the city on Mounts Zion and
The general view of the city from the Mount Ophel. North of Jerusalem the olive plantations
of Olives is mentioned more or less by all tra appear more numerous as well as thriving, and
vellers as that from which ihey derive their tluut oflrr a grateful contrast to the sun-burnt fields
most distinct and abiding impression of Jeru and bare rocks which predominate in this land-
salem. scaj>e. The region westofthe city appears tn be
The summit of the Mount of Olives is about destitute of trees. Fields of stunted wheat, yellow
half a mile east from the city, which it completely willi the drought rathet than white for the harvest,
overlooks, every considerable edifice and almost are seen on all sides of the town.
every house Inring visible. The city seen from Jerusalem, as seen from Mount Olivet, is a
this point appears to I- a regular inclined plain, plain inclining gently and equable to the East.
sloping gently and uniformly from west to east, Once enter its -.'airs, however, and it is- found to be
or towards the observer, and indented by a slight full of inequalities. The jassenger is always as
depression or shallow vale, running nearly through cending of descending. There are no level streets,
the centre, in the same direction. The south-east and little skill or lalwur has been employed to re
corner of the quadranglefor that may be as move or diminish the inequalities which nature or
sumed as the figure formed by the rocksthat time has produced. Houses are built upon moun
which is nearest to the observer, is occupied by tains: of rubbish, which are probably Twenty, thirty,
the mosque of Omar and its extensive and beau or fifty feet above the natural level, and the streets
tiful grounds. Tins is Mount Moriah, the site are constructed with the same disregard to conve
of Solomon's temple, and the ground embraced in nience, with this difference, that some slight atten
the sacred enclosure, which conforms to that of tion is puid to the possibility of carrying oil' surplus
the ancient temple, occupies about an eighth ofthe water. The latter are, without exception, nar
whole modern city. It is covered with green row, seldom exceeding eight or ten feet in breadth.
ward and planted sparingly with olive, cypress, Tite houses often meet, and in some instances a
and other trees, and it is certainly the most lovely building occupies both sides of the street, which
feature of the town, whether we have reference to runs under a succession of arches larely high
JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM. 105
enough to permit an equestrian to pass under entering them, to be little better than heap* of
then?. A canopy of old mats or of plank is sus ruins.
pended over the principal streets when not arched. Nothing of this would be suspected from
This custom had its origin, no doubt, in the heat the general appearance of the city as seen from
of the climate, which is very intense in summer, the various commanding points without the
and it gives a gloomy aspect to all the most walls, nor from anything that meets the eye
thronged and lively parts of the city. These in the streets. Few towns in the East offer a
covered ways are often pervaded by currents of more imposing spectacle to the view of the ap
air when a perfect calm prevails in other places. proaching stranger. He is struck with the heigut
The principal streets of Jerusalem run nearly at and massiveness of the walls, which are kept in
right angles to eacli other. Very few if any of perfect repair, and naturally produce a favourable
them bear names among the native population. opinion of the wealth and comfort which they are
They are badly paved, being merely laid irre designed to protect. Upon entering the gates, he
gularly with raised stones, with a deep square is apt, after all that has been published about the
channel, for beasts of burden, in the middle; but solitude that reigns in the streets, to be surprised
the steepness of the ground contributes to keep at meeting large numbers of people in the chief
them cleaner than in most Oriental cities. thoroughfares, almost without exception decently
The houses of Jerusalem are substantially built clad. A longer and mote intimate acquaintance
of the limestone uf which the whole of this part of with Jerusalem, however, does not fail to correct
Palestine is comjwsed : not usually hewn, but this too favourable impression, and demonstrate
broken into regular forms, and making a solid the existence and general prevalence of the ]H>verty
wall of very respectable appearance. For the anil even wretchedness which must result in every
most part there are no windows next to the street, country from oppression, from the absence oftrade,
and the few which exist for the purposes of light and the utter stagnation of all branches of indus
or ventilation are completely masked by case try. Considerable activity is displayed in the
ments and lattice-work. The apartments re bazaars, which are supplied scantily, like those of
ceive their light from the open courts within. The other Eastern towns, with provisions, tobacco,
ground plot is usually surrounded by a high enclo coarse cottons, and other articles of prime neces
sure, commonly forming the walls of the house sity. A considerable business is 3till done in beads,
only, but sometimes embracing a small garden crosses, and other sacred trinkets, which are pur
and some vacant ground. The rain-water chased to a vast amount by the pilgrims who
which falls upon the pavement is carefully con annually throng the holy city. The support
ducted, by means of gutters, into cisterns, where and even the existence of the considerable popu
it is preserved for domestic uses. The people of lation of Jerusalem depend upon this transient
Jerusalem rely chiefly upon these reservoirs for patronagea circumstance to which a great part
their supply of this indispensable article. Every of the prevailing poverty and degradation is justly
house has its cistern, and the larger habitations ascribed. The worthless articles employed in this
are provided with a considerable number of them, pitiful trade are,almost without exception, brought
which occupy the ground-story or cells formed from other places, especially Hebron and Beth
for the purpose below it. Stone is employed in lehemthe former celebrated for its baubles of
building for all the purposes to which it can pos glass, the latter chiefly fur rosaries, crucifixes, and
sibly Ik; applied, and Jerusalem is hardly more other toys made of mother-of-pearl, olive-wood,
exposed to accidents by tire than a quarry or sub black stones from the Dead Sea, &c. These are
terranean cavern. The Honrs, stairs, &c. are of eagerly bought up by the ignorant pilgrims, sprin
stone, ami the ceiling is usually formed by a coat kled with holy water by the priests, or consecrated
of plaster laid upon the stones, which at the same by some other religious mummery, and carried
time form the roof slid the vaulted top of the oil' in triumph and worn .is ornaments to charm
room. Doors, sashes, and a few other appurte away disease and misfortune, and probably to be
nances, are all that can usually be afforded of a buried with the deluded enthusiast in his coffin,
material so expensive as wood. The little timber as a sure passj>ort to eternal blessedness. With
which is used is mostly brought from Mount the departure of the swarms of pilgrims, however,
Le'^mon, as in the time of Solumon. A rough, even this poor semblance of active industry and
crooked stick of the fig-tree, or some gnarled, prosperity deserts the city. With the exception
twisted planks made of the olivethe growth of ofsome establishments for soap- making, a tannery,
Palestineare occasionally seen. In other respects and a very few weavers of coarse cottons, there
the description in the article House will afford do not appear to be any manufacturers proj^erly
a sufficient notion of those in Jerusalem. A large belonging to the place. Agriculture is almost
number of houses in Jerusalem are in a dilapi equally wretched, and can only give employment
dated and ruinous state. Nobody seems to make to a few hundred people. The masses really seem
repairs so long as Ins dwelling does not absolutely to be without any regular employment. A con
refuse him shelter and safety. If one room tum siderable number, especially of the Jews, profess
bles about his ears he removes into another, and edly live on charity. Many Christian pilgrims
permits rubbish and vermin to accumulate as they annually find their way hither on similar resources,
will in the deserted halls. Tottering staircases and the approaches to the holy places aie thronged
are propped to prevent their fall ; and when the with beggars, who in piteous tones demand alms in
editice becomes untenable, the occufjant seeks the name of Christ and the Blessed Virgin. The
another a little less ruinous, leaving the wreck to general condition of the population is thai of abject
a smaller or more wretched family, or, more poverty. A few Turkish officials, ecclesiastical,
probably, to a goatherd and his flock. Habi civil, and military ; some remains of the old Mo
tations which have a very respectable appearance hammedan aristocracyonce powerful and rich,
as seen from the street, are often found, upon but now much impoverished and nearly extinct; to
106 JERUSALEM. JERUSALEM.
gether with a few tradesmen in easy circumstances, 12,000/. to the Pasha of Damascus. But the
form almost the only exceptions to the prevailing Egyptian government relieved them from
indigence. There is not a single broker among heavy charges, and imposed instead t
the whole population, and not the smallest sum on the property j>ossessed. For the buildings and
can he obtained on the l>est bills of exchange short lands in and around Jerusalem the annual tax was
of Jaffa or Beirout. fixed at 7000 piastres, or 350 Spanish dollars. It
Inhaditants.The number of the inhabitant* is probable that the restored Turkish government
of Jerusalem has been variously estimated by has not yet, in this respect, recurred to its old
different travellers, some making it a* high as oppressions. The convent contains fifty monks,
30,000, others as low as 12,000. An average of half Italians and half Spaniards. In it resides
these estimates would make it somewhere belween the Inteudant or the Principal of all the convents,
12,000 and 13,000; but the Egyptian system of with the rank of abbot, and the title of Guardian
taxation and of military conscription in Syria of Mount Zion and Custos of the Holy Land.
has lately furnished more accurate data than had He is always an Italian, and has charge of all
previously been obtainable, and on these Dr. Ro the spiritual affairs of the Roman Catholics in the
binson estimates the population at not more than Holy Land. There is also a president or vicar,
11,500, distributed thus who takes the place of the guardian in case of
Mohammedans . 4,500 absence or death : he was formerly a Frenchman,
Jews -'. 3,000 but is now either an Italian or Spaniard. The
procurator, who manages their temporal affairs, is
always a Spaniard. A council, called Discre-
11,000 toriuin, composed of these officials and three
If to this be added something for possible other monks, nas the general management of both
ions, and the inmates of the convent*, the stand spiritual and temporal matters. Much of the
ing population, exclusive of the garrison, cannot attention of the order is occupied, and much of
well exceed 11,500. The Moslems, it will be its expense incurred, in entertaining pilgrims and
seen, exceed in number the Jews or Christians in the distribution of alms. The native Roman
respectively, but are much fewer than these two Catholics live around the convent, on which they
bodies united. To all these classes Jerusalem is are wholly dependant. They are native Arabs,
holy ; and is the only city in the world which and are said to be descended from converts in
peoples of such different origin, races, language, the times of the Crusades.
and religions agree to regard with nearly equal There is a Greek jiatriarch of Jerusalem, but
veneration. he usually reside*" at Constantinople, and is re
The language most generally spoken among presented in the holy city by one or more vicars
them is the Arabic. Schools are rare, and con who are bishops residing in the great convent
sequently facility in reading is not often met near the Churcti of the Holy Sepulchre. At pre
with. The general condition of the inhabitants sent the vicars are the bishops of Lydda, Naza
has already been indicated. reth, and Kerek (Petra), assisted by the other
The Turkish governor of the town holds the bishops resident in the convent. In addition to
rank of Pasha, but is responsible to the Pasha of thirteen monasteries in Jerusalem, they possess
Beirout. The government is somewhat milder the convent of the Holy Cross near Jerusalem,
than before the period of the Egyptian dominion; that of St. Helena between Jerusalem and Beth
but it is said that the Jewish and Christian in lehem, and that of St. John, between Jerusalem
habitants at least have ample cause to regret the and the Dead Sea. All. the monks of the con.
change of masters, and the American mission vents are foreigners. The Christians of the Greet"
aries lament that change without reserve (Am. rite who are not monks are all native Arabs
Bib. Repoa. for 1843). Yet the Moslems reve with their native priests, who are allowed to per
rence the same spots which the Jews and Chris form the church services in their mother tongue
tians account holy, the holy sepulchre only the Arabic.
excepted ; and this exception arises from their The Armenians in Jerusalem have a patriarch
disbelief that Christ was crucified, or buried, or with three convents and 100 monks. They hav
rose again. Formerly there were in Palestine also convents at Bethlehem, Ramleh, and Jaffa
monks of the Benedictine and Augustine orders, Few of the Armenians are natives : they arr
and of those of St. Basil and St. Anthony ; but mostly merchants, and among the wealthiest
since 1301 there have leeii none but Franciscans, inhabitants of the place ; and their convent in
who have charge of the Latin convent and the Jerusalem is deemed the richest in the Levant.
holy places. They resided on Mount Zion till Their church of St. James upon Mount Zion u
a.d. 1561, when the Turks allowed them the mo very showy in its decorations, but void of taste.
nastery of St. Salvador, which they now occupy. The Coptic Christians at Jerusalem . are onlj
They had formerly a handsome revenue out of ail some monks residing in the convent of Es-Sultan,
Roman Catholic countries, but these sources have on the north side of the pool of Hezekiah. There
fallen off since the French revolution, and the esta is also a convent of the Abyssinians, and one be
blishment is said to be poor and deeply in debt. longing to the Jacobite Syrians.
The expenses arise from the duty imposed upon The estimate of the number of the Jews in
the convent of entertaining pilgrims; and the cost Jerusalem at 301)0 is given by Dr. Robinson on
of maintaining the twenty convents belonging to the authority of Mr. Nicolayson, the resident
the establishment of the Terra Santa is estimated missionary to the Jews ; yet in the following year
at 40,000 Spanish dollars a year. Formerly it (1839) the Scottish deputation set them down at
was much higher, in consequence of the heavy six or seven thousand on the same authority. On
exactions of the Turkish government Burck- referring this difficulty to the Rev. R. S. Her-
bardt says that the brotherhood paid annually schell (lately returned from Jerusalem), he cor>
JESHUA. JESUS CHRIST. 107
firms the lower estimate of the number of Jews, joined with Zerubbabel in opposing the machi
but is inclined to reckon the entire population at nations of the Samaritans (Ezra iv. 3) ; and he
15,000. They inhabit a distinct quarter of the was not found wanting in zeal when the works,
town between Mount Zion and Mount Moriah. after having been interrupted, were resumed in
This is the worst and dirtiest part of the holy city, the second year of Darius Hystaspis (Ezra v. 2 ;
and that in which the plague never fails to make Hagg. i. 12). Several of the prophet Haggai's
its first appearance. Few of the Jerusalem Jews utterances are addressed to Jeshua (Hagg. i. 1 ;
are natives; and most of them come from foreign ii. 2), and his name occurs in two of the sym
parts to die in the city of their fathers' sepulchres. bolical prophecies of Zechariali (iii. 1-10; vi.
The greater proportion of them are from different 11-15). In the first of these passages Jeshua, as
parts of the Levant, and appear to be mostly of pontiff, represents the Jewish people covered at
Spanish and Polish origin. Few are from Ger first with the garb of slaves, and afterwards with
many, or understand the German language. the new and glorious vestures of deliverance. In
They are for the most part wretchedly poor, and the second he wears for a moment crowns of
depend in a great degree for their subsistence silver and gold, as symbols of the sacerdotal and
U|n the contributions of tlieir brethren in dif regal crowns of Israel, which were to be united
ferent countries. These contributions have of on the head of the Messiah.
late years been smaller than usual ; and when JESHURUN (fVB>); Sept. fryarnuivos ;
they arrive are the occasion of much heartburning Vulg. dilcctus in Deut., rectissimus in Isaiah),
and strife. The Scottish Deputation (Narrative, a name poetically applietl to Israel in Deut.
p. 148) say, ' They are always quarrelling, and xxxii. 15; xxxiii. 5, 26; Isa. xliv. 2. It has
frequently" apply to the consul to settle their dis been very variously understood, hut it is gene
putes. The expectation of support from the rally agreed to be a |xtetical diminutive expres
annual European contributions leads many of sive of affection. The root is TE = "CK, to
them to live in idleness. Hence there are in be straight, right, upright, righteous. In this
Jerusalem 500 acknowledged paupers, and 500 character, as entirely upright (for the termination
more who receive charity in a quiet way. Many is intensitive). Jehovah recognises his people in
are so poor that, if not relieved, they would not consideration of their covenant relation to him,
stand out the winter season. A few are shop- whereby, while they observed the terms of that
keejiers, and a few more hawkers, and a very few covenant, they stood legally righteous before
are operati ves. N one of them are agriculturists him and clean in his sight It is in this sense
riot a single Jew cultivates the soil of his fathers.' that the ancient kings are said to have done
Heisner, Ierusalem Vetustissima Descripta, "lC"!"!, ' that which was right ' in the eyes of
Francof. 1563 ; Olshausen, Zur Topographic d. Jehovah.
alten Jerusalem, Kiel, 1833 ; Adrichomius, Jeru JESSE OS*., firm ; Sept. 'U<roai), a de
salem sicut Christi tempore floruit, Colon. 1593; scendant
Chrysanthi (Beat. Patr. Hierosolymorum) His- He was theoffather Obed, the son of Boaz and Ruth.
toriu et Descriptio Terra Sancta, Urbisquc of whom, David, ofis eight sons : from the youngest
Sanctat Hierusalem, Venet 1728 (this work is in which belongs to thereflected all the distinction
Greek); D'Anville, Dissert, stir VEtendue de name. He seems to have
lAncienne Jerusalem, Paris, 1747 : the articles lieen a person of some note and substance at
on Jkklsai.bu in Ersch and Grulier's Encyclo Bethlehem, his property being chiefly in sheep.
pedic; in Raumer's Paliistina; ill Winer's Heal- It would seem from 1 Sam. xvi. 10, that he
wirrterbuch ; in Kugeue Roger's La Terre Oainctc, must have been aware of the high destinies which
on Descript. Topographique tres-particuliire des awaited his son ; but it is doubtful if he ever
lived to see them realized. The last historical
Sainctes Lieux, et de la Terre de l'romission, mention of Jesse is in relation to the asylum which
Paris, 16 16 ; and in Dr. Robinson's BibU Re
searches in Palestine; with the additions since David procured for him with the king of Moab
published in the Biblical Repository and Biblio- (1 Sam. xxii. 3).
theca Sacra : also, the notices ofJerusalem in vari JESUS CHRIST (Itvovs Xp,ffr6s, "Irjo-oOs S
ous books of travels, particularly those of Coto- Xpioro'y), flie ordinary designation of the incarnate
vicus, Zuallart, Radzivil, Morison, Nau, Sandys, Son of God, and Saviour of mankind. This
Doubdan, D'Arvieux, Maundrell, Pococke, Nie- double designation is not, like Simon Peter, John
buhr, Clarke, Turner, Buckingham, Richardson, Mark, Joses Barnabas, composed of a name and
Richter, Jolliil'e, Jowett, Prokesch, Scholz, Monro, a surname, but, like John the Baptist, Simon
Hardy, Stephens, Paxton, Schubert, Olin, Stent, Magus, Bar-Jesus Elymas, of a proper name, and
Formliy, and the Scottish Deputation. Less im an official title. Jksus was our Lord's proper
portant notices may be found in other liooks of name, just as Peter, James, and John were the
travels ; and the Journals of Missionaries, printed proper names of three of his disciples. The name
in the Missionary Register, American Missionary seems not to have been an uncommon one among
Herald, and Jewish Expositor, have occasionally the Jews. The apocryphal book Ecclesiasticus is
contained interesting notices of the Holy City. attributed to Jesus the son of Sirach ; and, in the
JKSHUA, or Joshua, son of Jozedech, and New Testament, we read of Jesus, the father of
high-priest of the Jews when they returned, under Elymas the sorcerer (Acts xiii. 6), and of ' Jesus,
Zerubbabel, from the Babylonian exile (b.c. which is called Justus of the circumcision' (Col.
536). He was, doubtless, born during the exile. iv. 11), one of Paul's 1 fellow-workers unto the
His presence and exhortations greatly promoted kingdom of God which had Iteen a comfort to
the rebuilding of the city and temple. The altar him.' To distinguish our Lord from others bear
of the latter being first erected, enabled him to ing the name, he was termed Jesus of Nazareth
sanctify tlieir labour by the religious ceremonies (John xviii. 7, &c), 'ItjctoCs 6 Nafivpaiot, and
and offerings which the law required. Jeshua Jesus the son of Joseph (John vi. 42, &c).
108 JESUS CHRIST. JESUS CHRIST.
Some of the fathers, from their ignorance of the 'because he shall save his people from their bios
Hebrew language, have given a Greek etymology (Matt. i. 21). But while some interpreters bold
to the name. They derive it from the noun that it is just a part of the verb signifying to save,
teurts, healing. Thus Eusehius, *\j)<tovs vrofidfao in the form Hiphil, slightly modified, and that it
wap NV twjs tu<v avBpotirlvtav Cu\uiy Idffftlts tc signifies ' he shall save,' others hold that it is a
koI ffepairctar xaPlt/ T^v ^<^pohov eis Tj/iaj iiroitlro compound word formed by the addition of two
(Demonst. Evang. lih. iv.) ; and Cyril of Jeru- letters of the incommunicable name of the divinity,
salem,'Iij<roDf KaXurai <p*p<ayvfiws, ttjs (rurripiiv- niiT, to that verb, and that it is equivalent to
Xtos iaafats fxwy T^iv "xpoarryopia* (CatecA. ' The Salvation of the Lord,' or ' The Lord tbe
IUum. x.) * Saviour/ It is not a matter of vital importance.
There can be no doubt that Jesus is the Greek The following circumstances seem to give proba
form of a Hebrew name, which had been home bility to the latter opinion It does not appear
by two illustrious individuals in former periods likely that Moses would have changed the name
of the Jewish history,the successor of Moses and of his destined successor from Oshea, which signt*
introducer of Israel into the promised land (Exod. ties 'saviour,' into Jehoshua (Num. xiii. 16), if the
xxiv. 13), and the higti-priest who, along with latter signified merely he shall save ; whereas, if
Zeruhhalwl (Zech. iii. 1 . took so active a part in the word be a com|>ound term, emlxxlying in it the
the re-establishment of the civil and religious name Jehovah, we see an adequate reason for tbe
polity of the Jews on their return from the Baby change. In the first chapter of the Gospel by
lonish captivity. Its original and full form is Matthew (Matt. i. 22, 23), the most natural in
Jehoshua (Num. xiii. 16). By contraction it terpretation of the wonts (though they admit o
became Joshua, or Jesliua ; and when transferred another exegesis) seems to imply that the predic
into Greek, by taking the termination charac- tion of Isaiah, that the Virgin's son should be
eristic of that language, it assumed the form Jesus. called Immanurl, was fulfilled in the imposition
It is thus the names of tin* illustrious individuals of the name Jesus on the Son of Mary. This
referred to are uniformly written in the Sept. ; would lie the case only on the supposition that
and the first of them is twice mentioned in the Itnmanuel and Jesus are equivalent terms, a sup-
New Testament by this name (Acts vii. 45 ; Heb. positton which cannot be sustained unlet* Jesut
iv. 8). can he fairly rendered * Jehovah will save,' or
The conferring of this name on our Lord was 4 Jehovah the Saviour.' In that case, Jesus and
not the result of accident, or of the ordinary ImmanuelGod with us, i.e. on our sideexpress
course of things, there being * none of his kindred/ the same ideas.
so far as we ran trace from the two genealogies, It is right, however, to remark, that the merely
* called by tliat name* (Luke i. 61). It was the hearing such a name us either Immanuel or Jesus,
consequence of a twofold miraculous interposition. even by divine appointment, is not ofiUelf evi
Ttie angel who announced to his virgin mother dence of the divinity of him who l>ears it. The
that she was to l>e ' the most honoured of women,1 Hebrews were in the habit of giving names, both
in giving birth to the Son of God and the Saviour to persons and places, which were intended not to
of men, intimated also to her the name by which describe their distinctive pmperties, but to express
the holy child was to he called : ' Thou shalt some important general truth. Jacob called an
call his name Jesus ' (Luke i. 31). And it was altar built by him El-Elnhe-Israel (Gen. xxxiii.
proltahly the same heaveuly messenger who ap 20), * God the God of Israel/ ft, e. God is the God
peared to Joseph, and, to remove his suspicions of Israel. Moses called an altar he built Jehovah
and quiet his fears, said to him, * That which is Nissi (Exod. xvii. 13), * Jehovah my banner/ i.e.
conceived in thy wife Mary is of the Holy Ghost, Jehovah is my banner. The name Jehoshua,
and she shall bring forth a son, and thou shalt as t>ome by him who brought the people of the
call his name Jesus' (Matt. i. 20, 21). Ttie pious Lord into the heritage of the Gentiles, means no
pair were 'not disobedient to the heavenly vision/ more than that by him Jehovah would deliver his
1 When eight days were accomplished for the cir people. In many of the projwr names in the Old
cumcising of the child, his name was called Jesus, Testament, Hie name El, or Jehovah, forms a |>art.
which was so named of the angel before he was Yet when, as in the case liefore us, he who Iears
conceived in the womb' (Luke ii. 21). such a name, by express divine appointment, is
The name Jesus, like most of Jewish proper shown * by many infallible proofs 1 to lie indeed
names, was significant; and, as might well be an incarnation of divinity, we cannot but perceive
expected, when we consider who imposed it, its a peculiar propriety in this divine appointment,
meaning is at once important and appmpriate. and find in it, if not a new argument, a corro
The jrrecise Import of the word has been a subject boration of the host of arguments which lead us
of doubt and debate among interpreters. As to to the conclusion that He who * according to
its general meaning there is all but an unanimous the flesh ' was the Son of David, 'according to
concurrence It was intended to denote that he the Spirit of Holiness' was' the Sim of God,'
who bore it was to be a Deliverer or Saviour. ' God over all, blessed for ever' (Rom. i. 3, 4;
This, whatever more, is i iidirated in the original ix. 5).
word ; and the reason given by the angel for the The above are the only probable etymologies of
imposition of this name on the Virgin's son was the word. Others, however, have been suggested,
and supported with considerable learning and in
* Some of the Patristic etymologies are really genuity. The Valentin ians, acconling to Irempus
very odd. Yldtrxa is traced to irdiTxw ' AevtT7jr is (lib. ii. c.41), were in the habit of writing the name
derived from the Latin lexis ; and Aicj3oXot from VJ'V and explained it as meaning * Him who pos
5i'o and wAos, because he who l>ears that name sesses heaven and earth/ making each letter,
(wallows man at two bites, first the soul, and then according to the cabbalistic art called notarikon,
the body. expressive of a word or clause; thus, * for nifl\
JESUS CHRIST. JESUS CHRIST. 100
B> fur DW, and 1 for pan, Jehovah of heaven Messiah, and the Knglish word Anointed. The
and earth.' Christ is just equivalent to the Anointed One.
The learned but fanciful Osiander insists that The important question, however, remains behind,
Jesus is not the Greek form of Joshua, but the What is meant when the Saviour is represented
ineffable name, the Shem-hamphorash, rendered as the Anointed One? To reply to this question
utterable by the insertion of the letter C. The satisfactorily, it will be necessary to go somewhat
reader who wishes to see the arguments by which into detail.
he supports this wild hypothesis may consult his Unction, from a very early age, seems to have
Harmonia Evangelica, lib. i. c. 6, Basil, 1561. been the emblem of consecration, or setting apart
And a satisfactory reply may be found in Chem- to a particular, and especially to a religious, pur
nitius* dissertation, De nomine Jesu, in Tfies. Theol. pose. Thus Jacob is said to have anointed the
PhiloL torn. ii. p. 62, Amst. 17U2; and in Ca- pillar of stone, which he erected and set apart as
ninii Disquis. in Inc. aliq. N. T. c. i. ; apud a monument of his supernatural dream at Beth-el
Crit. Sat. torn. ix. (Gen. xxviii. 18; xxxi. 13; xxxv. 14). Under
Castalio maintains an equally whimsical notion the Old Testament economy high-priests and
as to lite etymology of the word, deriving it from kings were regularly set apart to their offices, both
Hill* and ET*&5, M if it were equivalent to Jehova- of which were, strictly speaking, sacred ones, by
hnnin, (rod-man. t he ceremony of anointing, and the prophets were
1 be * name of Jesus * (Phil. ii. 10) is not the occasionally designated by the same rite. This
name Jesus, but ' the name above every name,1 rite seems to have been intended as a public
itrtftn rb {rtrtp trav uvcfia, ver. 0. ; i. e. tbe supreme intimation ofa divine apjtointment to office. Thus
dignify and authority with which the Father lias Saul is termed 'the Lords anointed* (I Sam.
invested Jesus Christ, as the reward of his disin xxiv. 6); David, 'the anointed of the God of
terested exertions in the cause of the divine glory Israel' (2 Sam. xxiii. 1); and Zedekiah, 'the
and human happiness; and the bowing tV r< anointed of the Lord* (Lam. iv. 20). The high-
6v6fMTt 'Iijtrou is obviously not an external mark priest is called * the anointed priest' (Lev. iv. 3).
of homage when the name Jesus is pronounced, From the origiu and design of the rite, it is nc**
but the inward sense of awe and submission to wonderful that the term should have, in a secon
him who is raised to a station so exalted. dary and analogical sense, been applied to persons
Christ; Gr. XpurrSs ; Heb. rWD. This is set aiKirt by God for imjxirtant purposes, though
not, strictly speaking, a proper name, but an not actually anointed. Thus Cyrus, the King of
t.llieial title. Jesus Christ, or rather, as it gene Persia, is termed 'the Lord's anointed ' (Isa. xlv.
rally ought to be rendered, Jesus the Christ, is a 1); the Hebrew patriarchs, when sojourning in
mode of expression of the same kind as John the Canaan, are termed ' God's anointed ones ' (Ps.
Baptist, or Baptiser. In consequence of not ad cv. 15) ; and the Israelitish people receive the same
verting to this, the force anil even the meaning of appellation from the prophet Habakkuk (Hab. iii.
many passages of Scripture are misapprehended. 13). It is probably with reference to this use of
When it is stated tii.it Paul asserted, 'This Jesus the expression that Moses is said by the writer of
whom I preach unto you is Christ' (Acts xvii. 3), the Epistle to the Hebrews, to have * counted the
t( ouros ioriv & Xptffrbs 'Itjcovs, /fee, that he ' testi rtpKMcfa of Christ' (Heb. xi. 2t>), tov Xpttrrov
fied to the Jews that Jesus was Christ * (Acts xviii. (Aaou), the same class who in the }>arallel clause
5),
thattheJesus
meaning
was theis, Christ,
that herhv
proclaimed
Xpttrrbv and proved
l\ri<rovvt or are termed the 'people of God/ 'greater riches than
the treasures of Egypt.1
Messiahthe rightful owner of a title descriptive In the prophetic Scriptures we find this appel
of a high official station which had been the sub- lation given to an illustrious personage, who,
jpet of ancient prediction. When Jesus himself under various designations, is so often spoken of
says that * it is life eternal to know the only true as destined to apriear in a distant age as a great
God, and Jesus Christ whom he has sent 1 (John deliverer. The royal prophet David seems to have
xvii. 3). he represents the knowledge of himself been the first who sjioke of the great deliverer
as the Christ, tire Messiah, as at once necessary under this appellation. He represents the heathen
and sufficient to make men truly and permanently (the Gentile nations) mging, and the people (the
happy. When he says, * What think ye of Christ V Jewish people) imagining a vain thing, 'against
irtpl tov Xpt<rrov : ' whose son is he V (Matt. xxii. Jehovah, and against his anointed' (Ps. ii. 2).
42J, he does not mean, What think ye of mk, He says, 'Now know 1 that the Lord saveth his
or of my descent? but, What think ye of the anointed' (Ps. xx. 6). 'Thou hast loved righte
Christ- in- Messiahand especially of his pa ousness and liated iniquity * says he, addressing
ternity. There can be no doubt that the word, himself to 'Him who was to come,' 'therefore
though originally an appellative, and intended to God, even thy God, hath anointed thee with the
bring before the mind a particular official cha oil of gladness above thy fellows' (Ps. xlv. 7*j
racter jjossessed by him to whom it is applied, In all the passages in which the great deliverer is
came at last, like many other terms of the same spoken of as 'the anointed one,' by David, he is
kind, to l-KJ often used very much as a proper plainly viewed as sustaining the character of a
name, to distinguish our Lord from other persons king.
bearing the name Jesus. This is a sense, however, The prophet Isaiah also uses the appellation,
of com|ratively rare occurrence in the New Tes 1 the anointed one,' with reference to the promised
tament. deliverer, but, when he docs so. he speaks of him as
Proceeding, then, on the principle that Christ a prophet or great teacher. He introduces him as
is an appellative, let us inquire into its origin saying, * The Spirit of the Lord God is upon me,
and signification as applied to our Lord. Christ because the Lord God hath anointed me to preach
is the English form of a Greek word, Xpio~r6s, good tidings unto the meek ; he hath sent me to
corresponding in meaning to the Hebrew word bind up the broken-hearted, to proclaim liberty to
tlO JESUS CHRIST. JESUS CHRIST.
the captives, and the opening of the prison to them Now what is the sum of the prophetic testimony
who are bound, to proclaim the acceptable year of respecting him ? It is thisthat he should belong
the Lord, and the day of vengeance of our God, to the very highest order of being, the incommuni
to comfort all that mourn,' &c. (Isa. lxi. 1, &c). cable name Jehovah being represented as right
Daniel is the only other of the prophets who fully belonging to him; that 4 his goings forth have
uses the appellation 4 the anointed one ' in refer been from old, from everlasting' (Mic. v. 2);
ence to the great deliverer, and he plainly repre tfiat his appropriate appellations should be ( Won
sents him as not only a prince, but also a high- derful, Counsellor, the Mighty God ' (Isa. ix. 6) ;
priest, an expialor of guilt. 'Seventy weeks are that he should assume human nature, and become
determined upon thy people and upon thy holy 4 a child born 1 of the Israelitish nation of the tribe
city, to punish the transgression, and to make an of Judah (Gen. xlix. 10), of the family of David
end of sins, and to make reconciliation lor ini (Isa. xi. 1); that the object of his apjiearance
quity, and to bring in everlasting righteousness, should be the salvation of mankind. both Jews
and to seal up the vision and the prophecy, and to and Gentiles (Isa. xlix. 6); that he should t>e
anoint the most holy. Know therefore and under * despised and rejected ' of his countrymen ; that
stand that from the going fort!) of the command lie should l>e 4 cut off, but not for himself;* tliat
ment to restore Jerusalem unto Messiah the Prince he should be * wounded for men's transgressions,
shall be seven weeks and threescore and two weeks ; bruised for their iniquities, and undergo the chas
the city shall be built again, and the wall, even tisement of their peace that 4 by his strijies men
in troublous times; and after threescore and two should be healed ;' that 4 the Lord should lay on
weeks shall Messiah be cut oft', but not for him him the iniquity ' of men ; that ' exaction should
self (Dan. ix. 24-26). Iv made and he should answer it;1 that he should
During the period which elapsed from the close * make his soul an offering for sin ;' that after
of the prophetic canou till the birth of Jesus, no these sufferings he should be 4 exalted and extolled
appellation of the expected deliverer seems to have and made very high ;' that he should * see of the
been so common as the Messiah or Anointed One, travail of his soul and be satisfied, and by his
and this is still the name which the unbelieving knowledge justify many ' (Isa. liii. passim) ; that
Jews ordinarily employ when shaking of him Jehovah should say to him, 4 Sit at my right hand
whom they still look for to avenge their wrongs until I make thine enemies thy footstool ' (Ps. ex.
and restore them to more than their former honours. 1 ) ; that lie should be brought near to the Ancient
Messiah, Christ, Anointed, is, then, a term of Days, and that to him should be given 4 domi
equivalent to consecrated, sacred, set apart ; and nion, and glory, and a kingdom, that all jteople,
as the record of divine revelation is called, by ami nations, and languages should serve him an
way of eminence, The llible. or book, so is the everlasting dominion which shall not }>ass away,
Great Deliverer called The Messiah, or Anointed a kingdom that shall not be destroyed - (Dan.
One, much in the same way as he is termed The vii. 13, 14). All this is implied in saying Jesus
Man, The Son of Man. is the Christ In the plainer language of the New
The import of this designation as given to Jesus Testament 4 Jeous is the Christ ' is equivalent 1o
of Nazareth may now readily lie apprehended. Jesus is 4 God manifest in llesh ' (1 Tim. iii. 16),
(1.) When he is termed tike Christ it it plainly the Son of God, who, in human nature, by his
indicated that Hb is the great deliverer promised obedience, and sufferings, and death in the room
under that appellation, and many others in the of the guilty, has obtained salvation for them,
Old Testament Scriptures, and that all that is and all power in heaven and earth for himself,
said of this deliverer under this or any other ap- tliat he may give eternal life to all cuming to the
jjellation is true of Him. No attentive reader of Father through him.
the Old Testament can help noticing that in ev ery (2.) While the statement 4 Jesus is the Christ ' is
part of the prophecie* there is ever and anon pre thus materially equivalent to lie statement 'all
sented to our view an illustrious personage destined that is said of the Great Deliverer in the Old
to appear at some future distant period, ami, how Testament Scriptures is true of Him.' it brings
ever varied may 1* the figurative representations more directly before ourmind those truths respect
given of him, no reasonable doubt can Ite enter ing him winch the ajipellatiuu 'the AnoinU-d
tained as to the identity of-the individual. It is One' naturally suggests. He is a prophet, a
quite obvious that the Messiah is the same ]wrson priest, and a king. He is the great revealer of
us ' the seed of the woman ' who was to * bruise the u ivine truth; the only expiator of human guilt,
head of the serpent' (Gen. iii. 15); 'the seed of and reconciler of man to God ; the supreme and
Abraham, in whom all the nations of the earth were sole legitimate ruler over the understandings,
to le blessed * (Gen. xxii. 18) ; the great * prophet consciences, and affections of men. In his per
to be raised up like unto Moses,* whom all were to son, and work, and word, by his spirit and prov i
be required to hear and obey (Dent, xviii. 15); dence, he unfolds the truth with respect to the
the ' priest after the order of Melchizedek ;' * the divine character and will, and so conveys it into
rod out of the stem of Jesse, which should stand the mind as to make it the eflectual means of
for an ensign of the people to which the Gentiles conforming man's will to God's will, man's cha
should seek" (Isa. xi. 1, 10); the virgin's son racter to God's character. He has by his spotless,
whose name was to be Immanuel (Isa. vii. 14); all-perfect obedience, amid the severest- sufferings,
* the branch of Jehovah ' ( Isa. iv. 2) ; * the Angel 4 obedience unto death even the death of the cross,
of the Covenant ' (Mai. iii. 1) ; ' the Lord of the so illustrated the excellence of the divine law and
Temple," &c. &c. (ib.). When we say, then, that the wickedness and danger of violating it, as to
Jesus is the Christ, we in etl'ect say, * Tin's is He make it a righteous thing in 4 the just God' to
of whom Moses, in the law, and the prophets did * justify the ungodly,* thus propitiating the
write ' (John i. 45j ; and all that they say of Him offended majesty of heaven ; while the manifesta
it true of Jesus. tion of the div ine love in appointing and accepting
JESUS CHRIST. JEW. Ill
this atonement, when apprehended by the mind lifications, such of them as were conferred, were
under tlie influence of the Holy Spirit, becomes bestowed in, or during bis incarnation, when 1 God
the effectual means of reconciling man to God anointed him with the Holy Ghost and with
and to his law, * transforming him by the renew power 1 (Acts x. 38). His commission may be
ing of his mind.1 And now, possessed qf ' all considered as given him when called to enter on
power in heaven and earth,' 'all jwwer over all the functions of his office. He himself, after
flesh,1 * He is Lord of All.' All external events quoting, in the synagogue of Nazareth, in the com
and all spiritual influences are equally under his mencement of his ministry, the passage from the
control, and as a king he exerts his authority in prophecies of Isaiah in which his unction to the
carrying into full effect the great purposes which prophetical office is predicted, declared ' This day
lis revelations as a prophet, and his great atoning is rhis Scripture fulfilled in your ears.' And in
sacrifice as a high-priest, were intended to accom his resurrection and ascension, God, as the reward
plish. of his loving righteousness and hating iniquity,
(3.) But the full import of the appellation the 'anointed him with the oil of gladness above his
Christ is not yet brought out. It indicates that fellows' (Ps. xlv. 7), i.e. conferred on him a
He to whom it belongs iB the anointed prophet, regal power, fruitful in blessings to himself and
priest, and kingnot that he was anointed by others, far superior to that which any king had
material oil, but that he was divinely appointed, ever assessed, making him, as the Apostle Peter
qitalifiedy commissioned, and accredited to be the expresses it, * both Lord and Christ 1 (Acts ii. 36).
Saviour of men. These are the ideas which the As to his being accredited, every miraculous event
term anointed seems specially intended to con performed in reference to him or by him may be
vey. Jesus was divinely appointed to the oflices viewed m included in this species of anointing
he filled. He did not ultroneously assume them, especially the visible descent of the Spirit on him
* lie was called of God as was Aaton ' (Heb. v. 4), in his baptism.
* Behold mine Elect, in whom my soul de- These statements, with regard to the import
lighteth.1 He was divinely qualified : 1 God gave of the appellation 'the Christ,* show us how we
to him the Spirit not by measure.1 'The Spirit are to understand the statement of the Apostle
of the Lord was upon him, the spirit of wisdom John, 'Whosoever believeth that Jesus is the
and understanding, the spirit of counsel and Christ is bom of God 1 (1 John v. 1), t. e. is 'a
might, the spirit of knowledge and of the fear of child of God,1 ' born again,1 * a new creature and
the Lord, and they made him of quick under the similar declaration of the Apostle Paul, 'No
standing in the fear of the Lord, so that he does man can say that Jetui is the Lord,' t. e, the
not judge after the sight of his eyes, nor reprove Christ, the Messiah, * but by the Holy Ghost 1
after the hearing of his ears, but he smites the (1 Cor. xii. 3). It is plain that the proposition,
earth with the rod of his mouth, and with the ' Jesus is the Christ,' when understood in the lati
breath of his lips he slays the wicked; and right tude of meaning which we have shown belong! to
eousness is tlte girdle of his loins, and faithfulness it, contains a complete summary of the truth
the girdle of his reins1 (Isa. xi. 2-4). He was resecting the divine method of salvation. To
divinely commissumed : * The Father sent him.1 believe that principle rightly understood is to be
Jehovah said to him, ' Thou art my servant, in lieve the G(ji>elthe saving truth, by the faith of
thee will I be glorified. It is a light thing that which a man is, and by the faith of which only a
thou shouldst be my servant, to raise up the tribes man can be, brought into the relation or formed
of Jacob and to restore the preserved of Israel ; I to the character of a child of God ; and though a
will also give thee for a light to the Gentiles, that man may, without divine influence, be brought to
thou mayst be my salvation to the ends of the acknowledge that * Jesus is the Lord," ' Messiah
earth1 (Isa. xlix. 6). 'Behold,' says Jehovah, the Prince,' and even firmly to believe that these
1 1 have given Him for a witness to the jjeoplea words emlfody a truth, yet no man can be brought
leader and commander to the people.1 He is really to believe and cordially to acknowledge the
divinely accredited: * Jesus of Nazareth," says the truth contained in these words, as we have at-
Apostle Peter, was * a man approved of God uynpted to unfold it, without a peculiar divine
among you by miracles, and wonders, and signs influence. That Jesus is 6 l\&wv, b Xpioro'j, is the
which God did by him in the midst of you' testimonv of God, the faith of which constitutes a
(Acts ii. 22). 'The Father who hath sent me,1 Christian, to eV, the one thing to which the Spirit,
says Jesus himself, 'hath borne witness of me' the water and the blood, unite in bearing witness
(John v. 37). This he did again and again by a ^1 John v. 6, 8, 9).J. B.
voice from heaven, as well as by the miracles JESUS, sumamed Justus. [Justus.]
which he twrformed by that divine power which JETHRO. [Hohau.]
was equally his and his Father's. Such is the
import of the appellation Christ. JEW OT^T Jehudi; Sept. 'IovScuos), a name
If these observations are clearly apprehended formed from that of the patriarch Judah, and
there will be little difficulty in giving a satisfac applied in its first use to one belonging to the
tory answer to the question which has sometimes tribe or country of Judah, or rather perhaps to a
been proposedwhen did Jesus become Christ? subject of the separate kingdom of Judah (2 Kings
when was he anointed of God? We have seen xvi. 6 ; xxv. 5). During the Captivity the term
that the expression isa figurative or analogical one, seems to have Iwen extended to all the iteople of
and therefore we need not wonder that its references the Hebrew language and country, without dis
are various. The appointment of the Saviour, tinction (Esth. iii. 6, 9; Dan. iii. 8, 12); and
like all the other divine purposes, was, of course, this loose application of the name was preserved
from eternity. 1 He was set up from everlasting ' affcr the restoration to Palestine, when it came to
(Prov, viii, 23); he * was fore-ordained before the denote not only every descendant of Abraham in
foundation of the world.' (I Pet. i. 20). His qua the largest possible sense, but even proselytes who
112 JEZEBEL. JEZREEL
had do blood -relation to the Hebrews (Acts ii. 5 ; met her death beneath the wall [Jehu] ; and
comp. lOj. See the articles Hebrew Lan when afterwards the new monarch bethought him
guage; Israel; Judah. that, as 1 a king's daughter,1 her corpse should not
be treated with disrespect, nothing was found of
JEZEBEL <?3J*i*. not-inhabited, comp, Isa her but the palms of her liands and the soles of
bella; Sept. *Ici\), daughter of Ethl>aal, king her feet. The dogs had eaten all the rest. b.c.
of Tyre and Sidon, and consort of Ahab, king of 881 (1 Kings xvi. 31; xviii. 4, 13, 19; xxi.
Israel (b.c. !'ls . This unsuitable alliance 5-25 ; 2 Kings ix. 7, 22, 30-37).
proved most disastrous to the kingdom of Israel;
for Jezebel induced her weak husband not only to JEZREEL fatttA Sept. ltpdt\\ a town
connive at her introducing the worship of her in the tribe of Issachar (Josh. xix. 18), where the
Dative idols, but eventually to become himself a kings of Israel liad a palace, and where the court
worshipper of them, and to use all the means in Iris often resided, although Samaria was the metro
power to establish them in the room of the God of polis of the kingdom. It is most frequently men
Israel. This was a great enormity. The worship tioned in the history of the house of Ahab. Here
of the golden calves which previously existed was, was the vineyard of Naboth, which Ahab coveted
however mistakenly, intended in honour of Jehovah; to enlarge the |alace-grounds (1 Kings xviii. 45,
but this was an open alienation from him, and a 46 ; xxi.), and here Jehu executed his dread
turning aside to foreign and strange gods, which, ful commission against the house of Ahab, when
indeed, were no gods. Most of the particulars ofthis Jezel*el, Joram, and all who were connected with
bad but apparently highly-gifted woman's conduct that wretched dynasty perished (2 Kings ix. 14-
have been related in the notices of Ahab and 37; x. 1-11). Tlie.se horrid scenes appear to
Elijah. From the course of her proceedings it have given the kings of Israel a distaste to this
would appear that she grew to hate the Jewish residence, as it is not again mentioned in their
system of law and religion, on account of what history. It is, however, named by Hosea (i. 4 ,
must liave seemed to her its intolerance and its comp. L II | ii. 22); and in Judith (i. 8; iv. 3;
anti-social tendencies. She hence sought to put it v ii. 3) it occurs under the name of Ksdraelon.
down by all the means she could command ; and In the days of Eusebius and Jerome it was still
the imbecility of her husband seems to have made a large village, called Esdraela (OnomasL a, r.
all the powers of the state subservient to her * Jezrael ') ; and in the same age it again occurs
designs. The manner in which she acquired a3 Stradela (/Cm. Hieros. p. 586). Nothing
and used her power over Ahab is strikingly more is beard of it till the time of the crusade*,
shown in the matter of Naboth, which, ijeihaps, when it was called by the Franks Parvum Ge-
more than all the other affairs in which she was rinum, and by the Arabs Zerin ; and it is de
engaged, brings out her true character, and dis scribed as commanding a wide prospecton the
plays the nature of her influence. When she found east to the mountains of Gilead, and on the west
him puling, like a spoiled child, on account of to Mount Carmel (Will. Tyr. xxii. 26). But
the refusal of Naboth to gratify him by selling this line of identification seems to have been
him his patrimonial vineyard for a 1 garden of afterwards lost sight of, and Jezreel came to be
herbs,' she teaches him to look to her, to rely identified with Jenin. Indeed, the village of
upon ber for the accomplishment of his wishes; Zerin ceased to I* mentioned by travellers till
and for the sake of this impression, more jierhaps Turner, Buckingham, and others after them again
than from savageness of temper, she scrupled not brought it into notice ; and it is still more lately
at murder under the abused forms of law and that the identification of Zerin and Jezreel has
religion. She had the reward of her unscru been restored (Raumcr, Palast. p. 155 ; Schubert,
pulous decisiveness of character in the triumph iii. 161 ; Elliot, ii. 379; Kobiuson, iii. 164).
of her policy in Israel, where, at last, there were but If any further proof of the fact were necessary,
7000 people who had not bowed the knee to 13aal, the identity of the names Jezreel and Zerin, or
nor kissed their hand to his image. Nor was Jerin, might be adduced. Tins does not at first
her success confined to Israel, for through Atha,- sight appear; but the first feeble letter of the
liaha daughter after her own heartwho was Hebrew being dropped, and the last syllable el
married to the son and successor of Jeboshaphat, becoming in, as is not unusual in Arabic (as
the same policy prevailed for a time in Judah, Beitm for Uethef), the two words are seen to have
after Jezel*el herself had perished and the house been originally the same.
of Ahab had met its doom. It seems that after Zerin is seated on the brow of a rocky and very
the death of her husband, Jezebel maintained con steep descent into the great and fertile valley of
siderable ascendancy over her son Joram ; and Jezreel, which runs down between the mountains
her measures and misconduct formed the principal of Gil boa and Hermon. Lying comparatively
charge which Jehu cast in the teeth of that un high, it commands a w ide and noble view, ex
happy monarch, before he sent forth the arrow tending down the broad valley on the east to
which slew him. The last effort of Jezebel was Beisan (Betlishean), and on the west quite across
to intimidate Jehu as he pasted the palace, by the great plain to the mountains of Carmel. It
warning him of the eventual rewards of even is described by Dr. Robinson (Researches, iii.
successful treason. It is eminently characteristic 163) as a most magnificent site for a city, which,
of the woman, that even in this terrible moment, being itself a conspicuous object in every part,
when she knew that her son was slain, and must would naturally give its name to the whole region.
have felt that her power had deitarted, she dis In the valley directly under Zerin, is a consi
played herself not with rent veil and dishevelled derable fountain, and another still larger some
hair, * but tired her head and painted her eyes ' what further to the east, under the northern side of
before she looked out at the window. The eunuchs, Gilboa, called Ain Jalud. There can, therefore,
at a word from Jehu, having cast her down, she be little question that as in Zerin we have Jezreel,
JOAB. JOAB. 113
bo in the valley and tlie fountain we have the faithfully ; for although he knew his power over
'valley of JezreeV and the fountain of Jezreel, David, and often treated him with little cere
of Scripture. mony, there can be no doubt that he was most
Zerin has at present little more than twenty truly devoted to his interests, and sometimes ren
humble dwellings, mostly in ruins, and with few dered him good service even against his own will,
inhabitants. as in the afl'air at Mahanaim (2 Sam. xix. 5-8).
JOAB (3V, God-fathered; Sept. *IoE), one But Joab had no principles apart from what he
of the three sons of Zeruiah, the sister of David, deemed his duty to the king and the people, and
and 'captain of tlie host ' (generalissimo) of the was quite as ready to serve his master's vices as
army during nearly tlie whole of David's reign. his virtues, so long as they did not interfere
He first appears associated with his two bro with his own interests, or tended to promote thera-
thers, Abishai and Asahel, in the command of by enabling him to make himself useful to the
David's troops against Abner, who had set up the king. His ready apprehension of the king's
claims of a son of Saul in opposition to those of meaning in the matter of Uriah, and the facility
David, who then reigned in Hebron. The armies with which he made himself the instrument of the
having met at the pool of Gibeon, a general action murder, and of the hypocrisy by which it was
was brought on, in which Abner was worsted. In covered, are proofs of this, and form as deep a
his flight he had the misfortune to kill Juab's bro stain upon his character as his own murders (2
ther, tlie swift-footed Asuhel, by whom he was pur Sam. xi. 14-25). As Joab was on good terms
sued (2 Sam. ii. 13-32). The consequences of with Absalom, and had taken pains to bring
this deed have been explained elsewhere [^Abner; about a reconciliation between him and his father,
Asahei.]. Joab smothered for a time his resent we may set the higher value upon his firm adhe
ment against the shedder of his brother's blood; sion to David when Absalom revolted, and upon
but being whetted by the natural rivalry of posi his stern sense of duty to tlie kingfrom whom
tion between him and Abner, he afterwards made he expected no thanks,displayed in putting an
it the instrument of his policy by treacherously, end to the war by tho slaughter of his favourite
in tlie act of friendly communication, slaying son, when all others shrunk from the responsibility
Abner, at the very time when the services of the of doing the king a service against, his own will
latter to David, to whom he had then turned, (2 Sam. xviii. 1-14). In like manner, when
had rendered him a most dangerous rival to him Daviii unhappily resolved to number the people,
in power and influence (2 Sam. iii. 22-27). Joab discerned the evil and remonstrated against
That Abner had at first suspected that Joab it; and although he, did not venture to disobey,
would take the position of blood-avenger [Blood- he performed tlie duty tardily and reluctantly, to
Revenge] is clear, from the apprehension which atlbrd tlie king an opportunity of reconsidering the
he expressed (2 Sam. ii. 22) ; but that he thought matter, and took no pains to conceal how odious
that Joab had, under all the circumstances, aban the measure was to him (2 Sam. xxiv. 1-4).
doned this position, is shown by the unsuspecting David was certainly ungrateful for the services
readiness with which he went aside with him of Joab, when, in order to conciliate the powerful
party which had supported Absalom, he otlWed
(2 Sam. iii. 26, 27) ; and that Joab placed his the command of the host to Amasa, who had
murderous act on the footing of vengeance for his commanded the army of Absalom (2 Sum. xix.
hrother's blood, is plainly stated in 2 Sam. iii. 30 ; 13). But the inefficiency of the new commander,
by which it also appears that the other brother, in the emergency which the revolt of Bichri s son
Abishai, shared in some way in the deed and its produced, arising perhaps from the reluctance of
-esponsihilities. At the same time, as Abner the troops to follow (heir new leader, gave Joab an
was perfectly justified in slaying Asahet to save opportunity of displaying his sujierior resources;
his own life, it is very doubtful if Joab would and also of removing his rival by a murder very
ever have asserted his right of bhxxI-revenge, if similar to, and in some respects less excusable
Abner had not ap]>eared likely to endanger his and more foul than that of Abner [AmasaJ.
influence with David. Tlie king, much as lie Besides, Amasa was his own cousin, being ihe
reprobated the act, knew that it had a sort of ex son of his mother's sister (2 Sam. xx. 1-13).
cuse in the old customs of blood-revenge, and lie When David lay on his death-bed, and a de
stood habitually too much in awe of his impetu monstration was made in favour of the succession
ous and able nephew to bring him to punishment, of the eldest surviving son, Adonijah, whose inte
or even to displace him from his command. * I rests had been compromised by the preference of
am this day weak,1 he said, ' though anointed the young Solomon, Joab joined the party of the
king, and these men, the sons of Zeruiah, be too natural heir. It would be unjust to regard this
aard for me' (2 Sam iii. 39). as a defection from David. It was nothing more
Desirous probably of making some atonement or less than a demonstration in favour of the na
before David and the public for this atrocity, in tural heir, which, if not then made, could not be
a way which at the same time was most likely to made at all. But an act which would have been
prove efl'ectual namely, by some daring exploit, justifiable, had the preference of Solomon been a
he was the first to mount to the assault at tlie mere caprice of the old king, became criminal as
storming of the fortress on Mount Zion, which had an act of contumacy to the Divine king, the real
remained so long in the hands of the Jebusites. head of tlve government, who liad called the house
By this service he acquired tlie chief command of David to the throne, and had the sole right of
of tlie army of all Israel, of which David was by determining which of its members should reign.
this time king (2 Sam. v. 6-10). When the prompt measures taken under the
It is not necessary to trace the subsequent acts direction of the king rendered this demonstration
of Joab, seeing that they are in fact the public abortive (I Kings i. 7), Joab withdrew into private
acts of the king he served. And he served him life till some time after the death of David, when
TOL. II. i
114 JOANNA. JOASH.
the fate of Adonijah, and of Abiatliarwhose life land was defiled with idolatries and idolatnms
was only spared in consequence of his sacerdotal usages. The prophets then uttered their warnings,
character warned Joab that he had little mercy to but were not heard; and the infatuated king had
expect from the new king. He fled for refuge to the atrocious ingratitude to put to death Zechariah,
the altar; but when Solomon heard this, he sent the son and successor of his lienefactor Jehoiada.
Benaiah to put htm to death ; and, as he refused For these deeds Joash was made an example of tin
to come forth, gave orders that he should I* slain divine judgments. He saw his realm devastated
even at tiie ajtar. Thus died one of the most by the Syrians under Haxael ; his armies were
accomplished warriors and nnserupulum men cut hi pieces by an enemy of inferior numbers;
that Israel ever produced. His corpse was re and he was even besieged in Jerusalem, and only
moved to his domain in the wilderness of Judah, preserved his capital and his crown by giving up
and buried there, b.c. 1015 (1 Kings ii. 5, 2S-34). tlte treasures of the temple. Besides this, a pain
JOANNA Qbiu)i wife of Clmza, the ful malady embittered all his latter days, and at
steward of Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee. length he t>ecame so odious that his own servants
She was one of those women who followed Christ, conspired against him, and slew him on his
and ministered to the wants of him and his l>ed. They are said to liave done this to avenge
disciples out of their abundance. They had all the blood of Zechariah, who at his death hud
been cured ofgrievous diseases by the Saviour, or cried, * The Lord look upon it and require it f
had received material beiielits fr.im him; and the and it is hence proliable that ]wblic opinion
customs of the country allowed them to testify oscril>ed all the calamities of bis life and reign to
in this way their gratitude and devutedness with that infamous deed. Joash was buried in ihe
out reproach. It is usually sup]>osed that Joanna city of David ; but a place in the sepulchre of
was at this time a widow (Luke viii. 3; the kings was denied to his remains (2 Kings xi. .
xxiv. 10). xii. ; 2 Chrou. xxiv.).
2. JOASH, son and successor of Jehoahuz on
L JOASH (S2W, God-given; Sept. *Id>), the throne of Israel, of which he was the twelfth
a contraction of Jbboasu (BtOi"P), son of king. He began to reign in b.c 840, and reigned
Ahaziah and eighth king of Judah, who began to sixteen incomplete years. He followed the ex
reign in b.c. 87S, at the age of seven, and reigned ample of his predecessors in the policy of keeping
forty-one years. up the worship of the golden calves; but. ajiort
Joash, when an infant, was secretly saved by from this, he l>ears a fair character, and had in
his aunt Jehoshehah, who was married to the high- tervals, at least, of sincere piety and true devo
priest Jehoiada, from the general massacre of the tion to the Ciod of his fathers. Indeed, custom
family by Athaliah, who had usurped the throne and long habit had so established the views of
[Athamah ; Jehoiada]. By the high-priest political expediency on which the sclmmatical
and his wife the child was privily brought tip in establishments at Dan and Bethel were founded,
the chaml>ers connected with the temple till he that at length the reprehension which regularly
had attained his eighth year, when Jehoiada recurs in the record of each king's reign, seems
deemed that the state of affairs required him to rather to apply to it as a mark of the continuance
produce the youthful heir of the throne to the of a public crime, than as indicative of the cha
people, and claim for him the crown which his racter or disjKisition of the reigning prince,
grandmother bad so unrighteously usurped. wi ich is to be sought in the more detailed
Finding the influential persons whom he consulted accounts of his own conduct. These accounts
favourable to the design, everything was secretly, are favourable with respect to Joash. He held
but admirably, arranged for producing Joash, and the prophet Klisha in high honour, looking up to
investing him with the regalia, in such a manner him as a father. When he heanl of his hist ill
that Athaliah could have no suspicion of the ness he rejwireil to the bed-side of the dying pR>
event till it actually occurred. On the day Ap phet, and was favouied with promises of victories
pointed, the sole surviving scion of David's illus over the Syrians, by whom his dominions were
trious house appeared in the place of the kings, then harassed. These promises were accomplished
by a particular pillar in the temple-court, and after the prophet's death. In three signal and
was crowned and anointed with the usual cere successive victories Joash overcame the Syrians,
monies. The high-wrought enthusiasm of the and retook from them the towns which Hazael had
spectators then found vent in clapping of hands rent from Israel.
and exulting shouts of 'Long live the king!' These ail vantages rendered the kingdom of
The joyful uproar was heard even in the palace, Israel more potent than that of Judah. He, how
and brought Athaliah to the temple, from which, ever, sought no quarrel with that kingdom; hut
at a word from Jehoiada, she was led to her when he received a defiance from Amaziah, king
death. of Judah, he answered with becoming spirit in
Joash behaved well during hia non-age, and so a parable, which by its images calls to mind
long after as he remained under the influence of that of Jotham [Paxadles] : the cool disdain of
the high-priest. But when he died the king seems the answer must have l>een, and in fact was, ex
to have felt himself relieved from a yoke ; and to ceedingly galling to Amaziah. ' Tiie thistle that
manifest Ins freedom, began to take the contrary was in Lebanon sent to the cedar that was in
course to that which he had followed while under Lebanon, saying, Give thy daughter to my son to
pupilage. Gradually the person! who had pos wife; and there came by a wild l>east that was
sessed influence formerly, when the house of in Lebanon and trod down the thistle.1 This was
David was contaminated by its alliance with admirable; nor was the application less so:
the house of Ahab, insinuated themselves into his *Thou host, indeed, smitten Bdom, and thine
councils, and ere long the worship of Jehovah and heart hath lifted thee up : glory of this, und tarry
the observances of the law were neglected, and the at home; for why shouldest thou meddle to thy
JOB, THE BOOK OF. JOB, THE BOOK OF. 115
hurt, that thou shouldest fall, even thou and ment ; for, by accusing God of injustice, a fresh sin
Judah with thee.' In the war, or rather action, is added to former transgressions.
which followed, Joash was victorious. Having 4. Though the wicked man is capable of pro
defeated Amaziah at Beth-shemesh, in Judah, he sperity, still it is never lasting. The most awful
advanced to Jerusalem, broke down the wall to retribution soon overtakes htm ; and his transient
the extent of 100 cubits, and carried away the felicity must itself le considered as punishment,
treasures both of the temple and the palace, since it renders him heedless, anil makes him feel
together with hostages for the future good be misfortune more keenly.
haviour of the crest-fallen Amaziah. Joash himself In opposition to them, Job maintains :
did not long survive this victory; he died in 1. The most upright man maybe highly unfor
peace, and was buried in Samaria (2 Kings xiii. tunatemore so than the inevitable faults and
y-25; xiv. 1-17). shortcomings of human nature would seem to
imply. There is a savage cruelty, deserving the
JOB, THE BOOK OF. We shall consider, severities of the divine resentment, in inferring the
first, the contents of this book ; secondly, its ob guilt of a man from his distresses. In distributing
ject ; thirdly, its composition ; and, lastly, the good and evil, God regards neither merit nor guilt,
country, descent, and age of its author. but acts according to His sovereign pleasure. - His
I. Contents. In the land of Uz, belonging to omnipotence is apparent in every port of the
the northern part of Arabia Deserta, lived an creation ; but His justice cannot be seen in the
lonest, pious man, called Job. For his sincere government of the world ; the afflictions of the
and perfect devotedness, God had amply blessed righteous, as well as the prosperity of the wicked,
nim witli worldly property and children; but on are evidence against it. There are innumerable
Satan obtaining leave to tempt him, he suddenly cases, and Job considers his own to be one of them,
lost the fortune of his life. Ultimately he is in which a sutTerer has a right to justify himself
imitten with a severe and painful disease; but before God, and to repine at His decrees. Of this
though his wife moves him to forsake God, he supposed right Job freely avails himself, and main
*till continues true and stanch to the Lord. tains it against his friends.
Three friends, Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar, hear 2. In a state of composure and calmer reflec
>t' his calamities, and come to console him. His tion, Job retracts, chiefly in his concluding speech,
lisrressed state excites their heartfelt compassion ; all his former rather extravagant assertions, and
but the view which they take of its origin pre says that, although God generally afflicts the
vents them from at once assisting him, and tbey wicked and blesses the righteous, still there are ex
remain silent, though they are sensible that by so ceptions to this rule, single cases in which the pious
lining they further wound his feelings. Seven undergo severe trials ; the inference, therefore, of a
days thus pass, until Job, suspecting the cause of man's guilt from his misfortunes is by no means
riieir conduct, Iwcomes discomjwsed and breaks warranted. For the exceptions established by ex
lilence. His first observations are based on the perience prove that God does not always distribute
assertion not, indeed, broadly expressedthat prosperity and adversity after this rule; but that he
God acts harshly and arbitrarily in inflicting sometimes acts on a different principle, or as an ab
calamity on men. This causes a discussion between solute lord, according to his mere w ill and pleasure.
him and his friends, which is divided into three 3. Humbly to adore God is our duty, even
main parts, each with sutxlivisions, and embraces when we are subject to calamities not at all
the speeches of the three friends of Job, and his deserved; but we should abstain from harshly
answers : the last part, however, consists of only judging of those who, when distressed, send forth
two subdivisions, the third friend, Zophar, having complaints against God.
nothing to rejoin. By this silence the author of Both parties not only explain their principles
the book generally designates the defeat of Job's generally, but apply them to the case which had
friends, who are defeuding a common cause. caused the discussion. At first the friends of Job
Taking a general view of the argument which only hint, but in the course of the discussion, they
they urge against him, they may be considered as broadly assert, that his very great afflictions must
asserting the following positions : have Wen caused by equally great sins ; and they
1. No man being free from sin, we need not tax him with crimes of which they sus[>ect him to
wonder that we are liable to calamities, for which have been guilty. They also admonish him to con
we must account by a reference, not to God, but fess and rejient of the guilt of which, by the divine
to ourselves. From the misery of the distressed, punishments inflicted on him, he stood already
others are enabled to infer their guilt; and they convicted. If he should follow this counsel, they
must take this view in order to vindicate divine promise him a return of prosperity ; but if he
justice. proved refractory, they threaten him with divine
2. Tlte distress oi a man proves not only that punishments even more severe. Job, on the con
he has sinned, but shows also the degree and mea trary, represents himself, venial frailties excepted,
sure of his sin; and thus, from the extent of cala as altogether upright and innocent, thinks himself
mity sustained, may be inferred the extent of sins unjustly dealt with by God, and reproaches his
committed; and from this the measure of impend friends with heaping on him unfounded crimina
ing misfortune. tions, with a view of ingratiating themselves with
3. A distressed man may recover his former the Almighty, who, however, would visit with
happiness, and even attain to greater fortune than condign punishment such busy, meddling, offi
he ever enjoyed l>efore, if he takes a warning from cious vindicators of the divine government.
his afflictions, repents of his sins, reforms his life, The interest of the narrative is kept up with
and raises himself to a higher degree of moral rec considerable skill, by progressively rising and
titude. Impatience and irreverent expostulation highly passionate language. At first, Job's friends
with God serve but to prolong and increase punish charge him, and he defends himself, in mild
i2
116 JOB, THE BOOK OF. JOB, THE BOOK OF.
terms; but gradually they are all betrayed into including God's justice. His nature being one and
warmth of temper, which goes on increasing until indivisible, it cannot on one side exhibit infinite
the friends have nothing more to object, and Job perfection, aud on the other imperfection : each
remains in possession of the Held. The discussion example, then, of God's grandeur in the creation
then seems to be at an end, when a fresh dis of the world is evidence against the rash accusers
putant, Elihu, appears. Trusting in his just cause, of God's justice. Thus it appears that, from the
Job had proudly opposed God, with whom he outset, there must have been a mistake in thy
expostulated, and whom he charged with injus calculation, and thou must the rather acknow
tice, when the sense of his calamities should have ledge the correctness of my solution of the ques
led him to acknowledge the sinfulness of human tion. God must be justthis is certain from tlw
nature, and humbly to submit to the divine dis outset; and how His justice is not impaired by
pensations. Making every allowance for his pain calamities inflicted on the righteous aud on thy
ful situation, and putting the mildest construction self, I have already explained.'
m his expressions, he is still substantially wrong, Job had, in a stirring manner, several times, chal
snd could not therefore be suffered to remain the lenged God to decide the contest. Elihu suspects
vanquisher <n this high argument. He had silenced the approach of the Lord, when, towards the end
his friends, but the general issue remained to be of his speech, a violent thunder-storm arises, and
settled. Elihu had waited till Job and his friends God answers Job out of the whirlwind, showing
had spoken, because they were older than he; but how foolishly the latter had acted in offering to
when he saw that the three visitors ceased to answer, reason with Him, when His works proved ins in
he offers himself to reason with Job, and shows that finite Majesty, and, consequently, His absolute
God is just in his ways. He does this, justice. Job now submits to God, and humbly
1. From the nature of inflictions.He begins repents of his offence. Hereupon God addresses
hy urging that Job was very wrong in boasting of Eliphaz, Bildad, andZophar, declaring unto them
.his integrity, aud making it ap|>ear that rewards His displeasure at their unmerciful dealing with
were due to him from God. How righteous soever their friend, the consequences of which could only
he was, he still had no claim to reward; on the be avoided by Job offering a propitiatory sacri
contrary, all men are sinners in God's eyes ; and fice. This is done, and the Lord grants unto Job
nobody can complain that he suffers unjustly, ample compensation for his sufferings.
for the very greatest sufferings equal not his II. Dbsiqn of tub book. We here assume
immense guilt. Then Elihu explains a leading the integrity of the book of Job, or that it lias l>een
poiut on which he differs from the friends of Job : preserved iu its genuine, unadulterated state ; and
he asserts that from greater sufferings inflicted on we may do so the rather, because those who would
a person it was not to be inferred that he had sinned eliminate single portions, must still allow the
more than olhers afflicted with a less amount of difficulty of showing in the remainder a fixed plan
calamity. Calamities were, indeed, under all cir and leading idea, which again argues againstthem.
cumstances, punishments for sins committed, but Moreover, by determining the design of the book
at the same time they were correctives also; and the best foundation is laid for proving its integrity.
therefore they might be indicted on the compara All agree that the object of the book is the solution 1
tively most righteous in preference to others. For of the question, how the afflictions of the righteous I
he who was most loved by God, was also most in and the prosperity of the wicked can be consistent I
danger of forgetting the sinfulness inherent in all with God's justice. But it should be observed *
men, and, consequently, also in himself: the rather that the direct problem exclusively refers to the
because sin would in him less strongly manifest first poiut, the second being only incidentally
itself. If the object of afflictions was attained, discussed on occasion of the leading theme. If
and the distressed acknowledged his sinfulness, lie this is overlooked, the author would ap|K>ar to
would humble himself before God, who would have solved only one half of his problem : the case
bless him with greater happiness than be ever be from which the whole discussion proceeds, has
fore enjoyed. But he who took not this view, and reference merely to the leading problem. There
did not amend his ways, would be ruined, and the is another fundamental error which has led nearly
blame would rest wholly with himself. Conse all modem interpreters to a mistaken idea of
quently, if Job made the best of his misfortune, God the design of this book. Pareau (De Immor-
would render him most happy; but if he continued talitatis not. in libro Jobi, Deventer, 1807,
refractory, punishment would follow his offences. p. 207) is the only one who saw the error ad
According tit this view, the truly righteous cannot verted to, and partially combated it with success.
be always miserable , and their calamities, which They assume that the problem could be satis
God not only from His justice, as the friends of Job factorily solveil only when the doctrines of im
stated, but also from His love, inflicts temporarily mortality and retribution had been first established,
on them, are only the means employed to raise them which bad not been done by the author of the
to higher moral rectitude and worldly happiness. book of Job : a perfect solution of the question
The end shows the distinction between the perverse was therefore not to be expected fiom him. Some
sinner, and the righteous man subject to sinfulness. asseit that his solution is erroneous, since retri
2. From a clear conception of the nature of bution, to be expected in a future world, is
God.1 How darest thou," says Elihu, 1 instead of transferred by him to this life; others say that he
humbling thyself before God, defy Him, and offer cut the knot which he could not unloose, and has
to reason witii Him V The whole creation shows l>een satisfied to ask for implicit submission and
forth His majesty, and evinces His justice. For a devotedness, showing at the same time that every
man to stand Up against Him and to assert that attempt at a solution must lead to dangerous
he suffers innocently, is the greatest anthroi>omor- positions : blind resignation, therefore, was the
phism, because it goes to deny the Divine majesty, short meaning of the lengthened discussion
evident in all the facts of the created world, and On nearer examination, however, it appears that
JOB, THE BOOK OF. JOB, THE BOOK OF. 117
the doctrine ofretribution after death is not of itself is partit alarly urged in the Pentateuch, and it is
alone calculated to lead to a solution of the pro only w L.ml it had been deeply rooted in the public
blem. In contemplating the lives of the righteous, mind, and the belief in future requital had ac
who were perfectly embned with this doctrine, it quired a firm and solid basis, that the latter
will appear that they also struggled with doubts ; doctrine, which in the books of Moses is but
that a satisfactory solution of the question is to dimly hinted at, is clearly and explicitly pro
he derived only from the fundamental doctrine mulgated. The New Testament holds out to the
on which the faith in retribution rests ; and that righteous promises of a future life, as well as of the
this faith is shaken where it lias not the necessary present ; and our Saviour himself, in setting forth
imsU. The belief in a final judgment is firm and the rewards of those who, for His sake, forsook
rational only when it rests on the belief in God's everything, begius with this life (Matt. xix. 29).
continued providential government of the world, A nearer examination of the benedictions contained
and in his acting as sovereign Lord in all the iu the Sermon on the Mount (Matt, v.), shows that
events of human life. If God is holy and just. none of them exclusively refer to future blessings;
He mast also have the will to manifest these the judgment of the wicked is in His view pro
qualities in our present life by His bearing towards ceeding without interruption, and therefore Hia
those who represent His image on earth, as well examples of the distribution of Divine justice in
as towards those who renounce it. If He is om this world, are mingled with those of requital in a
nipotent, nothing can in this life prevent Him future order of things. The Galileans, whose
from exhibiting His justice; but if this is not blood Pilate had mingled with their own sacri
manifested, and if no reason can be given for fices (Luke xiii. i), were in Christ's opinion not
which He at times defers His judgments, the accidentally killed; and he threatens those who
belief in retribution after death would be flimsy would not repent, that they should in like manner
and shallow. Woe to him who expects in a future perish. That sickness is to be considered as a
world to be supplied with everything he missed punishment for sin, we are clearly taught (John v.
here, and with redress for all injuries sustained! 14 ; Luke v. 20, 24) : in the former passage it is
He deceives himself. His God was, during his threatened as punishment for sins committed; in
life on earth, inactive, shutting Himself up in the latter it is healed in consequence of punish
heaven: is he sure that his God will hereafter be ment remitted. Nay, every patient restored by
better disposed or more able to protect him1? As Christ, who acted not as a superior kind of Hip
His essence remains the same, and the nature of pocrates, but as the Saviour of men, is by that very
sin and virtue is unchanged, how should He act declared to be a sinner. The passage in John ix.
then hi a future life punish the former and reward 2, 3, which is often appealed to, in proof that our
the latter, if He does not do so in this life ! Tem Lord did not consider sickness as a punishment
porary injustice is still injustice, and destroys for sin, does not prove this, but only opposes the
the idea of a holy and just (rod. A God who has JewUh position founded on the mistaken doc
something to redress is no God at all. Lucian, trine of retribution that all severe sicknesses and
the satirist, composed a dialogue entitled Zevs infirmities were consequences of crimes. But
'EKtyx^tyos, with the view of subverting the what is, from this point of view, the solution of
belief in Divine Providence; in which he justly the problem regarding the sufferings of the righte
finds fault with tliat God, who allows the wicked ous i It rests on two positions.
to lead a happy and pleasant life in order that, at 1. Calamity is the only way that leads to
a distant time, they may be tortured according to the kingdom of God. Even the comparatively
their deserts, and who, on the contrary, exposes righteous are not without sin, which can be eradi
the righteous to infinite misery, that in remote cated only by afflictions. Via cruris est via
futurity they may receive the reward of their vir salutis. He who repents will attain to a clearer
tue. Some men of sense among the heathens dis insight into the otherwise obscure ways of God.
played deep penetration on this subject. Claudian, The afflictions of the pious issue at once from
ill the commencement of his poem against the God's justice and love. To him who entertains
wicked Rufinus, hints that doubts had been often a proper sense of the sinfulness of man, no ca
entertained ofDivine Providence, but that they had lamity appears so great as not to be deserved as a
been now removed by the downfall of Rufinus : punishment, or useful as a corrective.
4 Abstulit hunc tandem Ilutini poena turnultum 2. Calamity, as the veiled grace of God, is
Absolvitque deos. Jam non ad culmina rerum with the pious never alone, but manifest proofs of
Injustos crevisse queror. Tolluntur in altum Div ae favour accompany or follow it. Though
Ut lapsu graviore ruant.' sunk in misery, they still are happier than the
This worldly retribution leads him to a firm belief wicked, and when it has attaiued its object, it is
in that after death. He represents Rufinus de terminated by the Lord. The nature of acts of
scended to the nether world, doing penance and grace differs according to the quality of those
enduring the keenest pains. See the rich collection on whom they are conferred. The consolations
by Barth (in his Notes to Claudian, 1078, s.s.) offered in the Old Testament are, agreeably to the
of those passages iu the works of heathen writers weaker judgment of its professors, derived chiefly
in which doubts of future retribution are raised from external circumstances; while in the New
on the ground of disbelief in present requitals. Testament they are mainly spiritual, without,
Scripture knows nothing of a God whose power however, excluding the leading external helps.
admits of increase, or who is active only in the life This difference is not essential, nor is any other,
to come : its God is always full of strength and the restitutio in integrum being in the Old Testa
vigour, constantly engaged in action. God's just ment principally confined to this life, while in the
retribution in this world is extolled throughout the New Testament the eye is directed beyond the
Old Testament. The notion of return accommo limits of this world.
dated to actions, is its substance and centre. It It is this exclusively correct solution of too
118 JOB, THE BOOK OP. JOB, THE BOOK OF.
problem which occurs in the book of Joh. All correct principle in their speeches, whose centre il
interpreters allow that it is set forth in Elihu's forms, so much so, that they mostly err only in the
speeches, ami, from the following observations, it application of the general truth. It consists in the
will appear that they contain the opinion of the perception of the invariable connection between
author :1. The solution cannot be looked for in sin and misery, which is itidelihly engrafted on
Job's speeches ; for God proves himself gracious the heart of man, and to which many ancient
towards him only after he has rejjented and authors allude. The saying, male parta male
humbled himself. The author of the book says dilabuntur, is to be found in every language.
(i. 22; ii. 10; comp. Hi. 1) that Joh had charged The problem of the hook is then solved by pm-
God foolishly, and sinned with his lips; and the perly uniting the correct positions of the sjtceches
trpwrov tytvSos, the materia peccans, in hit both of Job and his friends, by maintaining his
speeches, is clearly pointed out to be, that * he comparative innocence, and by tracing the errors
was righteous in his own eyes, and justified him of both parties to a common source, the want of a
self raSier than God' (xxxii. 1,2). To gather from sound insight into the nature of sin. .' con
Job's speeches a consistent view of the subject, siders himself righteous, aud not deserving of such
and a satisfactory solution of the question mooted, inflictions, because he had not committed any
is imjKJSsible also on account of the many contra heinous crime; and his friends fancy they must
dictions in them ; as, fur instance, when he says assume that he was highly criminal, in order to
at one time, that God's justice never appears in justify his misery.
the government of the world, and at another, 3. The solution of the question at issue is uot
that it generally does appear, hut that there are exclusively given in the addresses of God, which
evident exceptions to the general rule, not liable contain only the basis of the solution, not the
to objections. Sound principles are mixed up solution itself. In setting forth his majesty, and
by him with wrong ones; his views waut sifting, in showing that imputing to him injustice is repug
and the correct ideas must be completed, which, nant to a correct conception of his nature, these
even in his concluding address, is not done by him addresses establish that there must be a solution
self, nor is it performed by his three friends. Job which does not impair divine justice. This is not,
continues to be embarrassed for the solution, and indeed, the solution itself, but everything is thus
he is only certain of this, that the solution of his prepared for the solution. We apprehend thai God
friends cannot he satisfactory. Job erred chiefly must be just, but it remains further to be shown
in not acknowledging the sin inherent in him; how he can be just, and still the righteous be
notwithstanding his integrity and sincere piety, miserable.
which prevented him from apprehending the ob Unless, then, we are disposed to question the
ject of the calamity inflicted on htm, led him to general result, we are, by the arrangements of the
consider God's punishments as arbitrary, and book, led to the speeches of Elihu as containing
made him desjiair of the retnm of better days. the solution of the problem, which the author,
The greatness of his sufferings was in some mea moreover, has indicated with sufficient clearness
sure the cause of his misconception, by exciting by making the commencement and end of the
his feelings, and preventing him from calmly con narrative agree perfectly with those speeclves. The
sidering his case. He was in the state of a man leading principle in Elihu's statement is, that
tempted, and deserving God's indulgence. He had calamity in the shape of trial was inflicted even
received considerable provocation from his friends, on the comparatively best men, but that God al
and often endeavoured to soften his harsh asser lowed a favourable turn 1o take place as soon as it
tions ; which, particularly in ch. xxvii., leads him bad attained its object. Now this is the key to
into such contradictions, as must have occurred the events of Job's life. Though a pious and
in the life of the tempted ; be is loud in acknow righteous man, he is tried by severe afflictions.
ledging the wisdom of God (ch. xxviii.), and raises He knows not for what purpose he is smitten,
himself at times to cheering hopes (comp. ch. and his calamity continues ; but when he learns
xix.). But this can only excuse, nut justify him, it from the addresses of Elihu anil God, aud
and therefore it is in the highest degree honourable humbles himself, he is relieved from the burden
to him, that he remains silent, when in Klihu's which oppresses him, and ample prosperity atones
speeches the correct solution of the question is for the afflictions lie has sustained. Add to this,
given, ami that he ultimately acknowledges his that the remaining portion of Elihu's speeches,
fundamental error of doing justice to himselfonly. in which he {joints to God's infinite majesty as
2. The solution of the question mooted can including his justice, is continued in the ad
not he contained in the speeches of Job's friends. dresses of God ; that Elihu foretells God's ap*
Their demeanour is reproved by God, and repre ]>earance ; that he is not punished by God as an
sented as a great sin, so much so, indeed, that to the friends of Joh; in fine, that Job by his very
obtain pardon for them Job was directed to offer a silence acknowledges the problem to have been
propitiatory sacrifice. Their error proceeded from solved by Elihu ; aud his silence is the more sig
a crude notion of sin in its external apfiearaiice ; nificant because Elihu had urged him to defend
and, inferring its existence from calamity, they himself (xxxiii. 32), and because Job liad re
were thus led to condemn the afflicted Job as peatedly declared lie would * hold his peace,' if
guilty of heinous crimes (ch. xxxii.). The moral it was shown to him wherein he bad erred (vi.
use of sufferings was unknown to them; which 24, 23 ; xix. 4). This view uf the Iwok of Job
evidently proved that they themselves were not has among modem authors heeu supported chiefly
yet purged and cleared from guilt. If they had by StUudlin (Beitriige zur Religions und Sitten-
been sensible of the nature of man, if they had lehre, vol. ii. p. 133) and Stickel (Das Much
understood themselves, they would, on seeing the Ifiob, Leipzig, 1842), though in both it is mixed
misery of Job, have exclaimed, ' God be merciful up with much erroneous matter ; and it is further
to us sinners ! 1 There is, indeed, an important confirmed by the whole Old Testament giving
JOB, THE BOOK OF. JOB, THE BOOK OF. 119
the same answer to the question mooted which unsettled, and the public mind generally remained
the speeches of Eliha offer : in its concentrated in suspense; in accordance with which state of
form it is presented in Ps. xxxvii. xlix. lxxiii. feeling this opinion is framed relating to the design
From these considerations it appears, that those of the hook of Job. The alleged theme occurs in
interpreters who, with Bernstein, De Wette, and no passage, not even incidentally. The writers in
Umbreit, assume that the book of Job was of a question chiefly base it on the discourses of God ;
sceptical nature, and intended to dispute the doc and so, latterly, does Stickel, who, although ac
trine of retribution as laid down in the other books knowledging that the solution of the problem was
of the Old Testament, have entirely misunderstood afforded by Elihu, still thinks,that in the sentiments
it. The doctrine of divine retribution is here not uttered by God the sufferer was ultimately referred
disputed, but strengthened, as the case under con to human short-sighteduess and directed to be si lent,
sideration required that it should be. The object the author of the book distrusting the correctness
of the book would also he too much narrowed, if of Ids solution, and intending at all events to vin
it was restricted to proving that the doctrine of dicate God's justice. Thus they entirely misun
retribution, as expounded by the friends of Elihu, derstand the main point in the discourses of God,
was erroneous. The speeches of Elihu evidently which set forth his infinite majesty with a view,
oppose the discourses of Job in stronger terms not of censuring Job's inquisitiveness and of tax
than those of his friends. The object of the book ing him witli indiscretion, but of showing that it
is rather to explain generally the nature and ten was foolish to divest God of justice, which is
dency of afflictions, and thereby to contribute inseparable from his essence. His searching is
towards the attainment of their design, to console not itself blamed, but only the manner of it.
the mind, and to cheer the drooping spirits. It is Nowhere in the whole book is simple resignation
difficult for men to understand that their suffer crudely enjoined, and nowhere does Job say that
ings, however great, are still under that degree lie submits to such an injunction. The prologue
which they deserve. To consider afflictions as represents his sufferings as trials, and the epilogue
proofs of divine favour, we must tirst learn to declares that the end had proved this ; conse
bring them into unison with divine justice. Upon quently the author was competent fo give a
the doctrine of retribution after death our author theodicee with reference to the calamity of Job,
does not enter; but that he knew it, may be in- and if such is the case he cannot have intended
ferredfrom several passages with great probability ; simply to recommend resignation. The biblical
as, for instance, cli. xiv. 14, 1 if a man die shall he writers, when engaged on this problem, know how
live again ? All the days of my appointed time to justify God with reference to the afflictions of
will I wait, till my change come.' The if here fhe righteous, and have no intention of evading
shows that the writer had been before engaged in the difficulty when they recommend resignation
considering the subject of life after death; and (see the Psalms quoted above, and, in the New
when such is the case, a pious mind will neces Testament, the Epistle to the Hebrews, ch. xii.).
sarily indulge the hope, or will, at least, have an The view of the book of Job alluded to would
obscure presentiment of immortality. The truth, isolate it, and take it out of its natural connection.
also, of God's unbounded grace, on which the Thus far, then, we agree with Ewald, but we cannot
doctrine of immortality is based, will he found approve of his own view of the design of the book of
clearly laid down in ch. xix.. Still the author Job. According to his system, ' calamity is never
does not recur to this hope for the puqjose of a punishment for sins committed, but always a
solving his problem ; he would not ground it on mere phantom, an imaginary show, above which
something in itself wanting support and a founda we rmi6t raise ourselves by the consciousness of
tion, namely, that which is presented in this hook. the eternal nature of the human mind, to which,
The doctrine of future retribution, if not sus by external prosperity, nothing can lie added, and
tained by the belief in retribution during this from which, by external misfortune, nothing can be
life, is truly a castle in the air. Hie author takeuaway. It was (says Ewald) the merit of the
did not intend in his discussion to exceed the book of Job to have prepared these sounder views
limits of what God had clearly revealed, and of worldly evil and of the immortality of mind,
this was in his time confined to the vague transmitting them as fruitful buds to posterity/
notion of life continued after death, but not con Now from the outset we may lie sure that this
nected with rewards and punishments. Explicitly view is not to be found in our book. Credit has
expressed, then, we have here only the doctrine of always been given to Scripture for knowing how
a Sheol (see the collection of passages, p. 123 sqq. to console the distressedwhich Ewold's system
of Paxeau's work above quoted), which, indeed, is must fail to do. Let it be offered to those who
not erroneous in itself, but which still keeps tlie are afflicted with severe and painful illness, and
background veiled. it will prove abortive. Fictitious sufferings may
Having thus established the design of the book be soothed in this manner, real pains certainly
of Job, it remains to consider the view taken by not. Consciousness of the eternal nature of our
Ewald. He justly rejects tlie common, super mind is wanted to do all, but how is it possible
ficial view of its design, which has recently been when the mind itself is depressed f Turn to the
revived and defended by Hirzel (see his Com- Psalms: do we find in them shadowed out this
menlar, Leipzig, 1839), and which represents the cold consolationthe doctrine of die Stoics, which
author as intending to show that man cannot ap has been always considered to be opjiosed to that of
prehend the plans of God, and does best to submit Scripture? Read especially Psalms xxxvii., xii.,
in ignorance without repining at afflictions. The and lxxiii., which profess to treat our problem : take,
author would thus be rendered liable to tin* charge in die New Testament, the passage in Heb. xii. 6,
of having cut the knot which he could not loose. and you will find afflictions considered at once
When tin's view was first set up, the solution oi one as punishments inflicted by divine justice, and
of die most important religious problems was very as means which God's love employs to Lead us to
120 JOB, THE BOOK OF. JOB, THE BOOK OF.
higher happiness. 1 Whom the Lord loveth he by Josephus, for he places Job in the list of the his
cliasteneih, and acourgeth every one whom he torical hooks; and it was prevalent with all the
leceiveth.' If suffering and happiness are as fathers of Uie church. In its support four reasons
nothing, and have no reality, why promises our Sa are adduced, of which the third and fourth are
viour rewards to his followers, and why threatens quite untenable; the first and second are out
he the wicked with punishment (Matt. xix. 16- weighed by other considerations, which render it
30) f Why blesses he the meek, 4 for they shall impossible to consider the book of Job as an
inherit the earth* (Matt. v. 5} Why says he, entirely true history, but which may be used
* seek ye first the kingdom of God and his righte in defence of the second view alluded to. It is
ousness, and all these things shall be added unto said, 1. That Job is (Ezek. xiv. 14-20) mentioned
you' (Matt. vi. 33) I If righteousness already pos as a public character, together with Noah and
sesses everything and lacks nothing, why says St. Daniel, and represented as an example of piety.
Paul, to righteousness are held out the promise both 2. In the Epistle of James (v. II), patience in
of this life and ofthe life to come? Beimr thus im sufferings is recommended by a reference to Job.
pressed ttgainst Ewald's view, from the Scriptures 3. In the Greek translation of the Septuagint a
themselves, we also lind, on closer iuspection, that notice is appended to Gen. xxxvi. 33, which states
it does nat apply to the book of Job. To make it that Job was the King Johah of Edom. This
appear (baft it does, he excludes the sjjeeches of statement is too late to be relied on, and originates
Elihu which seems rather suspicious ; but what in an etymological combination ; and that it must
he objects against them is of little importance, be erroneous is to a certain extent evident from the
and has been proved by Stickel to be erroneous. contents of the book, in which Job is not repre
Taking, however, what remains of the l>onk, it is sented as a king. 1. Job's tomb continues to be
evident that the epilogue is decidedly contrary to shown to Oriental tourists. Now the fact of a
Ewald's view. Why is it that Job receives the Job having lived somewhere would not of itself
double of all that lie bad lost, when, judged by prove that the hero of our narrative was that per
Ewald's principles, he had lost nothing f If in son, ami that this book contained a purely histo
any place, it is in the epilogue that the leading rical account. Moreover, his tomb is shown not
idea of the author must appear; and here we in one place, but in six, and, along with it, the
have not speeches, whose drift might admit of dunghill on which Job is reported to have sat!
doubt, but acts, divine acts, the solution of the Against this view it must be remarked gene
question by facts. Equally irreconcilable is rally, that the whole work is arranged on a well-
Ewald's view with the prologue. The opening considered plan, proving the author's power of
scene is in heaven ; Satan appears before Gud, independent invention ; that the speeches are, in
and obtains leave to tempt Job. This enables their general structure and in their details, so ela-
the reader from 1 lie outset to see clearer into the Uirate, that they could not have been brought out
<'a-<' under consideration than did Job and his in the ordinary course of a conversation or dis
friends, who judged only according to what putation ; that it would be unnatural to suppose
passed on earth. He suspects from the outset Job in his distressed state to have delivered such
what will be the end of the narrative. If it is speeches, finished with the utmost care; and that
by way of temptation only that Job <is subjected they exhibit uniformity in their design, fulness,
to misery, this cannot Ik* lasting; but if it can propriety, and colouring, though the author, with
not and must not be lasting, it must be also more considerable skill, represents each speaker whom
tlian an imaginary phantomit must be reality. he introduces arguing according to bis character.
We might easily show further that the view Moreover, in the prologue and epilogue, as well
referred to is also incompatible witli the speeches as in the arrangement of the sjieeches, the figures
ofJob, who never renounces happiness ; be is always 3 and 7 constantly occur, with the decimal num
either disconsolate and complains, or expresses ber formed by their addition. The transactions
cheering hopes of a return of letter days; lie between God and Satan in the prologue absolutely
either despairs of God's justice, or experts hint to require that we should distinguish between the
prove it at least partially by his rehabilitation. subject matter forming the foundation of the work,
We might Unwise, with little trouble, prove that and its enlargement ; which can be only done when
the view of Kwald is not in accordance with the a (M>etical principle is acknowledged in its com
speeches of God, who does not address Job in position. God's speaking out of the clouds would
exhortations to the effect, 'Be insensible of thy lie a miracle, without an object corresjionding to
calamity;' but, 'Humble thyself before me; ac its magnitude, and having a merely personal refer
knowledge in thy severe suffering! my justice ence, while all the other miracles of the Old Tes
and my love, and thy own sinfulness, and procure tament are in connection witli the theocratical
release by re]>entance.' But what we have stated government, and occur in the midst and for the
on this bead may l>e deemed sufficient, benefit of the people of God. This argument,
III. ClI AKACTKlt OK THK COMPOSITION OK THE which might be further extended without much
Book. On this subject there are three different difficulty, proves the first view above stated of the
opinions :1. Some contend that the l>ook con Itook of Job to be erroneous, ami is meant to lUppafl
tains an entirely true history. 2. Others assert the second ; but it docs not bear on the third, which
that it is founded on a true history, which has contends that the narrative is an entire fiction, with
been recast, modified, ami enlarged by the author. out any admixture of real facts. The lattt-r opinion
3. The third opinion is, that the book contains a is, indeed, already staled in the Talmud, which
narrative entirely imaginary, and constructed by says that Job never existed ; and in modern times
the author to teach a great moral truth. it lias been defended chiefly by Bernstein ; but is
The first view, taken by numerous ancient in contrary to the practice which anciently prevailed,
terpreters, is now abandoned by nearly all inter when writers rarely invented the subject of a nar
preters. It seems, however, to have been adopted rative and rather took the materials furnished by
JOB, THE BOOK OF. JOB, THE BOOK OF, 121
tradition, digesting, enlarging, and modifying the exact nature of the groundwork : we infer the
them, so as to make them harmonize with the character of the composition from analogy, but
leading llieme. Taking the second view, we must cannot prove it from the book itself. That its
still aim.mi from undertaking to determine what historical framework was poetically enlarged by
the poet derived from tradition and what lie added the author, has been already observed by Luther
himself, since we know not how far tradition had (see his Tischreden, or Table Talk, p. 318). As
already embellished the original fact. The separa for the rest, the subtility displayed iu explaining
tion nf the historical groundwork from the poetical opposite views, the carefully drawn characters of
embellishments could only succeed, if the same the persons introduced, and their animated dis
history had been, although in a |K>etical dress, courses, lead us to suppose that the question at
transmitted to us by several narrators. Would any issue had previously been the subject of various
person, if he was nut assisted by other authorities, discussions in presence of the author who, perhaps,
undertake to determine what is history, and what took pail in them. Thus there would he an histo
is fiction, in an historical romance of Walter Scott, rical foundation, not only for the facts I
or in nu historical drama of Shakspeare or Schil the book, but to a certain extent also f
ler ? Ewald, indeed, had the courage to under speeches.
take vindicating for history certain parts of our IV. Descent, country, and age of the
narrative, but bis efforts were abortive, as we shall author.Opinions differed in ancient times as
presently show. It will apjiear, indeed, that exactly to the nation to which the author belonged ; some
those particulars which Ewald considers historical him to have been an Arab, others an
may possibly have been iuvented, though we do Israelite ; hut the latter supposition is undoubl
not contend that they really were so, which would preferable. For, 1st, we find in our book r
be equally presumptuous. He asserts, I. That *the ideas of genuine Israelite growth : the creation of
name Job is not invented by the author of our the world is described, in accordance with the
book.' This would have some semblance of truth, prevailing notions of the Israelites, as the imme
if the name had no meaning connecting it with diate effect of divine omniiwtence ; man is formed
the contents of the narrative. But Job means in of clay ; the spirit of man is God's breath; God em
Hebrew * the assailed,1 and may be traced in the ploys the angels for the performance of his orders;
form of born, or intoxicated, from Satan, the enemy of the chosen children of God, is
3*N, to attack ; whence also 3*1fc<, the enemy, and his instrument for tempting them ; men are weak
and sinful ; nobody is pure in the sight of God ;
TCP!!) enmity, are derived. Ewald observes, in moral corruption is propagated. There is pro
deed, that the import of the word is not very ap mulgated to men the law of God, which they must
parent, and is not easily discoverable; but when not infringe, and the transgressions of winch are
it strikes us at once, must it not have much more visited on offenders with punishments. Moreover,
readily occurred to Hebrew readers t The sense in the nether world, or Sheol, is depicted in hues en
which the hero of the book is called ' the assailed/ tirely Hebrew. To these particulars might, with
appears at once in the prologue, where Satan ob out much trouble, be added many more ; but the
tains leave to tempt him. 2. 1 The names of the deep-searching inquirer will particularly weigh,
friends of Job are historical.' As to the name 2ndly, the fact, that the l>ook displays a strength
Eliphaz, it occurs in Gen. xxxvi. 4, 10, 12, and and fervour of religious faith, such as could only
seems to be taken from thence. Adopting names be expected within the domain of revelation.
in this manner amounts to inventing them. 3. * It Monotheism, if the assertions of ancient Arabian
is a fact that Job lived in the land of Uz, which, authors may be trusted, prevailed, indeed, for a
in Hebrew history, is distinguished, neither in itself long period among the Arabs ; and it held its
nor its inhabitants, and it is difficult to under ground at least among a portion of the nation till
stand why the author selected this country, if he the age of Mohammed, who obtained for it a
was not led to it by history.* We shall see below complete triumph over jiolytheism, which was
that the plan of the author required him to lay the spreading from Syria. Still the god of the Arabs
scene without Palestine, but still in its immediate was, as those of the heathens generally were,
neighbourhood ; which led him to Uz, a country a retired god, dwelling far apart, while the
already mentioned in Genesis. This observa people of the Old Covenant enjoyed the privilege
tion applies also to the place of abode of Job's of a vital communion with God ; and the warmth
friends, which could not be Canaan, but must be with which our author enters into this view, in
in its vicinity ; wherefore the country named in controvertedy proves that he was an Israelite.
the book is assigned to them. 4. 1 The sickness 3dly. As regards the language of our book, several
of Job is an historical fact; he wasafflicted with ancient writers asserted that it was originally writ
elephantiasis, and it is inconceivable why the ten in the Aramamn or Arabic tongue, and after
author chose this disease, which is of rare occur wards translated into Hebrew by Moses, David,
rence, if he had not drawn this particular fact Solomon, or some unknown writer. Of this opi
from real history.' Now the reason of this se nion was the author of the Appendix in the Sep-
lection was, that elephantiasis is a most awful tuagint, and the compiler of the tract on Job
disease, and that the author probably knew none added to the works of Origen and Jerome : in
more so; and persons labouring under elephan modern times it has been chiefly defended by
tiasis were generally considered as smitten by God Spanheim, in his Hxttoria Jobi, But for a trans
(Deut xxiv. 8, 9) [Job's Disease]. lation there is too much propriety and precision
These are all the particulars which Ewald in the use of words and phrases ; the sentences are
points out as historical, and from our examina too compact, and free from redundant expressions
tion of them it will be clear, that we must confine and members ; and too much care is bestowed on
ourselves to contending for an historical foundation their harmony and easy flow. The parallelism
of tiit book, but must uot undertake to also is too accurate and perfect for a translation,
132 JOB, THE BOOK OF. JOB, THE BOOK OF.
and the whole breathes a freshness that could be God, intended (o represent himself as younger than
exacted from an original work only. the other interlocutors ; but the notion of the name
Sensible of the weight of this argument, others, Jehovah having come later into general use, is con
as Eichhom, took a medium course, and assumed trary to history, and we must then arrive at this re
that the author was a Hebrew, though he did sult, that the author by his selection of the names of
not live among his countrymen, but in Arabia. God, which he lends to the interlocutors, intended
* The earlier Hebrew history,' they say, 4 is un to express his design of waving all theocratic
known to the author, who is ignorant of Abraham, principles. The few passages in which he seems
Isaac, and Jacob. In portraying nature, also, to abaudon this design, namely, in addition to
be proves himself always familiar with Arabia, that quoted, ch. i. 21, where Job, in speaking of
while he is silent respecting the cliaracteristics of God, uses the name Jehovah, make it appear even
Palestine. With Egypt he must have been well clearer. By thus forgetting himself, he betrays
acquainted ; which can be accounted for better the fact that his general use of the names of God
by supposing him to have lived in Arabia than proceeds from designedly forsaking the usage of
in Palestine.* These reasons are, however, not the language. The context, moreover, of the
cogent. The cause why the author did not enter two passages in which he seems to forget him
into the history of the Hebrews, and the nature of' self and uses the name Jehovah, proves that
Palestine, appears from his design. In deciding this change is judiciously made, the deep and
the question at issue he waves the instruction awful sense of his subject prompting him to an
given by divine revelation, and undertakes to elevated, solemn style, to which the name Eloah
perform the task by appealing only to religious was not suitable. And if there is design in the
consciousness and experience. On the plan of selection of the names of God, why not also in the
the author of Ecclesiastes, he treats the question selection of the country in which the scene is laid?
as one of natural theology, in order that the This may be assumed the rather, because history
human mind might arrive at its solution spon says nothing of Israelites having permanently
taneously, and be more deeply impressed. He taken up their residence in the land of Uz, and be*
would not, by referring to a few passages of Scrip cause other circumstances already detailed oblige
ture, overturn errors which might afterwards us to admit that the author was not only an
spring up again ; but they should be exposed and Israelite by descent, but lived also in the midst
demolished separately, and the truth then be found of his people, and enjoyed the advantage of a
by uniting the correct ingredients of opposite religious communion with them. It should also
views. In following this plan the author in be remembered, that the author, without directly
tended to support Scripture : in a similar manner mentioning the Pentateuch, frequently alludes to
Pascal, in his Penates, explains the nature ot portions of it, as in ch. iii. 4, to Gen. i. 3; in
man first from experience only, and next frotr ch. iv. 19, and xxxiii. 6, to Moses' account of
Scripture. This plan is indicated by the scene the creation of man ; in ch. v. 14, to Deut, xxxit.
being laid not in Palestine, but among a people 32 ; in ch. xxiv. 1 1, to Deut. xxv. 4. That the
quite unconnected with its inhabitants; at the name of Eliphaz the Temanite, one of the three
same time he will not go farther than his object friends of Job, seems also to have been taken from
required, and he therefore chooses the immediate the Pentateuch, was mentioned above. In addi
neighbourhood of Palestine. Thus the placing tion to these allusions there are several more to
of the scene in a foreign country is not historical, other books of the Old Testament, as the Psalms
hut proceeds from the free choice of the author. and Proverbswhich proves that the author must
The scene being laid in a foreign country, the not be severed from the Israelite communion.
portraying of life and nature must of course From what we have stated against the hypothesis
agree with thatcountry, and not with Palestine (see that our book was composed in Arabia, a judg
ch. xl. 23). It may no doubt be said, that the re ment may be formed of the opinion of Hitzig and
markable vigour and sprightliness of the author's Hirzel, who assume that it was written in Egypt ;
descriptions of the scenery and people, justify us the sole foundation for which is, that the author
in assuming that he was actually acquainted with shows himself perfectly acquainted with that coun
them ; but this cannot be asserted as quite cer try, which proves him to have been a long observer
tain, since it wouldimpairthehigh idea entertained of it. Most particulars adduced in supjiort of this
of the powers of poetry. The correctness of this view cannot stand a close examination. Thus it
view is emineutly strengthened by the manner in is a mistake to suppose that the description of the
which the author designedly uses the names ofGod. working of mines ra ch. xxviit. must necessarily
The Old Testament distinguishes between Elohim, have reference to Egypt : Phoenicia, Arabia, and
the abstract God, the Deity, on the one hand, and Edom afforded much better materials. That the
Jehovah, the concreteGod, with whom the Israelites author must have known the Egyptian mausolea
had made a covenant, on the other (Gen. vi. 3, 4). rests on an erroneous interpretation of ch. iii. 14,
Now the latter name occurs in Job generally, where which may also be said of the assertion that ch.
the author himself appears, not only in the pro xxix. 18 refers to the Egyptian mythus of the
logue and epilogue, but in the short sentences in Phcenix. Casting aside these arbitrarily assumed
troducing the speakers, as in xxxviii. 1 ; xl. 1, 3, G. Egyptian references, we have only the following :
In the body of the work, however, we have only Our author knows the Egyptian vessels of bul
the names Elohim, Eloah, and similar terms, with rushes, ix. 26; the Nile-grass, viii. 12; the
the exception of xii. 9, when? Jehovah occurs. Nile-horse (Behemoth), and the crocodile (Levia
This very passage argues against those who, from than), xi. 15, xli. 1. Now, as these things belong
the distinct names of God, would infer that the to the more prominent peculiarities of a neigh
prologue and epilogue are not genuine. Eich- bouring country, they must have been known to
horn (see Einleitung, 644, a.) assumes that the every educated Israelite : the vessels of bulrushes
author had, by his particular use of the names of are mentioned also in Isa. xviii. 2. Neither are
JOB, THE BOOK OF. JOB, THE BOOK OP. 123
u*e disposed to adopt the compromising view of reference and meaning; in like manner as some had
Stickel, who assumes that the author wrote bis before introduced a preposterous system of inter
book in the Israelite territory, indeed, but close to preting psalms containing personal lamentations,
the frontier, in the far south-east of Palestine. by converting them into national lamentations, and
That the author had (here the materials for his applying to them the principle of symbolization.
descriptions, comparisons, and imagery, set better Now, in the book of Job there is certainly no trace
before his eyes, than anywhere else, is true; for there of national reference; and it would be absurd to
be had an opportunity ofobserving mines, caravans, assume an allegory running through an entire
drying up of brooks, &c. But this is not sufficient work, and still nowhere manifesting its presence.
proof of the author having lived permanently It is said by other interpreters, that, in the times
in that remote part of Palestine, and of having of trouble, during the Babylonian exile, first
there written bis book : he was not a mere copyist originated the disheartening view of human life,
of nature, but a poet of considerable eminence, and that then the problem of our book first en
endowed with the power of vividly representing grossed the public mind ; by which observation
things absent from him. That he lived and wrote they, by way of compromise, refer its composition
in the midst of bis nation, is proved by all ana to that period, without contending for a symbolic
logy and by the general character of the book. exposition. But the sense of misery and of the
It looks not like a writing composed in some nothingness of human life, is found among all
remote comer of the world, where the question at nations, ancient and modem, cultivated and un
issue could not have been so fully discussed, nor cultivated : Noah, Jacob, Moses, complain, and
have created such a deep interest. Jerusalem was as old as suffering must be the question of the
the metropolis of the Jews in a sense quite dif seeming disparity in the distribution of good and
ferent from that which belongs to any other capi evil, and how this disparity can be reconciled with
tal : it was, by order of God, the religious centre God's justice. It is frequently under considera
of the nation, where all general and leading mea tion in the Psalms.
sures of the nation originated, and to which all Against those who refer the composition of Job
pretending to distinction and superiority resorted. to the time of the Babylonian exile, militate,
Proceeding to the inquiry as to the age of first, the references to it in the Old Testament,
the author of this book, we meet with three opi which prove that it was before this period a gene
nions : 1. That he lived before Moses, or was, at rally known writing. Thus, in Ezek. xiv. 14-20,
least, his contemporary. 2. That he lived in the are mentioned * three men, Noah, Daniel, and Job,'
time of Solomon, or in the centuries next follow as examples of righteousness. Mr. Bernstein, in
ing. 3. That he lived shortly before, or during, or deed, in defending his hypothesis, rejects this
even after the Bahylonian exile. The view of passage as spurious, but it bears every mark of
those who assert the book to have been written long genuineness. Further, in Jeremiah xx. 14, we
aftei the Babylonian exile, can be supported, as find evidently imitated Job's cursing of the day
Hirzel justly observes, neither by the nature of its' of his birth (ch. iii.). Not only the sentiments
language nor by reasons derived from its historical but the words are often the same ; and that this
groundwork, and is therefure now generally re coincidence is not accidental, or that the author
jected ; but, apart from this opinion, there is, in did not imitate Jeremiah, appears from the lite
those remaining, a difference as to the date of no rary character of each, Jeremiah shows him
less than 10U0 years. self throughout dependent on ancient writings,
We must, first, declare ourselves decidedly whereas our author is quite original and inde
against the view of those whoas LeClerc among pendent, as proved by Kuper (see Jeremias Iibro~
earlier interpreters; and among recent expositors, rum sacrorum interpres aique vtndcx, p. 164,
Bernstein, Gesenius, Umbreit, and De Wette sq.). There are also in the Lamentations of Jere
place our book in the time of the Chaldsean exile. miah, many passages clearly alluding to our
They were led to this conclusion by tlteir precon book, which must have eminently suited his taste
ceived opinion that the doctrine of Satan, who is and interested him (comp. xvi. 13 with Lam. ii.
introduced in the prologue, was of Chaldasan 16; and xix. 8, with Lam. iii. 7, 9). In Isaiah
origin ; which has also induced others, while con the peculiar use of K3 (xl. 2) refers us to
tending for a higher antiquity of the book, to pro Job i. (comp. x. 17; xiv. 14); and the double
nounce the prologue, at least the scene in ch. i. received from God's band alludes 1o the end of
6-12, to be spurious ; or losing sight of the poetical the history of Job, who is there considered as typi
character of the prologue as well as of the speeches, fying the future fate of the church, Isaiah lxi. 7.
to assert that the Satan of this book was different 1 In their land they shall have the double,' al
from the Satan of later times ; or finally, to assume ludes to the same point ; ch. li. 9 depends on Job
with Stickel, that the author had lived in a place xxvi. 13 ; and ch. xix. 5, almost literally agrees
where he could be impressed with Babylonian with Job xiv. 11 (see Kuper, p. 166). Another
opinions before they bad spread among the great example of words borrowed from Job occurs in
body of his nation. But the assertion, that the Psalm cvii. 42, where the second part of the verse
doctrine of Satan originated among the Jews agrees literally with Job v. 16. 2. A most de
during the Babylonian exile, and was derived cisive reason against assigning the composition of
generally from Babylonian suggestions, has been Job to the period of the Exile is derived from the
shown by several interpreters to be erroneous, and language, since it is free from those Chaldaisms
very recently, by Hengstenberg {JEgypten und die which occur in the books written about that time.
Bitcher A/osw, p. 164, sq.). This opinion was, bow- Eichhorn justly observes, * Let him who is fit for
ever, suited to and supported by those who, headed such researches, only read, first, a writing, tainted
by Bernstein, asserted that Job was a symbolic per with Aramxisms, and next the book of Job : they
sonagea {lersoni fixation of the Jews su tiering in will be found diverging as east and west. There
the Exileand w ho thus gave to our book a national is no example of an independent, original work,
124 JOB, THE BOOK OF. JOB, THE BOOK OF.
composed in pure language, after the Exile. Ze* strongly to support the opinion of its having
chariah indeed, though writing after the Exile, been written before Moses.' It has been often
has few Chaldaisms; but a closer inspection said, that no writing of the Old Testament may
shows that this case is not analogous to that of our be more frequently illustrated from the Arabic
book. The comparative purity of Zechariah's lan than this book. Jerome observes (Prcefat. in
guage can be accounted tor by his constant occu Dan.), (Johum cum Arabica lingua plurimam
pation with the sacred writings of the period before habere socieiatem ;' and Schultens proved this so
the Exile, on which he proves himself entirely incontiovertibly that Gesenius was rathtr too late
dependent. 3. Equally conclusive is the poetical in denying the fact (see his Oeschickte der He-
character of the book. The Exile might produce a bfdiBchen Sprache, p. 33). Now, from this
soft, moving poem, but could not give birth to such cliaracter of its language we might be induced
a rich, compact, animated, and warm composition to infer, that the work was written in the re
as ours, breathing youthful freshness throughout. motest times, when the separation of the dialects
Ewald, in acknowledging this, says justly, * The had only begun, but had not yet been completed.
high skill displayed in this book caunot be well This inference would, however, he safe only if
expected from later centuries, when poetry had the book were written in prose. It is solely from
by degrees generally declined, and particularly works of this class, that the general usage of the
in the higher art required by large compositions ; language prevailing at the time of the author
and language so concise and expressive as that of can be seen. On the contrary, the selection of
our author, is not found in writings of later times/ obsolete and rare words and forms, with the
To the view which places the age of the book Hebrews, was a peculiar feature of the poetical
of Job in the time of the Babylonian exile, is style, and served to distinguish it from the usual,
most opposed that which assigns the composition habitual way of writing. This peculiarity belongs
of it to a pried prior to Moses. In support to our book more than to any other; which may
of this latter view, only two arguments having a be explained from its elevated character and
semblance of force can be adduced, and they general plan ; it rises above commonplace ideas
will not hear the test of strict inquiry. It is said, more than any other Hebrew writing, and the
L 'There is in the book of Job no direct reference plan of the author made it incumbent on him to
to the Mosaic legislation ; and its descriptions impress on the language, as much as jiossible, an
and other statements are suited to the period antique and foreign character.
of the patriarchs ; as, for instance, the great au The most complete statement of the reasons in
thority held by old men, the high age of Job, and support of the opinion tliat the book of Job was
fathers offering sacrifices for their familieswhich written after the age of Moses, may be found in
leads to the supposition that when our book was Richter's essay, De JEtate Jobi dejiniendat re
written no sacerdotal order yet existed.' These printed in Rosenmilller's edition of Lowth's Pree*
points, however, are quite intelligible, if the design uetiones De Poesi Sacra liebrtrorvm : in which
of the book, as stated above, is kept in view. he maintains that it was written in the age of
The author intended not to rest the decision Solomon. Most of these reasons, indeed, are either
of the question at issue on particular passages not conclusive at all, or not quite cogent. Thus
of Scripture, but on religious consciousness and it is au arbitrary assumption, proved by modem
experience. This at once explains why he researches to be erroneous, that the art of writing
places the scene without Palestine, why he places was unknown previous to the age of Moses. The
it in the patriarchal age, and why he avoids the assertion too, that the marks of cultivation and
use of the name Jehovah ; of these three items refinement observable in our book belonged to a
the Jirst sufficiently accounts for no reference later age, rests on no historical ground. Further,
being made to the Mosaic legislation. It is it caunot be said, that for such an early time
indeed gaid, that for au author of a later the language is too smooth and neat, since
period, who undertook to portray earlier times, in no Semitic dialect is it possible to trace a
it would hardly have been possible to jjerform his progressive improvement. The evident corre
task, without occasionally forgetting his roll. But spondence also between our book and the Proverbs
it is not easy to determine what, in such a case, and Psalms is not a point proving with resistless
is possible. What might be expected from our force that they were all written at the same time.
author in this respect may be inferred from his It is, indeed, sometimes of such a kind, tliat the
skill in the intentional use of the names of God authors of the Proverlw ami Psalms cannot be
from the steadiness with which, among foreign exactly said to have copied our book; but it
scenery, he proceeds to develop his subject from may be accounted for by their all belonging to
the able disposition of the speeches, and the the same class of writings, by the very great uni
nicely drawing of the characters of the interlocu formity and accordance of religious conceptions
tors, who are always represented shaking and act and sentiments expressed in the Old Testament,
ing in conformity with the part assigned to them. and by the stability of its religious character.
In the proper execution of his work he may Still the argument derived from the correspond
have been assisted by witnessing abroad the pa ence between our book and the Psalms is not devoid
triarchal life ofuomades, which, in its essential fea of force ; for the accordance of ideas, sentiments,
tures, is always the same. This supposition is ren and colouring in them is such that the circum
dered in some degree probable, from the descrip stances referred to cannot be considered as com
tions ofArabia being exactly agreeable to its natural pletely accounting for it. There are passages in
condition, and being even more specific titan which the author of our book clearly alludes to
those of Egypt, though Hirzel is pleased, to the Psalms and Proverbs. A striking example
elect the latter country, in determining where of this kind occurs in Ps. xxxix. 13. All the
the author of our book lived and comjwsed it. words of this verse, which, as they conclude the
2. ( The language of the book of Job seems jwalm, may have been deeply impressed on the
JOB, THE BOOK OF. JOCHEBED. 125
public mi ml, are again found in various passages the principal examples :Mercer, Comment, in
of the book of Job. whose author must have, been Jobum% 1573; Drusius, Nova Versio st Scholia
acquainted with that psalm (comp. ch. vii. 19; in Jobum, 1636; Abbott's Paraphrase of the
xiv. 6 ; x. 20,21 ; vii. 8, 21. iu the Hebrew Bible). Book of Job, 1640 ; Spanheim, Ilistoria Jobit
The whole psalm is a tcxt-took for the speeches 1672; Schmid, Comment, in Librum Jobi, 1670;
of Job. The argument, also, derived from the Caryl's Exposition of the Book of Job, 1669;
skilful plan of our book and its able exjwsition, Leigh's Annotations on Job, 1G56 ; Wesley, Dis
must be allowed its weight in deciding that its sertate, in Jobum, 1736; Costard, Observations
composition is not to be assigned to an age on the Book of Job, 1742; Schultens, Liber
prior to Mo)tes ; though we must not forget that Jobi, 1737 ; Chappelow's Commentary on Job,
what to us appears to be art, because it is 1752; Heath's Essay on the Bookof Job, 1756;
done according to established rules, may also Scott's Book of Job in English Verse, 1773;
be the product of a creative genius. But a Reiske, Conjectxlree in Jobum, 1779; Dathe in
conclusive argument against assigning so early a Jobum, 1789; Garden's Improved Version of
date to the composition of our book is its reflecting the Book of Job, 1796; Eichhorn, Das Buch
and inquiring character. A didactic poem could Hiob, 1800; Gaab, Das Buch Biob, 1809; Eliza
never have been written in the time of the patri Smith's Book of Job, I R10 ; Good's Book of Job,
archs; but our book presents a strong contrast to 1812; Bridel, Le Livre de Job, 1818; Umbreit,
those immature conceptions and those statements Das Buch Hiob, 1824 (translated in the Bibl.
which strike the senses but do not appeal to reason, Cabinet, vols, xvi., xix.) ; Fry's New Transla
which are of so frequent occurrence in Genesis. tion and Exposition, 1827 ; Lange, Das Buch
The notion which our author entertains of God, of Hiob, 1831; Knobel, De Carminis Jobi, 1835;
his omnipotence and omnipresence, is undoubt Ewald, Das Buch Hiob erkldrt, 1836 ; Fackens,
edly more refined than that presented in the Comment, de Jobeide, 1836; Lee's Book of Job,
hooks of Moses. In addition to this it should be 1837; Wemvss, Job and his Times, 1839.]
observed, that from many indications the problem JOB'S DISEASE. The opinion that the
treated in our (u>ok was at the time of its com malady under which Job suffered was elephan
position frequently discussed and variously solved. tiasis, or black leprosy, is so ancient, that it is
VVe have ohserved, indeed, above, that it is as old found, according to Origen's Hexapla% in tne
as the cause which originated it ; but it must be rendering which one of the Greek versions has
allowed that the Mosaic revelation, with its lead made of ch. ii. 7. It was also entertained bv
ing doctrine concerning retribution, was calcu Abulfetla (Hist. Anteisl. p. 26) ; and, in modern
lated to direct the attention more forcibly towards times, by the best scholars generally. The pas
it than had U*eu previously the case, and thus to sages which arc considered to indicate this disease
induce God, through an instrument appointed by are found in the description of his skin burning
him, to promulgate the true solution. There are, from head to foot, so that he took a ]>otsherd to
moreover, indirect allusions to the Pentateuch, as scrape himself (ii. 7, 8); iu its being covered
stated above. with putrefaction and crusts of earth, and being
Summing up the whole of our investigations, at one time stilt and hard, while at another it
we take it to be a settled point that the book of cracked and discharged fluid (vii. 5) ; in the
Job does not belong to the time of the Baby offensive breath which drove away the kindness of
lonian exile; and it is nearly equally certain attendants (xix. 17); in the restless nights, which
that it was not composed piior to the time of were either sleepless orscared with frightful dreams
Moses. Could it then have been written in some (vii. 13, 14; xxx. 17); in general emaciation
age preceding Samuel and David? It is only (xvi. 8); and in so intense a loathing of the
witli them that anew period of sacred literature burden of life, that strangling and death were
began ; arid our book is related to products of that preferable to it (vii. 15).
period, or enlarges on them. But it cannot have In lliis picture of Job's sufferings, the state of
Iteen composed later than Isaiah, who alludes to the skin is not so distinctly described as to
it. Tims we come to this general determination enable us to identify the disease witli elephan
of the age of our book, that it was written, not tiasis in a rigorous sense. The difficulty is also
before Samuel and David, but not inter than the increased by the fact that shechin is generally
era of Isaiah. With this result we must rest rendered 1 boils.' But that word, according to its
satisfied, unless we would go beyond the indica radical sense, only means burning, inflammation
tions presented. The intermediate period otiers a hot sense of pain, which, although it attends
no ground on which we can safely fix the compo boils and abscesses, is common to other cutaneous
sition uf the book of Job. There remains then un irritations. Moreover, the fact that Job scr;i]*d
certainty, but it does not concern an important himself with a potsherd is irreconcilable with the
point of religion. The significancy of our book notion that his body was covered with boils or
fur the church rests on the evidence of our Lord open sores, but agrees very well with the thickened
and his apostles in support of the inspiration of state of the skin which characterizes this disease.
the whole collection of the (Mil Testament, and In this, as iu most other Biblical diseases, there
on the confirmation winch this external evidence is too little distinct description of symptoms to
has at all times received, and continues to receive, enable us to determine the precise malady in
from the internal testimony, among the true be tended. But the general character of the com
lievers of all ages.K. W. H. plaint under which Job suffered, bears a greater
f^There is perhaps no single book of Scripture of resemhlance to elephantiasis than to any other
which so many versions and commentaries have disease [Lepkosy].W. A. N.
been published as on that of Job, or respecting
which a greater number of treatises and disserta JOCHEBED pj?i\ God-glorified; Sept
tion! have been written. The following are only *I;r;cu38), wife of Amrarn and mother of Miriam,
126 JOEL. JOEL.
Muses and Aaron. In Exod. vi. 20, Jochehed is mention of their flight, hut, as it appears to us,
expressly declared to have Iteen the sister of Am- without adequate reason. He considers the ex
ram's father, and consequently the aunt of her hus pression ? berate them,' in ch. ii., as equivalent to
band. As marriage between persons thus related ' before they rise :* but in the third verse the same
was afterwards forbidden by the law (Lev. xviii. word (1*33*?) occurs twice, evidently in the sense
12), various attempts have been made to show of 1 iu the presence of,* ' in their front.* The emi
that the relationship was more distant than the nent critic just named lays great stress on the
text in its literal meaning indicates. We see no alleged omission of this particular, which he con
necessity for this. The mere mention of the siders inexplicable, unless on the supposition that
relationship implies that there was something the reality presented nothing corresponding to it.
remarkable in the case ; but if we show that But whether this characteristic be alluded to or
nothing is remarkable, we do away the occasion not, the argument for or against the literal inter
for the relationship being at all noticed. The pretation will not be materially affected. Other
fact seems to be, that where this marriage was particulars are mentioned which literally can
contracted, there was no law forbidding such apply only to locusts, and which, on the suppo
alliances, but they must in any case have been sition that the language is allegorical, are expli
unusual, although not forbidden; and this, with cable only as being accessory traits for filling up
the writer's knowledge that they were subse the picture (Davison's Sacred Hermeneutics, p.
quently interdicted, sufficiently accounts for this 310). The figurative interpretation has, it must
one being so pointedly mentioned. The candour be allowed, the support of antiquity. It was
of the historian in declaring himself to be sprung adopted by the Chaldee paraphrast, Ephrem the
from a marriage, afterwards forbidden by the law, Syrian (a.d. 350), and the Je>vs in the time of
delivered through himself, deserves es[tecial notice. Jerome (a.d. 400). Ephrem mpposci that by the
JOEL (Ss'V; Sept. 'Iw^A j Gesenius, Cut Je~ four different denominations of the locusts were
hova est Deus, i. e. cultor Jehovtt), one of the intended Tiglath-pileser, Shalmanasei, Sennache
twelve minor prophets, the son of Pethuel. Of rib, and Nebuchadnezzar. The Jews, in the time
his birth-place nothing is known with certainty, of Jerome, understood by the first term the Assy
the pseudo-Eniphanius affirms that he was a native rians and Chaldeans ; by the second, the Medes
of Betha, in the tribe of Reuben {De Vit. Proph. anil Persians ; by the third, Alexander the Great
c. 14). From the local allusions in his prophecy, and nis successors ; and by the fourth, the Romans.
we may infer that he discharged his office in the By others, however, the prophecy was interpreted
kingdom of Judah. But the references to the literally; and Jerome himself appear! to have
temple, its priests and sacrifices, are rather slender fluctuated between the two opinions, though more
grounds for conjecturing that he belonged to the inclined to the allegorical view. Grotius applies
sacerdotal order. Various opinions have been held the description to the invasions by Pul and Slial-
respecting the period in which lie lived. It ap maneser. Holzhausen attempts to unite Itoth
pears must probable that he was contemjMtrary modes of interpretation, and applies the language
with Amos and Isaiah, and delivered Ins predic literally to the locusts, and metaphorically to me
tions in the reign of Uzziah, between H)0 and 780 Assyrians. It is singular, however, that, if a
B.C. This is the opinion maintained by Abarbanel, hostile invasion Ite intended, not the least hint is
Vitringa, Rosenmiiller, IV Wette, Holzhausen, given of ]>ersonal injury sustained by the inha
and others. Credner ami Winer place him in the bitants ; the immediate effects are confined en
time of Joash ; Bertholdt, in that of Hezekiah ; tirely to the vegetable productions and the cattle.
Cramer and Eckevniaun, in Josiah's reign ; Jahn Dr. Hengstenberg, while strongly averse from the
in Man isseh's ; and .Sclu'oder still later. literal sense, is not disposed to limit the nieta
This prophet opens his commission by an phorical meaning to any one event or class of
nouncing an extraordinary plague of locusts, invaders. * The enemy,' lie remarks, * are de
accomjtanied with extreme drought, which he de signated only as north countries. From the north,
picts in a strain of animated ami sublime poetry however, from Syria, all the principal invasions of
under the image of an invading army. The Palestine proceeded. We have therefore no rea
fidelity of his highly-wrought description is corro son to think exclusively of any one of them. Nor
borated and illustrated by the testimonies of ought we h limit the prophecy to the people of
Shaw, Volney, Forbes, and other eminent, tra the old covenant. Thionghout all centuries theie
vellers, who have l>een eye-witnesses of the ra is but one church of God existing in unbroken
vages committed by this must terrible of the insect connection. That this church, (luring the first
tribe. Their accounts tend strongly, we think, to period of its existence, was concentrated in a land
free the literal interpretation from the charge of into which hostile irruptions were made from the
being * the greatest exaggeration.* It is also to north was purely accidental. To make this cir
be observed that locusts are named by Moses as cumstance the boundary-stone of the fulfilment
instruments of the divine justice (l)eut. xxviii. of prophecy were just as absurd as if one were
35, 39), and by Solomon in his prayer at the to assert that the threatening of Amos, "by the
dedication of the temple (1 Kings vim 37). In swi'td shall all sinners of my people die," has not
the second chapter, the formidable asjtect of the been fulfilled in those who perished after another
locuststheir rapid progresstheir sweeping de manner' (Christoloyy, Keith's transl. iii. 104).
vastationthe awful murmur of their countless The prophet, after describing the approaching
throngstheir instinctive marshallingthe irre judgments, calls on his countrymen to repent,
sistible perseverance with which they make their assuring them of the divine placability and readi
way over every obstacle ami through every aper ness to forgive (ii. 12-17). He foietels the re
tureare delineated with the utmost graphic storation of the land to its former fertility, and
force. Dr. Hengstenberg calls in question the declares that Jehovah would still be their God
JOHANAN. JOHN THE BAPTIST. 127
fix. 18-26). He then announces the spiritual moved, and even constrained the prophet himself
blessings which would be poured forth in the to go with them. They proceeded to Taphanes, but
Messianic age (iii. 1-5, Heb. text ; ii. 28-32, nothing further is recorded of Johanan. B.C. 588 (2
Autli. Vers.). This remarkable prediction is Kings xxv. 23; Jer. xl. 8- Hi. ; xli. ; xlii. ; xliii.).
tpplied by the Apostle Peter to the events that
transpired on the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. JOHN THE BAPTIST (Gr. 6 jSair-
16-21). In the last chapter (iv. Heb. text ; iii. tktHjj, or simply *lw&i/w}s> when the reference is
Auth. Vers.), the divine vengeance is denounced clear, as in Matt. iii. 4 ; iv. 12; Lat, Joannes,
against the enemies and oppressors of the chosen Tacit. Hist.v. 12; Hebrew denoting * grace'
people, of whom the Phoenicians, Egyptians, and or 'favour'). In the church John commonly
Edomites are especially named. A minule exa bears the honourable title of ' forerunner* of the
mination of these predictions would exceed our Lord*anteciirsor et prxparator viarum Domini
limits; we must refer the reader for further in (Tertull. adv. Marc. iv. 33) ; in Greek} irp6$pofiosf
formation to the works named at the close of this irpodyyeKos Kvpiov. The accounts of him which
article. the gospels present are fragmentary and imper
The style of Joel, it has been remarked, unites fect : they iuvolve, too, some difficulties which
the strength of Micah with the tenderness of Jere the learned have found it hard lo remove; yet
miah. In vividness ofdescription tie rivals Nahum, enough is given to show that he was a man of a
and in sublimity and majesty is scarcely inferior lofty character, and that the relation in which he
to Isaiah and Habakkuk. ' Imprimis est elegans, stood to Christianity was one of great imjwrtance.
clarus, fusus, fluensque ; valde etiam suhlimis His parents were Zacharias and Elisabeth, the
acer. fervidus' (Lowth, De Sacra Poesi Hebr. latter * a cousin of Mary,' the mother of Jesus,
Prael. xxi.). whose senior John was by a period of six months
The canonicity of this book has never been (Luke i.). The exact spot where John was bom
called in question. is not determined. The rabbins lix on Hebron,
A Paraphrase and Critical Commentary on in the hill-country of Judaea; Paulus, Kuinoel,
the Prophecy of Joel, by Samuel Chandler, 4to. and Meyer, after Relaml, are in favour of Jutta,
London, 1745; Die Weissagung dcs Propheten * a city of Judah.' According to the account con
Joel, i'bcrsetzt und crklart, von F. A. Holzhau- tained in the first chapter of Luke, his father,
sen, Gottingen, 1829; Characteristik der J$ibel> while engaged in burning incense, was visited by
von Dr. A. H. Niemeyer, Halle, 1831, vol. v. the angel Gabriel, who informed him that in com
} pp. 295-302; Dr. Hengstenberg's Christology of pliance with his prayers his wife should bear a son,
the Old Testament, ire., transl. by Dr. R. Keith, whose name tie should call Johnin allusion to
Washington, 1839, vol. iii. pp. 100-141. the grace thus accorded. A description of the
The following works are also mentioned by manner of his son's life is given, which in effect
De Wette in his Lehrbuch, &c, Berlin, 1840, states that he was to be a Nazarite, abstaining
p. 321 :Joel Explicatns, in quo Textus Ebr. from bodily indulgences, was to receive special
per paraph. Ckald. masoram magn. et parv. favour and aid of God, was to prove a great reli
perque trium prcestantiss. Iiabb. R. Sal. Jarchi, gious and social reformer, and so prepare the way
II. Aben-Esra, et R. Dav. Kimchi Comm, necnon for the long-expected Messiah. Zacharias is slow
per notas philol. illustratur, $e., auct. Joh. Leus- to believe these tidings and seeks some token in
den, UHraj. 1657; Interpret Joelis in Turretini evidence of their truth. Accordingly a sign is
Tract, de S. Script. Interpret., ed. a G. A. Teller, given which acts also as a punishment of his want
pp. 307-343 ; G. T. Baumgartens Ausleg. el. of faithhis tongue is sealed till the prediction
Proph. Joel, Hal. 1750 ; C. F. Cramer, Scyth. is fulfilled by the event Six months after Eli-
Denkmaler in PaUestina, Kiel, 1777, s. 143-245 ; saheth had conceived she received a visit from
C. P. Com, Diss, de Charactere Poet. Joelis, ire., Mary, the future mother of Jesus. On being
Tub. 1783; Joel Lat. versus et notts philol. saluted by her relation, Elisabeth felt tier babe
illiistratus, ah A. Scanborg, in sex Dissert., Upsal, leap in her womb, ami, being filled with the holy
1806; Veberss. m. Erklt.. von Eckermann, 1786 ; spirit, she broke forth into a jxietic congratulation
Jiwti, 1792; Credner, 1831.J. E. K. to Mary, as the destined mother of her Lord. At
length Elisabeth brought forth a son, whom the
JOHANAN (Ijn'V, God -bestowed ; Sept. relatives were dis|>osed to name Zacharias, after
*la)vdv), one of the officers who came and recog his fatherbut Elisabeth was in some way led to
nised Gidaliah as governor of Judaea after the de wish that he should be called John. The matter
struction of Jerusalem, and who appears to have was referred to the fattier, who signified in writing
been the chief in authority and intluence among that his name was to be John. This agreement
them. He iienetrated the designs of Ishmael witti Elisabeth caused all to marvel. Zacharias
against the governor, whom he endeavoured, with now had his tongue loosed, and lie first employed
out success, to put upon his guard. When Ish his restored power in praising God. These sin
mael had accomplished his design by the murder gular events caused universal surprise, and led
of Gedatiah, and was carrying away the principal people to expect that the child would prove a
persons at the seat of government as captives to distinguished man.
the Ammonites, Johanan pursued him, and re The parents of John werti not only of a priestly
leased them. Being fearful, however, that the order, but righteous and devout Their influence,
Chalda?ans might misunderstand the affair, and in consequence, in the training of their son, would
make him and those who were with him respon be not only benign but suitable to the holy office
sible for it, he resolved to withdraw for safety which he was designed to fill. More than this
into Egypt, with the principal persons of the rem the special aids of God's Spirit were with him
nant left in the land. Jeremiah remonstrated (Luke i. 66^). How thoroughly Zacharias wa$
against this decision ; but Johanan would not be penetrated with his parental responsibility and the
128 JOHN THE BAPTIST. JOHN THE BAPTIST.
future dignity of his son, appears from the * divine in explicit and awful terras that their pride of
song ' to which he gives utterance ; the following nationality would avail them nothing against the
words deserve notice 'And thou, child, shalt be coming wrathful visitation, and that they were
called the prophet of the Highest; fur thou shalt utterly mistaken in the notion that Divine Provi
go before the face of the Lord to prepare his ways ; dence had any need of them for completing its
to give knowledge of salvation unto his jieople by own wise purposes (Luke iii. 8,9). The 6rst
the remission of their sin*, through the tender reason assigned by John for entering on his most
mercy of our God, whereby the day-spring from on weighty and j>erilous office was announced in
high hath visited us, to girt light to them that sit these words' the kingdom of heaven is ill hand.'
in darkness and the shadow of death, tn guide our It was his great work to pre|iare the mind of the
feet in the way of peace.' Ai a consequence of nation, so that when Jesus himself came they
the lofty influences under which he was nurtured, might be a people made ready for the Lord.
the child waxed strong in spirit The sacred What was the exact idea which John intended
writer adds that ' he was in the deserts till the to convey by the term 'kingdom of heaven* it
day of his showing unto Israel' (Luke i. SO). is not easy, at least iu the space before us, to de
The apocryphal Protev. Jac. ch. xxii. states that termine with satisfaction. We feel ourselves,
his mother, in order to rescue her son from the however, justified in protesting against the prac
murder of the children at Bethlehem, which Herod tice of those who take the vulgar Jewish notion,
commanded, fled with him into the desert. She and ascril>e it to John, while some go so far as
found no place of refuge ; the mountain opened to deny that our Lord himself, at the lirst, pos
at her request, and gave the needed shelter in its sessed any other. The reference which we liave
bosom. Zacharias, being questioned by Herod made to John's addreses to his auditors suffices to
as to where his sou was to be found, and refusing show that there was an ample and predominant
to unswer, was slain by the tyrant. At a later moral element in his conception of this kingdom;
period Elisabeth died, when angels took the youth while, if he entertained the vulgar notion of the
ler their care (Fabricius, Cod. Apocryph. j). Messiah, why his urgency in behalf of utravoia
I sq. ; comp. Kuhn, Leben Jesuy i. 163, re- an entire, internal change? Besides, does the
rk 4). fact need enforcement, that all superior minds
1 n the fifteenth year of the Emperor Tiberius, especially those that are enlightened by the Divine
Joh n made his public appearance, exhibiting the Spirithave both correcter and nobler views than
austerity, the costume, and the manner of life of the bulk of their contemporaries, and that it is the
the ancient Jewish prophets (Luke iii. ; Matt. iv.). power which, under God's aid, these views give
His raiment was camel's hair; he wore a plain them, that sustains them in their duty and makes
leathern girdle about his loins; his food was what their efforts successful? If John really came in
the desert spontaneously otiered locusts and wild the spirit and power of Kliasif he reproduced
huney from the rock. Desert though the place is the old ardour and quickening foresight of the
designated, the country where he began his mis prophets, he must have gone far beyond the vulgar
sionthe wild mountainous tract of Judalying conception of the kingdom of God. And indeed
between Jerusalem and the Dead Sea, along the whole tenor of his teaching seems to our
which it stretches, was not entirely destitute of mind intended and fitted to refine, exalt, amj ex
means for supporting human existence (Matt. iii. pand the ordinary Jewish mind anil so to prepare
1-12; Mark i. 1-8; Luke iii. 1-20; John x. 28; the way for the perfect day of Christ.
Justin Martyr, Dial, cum Tryph, c, 88). Jo- Had we space to develope the moral character
sephus, in his Life (ii. 2), gives an account of of John, we could show that this fine, stern, high-
one of his instructors, Rum-, which throws light minded teacher possessed many eminent qualities;
on John's condition in the desert : ' he lived in but his personal and official modesty in keeping,
the desert, and had no other foot! than what grew in all circumstances, in the lower rank assigned
of its own accord, and bathed himself in cold him by God, must not pass witliout |>ecial men
water frequently, both by night and by day. I tion. The doctrine and manner of life of John
imitated him iu these thing*, and continued with appear to have roused the entire of the south
him three yeais.' of Palestine, and people flocked from all parts to
The burden of John's preaching bore no slight the spot where, on the batiks of the Jordan, he bap
resemblance to the old prophetic exhortations, tized thousands unto repentance. Such, indeed,
wtiose UUf echo had now died away for centuries. was the fame which he had gained, that ' people
He called upon the Jewish people to repent were in expectation, and all men mused in their
(fiTavo*iT). to change their minds, their dispo hearts of John, whether he were the Christ or not*
sitions and affections, and thus prepared the way (Luke iii. Id). Had he chosen, John might
for the great doctrine promulgated by his Lord, without doubt have assumed to himself t he higher
of the necessity of a spiiitual regeneration. That office, and risen to great worldly power. But he
the change which John hud in view was by no was faithful to his trust, and never failed to de
means of so great or so elevated a kind as that clare in the fullest and clearest manner, that he
which Jesus required, is very probable; but the was not the Christ but merely his harbinger, and
particulars into which he enters when he proceeds that the tole work he had to do was to usher in
to address classes or individuals (Matt. iii. 7, sq. ; the day-spring from on high.
Luke iii. 7, sq.), serve fully to show that the re Tlw more than prophetic fame of the llaptist
novation at which he aimed was not merely of a reached the ears of Jesus iu his Nazareue dwell
material or organic, but chiefly of a moral nature. ing, far distant from the locality of John (Matt.
In a very emphatic mannerdid he warn the eccle ii.9,ll). The nature of the reportnamely,that
siastical and philosophical authorities of the land his divinely-predicted forerunner had appeared in
of the necessity under which they lay of an entire Judaeashowed our Lord that the time was nor
change of view, of aim, and of desire; declaring come for his being made manifest to Israel. Ac*
JOHN THE BAPTIST. JOHN THE BAPTIST. 129
eordingly he cornea to the place where John is to will have shown that Wiuer and others are in error
be baptized of him, in order that thus lie might in the supposition which lies at the bottom of these
fulfil all that was required under the dispensation alleged difficulties and variationsnamely, that
which was about to disappear (Matt. iii. 14). John the Baptist had no idea of the kingdom of
John's sense of inferiority inclines him to ask God, higher or more far-reaching than that which
rather than to give baptism in the case of Jesus, was prevalent, in the common mind of Judaea. It
who, however, wills to have it so, and is accord is in the words 4 Behold the Lamb of God, which
ingly baptised of John. Immediately on the taketh away the sin of the world' (John i. 29, 36),
termination of this symbolical act, a divine at- that the difficulty is thought to be found. What,
testation is given from the opened vault of heaven, it is asked, could John the Baptist have known of
declaring Jesus to be in truth the long looked-for this assumed functionthe remission of sins?
Messiah'This is my beloved Son, in whom I Lucke has, we think, satisfactorily shown that such
am well pleased 1 (Matt. iii. 17). The events a function did enter into the prophetic idea of the
which are found recorded in John i. 19, sq. seem Messiah (Isa. liii .), or at least into that concep
to have happened after the baptism of Jesus by tion of him which the authoritative exjwunders of
John. This appears to us to be implied in the religious truth had drawn from the peculiar lan
past character of the narrative. John is obviously guage of prophecy. And this is unquestionably
speaking of something over and gone: for in certain, that 'the remission of our sins, through
stance, 4 This is he of whom I said' (not I say), the tender mercy of our God ' (Luke i. 77), did
* after me comelh a man,' &c. ; John's testimony form a part of the conception of the coming Mes
had already been borne when lie gave li is reply to siah which Zacharias, John's father, entertained
the Sanhedrim. It was therefore prior to his bap and expressed immediately on the birth of his
tism that John 1 knew him not'knew not his son; while in the account given by the syn
person, though, of course, he knew that the Mes optical evangelists (Matthew, Mark, Luke),
siah was on the ]>oint of coming ; and though to the eflect that John preached 4 the baptism
John and Jesus were relatives, yet, considering of repentance, for the remission of sins ' (Luke
tiie distance at which they dwelt from each other, iii. 3), adding that the Christ would * baptize
and the habits of retirement and solitude in with the Holy Ghost, and with fire' (Luke iii.
which both indulged, there is no difficulty what 16), may surely be found the essence of the
ever in the statement, but it may be asked, if idea conveyed by the words 4 Behold the Lamb
John was ignorant of the (ers<>n of Jesus, how he of God,' &c.
could acknowledge his superiority, as he does The relation which subsisted between John anf}
when he intimates that it was more meet he Jesus, after the emphatic testimony above recorded
should receive than give baptism. This difficulty had been borne, we have not the materials to de
has excited much attention. The reader may scribe with full certainty.
with advantage consult the very learned and, lor It seems but natural to think, when their hitherto
the most part, impartial commentary of Lucke, on relative jnwition is taken into account, that John
the passage. Our view is this: the relation in would forthwith lay dowti his office of harbinger,
which John and Jesus stood to each other must which, now that the Sun of Righteousness himself
have been well known to both. When, therefore, had appeared, was entirely fulti lied and terminated.
Jesus came to John, he would naturally declare Such a step he does not appear to have taken. On
bimielf to be the intended Messiah. Such a de the contrary, the language of Scripture seems to im
clarationthus pointing out the personwould, ply that the Baptist church continued side by side
of course, conciliate belief in John's mind, and with the Messianic (Matt. xi. 3; Luke vii. 19;
might naturally prompt the self-abasing language Matt. ix. 14 ; Luke xi. 1 ; John xiv. 25), and re
which he employs when requested by Jesus to mained long after John's execution (Acts xix. 3).
give him baptism. No other fact than such an Indeed, a sect which bears the name of 4 John's dis
assertion would communicate to John s mind ciples,' exists to the present day in the East, whose
could justify the language which the Baptist uses, sacred books are said to l>e [>ervaded by a Gnostic
since, as the forerunner of the Messiah, he was leaven. They are hostile alike to Judaism and
second to him only. Still the divinely-promised Christianity, and their John and Jesus are alto
evidence remained to l>e given* upon whom gether different from the characters liearing these
thou itialt see the Spirit descending, and remain names in our evangelists. Still, though it has been
ing on him, the sume is he which baptizeth with generally assumed that John did not lay down
the Holy Ghost' (John i. 33). That evidence his office, we are not satisfied that the New Tes
was at lfiigth vouchsafed after the baptism, and tament establishes this alleged fact. John may
then the divine and human testimony concurred have ceased to execute his own peculiar work, as
in giving such satisfaction to John's mind as he the forerunner, but may justifiably have conti
had been led of God to ex|xr,l, and which the im nued to bear his most important testimony to the
portant interests at stake seemed to demand. Messialiship, of Christ; or he may even have alto
In the testimony which John bears to Jesus, as gether given up the duties of active life some time,
recorded by the Evangelist John, Winer, in his at least, before his death : and yet his disciples,
Rcalwurterbuch, finds some difficulty, and thinks both before and after that event, may have main
that theie is a variation, in fact a contrariety, be tained their individuality as a religious commu
tween the view which John presents of the person nion. Nor will the student of the New Teslament
and work of our Lord and that which the other and of ecclesiastical history, who knows how
evangelists aflbrda view, indeed, of which the grossly a teacher far greater than John, was. both
Baptist could have known nothing, but which during his life and after his crucifixion, misun
came from the Gnosticizing colours of John's derstood and misrepresented, think it. impossible
mind. We again refer the reader to Liicke's valu that some misconception or some sinister motive
able work. But what lias already been remarked may have had weight in preventing the Baptist
TOL. II.
130 JOHN THE BAPTIST. JOHN THE APOSTLK.
church from dissolving and passing into that of reason was but the pretext for carrying into effect
Christ. the determinations of Herod's cabinet. That the
It wai, not improbably, with a view to remove fear of Herod was not without some ground may
some error of this kind tliat John sent the embassy be seen in the {popularity which John had gained
of his disciples to Jesus which is recorded in Matt, (Mark xi. 32; La-drier, Works, vi. 483).
xi. 3; Luke vii. 19. The spiritual course which The castle of Macluerus, where John was im
the teachings of Jesus were more and more taking, prisoned and Iwheaded, was a fortress lying on
and the ap]iarent failure, or at least uneasy post the southern extremity of Pereea, at the top of
ponement of the promised kingdom in the popular the lake Asphaltites, between the dominions of
aense, especially the fact that their esteemed mas Herod and Aretas, king of Arabia Petra?a, and
ter lay in prison, and was in imminent danger of at the time of our history appears to have belonged
losing his life, may well have led John's disciples to the former (Lardner, vi. 483). According to
to doubt if Jesus were in truth the expected Mes the Scripture account, the daughter of Herodias
siah. Apiwarances, to them, were purely adverse. obtained the Baptist's head at an entertainment,
What step so tit on the jiart of their master, as without delay. How could this lie, when Ma-
that he should send them to Jesus himself? No chorus lay at a distance from Jerusalem? The
intimation is found in the record that John re feast seems to have been made at Machaerus,
quired evidence to give him satisfaction ; and all which, he-idea being a stronghold, was also a
the language that is used is projier and pertinent palace, built by Herod the Great, and Herod
if we suppose that the doubt lay only in the minds himself was now on his route towards the tei ri-
of his disciples. That the terms employed ad~ tories of Aretas, with whom he was at war.
mit the interpretation that John was not without Bishop Marsh (Lecture xxvi.) remarks, that the
some misgivings (Luke vii. 23; Matt. xi. 6), we soldiers who, in Luke iii. 14, are said to have
are free to allow. And if any doubt had grown come to John while baptizing in the Jonlan, are
up in the Baptist's mind it was most probably designated by a term (oTparwSfAtyot, not <rrpa-
owing to the defective spirituality of his views; tmtcu) which denotes persons actually engaged
for even of him Jesus has declared, * he that is in war, not merely soldiers. In the same way,
least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than he ' in Mark vi. 27, the officer sent to bring John's
(Mutt. xi. 1 1). Were this the case it would of head bear* a military title(nrtKOvXArotp. These
itself account not only for the embassy sent by minute indications are quite accordant with the
John to Jesus, but also for the continuance and fact that Herod was then making war on Aretas,
wr petuation of John's separate influence as the as appears from Josephus {Antiq. xriii. 5. 1 ), and
fou inler of a sect. afford a very strong evidence of the credibility of
The manner of John's death is too well known the sacred narratives, by showing that the authors
to require to lie detailed here (Matt. iv. 12; xiv. described what was actually proceeding before
3; Luke iii. 19; Mark vi. 17; Joseph. Antiq. their own eyes. We also see a reason why He
xviii. 5. 2). He reproved a tyrant for a heinous rodias was present on this occasion, since she was
crime, and received his reward in decapitation. Herod's paramour, and had, * like another Helen,'
Josephus, however, assigns a somewhat different led to the war.
cause for this execution from that given in the John the Baptist is mentioned in the Koran,
gosjwls. The passage bears forcible evidence to with much honour, under the name of Jahja
the general truth of the evangelical narrative re (see Hottiuger, IJistoria Orientalis, pp. 144-149,
specting John, and therefore we transcribe it : Tiguri, 1660).
* Now some of the Jews thought that the destruc The literature connected wiih the suhject of
tion of Herod's army catne from God, and that this article, to be found in foreign writers, is
very justly, as a punishment of what he did very rich. Besides the works already named, the
against John that was called the Baptist; for following may be consulted : Hose (Leben Jesu,
Herod slew him, although he was a good man, 3 Aufl. Leipzig, 1 840, p. B0>, who, together with
and commanded the Jews to exercise virtue, both Walch (Bibliotheca Theologica, iii. 4112), give*
as to righteousness one towards another and piety the chief authorities; Witsii Exerc. de Joanne
towards God, and so to come to baptism. Now Bapt. in his Miscell. Sacra, ii. 367; J. G. E
when others came in crowds about himfor they Leopold, Johannes tier THnfer, Hannov. 1825 ;
were greatly moved by hearing his words Usteri, Nachrichten von Johannes dem Tiiufer
Herod, who feared lest the great influence John in the Studien und Kritiken, 1829, put iii. p.
had over the people might put it into his power 439; L. von Rolulen, Johannes der Tiiufer,
and inclination to raise a rel>ellion (for they Liibeck, 1838; Neander, Das Leben ./esu, Hamb.
seemed ready to do any thing he should advise), 1837, p. 49. The ecclesiastical traditions touch*
thought it I by putting him to death, to prevent ing John may be found in the Acta Sanctorum, iv.
any mischief he might cause, and not bring him 687-846 ; and, in a compendious form, in Tille-
self into difficulties by sparing a man who might mont, Memoires, i. 82-108, 482-505.J. R. B.
make him repent of it when it should be too late. JOHN THE APOSTLE, L The circum
Accordingly lie was sent a prisoner, outof Herod's stances of his life, and his character.He
auspicious temper, to Machserus, the castle I before was the son of Zebedee, a fisherman, and of
mentioned, and was there put to death.' Salome. It is probable that he was Itoru < at
There is no contrariety between this account and Bethsaida, on the lake of Galilee. His parents
that which is given in the New Testament. Both appear to have Iwen in easy circumstances ; at
may be true : John was condemned in the least, we find that Zebedee employed hired ser
mind of Heunl on political grounds, as endan vants (Mark i. 20), and that Salome was
gering his position, and executed on private and among the number of those women who contri
ostensible grounds, in order to gratify a mali buted to the maintenance of Jesus (Matt, xxrii.
cious but powerful woman. The Scriptural 56). We also find that John received Mary inuj
JOHN THE APOSTLE. JOHN THE APOSTLE. 181
his house after the death of Jesus. Since tint ai a spiritual pastor, given by Clemens Alexan-
house seems to have been situatetl at Jerusalem i in mis (Qui* Dives Salvus c. 52), testify that
(W* littlriis TT/r Sipas, John xix. 27), it would he was the pastor of a large diocese. Jehu's
appear that he was the owner of two houses. second epistle, verse 12, and third epistle, verse
John's acquaintance, also, with the high-priest 1-1, indicate that he made journeys of pastoral
(xviii. 15) seems to indicate that he lived at visitation. John died at Ephesus post the age
Jerusalem, anil belonged to tlie wealthier class. of ninety, in the reign of the Emperor Trajan.
We may suppose that from a tender age he According to Jerome, lie was a hundred years old,
nourished religious feelings, since Salome, who and according to Suidas, a hundred and twenty.
evinced so much love for Jesus, probably fostered If we endeavour to picture to ourselves an
at an earlier jfcriod those hope* of a Messiah imf*ge of John as drawn from his Gospel and his
which site expresses in Matt. xx. 20 : and we find Epistles, aided by a few traits of his life preserved
that he entered into communion with the Baptist by the fathers,* he appears to have been of a wise,
from pan motives. The occupation, also, of a atTect ionate, and rather feminine character.
fisherman was adapted to promote holy medita It seems that originally this softness of disposi
tions, since it would frequently lead him to pass tion would sometimes blare up in wrath, as femi
whole nights in stillness upon the water, amid a nine characters in general feel themselves as
charming country similar to the environs of the strongly repelled as attracted. An instance of
lake of Locarno. On the banks of the Jordan the his wrath we find in Luke ix. 54, sq. We trace
Baptist directed John to Jesus, and he immedi also a degree of selfishness in Mark ix. 38 ; x. 35.
ately became tlie Lord's disciple and accom Hence it apj>ears that love, humility, and mild
panied him on his return to Galilee. Having ness were in John the works of transforming grace.
arrived there, he at first resumed his trade, but was At a later period his writings indicate not only
afterwards called to remain ]termanently with the mildness, but also a strict moral earnestness (1
Redeemer (Luke v. 5-10). Jesus was particu John i. 6 ; iii. 9, 20 ; v. 16 ; 2 John 10, 1 1).
larly attached to John (John xiii. 23 ; xix. 26 ; II. The Gospel of John.Its authenticity and
xx. 2 ; xxi. 7), who was one of the three who were credibility.During tlie eighteenth century and
distinguished above the other apostles (Matt, the first ten years of the nineteenth, the Gospel
xvii. I; xxvi. 37; Mark v. 37). After trie as of John was attacked, but with feeble arguments,
cension, John abode at Jerusalem, where Paul met by some* English Deists and by four German
him on his third journey, about the year 52 (Gal. theologians. Bretschneider attempted a stronger
ii. 3-9). Since lie had undertaken the care uf attack in his book entitled Probabilia de Eton-
the mother of Jesus we cannot well suppose that gelii et Epistolarum Johannis origine et indole,
he left Jerusalem before Mary's death ; and, in 1820. According to him, the Gospel was written
deed, we find that alwut the year 5ft, when Paul during the first half of the second century, for
was at Ephesus, John was not yet living there. the purpose of spreading the metaphysical doctrine
If we consider tlie great importance of Ephesus of the divinity of Christ. Although this attack
among the various churches uf Asia Minor, and was very learned, it met with but little approba
the dangers arising from false teachers, who were tion. Tlie same arguments were, however, resumed
prevalent there as early as the days of Paul (Acts and sharpened by Strauss, who, although in the
xx. 29), it will appear likely tliat John was sent third edition of The Life of Jesus he manifested
to Ephesus after Paul had left that scene, about an inclination to give up his doubts, yet reso
the year 65. Daring the time of his activity lutely returned to them in the fourth edition,
in Asia Minor he was exiled by the Roman em principally, as he himself confesses, because
peror to Patmos, one of the Sporadic isles in the * without them one could not escape fn>m believing
.K.'i.in Sea, where, according to Revelations the miracles of Christ.* Strauss attacked the
i. 9, be wrote the Apocalypse. Ircna?u* (Adv. authenticity of the Gospel of John principally
Hot. v. 30) and, following him, Eusebius with arguments deduced from the subject-matter
(Hist. Eccles. iii. 18) state that John beheld the of the book itself, while Liitielberger opposed it
visions of the Ajx>culypse about the close of the on historical grounds (Vie kirchliche Tradition
reign of Domitian. If this statemeut can be iiber den Apostel Johannes und seine Schriften,
depended upon, tlie exile to Patmos also took 1R40). Scliwegler published a treatise on the
place under Domitian, who died a.d. 96. Ter- writings of John, which is inserted in Der Monta~
tullian (Vrtracr. adv. lleer. c. 30) relates that in nismus und die Christliche Kirche des ztceiten
the reign of Domitian John was forcibly conveyed Ja/trhunderts, 1811, and in which he endeavours
to Rome, where he was thrown into a cask of oil; to prove from the facts of ecclesiastical history, that
that he was miraculously released,and then brought the Gos]el of John was written in Asia Minor
to Patmos. Hut since none of the ancient writers about the year of Christ 170 by one of the followers;
l>esides the rather undiscriminating Tertullian, of the elder Apnllinaris, and that it was ascribed
relate this circumstance, and since this mode of
capital punishment was unheard of at Rome, we * Jerome (Comm. ad Gal. iii. p. 314, mart.)
ought not to lay much stress ujion it (compare relates that when Juhn had attained a great age he
Mosheim, Dissertationes ad Historiam Eccle- was so feeble that he could not walk to the as
siasticam, i. p. 497, sq.). It is, however, likely semblies of the church ; he, therefore, caused him
that John was called to sutler for his faith, since self to ite carried in by young men. He was no
Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus, writing about longer able to say much, but he constantly re
a d. 200, calls him pdprvt (Euseh. Hist. Eccles. peated tlie words, 1 Little children, loveone another.1
v. 21). According to Eusebius (Hut. Eccles. On being asked why he constantly repeated this
iii. 20, 23\, he returned from exile during the one saying, he replied, 1 Because it is the com
reign of Neiva. The three epistles of John, as mand of the Lord ; and enough is done if this if
alto the afleeting account concerning his fidelity done.1
k2
232 JOHN THE APOSTLE. JOHN THE APOSTLE.
to the apostle in order to influence the converts solicited by his co-disciples to commit his Gospel
from Judaism. If we attached much impirtance to writing.
to the arguments employed by those who deny Now with regard to tlie difference of Form. In
tlie authenticity of John's Gospel, we should here the Gos(>elof John, Jesus seldom iqieaks in gnomes,
explicitly point out how these arguments may sentences, and parables, but generally in longer
be refuted ; but since we deem them unimportant, speeches, tlie parts of which are not closely con
and since, even in Germany, the opponents of its nected, containing frequent repetitions, and the
authenticity have not met with much symjiathy, linguistic characteristics of which strongly re
we refrain from discussion. It may sulhce to semble those of his epistles. De Wette con
observe tliat during tlie lapse of ages up to the siders John to be the author of this Gospel, but
conclusion of the eighteenth century, no one ever lias, nevertheless, given up the authenticity of a
expressed a doubt respecting the genuineness of considerable portion of the speeches, and main
Joan's Gosjwl, except the small sect of the aAoyoi, tains that the Evangelist at a later period, on
whose scepticism, however, was not liased ujxm account of an overflow of his subjectivity, gave
historical, but merely upon dogmatical grounds. his own thoughts as those of the Redeemer. This
The credibility of tlie Gosjwl of St. John is question does not admit of a brief solution ; there
open to attack on account of its differing so much, fore, consult a full discussion of the subject in
as well in substance as in form, from tlie three first Thol uck's Glattbtcurdiyheit der erangelischett
Gosjiels, and on account of its apparent contradic Geschichte, 2nd edit. p. 314, sq. We here direct
tion of them. Among the apparent contradictions attention only to the following particulars. The
may be mentioned the statements, that Christ was geutle and feminine character of the disciple
cruciiied on the same day on which the Patrover allows us to siipjmse tliat, to a certain degree, he
was to Ik.1 eaten (John xviii. 28), while according adopted as his own tlie expressions of the Re
to the other Gospels Je*us ate the Passover with deemer, and, consequently, that many terms in
his disciples; ami that Jesus, before he went to which tlie Epistles aq i with the Gos]>el did not
Gethseuiane, offered up a prayer full of sublimity originate with the disciple, but with Christ him
and confidence (xvii.), while according to the self. We find an example of the manner in
other Gospels he endured in Gethsemane a very which the disciple adopted the expressions of his
heavy internal conflict, respecting which John is Master in John xii. 43, compared with v. 41-41.
silent. But the most striking ditlerencf is that We do not deny tliat the formation of sentences
of the speeches. This difference is, perhaps still and expressions is considerably influenced by the
more apparent in the form than in the substance peculiar character of the disciple, but with regard
of them. to the particular contents of the speeches, we
The History and the Speeches.We will first see no reason why we should doubt their au
consider the difference of the Contents. This thenticity. Strauss himself makes a concession
difference may be accounted for by supposing that from which much results, namely, tliat tlie most
John intended to relate and complete the history of characteristic speeches in John are those in which
the Lord according to his own view of it. We are occur the antitheses of <rdp$ and irvtvpa, ftesh and
led to this supjiositiou from the following circum spirit, iV t and o-kotos, light and darkness, ^W;
stances : that, with the exception of the history of and Odi-arm, life and death, &vta and Karat, above
his jiassion and his resurrection, there are only two and below; and also tlie mystical expressions of
sections in which John coincides with the synoptic UpTos Tjjy fav** bread of life, i Buy (St*, tiring
gospels (vi. 1-21; xii. 1); that he Altogether water. These terms are even by Strauss (vol. i.
omits such imjiortant facts as the baptism of ]). 176) considered to be jiarts of the original
Jesus by John, the history of his temptation and speeches of Christ, and he asserts tliat the evan
transfiguration, the institution of the Lord s gelist only developed them in the style of the
supjwr, and the internal conflict at Gethsemane; Alexandrian writers.
and that chapters i. 32, iii. 21, xi. 2, indicate It must be granted that the peculiarities of
that he presupposed his readers to Ik- already ac John's Gospel more especially consist in the four
quainted with the GuiiK'l history. He confined following doctrines.
himself to such communications as were wanting 1. That of the mystical relation of the Son to
in the others, especially with regard to the sj>ccches the Father.
ofJesus. Tlie historical section in ch. vi. he com 2. That of the mystical relation of the Redeemer
municated because it is connected with the sub to believers.
sequent speeches of Jesus ; and ch. xii. 1, be 3. The announcement of the Holy Ghost as
cause it was of importance for him to relate the the Comforter.
history of Judas, so that each event should clearly 4. The peculiar importance ascribed to Love.
be understood to Ik* the result of a preceding fact. Although there can be shown in the writings of
The history of Christ's suflerings and resurrection, the other evangelists some isolated dicta of the
being a prominent parr, could nut be omitted, Lord, which seem to bear the impress of John, it
although, in the account of these also. John differs can also be shown that they contuin thoughts not
in his statements from the writers of the other Gos originating with that disciple, but with the Lord
pels. Clemens Alexandrinus (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. himself. Matthew (xi. 27) sjieaks of the relation
vi. 11) relates, as he says, upon the statement of the Son to the Father so entirely in tlie style
of old Presbyters, that John wrote his Gospel of John that persons not sufficiently versed in
at the request of his friends, in order to place Holy Writ are apt to search for this passage in
by tlie side of tlie ffu/xariKa tvayytAta, bodily the Gospel of John. Tlie mystical union of the
gospels, his Tytvf*.aruebv tuayytAtov, spiritual Son with believers is expressed in Matt, xxviii. 20.
gospel. The same account is confirmed by a The promise of the effusion of the Holy Ghost in
Latin fragment of the second century preserved order to perfect tlie disciples is found in Luke
by Muratori, which bears that the aged apostle was xxiv. 49. The doctrine of Paul with respect to
JOHN THE APOSTLE. JOHN THE APOSTLE. 133
love, in 1 Cor. xiii., entirely resembles what, ac tention to the fact that the suffering would finally
cording to John, Christ taught on the same subject, lead to glory.
Paul here deserves our particular attention. In In the Hrst section is described how the oppo
the writings of Paul are found Christian truths sition of the influential men among the Jews was
which have their jioints of coalescence only in gradually increased until the decisive fact of tiy;
John, viz., that Christ is EIkwv tov 0oC toO resurrection of Lazarus led to a public outburst
hoparov, the image oft/ie invisible God, by whom of tlieir hatred. This description terminates with
all things are created (Col. i. 15, 16), Paul the official decree of Caiuphas (xi. 49, 50).
considers the Spirit of God in the church, the c. The place, time, and language in which
spiritual Christ, as Jesus himself does (John xiv. John's Gospelicastoritten.The Fathers supposed
16), frequently using the words eTvcu tV Xptorqt. that tlie Gospel of John was written at Kphesus.
That the speeches of Christ have been faithfully The author of a synopsis annexed to the works of
reported may be seen by a comparison of the Athanasius makes an observation which deserves
speeches of the Baptist in the Gospel of John. to be noticed on account of tlie assurance with
The Baptist's speeches bear an entirely Old Test which it is advanced. It is, that John wrote the
ament character : they are full of gnomes, allu Gospel which bears his name in Patmos, but that
sions to the Old Testament, and sententious it was edited by the same Gaius whom Paul in
expressions (John iii. 27-30 ; i. 26-36). the epistle to the Romans calls 6 Vos pov, mine
b. The purport and plan of the Gospel of host (Ath&na&ii Opera, vol. it. p. 155, Venet.). One
John.We have already given our own opinion might be inclined to explain by this circumstance
on this subject. Most of the earlier critics the postscript contained in John xxi. 2-4, 25.
considered the Gospel of John to have had a There is some internal evidence in favour of the
polemico-dogmatical puqx>rt. According to Ire- statement that this Gospel was written at Kphesus
nseus {Adv. Htrr. iii. 12), John wrote with the namely, that the author sometimes alludes to
intention of combating the errors of Cerinthus the tenets of Hellenistic theosophy, and that he
the Gnostic. Grotius, Herder, and others sup lias in view readers who do not live in Palestine
pose that tlie polemics of the evangelist were (John ii. C, 13 ; iv. 9 ; v. 1, 2). In addition to
directed against the Zabii,or disciples of John the this must be mentioned the command of the
Baptist. Michael is, Storr, and Hug assert that HellenisticjGreek evinced by the writer. It is,
they were directed against both the Zabii and the however, not unlikely that John acquired his
Gnostics. It is not improbable that the evan knowledge of Greek in his native country. The
gelist had in view, both in his Prologus and also researches of Dr. Paulus, Hug, and Credner, have
in ch. xix. 34, 35, gome heretical opinions of rendered it highly probable that the knowledge
those times, but it cannot be maintained that this of Greek was then widely spread in Palestine.
is the case throughout the whole of the Gospel. Even James, the brother of our Lord, although lie
He himself states (xx. 31) that bis work had a never left his native country, writes in his epistle
more general object. tolerably good Greek.
One of the peculiarities of John is that, in The language of John's Gospel is not very
speaking of the adversaries of Jesus, he always periodic, but moves uniformly on between the
calls them ol 'IovScuoi. This observation has, in particles 5c and olv. For instance, in chapter
modem times, given rise to a peculiar opinion xix. the particle oly occurs at the commencement
concerning the plan of John's Gospel ; namely, of verses 20, 21,23,24 twice, 26, 29, 30, 31,32, 38,
that theevangelist has, from the very beginning of 40, 42. Quite as frequent is the simple connec
the Gospel, the following tlieine before his eyes : tion by the conjunction ko! (iii. 14; v. 27; viii.
THE ETERNAL COMBAT BETWEEN DIVINE LIOIIT 21, 49; xvii. il). This defect of style may,
AND THK- COHKUITION OF MANKIND, EXEM however, be explained by the mental charac
PLIFIED BY THE MLTlAl, OPPOSITION SUI1- teristics of the disciple. John's mind was defi
SISTINO BETWEEN THE HOSTILE J F,WISH PARTY cient in the dialectic element; he wanted the
AND THE MANIFESTATION OF THE SON OF GOD, logical acutenessof Paul. Even where lie reports
WHICH COMBAT TERMINATES IN THE VICTORY tlie speeclies of Christ, we often find a want of
OF LIGHT. precision in his representation. Tlie simplicity
Tlie Prologue of the Gospel of John expresses of John's character is also evinced by tlie reje-
thil theme in speaking of tlie opposition of the tition of certain leading thoughts* reproduced in
world to tlie incarnate Logos. This theme is the same words both in tlie Gosjiel and in tlie
here expressed in the same manner as the lead Epistles ; such as paprvpla, testimony; 66(0,
ing idea of a musical composition is expressed glory ; kkifieta, truth ; {pus* light ; o~k6tqs, dark
in the overture. As tlie leading idea of tiie ness ; ti>r) aloivios, eternal life ; pJvtiv, to abide.
whole epistle to the Romans is contained in ch. i. Although the language of tlie Gospels and of the
17, so tiie theme of the Gospel of John is con Epistles is not so excellent as Eusebius asserts, we
tained in ch. i. 11-13. Tlie Gospel is divided find only such impurities as belong to the Alex
into two principal sections. Tlie first extends to andrine Greek in general. For instance, the
ch. xii. It comprehends the puhlic functions of barbarism ijiimw in xvii. 7 ; and according to
Jesus, and terminates with a l*ief summary (ver. the codex An,, aUo iupcucav in verse 6; and
44-50). The second section contains tlie history according to some manuscripts tX\(affav, instead
of tlie Passion ard of the Resurrection. The of ftxoy\ and in xvi. 20, 22, xapjiaafuu, instead
outer is prepared for this section by ch. xiL 23- of yuptc.
82. The leading idea of this speech is, that d. The interpreters of the Gospel of John,
Destruction is necessary, Itecause without it there Among the ancient commentators upon John's
can be no Resurrection. Gospel, Chrysoptom deserves the first place. The
With ch. xiii. begins the history of our Lord's two compilers, Theophylact, who died a.d. 1107,
Passion. In the third verse the apostle directs at and Euthymius Zigabenus, who died after a.d.
134 JOHN THE APOSTLE. JOHN THE APOSTLE.
1118, are also worthy of notice. Among the Ro tents removes also the suspicion that they could
man Catholic interpreters, Maldonatus, who died have been forged, since it would be difficult to
in 1583, is distinguished by originality and ac discover any purpose which could liave led to
curacy. Calvin is distinguished above the other such a forgery. Hie passage in the second epistle,
Reformers for the originality and ease of his in verse 1 1, which might seem to have some doctrinal
terpretation, but his commentary on the Epistles importance, is several times quoted by the fathers ;
is more carefully worked out than that on the for instance, by Ireiueus (Adv. llsrr, i. 16. 3). Cle
Gospel. Beza is characterized by philological mens Alexandrinus, who, according to Eusebius
and critical learning. The most complete com and Photius, wrote a commentary on all the
mentary on the Gospel uf John is fliat of Lampe, seven Catholic epistles, mentions several genuine
Commentarius Exeyetico-Analyticus in Evan$e~ epistles of John. Origen speaks iloubtingly about
Hum Johannis, Atustelodami, 1637, 3 vols. 4to. the authenticity of the second and third epistles,
The style of this commentary is tasteless and and states that they were not generally admitted
till", but in learning the author has not been sur to he genuine.
passed by any other interpreter. Lucke (3rd ed. The second epistle is addressed to a lady,
1640) is the most comprehensive of the modern called Kvpia, which name frequently occurs in
commentators. Shorter commentaries have been ancient writers as that of a woman (comp. Lucke's
written by Tboluck* (5th ed.), by Olshausen (3rd C'ommentar, p. 351).
ed. 1832), and by De Wette (2nd ed. 1839). The third epistle is addressed to Gaius, a
As introductions to the study of the writings person otherwise unknown. It is remarkable
of John, we may mention Frommann's Johan- that the writer of this epistle calls himself
neischer Lehrbegriff, 1831, and Neander s Abriss o -wptG&vrtpos. If this means the same as pre-
der Johcwneischen Lehrc in bis Geschichte der sident, as m 1 Pet. v. 1. it is surprising that
PJtanzung der Chnstlichen Kirchc (3rd ed. 184 1, Jolin should make use of this official designation
p. 757, sq.). in a private letter, and not in the first epistle,
III. The Epistles of John.For the authen which is addressed to the congregation. If
ticity of the first epistle very ancient testimony irpfo-f3vTfpos is here used in the signification of
may he adduced. Papias, the disciple of John, old man, as Paul calls himself in the Epistle to
quotes some passages from it. Pojycarp, also, Philemon, verse 9, one is surprised that John
another disciple of John, quotes a passage from should not have chosen the clearer expression, &
this epistle (ad Philipp.y c. 7). So, also, Irenxus ytputr or 6 trpttrQvrrjs. Some writers have been
{Adv. //or. iii. 16; v. 8). inclined to ascribe these letters to the presbyter
The author of the first epistle descril>es him John, who is sometimes sj>oken of in the ancient
self, at its commencement, as an eye-witness of church, and to whom even (lie Apocalypse has
the life of our Lord. The style and language lieen attributed ; but if the presbyter John wrote
manifestly harmonize with those of the author of these epistles, John's Gospel also must be ascribed
the Gospel of John. The polemics, also, which to the same person, of whom otherwise so little
in ch. ii. 18-26, are directed against the I >,- is known. This*, however, is inadmissible. The
Gnostics, in ch. iv. 1*3, agree with the sphere of omission of the title, at the commencement of the
action in Asia Minor in which the Evangelist ttrst epistle, cannot be received as proof that
John was placed. We may, therefore, suppose frp*(r&vT*pt>s, in the second and third epistles, i*
that the epistle was written to Christian congrega not to l>e taken as an official designation ; since,
tions in Asia Minor, which were placed under in the first epistle, there is no inscription at all,
the spiritual care of the apostle. It is generally which in itself is a rather startling circumstance.
admitted that ch. i. 2 refers to tle Gos|iel. If We may suppose that the term *pr0i/T<fo?
this is correct, the apostle wrote this epistle at expressed in the epistles of John a degree of
a very advanced aje, after he had written his friendliness, and was chosen on account of the
gORM* The epistle breathes love ami devotion, advanced age of the writer. The apostle Paul,
but also zeal for moral strictness (iii. 6-8; v. 16). also, in his friendly tetter to Philemon, abstains
Tl*re is a remarkable absence of logical con from the title A|x>stle. The circumstances, and
nection in the form of serrate expressions, and events in the church, to which the second epistle
in tlie transitions from one thought to another. alludes, coincide with those which are otherwise
Some writers have been inclined to find a reason known to have hapfiened in Joint's congregation.
for this in the advanced age of the writer. Old Here, also, are allusions to the dangers arising
age may, perliaps, have contributed to this charac from the Guostic heresy. The admonition, in
teristic, but it is chiefly attributable to the mental verse 10, not to receive such heretics as Christian
peculiarity of the apostle. brethren, agrees with the ancient tradition, that
Eiisehius places the second and third epistles John made haste to quit a public bath after Ce-
of John among the cu/rtAryofUva (Hist. Eccles. rinthus the Gnostic entered it, declaring he was
iii. 35). These two epistle* were originally afraid the building would fall down.
wanting in the ancient Syriac translation. From Kickli's Johannis erster Brief erklmrtund an-
their nature, it may easily be explained how it ffewcndrt mit historischem vorbtricht und er-
hapjK'iied that they were less generally known in kliircnden Anmcrkvngen (Lucerne, 1828); i.nd
ancient Christian congregations, and that the Lucke's Ausleyvwj (2nd ed. 1836), will assist in
fathers do not quote them so often as other ]>arts interpreting the rirst Epistle of John.A. T.
of Scripture, since they are very short, ami treat of [In the English language there are several
private affairs. The private rulure of their con- works on separate portions of St. John's Gospel ;
but the only one on the whole of it is in the Rev.
* Of this admirable commentary there exists Dr. Shepherd's Notes on the Gospels and Epistles
an English translation in the United States, of of St. John, 4to. 1796; and the only separate
which two editions have been published. Eu. work on the Epistles is Hawkins' Cott.mentary
JOHN, EPISTLES OF. JOHN, EPISTLES OF. 135
on the Epistles of St. John, 1*08. A translation both of these compositions proceed from the same
of Liicke s Commentary on the Epistles of St. author, inasmuch as both bear* the most certain
John exists in the Biblical Cabinet, vol. xv.J stamp of relationship, as well in diction as in
JOHN, EPISTLES OF. In the canon of the form of their contents ; both exercise the same
the New Testament, as at present received in the sj>ell on the mind of the reader.' A few German
universal church, there are three Epistles ascribed theologians iu our own times (Lange, Schriften
to the Apostle St John, although none of them des Joh. iii. 4, sq. ; Cludius, Uransichten des
bears his name. The first of these ranks among Christentk. p. 52, sq. ; Bretschneider, Probabilia,
the komologoumena, respecting which no tloubU p. 166, sq.) have been the first critics to throw
ever existed ; the two latter form part of the doubts on the genuineness ofany ofJohn's writings,
anlilcgomcna, or controverted books. All three but they have met with complete refutations from
are included in the catholic Epistles [Epistles], the pens of Bertholdt (vi.), Harmsen {Aut/ient.
The First Epistle was known to Papias, bishop de Schr. d. Evangel Johan), and Liicke (Com
of Hieropolis in the second century, who was mentary on the Epistles of at. John, in Bib. Cab.
contemporary with the followers of the Apostles, vol. xv.j. The only serious objections to the
and who, as we are informed by Eusebius (Hist. Epistles are those uf Bretschneider, who has
Eccles. iii. 39), * made use of testimonies from t be equally attacked the genuineness of the Gospel.
First Epistle of St, John.* Polycarp also, in his He maiutains that the doctrine concerning the
Epistle to the Philippians (ch. vii.), a work which, logos, and the anti-docetic tendency of St. John's
as Liicke justly observes, cannot be proved to be First Epistle, betray an author of the second cen
either spurious or interpolated, has the following tury, whom he assumes to be John the Presbyter.
remarkable passage, which seems evidently to But it is beyond all question, says Liicke (I. c),
refer to 1 John iv. 3 : * Every one who does not that the logos doctrine of St. Johu, substantially,
confess that Jesui Christ is come in the Hesh is although not fully developed, existed in the Jewish
antichrist/ Ireuseus also, the disciple of Poly theological notions respecting the Son of God ; and
carp, is stated by Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. v. 8), that we tiud it distinctly expressed, although in
to have extracted many testimonies from it (comp. ditl'erent words, iu the Pauline representation of
Irenams, Adv. liar. iii. 15. 5, 8, with I John 11. Christ's exalted dignity (Coloss. i. comp. with
18 ; iv. 1, 3 ; v. 1). Clement of Alexandria also Heb. 1); that the rudiments of it ap]*ar in the
(Stromata, ii. 389) observes that John in his literature of the Jews, canonical and apocryphal,
larger Epistle uses the words, ' If any man see Chaldaic and Alexandrian ; that in the time of
his hrother sin a sin,' &c. (1 Johu v. 16). Ter- Christ it was considerably developed iu the
tullian expressly cites John as the author of the writings of Philo, and still more strongly in the
passage, * Which we have heard,' &c. (1 John i. I); fathers of the second century, who were so far
and Origen (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. vi. 25) observes, from retaining the simple, Hebraizing, and ca
* He [John] lias also left us an Epistle containing nonical mode of expression peculiar to John, that
a very few crrixoi : it may be also a second and in them it had assumed a guostically erudite
third are from him, but not all agree that they are form, although essentially identical. St. John
genuine; but both together do not contain a hun intends by the Word (logos) to express the divine
dred arixot ;' and Eusebius himself observes (iii. nature of Christ, but the patristic logology at
2o) that 'John's First Epistle is universally ac tempts to determine the relation lietween the logos
knowledged by those of the present day and by and the invisible Got! on one side, and the world
the ancients ' (see also iii. 26). There is no an on the other. The earliest fathers, as Justin
cient catalogue which does not include the First Martyr and Tatian, while they make use of John's
Epistle, and it forms a part of all the ancient phraseology, further support their doctrines by
versions, including the Syriac, a work of the ecclesiastical tradition, which, as Liicke observes,
second century. In fact the only persons who must have its root in doctrines which were known
ipj - it not to have recognised this Kpistle are in die first century. But from Theophilus of
the ancient heretics, the Alogi and the Marcion- Antioch downwards, the fathers, mentioning John
ites, the latter of whom were acquainted with by name, expressly connect their elucidations
none of the writings of St. John, and the former with the canonical foundation in the Gospel of
rejected them all, ascribing them to Cerinthus, St. John, without the gianting of which the lan-*
not upon critical, but purely arbitrary and dog guage ofJustin would be inexplicable (Olshausen,
matical grounds. On the Genuineness of the Four Gospels, p. 306,
Complete, however, as is the external evidence sq.). Accordingly, adds Liicke, on this side, the
in favour of the genuineness of John's First authenticity of the Gospel and Kpistle remains
Epistle, the internal is no less conclusive. Ttiis unassailable.
is manifest from its exact resemblance in sub On similar grounds may be refuted Hretschnei-
stance, phraseology, and sentiment to the Gospel der's arguments, derived from the anti-docetic cha
of St. John, leaving no doubt that both these racter of John's Epistle. It is true, docetism, or
compositions proceeded at least from one and the idealistic philosophy, was not fully developed
the same author [John, GosfU, of]. Indeed, before the second century ; but its germ existed
this harmony of the two compositions has beta before the lime of Christ, as has been shown
acknowledged by critic* of every school, while by Mosbeim, Walch, ami Nienieyer. Traces of
the allusions are so natural and incidental as Jewish theology and Oriental theosophy having
to preclude the idea of the Epistle being the been applied to the Christian doctrine in the
production of a more modern imitator of the ajxMtolic age, are to be found in the Epistles
style of St. John (Eichhom's Introduction). De of St. Paul, and it would l>e unaccountable to
Wefte (Introduction) furnishes a host of pas suppose that the fully developed docetism should
sages from the Gospel and Epistle, which will have first made its appearance in the Epistles of
enable the reader to perceive at a glance that Ircna-uj and Polycarp. We have the authority
136 JOHN, EPISTLES OF. JOHN, EPISTLES OF.
of the former of these for the fact that Cerinthus spect to the time when this Epistle was written,
taught the docetic heresy in thelifetimeofSt. John, derived fn>m its supposed senile tone [John];
in the simple fonn in which it seems to be at for, although the style is somewhat more tauto
tacked in 1 John iv. 1-3 ; ii. 22 ; 2 John 7. logical than the Gospel, this can l>e accounted
These attacks of modern writers are said to for by its epistolary character, without ascribing
have been made rather by way of experiment than it to the effects of senile forget fulness. In fact
with any serious view of undermining the genuine this character is altogether denied by some of the
ness of John's writings ; and Liicke concludes his ablest critics.
masterly reply to Hretschneider in these words : It is equally difficult to determine who were
* We honour and respect the unprejudiced divine, the persons to whom the Epistle was addressed.
whose modest doubts will ever have the merit In ancient Latin manuscripts of the Scriptures
of having promoted once more the scientific ap it frequently bears the sulwcription * ad Par-
preciation and established certainty respecting thos." This title is also given to it by St. Au
the genuineness and canonical dignity of such a gustine; but there is no authority for sup]>o*ing
noble portion of the ajwstolical literature 1 (Intro- that John ever went on a mission to the Par-
Auction to Comment.), thians. Various conjectures, more or less happy,
Time and place of writing the First Epistle. have been made to account for this inscription.
On this head nothing certain can \*e determined. Whiston (Comment, on the Three Cath. EpisiJ)
It has been conjectured by many interpreters, supposes that the true superscription was wpbs
ancient and modern, that it was written at the irap&tvovs, to the virgins (the uncormpted), and
tame place as the Gospel. The more ancient that TapBtvovs gave rise to the Latin reading,
tradition places the writing of the Gosjiel at Parthos. This conjecture has been improved
Ephesus, and a less authentic report refers it to by Hug (Introd.), who observes that the second
the island of Patmos. Hug (Introduction) infers, Epistle, addressed to the 1 elect lady,* is called
from the absence of writing materials (3 John 1 3), by some of the ancients, including Clem. Alex.
that all John's Epistles were comiwsed at Pat (Frag. ed. Putter, p. 1011), * Epist. ad Vir-
mos! Tlie most probable opinion is that it was gines,* vpbs xapQivovs ; that this phrase, in an
written somewhere in Asia Minor, in which was abridged form, 1 irpbt irapOovSj occurred as a
the on linary residence of the Apostle (Euseb. colophon to the Second Epistle, and that this
Hist. Eccl. iii. 23), perha|s, according to the culophou sometimes apjiearing as a superscription
tradition of the Greek church, at Ephesus; but to the Second Epistle, to which it seemed unsuit
for this we have no historical warrant (Lucke's able, it was transferred as a colophon to the First.
Commentary). Wegscheider ingeniously conjectures that 'ad
It is equally difficult to determine the time 1*411 tin >s ' ua< .i mistake lor 'ad Sparsos,' and ob
of 1 lie writing of this Epistle, although it was serves that in one ancient MS. (which, however,
most probably posterior to the Gospel, which he unfortunately does not particularize), it is both
seems to be referred to in 1 John i. 4. Some are sujierscribed and subscribed irpbs rovs Hiaowapaa-
of opinion that the Epistle was an envelope or ptvovs, * to the dispersed.1 This conjecture is
accompaniment to the Gospel, and that they further favoured by the corruption * ad Spartos,'
were consequently written nearly simultaneously which appears in a Latin Uible in the Geneva
(Hug's Introd.). As, however, the period when Library, of the eleventh century. Scholz observes
the Gospel was written, according to the evidence that * ad Sparsos ' occurs in u great number of
of tradition and criticism, 1 fluctuates between MSS. Various, indeed, have been the hypotheses
the sixth and ninth decennium of the first cen regarding the persons to whom this Epistle was
tury ' (Lucke's Comment.)^ we are at a loss written, but it is by no means improbable, from
for data on which to found any probable hypo the absence of Old Testament refen*nces, that it
thesis respecting the exact time of the writing of was addressed to Gentile converts, of which there
the Epistle ; but that it was posterior to the Gospel were several congregations in Asia Minur, where
is further rendered probable from the fact that it John exercised his ajnstoltc and episcopal func
is formed on such a view of the ]M?rson of Jesus tions. If we are to undei stand the term catholic,
as is found only in St. John's GosiHd, and that it as applied to this Epistle, in the sense of circular,
abounds in allusions to the mMcnCi of Jesus, as we may natural1] infer, from the absence of the
there recorded. Liicke concludes, from its re epistolary form, that this was an encyclical letter
sembling the Gospel in its apologetical and po addressed to several of John's congregations, and
lemical allusions, that it indicates such a state in all probability to the churches of the Ajo-
of the Christian community as proves that it calypse [Epistles].
must be posterior even to the last Epistles of St. Object and design,The main object ami de
Paul, and consequently that the ancient church sign of this Epistle bus (teen generally iicrceived
was justified in classing it among the Catholic to consist in t he refutation of certain errors and
Epistles, which all bear this chronological cha heresies in the churches subject to St. Johns
racter. opiscojate. Hut opinions are divided as to who
It has been argued by several, from ch. ii. IS the teachers of these heresies were, whether Jews,
(&rx^TTj u>pa fori* , that the Epistle was written Ebiouites, Gnostics, Docetar, Cerinthus and his
before the destruction of Jerusalem; while others, followers, or finally the disciples of John the
founding their conjecture on the same passage, Baptist. This polemical object appears, how
maintain the very reverse. Among the former ever, to form but a secondary jkai t of ttie design
are to be found the names of Hammond, Grotius, of John, bis main object being raiher to enforce
Calovius, Lange, and Hiienlein; and among the the necessity of progressive sanctitication, ge
latter those of Baroniua, Basnage, Mill, and Le nuine brotherly love, and I he renunciation of the
Clcrc. world. The design of the Epistle is didactic
Equally unsatisfactory is the argument, in re rather than polemical ; and the Apostle shows
JOHN, EPISTLES OF. JOHN, EPISTLES OF. 137
liat the great aim of the Christian is to over of the Latin Vulgate, as amended by Jerome,
come the world : in corroboration of which lie the clause appeared in the following form :*Et
ap]>eals to the threefold testimony in its favour, spiritus est qui testificatur, quoniam Christus est
showing that those who receive the witness of man Veritas. Quoniam tres sunt qui testimonium
should still more receive the witness of God (1 daut [in ca?!o. Pater, Veibum, et Spiritus Sauctus,
John v. 8, 9). The problem of the Christian life et hi tres uiiiim sunt ; et tres sunt qui testimonium
is thus by faith and love to overcome the infidel dant in terra] spiritus, aqua et sanguis, et tres
arid antichrist ian world, whether Jewish or pagan, unum sunt' (Ed. Princeps, 1462) (And it is
which is using both violence and stratagem to the Spirit that beareth witness, because Christ is
destroy the Christian faith. The Ebionites, or truth. For there are three which bear witness [in
Judaiziug Christians, recognized only the human heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy
nature of Christ, and in their rigid monotheism Spirit, aijd these three are one; and there are
could not lift up their minds to the diviuity of three which bear witness in earth], the Spii it, and
the heavenly logos manifested in Christ; while the Water, and the Blood, aim these three are
Cerinthus denied his humanity, reducing it to a one). Sucli was also the form of the clause
mere docctism or appearance. Against both these in the great majority of manuscripts of the Vul
errors the polemical portion of the Epistle seems gate. It may therefore lie considered as the
to be addressed. generally received form ut that period. But when
Another portion of this Epistle seems directed the first edition of the Greek Testament appeared,
against a certain class of antinomian Christians, which was that of Erasmus, published at Basle
who perverted Christian liberty into untichristian in 1516, the part of the clause which we have
licentiousness and libertinism, and decided what placed within brackets (that referring to the three
was sinful or otherwise, not according to the jiosi- heavenly witnesses) was wanting! and the clause
tive law of God, but by their own internal feel appeared in the following seemingly mutilated
ingsthus confounding light and darkness, God form :Kal rb icvcvfxd fori rb fiaprvpovy, ori to
aud the world. This vital error was rather to be tt f t v /i u iortv tj ak4)6uam Sti rptis fiatv ol pap-
found among the heathen than the Jewish Chris rvpovvris, rb irvtvpn. Kal rb vhwp, koI rb afy*a,
tians, and was probably founded on a perversion koI ot rpels eir rb tV ftcriv. 1 And it is the
of St. Paul's doctrine of justification by faith. Spirit which beareth witness, ttecause the Spirit
Allusion has already been made to the supposed is truth. For there are three which bear witness,
senile and incoherent character of the epistle. the Spirit, and the Water, and the Blood, and
Lucke, who in his Commentary has given a these three agree in one.' Hence arose the li
copious analysis of its contents, rejects this sup- terary controversy respecting the genuineness of
jKwition. Its grace and cordiality, adds this able the clause, which has continued with more or
and discriminating writer, its depth and simpli less of asperity to our own times. Erasmus was
city ; in spite of this simplicity, so much freshness ; attacked by Stunica, one of i lie editors of the
in spite of obscurity in particulars, so great per Complutensian Polyglott, of which the New
spicuity in the whole ; in spite of apparent dis Testament in Greek and Latin had been printed
order and abruptness, so much of internal order in 1714 (and consequently before the ap(>earance
and connection; in spite of explicitnws in the of Erasmus's edition), although not published until
prevailing ideas, sc much of slight allusions aud 1522. Erasmus replied to Stunica by observing
touches on truths that have been expressed; and that he had faithfully followed the Greek manu
then, above all, this elevated and pure light and scripts from which he had edited his text ; but pro
love-image of Christianityall this has, from fessed Ins readiness to insert the clause in another
the earliest ages, had such an enchanting effect edition, provided but a single Greek manuscript
on all nobler minds, as to make this epistle a was found to contain it. Such a manuscript was
favourite book, especially with those who more found in England ; upon whicli Erasmus, although
particularly take up Christianity as a religion entertaining strong suspicious respecting this ma
of love, a religion of the heartwho seek no nuscript, yet, faithful to his word, inserted the
light without warmth, no faith and no know clause in his third edition, which was published
ledge without love and deed, and who endeavour in 1522, as follows : Kal rb avcqftta icri rb
to render the communion with the Redeemer pLOprvpovV) 3t( rb Trvcvfid iortv tj a\i)detaw fni
effective in the love of their brother. See Augus rpu$ tlfftu ot fxaprvpovvrts iv rtp ovpavtp^ irar^p,
tine, Tractat. x. in Ep. Jofiannis ad ParOtos. \6yos, Kal wtvpta ftyior, ko.1 ovroi oi rpets M ciVt*
Luther's Zwiefaehe Ausleg. ed. Walch. vol. ix. Kal rpus tUr\p ot fxaprvpovvrfs 4v rij yfj, irveCjua,
Bullinger, In EpUt. Joan, cum brevi et catholica Kal v&up, Kal alua, Kal ol rpus us rb Hv tlatv. Ei
Exposit. EuUcopius, Lectt. Sacr. Winston's ri)v p.aprvpiavy k. t. A.. * And it is the Spirit which
Commentary on the A Cath. Epist. of St. John. beareth witness, because the Spirit is truth. For
Morius, Preetect. Exigct. Lange, Die Schriften there are three which bear witness in heaven,
des John. Lucke Commentar, and Biblical Father, Word, aud Holy Spirit, and these three
Cabinet (ut supra.) are one ; and there are three which bear witness
in earth. Spirit, aud Water, aud Blood, ami these
There has been no subject connected with three agree in one.'
Biblical literature which has attracted more at Indeed, the absence of the article from the six
tention than this epistle, in consequence of the nouns in the disputed passage in this pretended
controversies which have existed since the com manuscript is of itself sufficient to excite sus
mencement of the sixteenth century, resecting picions of, if not completely to overthrow, its
the once contested but now rejected passage in genuineness. What has became of the manu
1 John v. 7, 8. Of its literary history we shall script is not known ; but it is generally believed
oere present our readers with a brief sketch. to have been the same with that now possessed by
In all the first printed Bibles, which were those the library of Trinity College, Dublin, called the
138 JOHN, EPISTLES OF. JOHN, EPISTLES OF.
Codex Montfortianus, or Dublinensis, in which bear witnessyrom earth, the Spirit, and the Water,
the disputed clause thus apj)ears :Kal rb irvtv^d and the Blood. If we receive, &c.' The Lath
iart rb fxaprvpovv, ort 6 Xptar6s iartv aA^daa. Vulgate, which is annexed, also omils the final
"On rptis tiatv oi /xaprvpovvrts iv r(p ovpaytp, ira- clause of the 8th verse in this copy.
r^jp, \6yos, koI trvcvfia ftyiov, Kal ovrot oi rptis The above is the amount of Greek manuscript
%v wV< Kal rptis uaiv oi uaprvpovvrts iv rr} yjj, authority for this celebrated clause ; for although
vvtvpta* uSojp, Kal aljua. Ei rrjv, k.t. A. 1 And it all the libraries in existence have been examinedj
is the Spirit that beareth witness, because Christ is no other copy has been found which contains a
truth. Fur there are three which bear witness in vestige of it.* Nor has it been once cited by a
heaven, Father, Word, and Holy Spirit, and these single Greek fatlier, although abundant opportu
three are one; and there are three which bear wit nities presented themselves for introducing it,
ness in earth, Spirit, Water, and Blood. If we which they could not have failed to avail them
receive, &c.' (without the Jinal clause.) The selves of, had it existed in their copies ; but they
Dublin manuscript thus differs from the text of have invariably cited the passage as it has been
Erasmus's third edition in its remarkable omis preserved in all the ancient manuscripts. It
sion of the final clause, as well as in its omission found its way, however, into the received text
of teal before vtitap, while it differs still more from of the Greek Testament, having been copied from
the text of the supposed Codex Hritannicus, as Erasmus's third, fourth, and fifth editions (1522,
described by Erasmus himself, when he observes 1527, and 1535), with more or less of variation,
'Amwt. p. 69", ed. 4):' Veruutamen, ne quid into all Stephens's editions, from the third or folio
dissimulem, repertus est apud Anglos Grsecus edition of which it was adopted by Beza in all
codex unus, in quo habetur quod in Vulgatis bis editions, the first of which was published in
deest; scriptum est enim in hunc modum;1 1565, and again by Elzevir, in his edition of
Srt rpus tiatv oi fjtaprvpovvrts iv r<p ovpavip, 1624, to which his anonymous editor gave the
varfyp, \6yoSy kuI irvfD/ia, Kal ovrot oi rptis tv name of Textus undique receptus. The follow
ttatV ical rptis tlaiv uaprvpovvrts iv rij yjj, ing is the form which it finally assumed in these
wev^ia, v$a>p, Kal aT/ia t is* r^jv uaprvpiav ruv editious :*Ori rptis ttatv ol uaprvpovvrts iv
kvopdoiroov, k.t. X. * And that I may not dis rip oiipavif, 6 irar^jp, 6 \6yos, koI rb &ytov irvtvua'
semble, there has been discovered one manuscript Kal ovrot oi rptis tv ttat' 8. Kal rptis tiatv oi juap-
in England, in which the clause is found which rvpovvrts iv rjj yrj, rb xvcOiia, koI to u5ajp, Kal rb
is wanting in the vulgar text of the Greek manu alua' Kal oi rptis th rb tv tiatv. * For there
scripts ; for it is thus written: "For there are are three which bear witness in heaven, the
three which bear witness in heaven, Father, Word, Fatlier, the Word, and the Holy Spirit, and these
and Spirit, and these three are one; and there three are one ; and there are three which bear
are three bearing witness on earth, Spirit, Water, witness in earth, the Spirit, and the Water, and
and Blood, into * the testimony of men," 1 &c. ; the Blood, and the three agree in one.'
while on another occasion he observes that 1 the The earliest Greek form in which the disputed
British MS. had ovrot oi rptis (these three), white clause is found is contained in the Latin transla
the Spanish edition had only koI oi rptis (and the tion of the Acts of the Council of Lateran, held
three), which was also the case in the Spirit, in 1215, viz. :"On rptis tiatv oi fiaprvpovvrts
Water, and Blood; that the British had tv itat tv uvpavcf, 6 Trar^}py \6yosy koI wvtvfxa &ytov' Kal
(are one), the Spanish elf rb tv ttatv (agree in r ovrot oi rptis tv tiatv, Ka0>s oi rpoart&rKTt
one), and finally that the Britisli added to the * * * * KaS&s iv rial K^n^tv tvptaKtrax.
earthly witnesses koI of rptis th rb tv ttat (and 1 For there are three which bear witness in heaven,
tlie three agree in one), which was not here the Father, Word, and Holy Spirit, and these
added in the Spanish edition.' The Dublin three are one ; and it is immediately added
manuscript is generally ascribed to the fifteenth * * * * as it is found in some copies.* The
or sixteenth century, and cannot possibly be omitted passages, represented by the asterisks, are
older than the thirteenth, inasmuch as it con thus supplied in the original :Statimque sub-
tains the Latin chapters, which belong to this jungitur, Et tres sunt qui testimonium dant hi
century. It is also the only Greek manuscript terra, spiritus, aqua, et sanguis ; et tres unum sunt ;
which follows the Vulgate in reading Xptar6s for sicut in codicihus quibusdam invenitur. * And it
7TC(Mua in the 6th, and &/xtv for iajitv in the 20th is immediately added, and there are three which
verse of this chapter. It reads, however, 6t6s, l>ear witness in earth, the Spirit, the Water, and
where the Vulgate reads quod (1 Tim. iii. 16); the Blood ; and these three are one, as is found
which shows that it is not a servile imitation of in some copies;* meaning that the final clause.
that version, as some have supposed. The clause et hi tres unum sunt (and these three are onej,
has Iteen also found, although in a form still more is found in some copies of the Latin Vulgate.
corrupt, in a manuscript in the Vatican (Cod. The first Greek writer who absolutely cites any
Ottobon. 298), of the fifteenth century, first col part of it is Manuel Calecas, a Dominican monk
lated by Dr. Scholz, of Bonn, as follows : On of the fourteenth century, who has the words
rptis tiatv oi fiaprvpovvrts arrb rov ovpavov, warty, rptis tiatv oi p.aprvpoiivrtst 6 iraTTjp, 6 \Syos, koI
\6yos, Kal Trvevfia &ytov, Kal oi rptis th rb tv tlatf rb wtvua rb aytov. i There are three which bear
Kal rptis uo'iv ot uaprvpovvrts airb ttjs yyjs7 rb witness, the Father, the Word, and the Holy
irvfvua., koI rb vb'wp, Kal rb al/xa. El r)]v paprvplav,
k.t. A. 1 For there are three which bear witness * There are above one hundred and eighty
from heaven, Father, Word, and Holy Spirit, and Greek manuscripts of this Epistle, known to exist
the three agree in one ; and there are three which in various libraries, written between the fifth and
fifteenth centuries, not one of which contains a
* This is probably a misprint. vestige of the disputed clause.
JOHN, EPISTLES OF. JOHN, EPISTLES OF. 189
Spirit;' and in the next century it is thus cited African writers of the fifth centuryVigiliuS,
by Joseph Bryennius, a Greek monk :Kal rb Bishop of Thapsus (the supposed author of the
irvfufid. iari uaprvpouv, Urt 6 Xpttrr 6 s i&riv j] Athanasian Creed), and Victor Vitensis, the his
audita. Zfri rptls fidW ot uaprvpovvrcs 4v rtp torian ofthe Vandal persecutionit has been fairly
ovpavtp, 6 Ttarfyp, 6 \6yos, koI rb irvtvua rb Hyiov presumed that it existed in their time in some of
Kal ouroi ot rptts <tv tlfft. koX rpus tlatv ol uap- the African copies of the old Latin version, from
rvpovvrts iy rfj yr}, rb TctC^a, rb S8wp, al rb whence, or from the citations of these writers, it
alua. * And it is the Spirit which beareth witness, may have found its way into the later manuscripts
because Christ is truth. For there are three which of the Vulgate. It is thus cited by Victor, at
bear witness in heaven, the Father, the Word, contained in the Confession of Faith drawn up
and the Holy Spirit, and these three are one; by Eugenius, Bishop of Carthage :Tres sunt qui
and there are three which bear witness on earth, testimonium perhibent in C02I0, Pater, Verltum,
the Spirit, the Water, and the Blood.* et Spiritus Sanctus, et hi tres unum sunt. ' There
It will have been observed that these writers all are three which furnish testimony in heaven, the
Father, the Word, and the Holy Spirit, and these
omit the final clause of the 8th verse, contrary to three are one.' Vigilius, however, cites it in so
the authority of all the Greek manuscripts, and
in this they were followed by the Complutensian many various ways, that little reliance can be
editors, whose form of the verse we have not before placed on his authority ; he transposes the clauses
thus:'Johannes Evangel ista ad Parthos: tres
noticed, as it does not appear whether they had any sunt qui testimonium perhihent in terra, aqua,
manuscript authority whatever for the clause, sanguis, et caro, et tres in nobis sunt, et tres sunt
which, however, they inserted in their splendid qui testimonium perhibent in ccelo, Pater, Verbum,
Polyglott edition, begun in 1502, finished in et Spiritus, et hi tres unum sunt ' (John the Evan
1517, but not published, until 152*2, wherein it gelist to the Parthians : There are three which
ap]>car>i in the following form :Kal rb Trvcvjxd furnish testimony in earth,
lari rb uaprvpovv, Hri rb x v v u d i<mv tj aAij- and the Flesh, and the threetheareWater, the Blood,
6eta. ort rpus tlatv ol fiaprvpovyrts, iv rtp ovpavc?, are three which offer testimonyininus heaven,; and there
the
6 Trarijp, real u Koyos, Kal rb aywv irvevaa' Kal ol Father, the Word, and the Spirit, and these three
rpfls fts rb tv fiat. Kaj rpits tlatv ol fiaprv- are one). Contra Varimadum. And again, ' Tres
povvrcs ^iri rrjs yys, rb irvtvua, koI rb vSuip, ko! Bunt qui testimonium dicunt in ccelo, Pater, et
rb cii'.aa. El rfyv fiaprvpiay, k. r. X. 1 And it is the Verbum, et Spiritus, et in Christo Jesu unum
Spirit which beareth witness, because the Spirit sunf (There are three which speak testimony in
is truth. For there are three which bear witness heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Spirit, and
in heaven, the Father, and the Word, and the the three are one in Christ Jesus). After this it is
Holy Spirit, and the three agree in one (as in cited by St. Fulgentius, Bishop of Rusopa, in the
Cod. Ottob.) ; and there are three which bear begiuning of the sixth century, but omitted in the
witness on earth, the Spirit, and the Water, and same century by Facundus, Bishop of Hermione,
the Blood. If we receive, &c/ These editors from which it is at least evident that the copies in
have thus also omitted the final clause of the 8th that age and country varied. But, at a much
verse, as well in the Greek as in their edition of earlier period, the whole clause is thus cited by
the Latin Vulgate. For this latter omission they St. Augustine of Hippo :Tres sunt testes, Spi
had the authority of several modem manuscripts rittis, aqua, et sanguis, et tres unum sunt. 1 There
of the Vulgate, and of the Council of Lateran, to are three witnesses, the Spirit, and the Water,
which they add in a note that of Thomas Aqui
nas, who liad charged the Arians with having and the Blood, and these three are one.' Ter-
tnllian and Cyprian have been supirosed, indeed,
forged this final clause, which had been inter to have referred to the clause, but the proof of
preted by the Abbot Joachim to have implied a this depends on the proof of the previous fact,
unity of love and consent only, and not of essence. whether the clause existed or not in their copies.
This final clause of the 8th verse, however, exists The citation of Cyprian, * Qui tres unum sunt'
in all manuscripts of the Vulgate written before (which three are one), and of Tertullian, 'et hi
the thirteenth century, and in the printed editions tres unum sunt ' (and these three are one), belong
published by authority of the Roman See since the equally to the eighth as well as the seventh verse;
Council of Trent, which have hi tres unum sunt. and there is nothing surprising in these fathers
The clause of the three heavenly witnesses is mystically applying the spirit, the water, and the
also absent from all existing manuscripts of the blood, to signify the three persons of the Trinity,
Latin Vulgate, written between the eighth and as was evidently done by Augustine at a later
tenth centuries, anterior to which date there is no period {Cont. Maximin. iii. 22; and by Euche-
manuscript of this version now in existence, con rius, in the 5th century).
taining the Catholic Epistles. Nor has any writer It lias been maintained that, although no an
of the western church cited the passage before cient Greek manuscripts now extant contain the
Casstodorus at the close of the sixth century, clause, it must have existed in some of those
although even the fact of his having done so is which were used by the original editors, especially
louhted by Porson (ut infra). There is, indeed, Robert Stephens. In his beautiful folio edition
a preface to the canonical Epistles, bearing the (1650) Stephens cites seven Greek manuscripts in
name of St. Jerome, in which the omission of this the Catholic Epistles, of which he had three from
clause is ascribed to * false translators ;' but this, the King's library. When any words are
as we shall hereafter see, is a forgery. The clause omitted in any of his manuscripts he places in
is also wanting in alt the manuscripts of the his text an obelus before the first word, and a
Syriac, Armenian, and other ancient versions. small semicircle or crotchet after the last. In the
From the circumstance, however, of the clause passage in question the obelus is placed before
!n question having been cited by two north-west iv Ttjj ovpavy, and the crotchet immediately after
140 JOHN, EPISTLES OF. JOHN, EPISTLES OF.
these words] from which it has l>een inferred that of the (wo verses so as to make the earthly witnesses
these words only, and not the whole passage, were precede the heavenly, according to the citation
absent from his seven MSS. Subsequent in (supra) of Vigilius of Thapsus. (See Christian
quiries, however, undertaken hy Lucas Brugensis, Remembrancer, vol. iv. p. 43, note.)
Father Simon, and the late Bishop Marsh, seem The tkird and moit im]X)rtant stage of the
to leave no doubt that the crotchet was inserted in controversy may be said to commence with (tie
the wrong place; for not one of the manuscripts note of Gibbon, above referred to, and which was
now in the King's library contains the passage; attacked by Archdeacon Travis in three letters,
and one of Stephens'* manuscripts, now in the 1784-1786. This publication gave rise to the
university of Cambridge, is equally without it. most celebrated work which had yet appeared on
Archdeacon Travis, indeed, denies the identity the subject, Professor Pursuit's Letters (1788):
of tins manuscript ; hut Bishop Marsh (Letters to * an eternal monument of his uncommon erudition,
Travis) shows that the probability of their iden sagacity, and tact ' (Horet Biblicet). Mr. Butler
tity is as two nonill'ions to a unity. Bishop concludes his enumeration with the Observations
Marsh's Letters to Travis have been in other of Dr. Adam Clarke on the text of the heavenly
resjtects truly designated as ' a mass of recondite witnesses (1805).
and useful biblical erudition.' We have men Our space will not allow us to enter into detail
tioned this circumstance in order that the reader in regard to the principal publications which have
may fully understand the assertion of Mr. Gibbon, appeared on the subject since this period. We
which we shall presently refer to: * The three shall only refer to a few of the principal. Gries-
witnesses have been established in our Greek bach's Diatribe, at the close of the second volume
Testament, by the prudence of Erasmus, the of his celebrated critical edition of the Greek Tes
honest bigotry of the Complutensian editors, the tament (1806), contains a complete and masterly
typographical fraud or error of Robert Stephens, in view of the evidence on both sides; but as this
the placing of a crotchet, or the deliberate fraud eminent critic had completely rejected the passage
or strange misapprehension of Theodore Beza.' from the text, he met with an indefatigable adver
The following are some of the principal literary sary in this country in the late Bishop Burgess.
controversies to which this famous clause has See his Vindication (1821 \ and Introduction
given rise, of which a more complete account will (1833). The writings of this prelate drew down
be found in Mr. Charles Butler's Horec Biblicce, many learned replies, but his most able and suc
The earliest was the dispute between Erasmus cessful OBpOMnt was Dr. Turton, Regius Professor
and Lee, afterwards Archbishop of York, and be at Cambridge, and now Dean of Westminster
tween Erasmus and Stunica, one of the Complu (see especially Dean Turton's Vindication of the
tensian editors. Erasmus was the first to suspect Literary Character of Professor Porson from
the genuineness of the preface to the Canonical the Animadversions of the Right Rev. Thomas
Epistles above referred to, which ascribes the Burgess, V,D.f Sfc, published under the name of
omission of the clause to false translators or Crito-Cantabrigiensis, 1827). A temperate vindi
transcribers. The genuineness of this preface, cation of the genuineness of the (tassage had been
which led Sir Isaac Newton to charge St. Jerome published by the late Bishop Middletou (1808),
with being tle fabricator of the disputed clause in his work on the Greek article, which was also
(whereas it is certain that that learned Father replied to by Dr. Turton (ut supra). The Memoir
was totally unacquainted with its existence) of of the Controversy respectiixg the Heavenly Wit
the text, is now given up. It is considered in nesses (1830), by the Rev. \V. Ormc, contains
the Benedictine edition of Jerome's works to be interesting critical notices of the principal writers
a forgery of the 9th century (Burigni, Vie d'E- on both sides of this much agitated question.
rasme, Paris, 1757, i. 372-381; ii. 1G3-175; In the year 1834, Dr. Wiseman renewed the
Crit. Sac. vii. 1229). controversy in favour of the clause, in Two Letters
It was afterwards attacked by Saudius the in the Catfiolic Magazine, vol. ii. and iii., reprinted
Arian (Nucleus Hist. Ecclesiast. Cosmopoli 1669 ; at Rome, 1835. Dr. Wiseman's principal argu
and Interpret, Paradox, in Jo/tan.). It was de ments are founded on the citations iu African
fended by Selden (De Synedricis Ebraor.) and writers. He supjmses that there were two ancient
ably attacked by the Roman Catholic Father recensions of the Vulgate, the Italian, frum which,
Simon (Hist. Critique du Texte, 1680, &c. &c). as well as from the Greek MSS., the clause had been
It was defended again by Martin (pastor of the Re lost at an early period, and the African. He sup
formed church in Utrecht, 1717), who was replied poses that this recension contained the clause uhich
to by Thomas Kmlyn, the celebrated and much existed in the Greek MSS. from which it was made,
persecuted English Presbyterian (A full Inquiry, and that these were of greater antiquity than any
&c. 1715-1720), and by Caesar de Missy, French we can now inspect. He further maintains, after
preacher in the Savoy. There are other able Eichhorn, that, as the Greek language was suffi
treatises on the same side by Dr. Benson, Sir Isaac ciently known in Italy to preclude the necessity
Newton, and the learned printer Mr. Bowyer ; of an early translation of the Latin in that
and in its favour by Smith (1(190), Kettner, country, Africa was most probably the birth
Calamy (1722), as well as by BoMuet (16)t place of the primary Latin translation, and that
and by Calmet (1720) iu France, and Semler consequently the African recension of this version
in Germany (1751). In Germany it was also is far sujierior in authority to the Italian. He
attacked by Schmidt (Hist. Antigua, 1771), and therefore draws the inference that 1 the existence
Michael is, in his Introduction ; but found an able of an African recension containing the verse gives
defender in the excellent Bengel (Gnomon, 1773), us a right to consider as quotations passages of
who conceived that the passage contained a divine African writers (such as those of Cyprian and
internal evidence, but at the same time maintained Tertullian) which in the works of Italian authors
that its genuineness depended on the transposition might be considered doubtful.' As, however,
JOHN, EPISTLES OF. JOKTHKEL. 141
Augustine's acknowledged writings all evince his conclusion is a strong one. 'Either these words
ignorance of the existence of this passage, Dr. are genuine, and the Epistle, in this ease, a pro
Wiseman supposes that Augustine ordinarily duction of the third or fourth century, or the
made use of the Italian recension, which did not Epistle is a genuine work of St. John's, and then
contain it. However he adduces the authority these words spurious.'
of a manuscript of the Speculum of Augustine The latest attempt to vindicate the genuineness
preserved at Rome, in the monastery of the Holy of the passage is that of M. Gaussen of Geneva, in
Cross of Jerusalem, to prove that Augustine occa his T/ieopneustia (1839). But his reasonings are
sionally used the African recension, and that he founded on a payable errorthe interpolation of
has cited the identical passage as follows: the words 4v rjj yjj (in the earth) hi the eighth
Item Johannis in .'Kp^h-h Item illic Tres verse, which he absolutely cites upon the authority
sunt qui testimonium dicunt in crelo, Pater, of Grieshach's text, where they do not exist!
Verbum et Spiritus Sanctus, et hi tres u.ium The corresponding words in terra are, indeed,
sunt (cap. ii. i'ol. 19, De Distinct. Personarum). found in the present text of some MSS. of the
Or. Wiseman supposes tin's manuscript, which is Vulgate, and of some ancient writers, although
mentioned by Blanctuni, to have been written in wanting in the seventh verse.
the seventh century. It has not, however, been Luther uniformly rejected this clause from all
proved to be a genuine work of Augustine. (See his translations. It is absent from his hist edi
VVii gilt's Appendix to his Translation of Sellers tion (1540;, published after his death, and was
Ilerm-eneutics, which contains some account of first inserted in the Frankfort edition of 1574, but
the state of the controversy respecting this clause again omitted in 1583, and in subsequent edi
to the year 1^35; also Home's Introduction, Sth tions. Since the beginning of the seventeenth cen
edition, vol. ii. pt. ii.p. 185, vol. iv. p. 448-471). tury, with the except ton of the Wittemberg edition
The most remarkable circumstance connected of 16*07, its insertion has been general. This
with the literary history of the clause, since this was, however, in opposition to Luther's injunction.
period, properly belongs to the history of editions It is inserted in all the early English printed
of the New Testament, The clause appears in the versions, commencing with Coverdale's in 1536,
principal printed editions of the New Testament but is generally printed either in brackets or in
before the time of Grieshach. These were the smaller letters. It was, however, printed in the
editions of Mill (1707), Bengel (1734), and editions of 153G, 1552, and in the Geneva Bible
Wetstein (1751);" tlie two former of whom held (1557), without any marks of doubt. It found
it to he genuine. Since the time of Grieshach it its way perhaps from Beza's Greek Testament
h is (..'en generally omitted in all critical editions, into the then authorized English version. The fol
and esjiecially in that of the learned Roman lowing is probably the oldest form extant, in
Catholic Professor Scholz, of Bonn (1836), who, which they appear in the English language, in a
though following a different system of recensions translation from the Vulgate earlier than the time
from that of Grieshach, has altogether rejected the of Wicliff:' For three ben that geven witness
passage from the text as decidedly spurious, and ing in heven, the Fadir, the Word or Sone, and
as opposed to the authority of all authentic Greek the Holy Glioost, and these three ben oon; and
MSS., of all ancient MSS., of the Latin Vulgate, three ben that geven witnessing in erthe, the
and of the Greek, Latin, and Oriental Fathers. Spirit, Water, and Blood, and these three ben
The venerable Bishop Burgess replied to Scholz oon' [Scriptures, Holt].\V. W.
three weeks before bis death, in 1^36. JOHN, EPISTLES, II. and 111. [Antilk-
Var;oiis have l>een the opinions respecting the oomena, see John].
internal evidence for and against the genuineness JOHN MARK. [Mark.]
of the passage. The advocates of the clause JOHN HYRCANUS. [Maccabees.]
have generally maintained that the context re
quires it.s insertion, while its adversaries maintain JOIADA (JTVV, contraction of Jkhoiada,
that the whole force of the argument, is destroyed which see), a high-priest of the Jews, successor to
by it. Lucke, one of the ablest modern com Eliashib, or Joashib, who lived under Nehemiah,
mentators on St. John's writings, maintains that about u.c. 431 (Neh. xiii. 28).
internal evidence alone would l>e sufficient to JOKSHAN (l^pj, fowler; Sept. 'ItfdV), se
reject the ]>assae, inasmuch (besides other rea cond son of Abraham and Kefurah, whose sons
sons) as St. John never uses 6 ircrrrfp and 6 \6yos Sheba and Dedan appear to have been the
as correlates, but ordinarily, like St. Paul, and ancestors of the Sabamns and Dedanites, who
every other writer of the New Testament, asso peopled a part of Arabia Felix (Gen. xxv. 2, 3)
ciates 6 vios with 6 tear-ftp (ii. 22, 23; iv. 14; [Arabia].
v. 9, 11, 20, Ac), and always refers the \6yos
in Christ to 6 6e6s, and not to 6 irarfyj. lie JOKTAN (flpPJ, small; Sept. 'IcktoV), one
unites with those critics who look upon the re of tiie soii3 of Eber, a descendant fiom Sbem
jected passage as an allegorical gloss, which found (Gen. x. 25, 26), and the supposed progenitor of
its way into the Latin text, where it has, 'ever mam tribes in Southern Arabia. The Arabians
8'iire the fourth century, firmly maintained its call him Kahtan, and recognise him as one of
place as a welcome and protective passage,' &c. the principal founders of their nation. See
He adds, however, that exegetical conscience will, Schultens, Hist. Imperii Joctandin. in Arabia
in our age, forbid the most orthodox to apply tlii3 Felice; Pocock, Spec. Hist. Arab. pp. 3, 38;
passage, even if it were genuine, for such a pur Bochart's Phaleg. iii. 15 [Arabia].
pose, as *y rival has quite a different sense from
that which is required by the doctrine of the JOKTHEEL (^WR, God-subdued; Sept.
Trinity. Here Lucke fully coincides with the *Ie0o^\). 1. A name given by King Azariah to the
late Bishop Middleton (Greek Article)* Liicke's city Sela, or Petra, the capital of Arabia Petrsea,
142 JONADAB. JONAH.
when he took it from the Kdomites (2 Kings by a novel process of criticism, amused himself
xiv. 7) [PktraJ. 2. There was also a city of with a fancied discovery of it in chaps, xv. and xvi.
this name in the tribe of Judah (Josh, xv. 38). of Isaiah. Hitzig, Dca Propk. Jon. Orakcl. ueber
JONADAB contraction of XjJirp, Moab Kritisch'vindicrit, $c, Heidelberg, 1 831.
God-impelled; Se]>t. 'faroScEjS). 1. A nephew The l*ook of Jonah contains an account of the
of David, a crafty person, whose counsel suggested prophet's OOsbUMCWM to denounce Nineveh, and
to his cousin Amnuii the means by which he of uis refusal to undertake the emliassyof the
accomplished his abominable design upon his method he employed to escape the uiiwelcome
half-sister Tamar (2 Sam. xiii. 4, 5). task [Tahshisu], and the miraculous means
2. A son or descendant of Rechab, the pro which God used to curb his self-willed spirit, and
genitor of those nomadic Rechahites, who licld subdue his petulant and querulous disposition.
tliemselves bound by a vow to abstain from The third and fourth chapters briefly detail
wine, and never to relinquish the nomadic life. Jonah's fulfilment of the divine command, and
The principle on which the tril>e acted may be present us with another exemplification of his
considered elsewhere [Hkcuauites!. Jouadab refractory temper. His attempt to flee from the
was at the head of this tribe at the time when presence of the Lord must have sprung from a
Jehu received his commission to exterminate the I>artial insanity, produced by the excitement of
house of Ah&b, and is sup[K>sed to have added to distracting motives in an irascible and melan
its ancient austerities the inhibition of wine. choly heart. The temerity and folly of the fugi
He was held in great respect among the Israelites tive could scarcely be credited, if they had not
generally: and Jehu, alive to die importance of been equalled by future outbreaks of a similar
obtaining the countenance and sanction of such a peevish and morbid infatuation. The miud of
man to his proceedings, took him up in his Jonah was dark and moody, not unlike a lake
chariot, when on his road to Samaria to complete which mirrors in the waters the gloomy thunder
the work he had begun at Jezrecl. The terms of clouds which overshadow it, and Hash over it*
the colloquy which took place on this occasion sullen waves a momeulary gleam.
are rather remarkable. Perceiving Jonadab, he The history of Jonah is certainly striking and
saluted him, and called out, ' Is thine heart right, extraordinary. Its characteristic prodigy does not
as my heart is witli thy heart ?' Jonadab answered, resemble the other miraculous phenomena re
* It is.' Then said Jehu, * If it Ix:, give me thine corded in Scripture; yet we must believe in its
hand.' And he gave him his hand, and was taken literal occurrence, as the Bible affords no indi
up into the chariot, Jehu inviting him to 'Come cation of being a mythus, allegory, or parable.
and see my zeal for the Lord' (2 Kings x. 15-17 ; On the other hand, our Saviour's pointed and
Jer. xxxv. 6-10). It would seem that the Rechah peculiar allusion to it is a presumption of its
ites were a branch of the Kenites, over another reality (Matt. xii. 40). The opinion of the earlier
branch of whom Heber was chief ill the time of Jews (Tobit xiv. 4 ; Joseph. Antiq. ix. 10. 2) is also
Deborah and Barak (Judg. iv. 11, 17): and as it in favour of the literality of the adventure. It i -
is expressly said that Jonadab went out to meet quires less faith to credit this simple excerpt from
Jehu, it seems probable that the people of Samaria, Jonah's biography, than to l>elieve the numerous
alarmed at the menacing letter which they had hypotheses that have been invented to deprive it
receiv ed from Jehu, had induced Jonadab to go of its su{>ernatural character, the great majority
to meet and appease him on the road. His vene of them !>eiiig clumsy and far-fetched, doing vio
rated character, his rank as the head of a tribe, lence to the language, and despite to the spirit of
and his neutral position, well qualified him fur revelation ; distinguished, too, by tedious adjust
this mission ; and it was quite as much the in ments, laborious combinations, historical conjec
terest of Jonadab to conciliate the new dynasty, ture, and critical jugglery. In vindication of the
in whose founder lie beheld the minister of the reality of this striking narrative, it may l>e argued
divine decrees as it was that of Jehu to obtain that t he allusions of Christ to OldTestument events
his concurrence and support in proceedings which on similar occasions are to actual occurrences
he could not but know weie likely to render him (John iii. 14; vi. 48); that the purpose which
odious to the people. God had in view justified his miraculous interpo
sition ; that this miracle must have had a salutary
JONAH (H3 V ; Sept. the fifth in order ellect botli on the minds of the Ninevites and on
of the minor prophets. No era is assigned to him the people of Israel. Neither is the character of
in the book of his prophecy, yet there is little doubt Jonah improbable. Many reasons might induce
of liia t>eing the same person who is spoken of in him to avoid the discharge of his prophetic duty
2 Kings xlv. 25. The Jewish doctors, with their fear of l>eing thought a false prophet, scorn of a
usual puerility, have supposed him to be the son of foreign and hostile race, desire for their utter de
the widow of Sarcpta : * Now by this I know,' said struction, a false dignity which might reckon it
she to Elijah, ' that thou art a man of God, and l>eneath his prerogative to officiate among uncir-
that the word of the Lord in thy mouth is truth' cumcised idolaters | Verschtur, Opusc. p. 73, &c ;
HDX (1 Kings xvii 24). The restored child was Alber, Institut. Heimen. Vet. Test. iii. 399,
thenceforward named *riDN~|2, a title which was 407 ; Jahn, Introduction to the Old Testament,
to preserve the memory of his miraculous resus translated by S. Turner, pp. 372, 373, trans
citation (Hieron. Prmfat, in Jonam). His birth- lator's notes ; Hudleus, Hist. Eccles. V. T. ii. 569,
place was Gath-hepher, in the trilie of Zehulon. sqq. ; Laherenz, Ve Vera. lib. Jontt Jnterp.
Jonah flourished in or before the reign of Jero Fuldo, 183(i). Some, who cannot altogether rrject
boam II., and predicted the successful conquests, the reality of the narrative, suppose it to have had
enlarged territory, and brief prosjtfrity of the a historical basis, though its present form lie fan
Israelitish kingdom under that monarch's sway. ciful or mythical. Such an opinion is the evident
The oracle itself is not extant, though Hitzig has, result of a mental struggle between receiving it as
JONAH. JONAH. 143
ft real transaction or regarding it as wholly a fic writer is the Jewish colony in its relation to tho
tion (Goldhom, Excurs. z. B. Jon. p. 28 ; Fried- Samaritans (Des B. Jon, Krit. untcrsucht, p. 65).
rischsen, Krit. Ucberblick der Ausichten B. Jon. Maurer (Comment, in Proph. Min.) adheres to
p. 219). Grimm, in his Uebcrsetz, p. 61, regards the opinion which lies (spoil the surface, that it
it as a dream produced in that sleep which fell inculcates the sin of not obeying God, even in pro
upon Jonah as he lay on the sides of the ship. nouncing severe threatenings on a heathen people;
The opinion of the famous Herman von der Hordt, and lastly, Koester (Die Propheten des A. und
in nis Jonas in luce, &c. a full abstract of which N. Test, Leipz. 1839) favours the malignant in
is given by Rosenmiiller (Prolegom. in Jonam. sinuation that its chief end was to save the credit
p. 19), was that the book is a 'historical allegory, of the prophets among the people, though their
descriptive of the fate of Manasseh, and Josiah his predictions against foreign nations might not be
grandson, kings of Judah. The fancy of this fulfilled, as Nineveh was preserved after being
eccentric author has found ample gratification. menaced and doomed.
Tarshish, according to him, represents the kingdom These hypotheses are all vague and baseless,
of Lydia ; the ship, the Jewish republic, whose and do not merit a special refutation. Endea
captain was Zadok the high-priest ; while the cost vouring to free us from one difficulty they plunge
ing of Jonah into the sea symbolized the temjwrary us into others yet more intricate and perplexing.
captivity of Manasseh in Babylon. We cannot Much profane wit has l>een expended on the mira
say, with Koscnm tiller, that this theory deserves culous means of Jonah's deliverance, very unne
even the praise of ingenious fiction. cessarily and very absurdly; it is simply said,
Others regard this book as an allegory, such as 'The Lord had prejmred a great fish to swallow
liertholdt and Rosenmuller, Gesenius, and Winer up Jonah.' Now the species of marine animal is
an allegory based upon the Phoenician Mythus not defined, and the Greek tcrrros is often used to
of Hercules and the Sea-monster. Less, in his specify, not the genus whale, but any large fish
tract, Von Uistorischen Styl der Urttelt, sup- or sea-monster. AU objections to its being a
]>osed that all difficulty might be removed by whale which lodged Jonah in its stomach from
imagining that Jonah, when thrown into the sea, its straitness of throat, or rareness of haunt in the
was taken up by a ship having a large fish for a Mediterranean, are thus removed. Hesychius
figure-heada theory somewhat more pleasing explains icrrros as daXdo-cios IxObs ftqsyn'//t|J.
than the rancid hypothesis of Anton, who fancied Eustathius explains its correspondent adjective
that the prophet took refuge in the interior of a KTjTwHTOav by fxryd\ijv, in the Homeric line
dead whale, floating near the spot where lie was (Iliad, ii. 581}
cast overboard (Rosen. Prolegom. in Jon. p. 328). oi 8* flxov KoiXy\v AaKfSaifioya KTrrataaay.
Not unlike the opinion of Less is that of Charles Diodorus Siculus speaks of terrestrial monsters as
Taylor, in his Fragments affixed toCalmet's Dic ktjtu'Sv {wo, and describes a huge fish as tajros
tionary, No. cxlv., that 3T signifies a life-pre Utticttov rb ptyfQos. The Scripture thus speaks
server, a notion which, as his manner is, he endea only ofan enormous fish, which under God's direc
vours to support by mythological metamorphoses tion swallowed the prophet, and does not point out
founded on the form and names of the famous the species to which the voracious prowler be
fish-god of Philistia. De Wette regards the story longed. There is little ground for the supposition
as not a true history, yet not a mere fiction ; its of Bishop Jebb, that the asylum of Jonah was not
materials being derived from popular legends, and in the stomach of a whale, but in a cavity of its
wrought up with the design of making a didactic throat, which, according to naturalists, is a very
work. But many regard it as a mere fiction capacious receptacle, sufficiently large, as Captain
with a moral designthe grotesque coinage of a Scores!ty asserts, to contain a merchant ship's
Hebrew imagination. This opiuion, variously jolly-boat full of men (Bishop Jebb. Sawed Lite-
modified, seems to be that of Sender, Michaelis, rature, p. 178). Since the days of Bocbai t it has
Herder, Stiiudlin, Eichhorn, Augusti, Meyer, been a common opinion that the fish was of the
Pareau, and Maurer. shark species, Lamia cartis carcharias, or * sea-
The plain, literal imjiort of the narrative, being dog' (Bochart, Op. iii. 72; Calmet's Dissertation
set aside with misapplied ingenuity, the supposed sur Jon.). Entire human bodies have been found
design of it has been very variously interpreted. in some fishes of this kind. The stomach, too, has
Michael is (Ubersetz d. JV. T. part xi. p. 101) and no influence on any living substance admitted
Semler (Apparat. ad Lib. Vet. Test. Interpret. into it. Granting all these facts as proof of what
p. 271) supposed the purpose of the narrative to is termed the economy of miracles, still must we
Ire the injustice of that arrogance and hatred say, in reference to the supernatural preservation
cherished by the Jews towards other nations. of Jonah, Is anything too hard for the Lord?
Eichhorn (Einleit. 577), and Jalin (Introduct. Though we cannot accede to the system ofGale,
6 127) think the design was to teach the Jews Huet, Bryant, Faber, and Taylor, in tracing all
that other people with less privileges excelled them pagan fiction, legend, and mythology to scripture
in pious obedience. Kegel (Bebel d. A. und facts and events, yet we are inclined to believe
N. Test. vol. vii. p. 129, sqq.) argues that this that in the miraculous incident of the book of
episode was meant to solace and excite the pro Jonah is to be found the origin of the various fables
phets under the discharge of difficult ami danger of Avion and the Dolphin (Herodot. i. 24), and
ous duties; while Paul us (Memorability vi. 32, the wild adventure of Hercules which is referred
sqq.) maintains that the object of the author of to in Lycophron (Cassandra, v. 33) :
Jonah is to impress the fact that God remits pu Tpttffirtpov \4ovros trort yvdOots
nishment on repentance and reformation. Similar Tplrwvos ^/ioAcnf/e icdpxapos kvwv.
is the idea of Kimchi and Pareau (Interpretation
of Old Testament, Biblical Cabinet, No. xxv. Oft that three-sighted lion whom of old
p. 263). Krahmer thinks that the theme of the Triton's fierce dog with furious jaws devour*!.
144 JONAH. JONATHAN.
Cyrillus Alex., in his Comment, in Jon.., notices by national intercourse Aramaic peculiarities
this similitude between the incident of Jonah and might be insensibly borrowed. Gesenius and
the fabled enterprise of the sun of Alcmena. Bertholdt place it before the exile; Jahn and
Compare, too, Theojjhylact (Opp. torn. iv. p. Koester after it. Rosenmuller supposes the author
169). On what portion of the coast Jonah was may have been a contemporary of Jeremiah ;
set down in safety we arc not informed. The Hitxig postpones it to the period of the Maccabees.
opinions held as to the peculiar sjiot by Habbins Apocryphal prophecies ascribed to Jonah may be
and other Thaumaturgie exptsiturs need not to be found in the pseudo-Epiphanius(/)e VitU Proph.
repeated. The prophet proceeded, on receiving c. 16), and the Chronic. Paschale, p. 149. Various
a second commission, to fulfil it. The fearful spots have been pointed out as the place of his
menace had the desired efl'ect. The city humbled sepulchre, such as Mosul in the East, and Gath-
itself Iwfore God, anil a respite was vouchsafed. hepher in Palestine; while the so-called Kpi-
The king (Pul, according to Usher) and his phanius speaks of his retreating to Tyre and being
people fasted, and. their penitence was accepted. buried there in the tomb of Cenezscus, judge of
The spirit of Jonah was chafed that the doom he Israel.
had uttered was not executed. He retired to a Among the numerous commentators on Jonah
station out of the city whence he might witness may be noticed J. Gerhard i, Annot. in Proph.
the threatened catastrophe. Under the shadow of Am. et Jon. &c. Frag. 1692; Lessing, Observat.
a gourd prejwired by God he reclined, while Je in Vatic. Jon. 1782 ; Grimm, Der Proph. Jiona*
hovah taught htm by the growth and Bpeedy death of. Xene L'bersetz, 1798 ; Forbigcr, Prolusio, &c.
of this plant, and his attachment to it, a sublime 1827 ; Krahmer, Das B. Jon. Hut. Krit. unter
lesson of jtatient and forgiving generosity. No aucht, Cassel, 1839.J. E.
objection against the credibility of this l<ook can
be brought from the described size and population 1. JONATHAN \\ny\\ God-given ; comp.
of the Assyrian metropolis (Pictorial Bible, sub Theodoros; Sept. 'Iwvadav), a Levitt descended
loc). The gourd. |Vp*P> was probably the from Gershom, the son of Moses Judg. xvui.
Ricimts, whine name Kiki is yet preserved in 30). It is, indeed, said, in our common copies,
some of the tongues of the East. The Sept. ren that the Gershom from whom this Jonathan
ders it KoKoKvvdj]. Jerome translates it hedcra, but sprang was ' (he son of Mauasseb;' but it is on
against his better judgment and for fear of giving very good grounds supposed that in the name
offence to (lie critics of his age, as he quietly adds Moses (nt^D), the single letter n (3) has been
in justification of his less preferable rendering, interpolated, changing it into Manasseh (HC^D),
1 sed timuimus grammaticos.' The book of Jonah in order to save the character of the great law
is a simple narrative, with rhe exception of the giver from the stain of haviug an idolater among
grayer ur thanksgiving in chap. ii. Its style his immediate descendants. The singular name
aid mode of narration are uniform. There Gershom, and the date of the transaction, go
are no traces of compilation, as Nactigall far to establish tins view. Accordingly, the Vul
supposed ; neither is the prayer, as De Wette gate, and some copies of the Sepluagint. actually
(Einleit. 237) imagines, improperly borrowed exhibit the name of Moses instead of Manasseh.
from some other sources. That prayer contains, The interpolation, however, has been very timidly
indeed, not only imagery peculiar to itself, but executed. The letter J was originally placed
also such imagery as at once was suggested to the above the line of the other letters (as it now ap-
mind of a pious Hebrew preserved in circum i*ars in the printed Hebrew Bibles), as if rather
stances of extreme jeopardy. On this principle to suggest than to make an alteration; but in
we account fttr the similarity of some portions of process of time the letter sunk down into the Ixuly
its phraseology to Ps. lix., xlii., &c. The hui- of the word. The Hebrew writers themselves
guage in both places had been hallowed by fre admit the fact of the interpolation, and allege the
quent usage, and had become the consecrated intention to veil the disgrace of Moses, bv sug
idiom of a distressed and succoured Israelite. gesting a figurative descent from Manasseh. The
Perhaps the prayer of Jonah might be uttered by history of this Jonathan is involved in the nar
him, not during his mysterious imprisonment, but rative whicli occupies Judges XVii., xviii. ; and
after it. May not H3Tn ^VDD be rendered* on is one of the two accounts which foim a sort of
account of,* a common signification of the particle appendix to that book. The events themselves
D (Gesen. Lex. sub voc.) ? or rather may nut Q appear to have occurred soon after the death of
have what Nordheimer calls its primary significa Joshua, and of the elders who outlived him, when
tion, viz., that of ' distance from a place or per* the government was in a most unsettled sfate.
son r Jonah prayed unto the Lord his God out, Its proper place, in the chronological order, would
i. c. when out, of the fish's belly (compare Job have been between the second and third chapters
xix. 26 ; xi. 15). The hymn seems to have l>een of the book.
composed after his deliverance, and the reason Jonathan, who was resident at Bethlehem, lived
why his deliverance is noted after the hymn is at a time when the dues of the sanctuary did not
recorded may be to show the occasion of its com afford a livelihood to the numerous Levitts who
position. 'The Lord bad spoken unto the fish, had a claim upon them ; and belonged to a tribe
and it had vomited Jonah on the dry land.' destitute of the landed jnwsessions which gave to
There was little reason either for dating the com all others a sufficient maintenuace. He, there
position of this book later than the age of Jonah, fore, went forth to seek his fortune. In Mount
or for apposing it the production of another than Ephraim he came to 'a house of gods,' which
the prophet himself. The Chaldajisms which had been established by one Micah, who wanted
Jahn and others find may be accounted for by the nothing but a priest to make bis establishment
nearness of the canton of Zebulon, to which complete [Micah]. This person made Jonathan
Jonah belonged, to the northern territory, whence what was manifestly considered the handsome
JOPPA. 145
offer of engaging him as Ills priest fur hts vic Valiant and accomplished himself, none knew
tuals, a yearly suit of clothes, and ten shekels better how to acknowledge valour and accom
(twenty-five shillings) a year in money. Here he plishment in others. The act of David in meeting
lived for some time, till the Dan'ite spies, who the challenge of Goliath, and in overcoming that
were sent by their tribe (o explore the north, huge barbarian, entirely won his heart; and from
passed this way aud formed his acquaintance. that day forward the son of Jesse found no one
When, not long after, the body of armed Danites who loved him so tenderly, who admired his high
passed the same way when going to settle near the gifts with so much enthusiasm, or who risked so
sources of the Jordan, the spies mentioned Micah's much to preserve him from harm, as the very
establishment to them ; on which they went and prince whom he was destined to exclude from a
took away not- only 'the epbod, the teraphim, throne. Jonathan knew well what was to happen,
and the graven image,' hut the priest also, that and he submitted cheerfully to the appointment
they might set up the same worship in the place which gave the throne of his father to the young
of which they were going to take possession. shepherd of Bethlehem. In the intensity of his love
Mii-aii vainly protested against this robbery ; but and confidence he shrank not to think of David at
Jonathan himself was glad at the improvement in his destined king and master ; and Itis dreams of
his prospects, and from that time, even down to the future pictured nothing brighter than the day
the captivity, he and his descendants continued in which David should reign over Israel, and he
to be priests of the Danites in the town of Laish, be one with him in friendship, and next to him in
the name of which they changed to Dan. place and councilnot because he was covetous
There is not any reason to supjHt&e that this even of this degree of honour, but because 4 next
establishment, whether in the hands of Mlcah or of to David 1 was the place where he wished always
the Danites, involved an apostacy from Jehovah. to be, and where he desired to rest.
It appears rather to have iwen an attempt to When Saul began to hate David as his in
localize or domesticate His presence, under those tended successor, he was highly displeased at the
symbols and forms of service which were common friendship which had arisen between him and
among the neighbouring nations, but were for his sou. This exposed Jonathan to much con
bidden to the Hebrews. The offence here was tumely, and even to danger of life; for, once at
two-fold,the establishment of a sacred ritual least, the kings passion against him on this
different from the only one which the law recog- account rose so high that he cast a javelin at
.lUed, and the worship by symbols, naturally him ' to smite him to the wall/
leading to idolatry, with the ministration of one This unequivocal act taught Jonathan that the
who could not legally be a priest, but only a court of Saul was no safe place for David. He
Levite, and under circumstances in which no told him so. and they parted with many tears.
Aaronic priest could legally have officiated. It David then set forth upon those wanderings
is more than likely that this establishment was among strangers and in solitary places, which
eventually merged in that of the golden calf, lasted all the time of Saul. The friends met only
which Jeroboam set up in this place, his choice of once more. Saul was in pursuit of David when
which may very possibly have been determined by lie wa* in the wilderness of Ziph j and Jonathan
its leing already in jxtssession of * a house of gods.' could not foiltear coming to him stcretly in the
2. JONATHAN, eldest son of Saul, king of wood to give him comfort and encouragement
Israel, and consequently heir apparent of the (1 Sam. xxiii. 16 18) Nothing more is related
throne which David was destined to occupy (1 of Jonathan till In ah he and Ids father lost their
Sam. xiv. 9; 1 Chron. viii. 33; ix. 39). The lives in the fatal battle of Gilboa, combating
war with the Philistines, which occupied the early against, the enemies of their country.
part of his father's reign, afforded Jonathan more There is, perhaps, nothing in Hebrew poetry
than one opportunity of displaying the chivalrous more beautiful and touching than the lamentation
valour and the princely qualities with winch he of David for the loss of his friendnothing more
was endowed. His exploit in surprising the Phi complete as a whole, or more full of fine images
listine garrison at Michmash, attended only by and tender thoughts. The concluding strophe
his armour-bearer, is one of the most daring may he quoted by way of specimen :
which history or even romance records (1 Sam. ' O Jonathan, slain on thy own mountains !
xiv. 1-14). His father came to follow up this I am distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan:
victory, and in the ensuing pursuit of the con Very dear hast thou been to me:
founded Philistines, Jonathan, spent with fatigue Thy love to me was wonderful,
and hunger, refreshed himself with some wild Surpassing the love of women
honey which he found in a wood through which How ate the mighty fallen,
he passed. He knew not that his father had And the weapons of war perished V
rashly vowed to put to death any one who
touched a morsel of food liefore night. When JOPPA (*I#W*s in Hebrew Japho, tej ;
the fact transpired, Saul felt himself bound to which name is still preserved in the Arabic
execute his vow even upon his gallant son; but Yaffa, or Jaffa), a sea-port town and haven on
the people, with whom the young prince was a the coast of Palestine, situated on an eminence,
great favourite, interposed, saying, 'Shall Jonathau in a sandy soil, about forty miles N.W. of Jeru
die, who hath wrought this great salvation in salem, and nine miles W.N.W. from Kamleh.
Israel ? God forbid ! As the Lord liveth, there It was a very ancient town. An existence prior
shall not one hair of his head fall to the ground; to the Deluge is claimed for it (Pomp. Mela, i.
for he hath wrought with God this day1 (1 Sam. 14; Plin. Hist. Nat. v. 13). Rabbinical writers
xiv. 16-52). derive its name from Japhet, while the Classical
Jealousy and every mean or low feeling were geographers refer it to lope, daughter of Otitis,
strangers to the generous heart of Jonathan. and affirm that it was on this shore that Andro-
VOL. II. L
JOPPA. JOPPA.
mecU wa3 rescued by Perseus from the sea- not again appear in Jewish history till the time of
monster (Strabo, xvi. *2, 28; Plin. Hist Nat. Judas Maccal>fpus, when the inhabitants having,
V. 14; Jerome, In Jon. i.). These ami other contrary to 1 he faith of treaties, thrown 200 Jews
fables connected with the place, suffice to show into the sea, tiie hero, to avenge them, surprised
the great antiquity of the town. But this the haven by night, and set the shipping on lire
evidence is not needed, as the place existed when (2 Mace. xii. 3-7). The town itself was a fe\t
the Israelites invaded the land of Canaan, and is years after taken by Jonathan (1 Mace. x. 74-70) ;
mentioned as lying on the border of the tribe of but was not long retained, as we find it again
Dan (Josh. xix. 40). Joppa was the only port taken by Simon (xii. 31), and mentioned as
possessed by the Israelites till Herod formed the an acquisition of especial importance, which he
harbour at Csesarca ; and hence it was hen; strongly fortified (xiv. ft; xv. 2*). Joppa was
that the timber from Lebanon destined for both annexed by Pomjwy to the Roman government
the first and second temples was landed ( I K i i - of Syria, together with several other towns on the
V. 9; 2 Cbron. ii. 16; Ezra iii. 7). It was the coast of which the Jews had obtained possession
place to which Jonah went, in expectation of (Joseph. Antiq. xiv. 4. 4). It is mentioned in
rinding a ship bound on some distant voyage, and the New Testament only in connection with the
where he found one going to Tarshish (Jonah i. visit of the Apostle Peter, who here raised Tabitha
3). Joppa belonged to the powers which were from the dead, and lodged in the outskirts of
successively dominant on this shore; and it does the town with Simon, the tanner, when favoured
[Joppa.]
with the vision which taught him to ' call no the crusades Joppa was besieged and taken by
man common or unclean ' (Acts ix. 36-39 ; x. 5, Baldwin I. ; and was recovered by the Moslems
18; xi. 5). During the Jewish war Joppa was under Salad in in a.d. 11S6. From the first cru
taken by surprise by Ccstius, when it w;is plun sade down to our own day, Joppa has been (lie
dered and burnt, and 8-100 of the inhabitants landing-place of pilgrims going to Jerusalem, ami
were put to the sword (Joseph. De Bell. Jud. ii. is hence mentioned in almost all the innumerable
18. 10). Its ruins afterward* became the refuge itineraries and Iwoks of travels in the Huly Laud
of a great number of ]>ersons wtio had esca|)ed which have appeurel in diuVrent languages.
from the destruction of other cities by Vesria- There is still litre an hospital for pilgrims, depen-
si.in. and who took to piracy for a subsistence. dent on the convent of St. Salvador in Jerusalem,
Hence the Romans again marched against the and occupied by Spanish monks. In 1797 the
place, when the inhabitants fled to their boats, place was taken by storm by the French army
but were driven back by a storm and destroyed. under Napoleon, and was sacked without mercy ;
The city was then utterly demolished ( De Bell. when the Turkish prisoners, to the number of 500
Jud. iii. 9). Joppa was the seat of a bishopric or 600, were carried to the neighbouring sand-hilis
in the time of Constantine the Great, as well as and put to death by his order.
when taken by the Arabians under Omar in a.u. Jiisephus describes the natural unfitness of
636. There was a bishop of Joppa in the Jafl'a for a haven in terms very similar to those
council held at Jerusalem in a.d. 536. During, which modem travellers employ (Dt Bell, Jtssf
JORAM. JORAM. 147
iii. 9. 3). The fact is, the port is so dangerous, with the wool.' The short reign of Ahaziah had
from exposure to the open sea, that the surf often afforded no opportunity fur any operations against
rolls in with the utmost violence, and even so the revolters; but the new king hastened to re
lately as 1842 a lieutenant and some sailors were duce them again under the yoke they had cast
lost in pulling to the shore from an English off. The good king of Jndah, Jehoshaphat, was
steamer that lay in the harbour (Stent's Egypt too easily induced to take a p-ut in the war.
and the Holy Land, ii. 28). But however bad, He perhaps feared that the example of Moab,
it was the only port which existed within reach of if allowed to be successful, might seduce into a
the important district which lay behind it inland : similar course his own tributary, the king of
and the miserable state of the ancient roads, or Kdom, whom he now summoned to join in this
rather perhaps the absence of any roads, made a expedition. The deliverance of the allies from
near harbour, however incommodious, of more perishing for lack of water, and the signal over
immediate consequence than a good one at a throw of the Moabites at the word of Klisha, have
greater distance. been already described under Klisha and Jeho
The town is approached on the land side shaphat.
through rich and extensive gardens and orchards, After this a more redoubtable enemy, Benha-
and is very picturesquely situated upon an emi dad, king of Syria, occupied for a long time the
nence or ptomontury, which is crowned by a castle. attention and strength of the king. In the sacred
It chielly facts the north ; and the buildings ap records the more striking events of this war seem
pear, from the steepness of the site, as if standing to be recorded for the sake of showing forth the
upon one anotlier. The most prominent features great acts of Klisha, and they have therefore
of the architecture from without are the flattened been related under Ins name. It suffices here to
domes by which most of the buildings are sur indicate that they consisted in the Syrian king
mounted, and the ap;>earance of arched vaults. being constrained to terminate one camjnign in
Cut the aspect of the whole is mean and gloomy, consequence of all his plans being made known
and inside the place lias ail the appearance of a by the prophet to the king of Israel (2 Kings vi.
>our though large village. There are no public 1-23^); and in the deliverance of Samaria, ac
)uildings to engage the eye, and the houses are cording to the prediction of the prophet, from a
mean and comfortless. No ancient ruins have horrible famine, caused by the city being besieged
been observed, nor are any to be expected in a by the Syrians (2 Kings vi. 24-33 ; vii.). An
place so often destroyed in war. From the steep interval of the war also afforded occasion for the
ness of the site many of the streets are connected remarkable cure of Naaman, the Syrian leper,
by llights of steps, and the one tltat runs along by the same prophet (2 Kings v.) [NaamanJ.
the sea-wall is the most clean and regular of the These events serve to manifest the uncertain
whole. There are three mosques in Joppa, and character of Joram, and the too strong influence
Latin. Greek, and Armenian convents. The of instant circumstances upon his faith and con
former is that in which Kurnpean pilgrims and duct. Su in his conduct to Klisha. we find him
travellers usually lodge. The town still enjoys a at one time obedient to the prophet, and full of
considerable trade with the neighbouring coasts. resnectful admiration of his office and character ;
Its chief manufacture is soap, which is largely and at another time devoting his head to destruc
consumed in the baths of Cairo and Damascus; tion, sending messengers to put him to death, and
and its excellent fruits are exported in large then starting himself after themprobably to
quantities, especially water-melons, which are prevent his own orders from being executed
very extensively cultivated here and in other (2 Kings vii. 31-33).
parts of the plain of Sharon. The inhabitants After the death of Benhadad, Joram found a
are said not to exceed 4000, of whom one-fourth new and active enemy in bis murderer and suc
are reckoned to be Christians. A British consul cessor. Hazael. During the illness of Benhadad,
is now resident in the place. (Raumer's Palas- the king of Israel seems to have employed him
tina; Volney, i. 136, sq. ; Chateaubriand, ii. 103 ; self in strengthening his eastern frontier against the
Clarke, iv. 438, gq. Buckingham, i. 227, sq. ; Syrians, and iu fortifying Ramoth-Gilead, which
Richter, p. 12; Richardson, ii. 16; Skinner, i. had fallen into his hands, and which his father
175-184; Robinson, i. 18; Stent, ii. 27). had perished in the attempt to recover from the
Syrians. This strong fortress thenceforth became
JORAM (D"}1* ; Sept. *tmfdfs, n contraction of the head-quarters of the operations beyond the
Jrhoram), ninth king of Israel, sou of Ahah, river. Hazael was scarcely settled on the throne
and successor to Ins elder brother Ahaziah, who before he took arms, and marched against Ramoth,
died childless. He began to reign B.C. 896, and in the environs of which the Israelites sustaiued a
reigned twelve years (2 Kings i. 17; iii. 1). defeat, and the king was wounded. He returned
Joram adhered to the sinful policy of Jeroboam to Jezreel to be healed of his wounds, leaving the
in the matter of the golden calves; but, although army in the charge of Jehu, one of his ablest and
his mother Jezebel was still alive, he discontinued most active generals. It was in this interval that
the dark idolatries of Baal which she had intro Jehu was anointed king of Israel by the messenger
duced and maintained at such high cost of guilt of Klisha, and immediately proceeded to Jezreel
and blood to the nation. to fulfil his commission to exterminate the house
The Moabites had been tributary to the crown of Ahab. The king, who went forth from the city
of Israel since the separation of the two king to meet him when the watchman on the tower of
doms. But king Mesha deemed the defeat and Jezreel announced his approach, was slain under
death of Ahab bo heavy a blow to the power of the circumstances described in the article Jehu ;
Israel that he might safely assert his indepen and Ahaziah. the king of Judah, who was at Jet-
dence. He accordingly did so, by withholding reel on a visit to his sick cousin, shared Ins fate
his tribute of* 100,000 lambs and 100,000 rams, (b.c. 864). With Joram ended the dynasty o/
148 JORDAN. JOSEPH.
Ahab, which reigned fortv- four vears in Israel mined to punish their father for his partiality
(2 Kings viii. 25-29 ; ix. 1-20). towards the unoffending sufferer. With this view
JORDAN, the principal river of Palestine. they dipped Joseph's party-coloured garment in
[Palestine.] the blood of a kid and sent it to Jacob, in order
to make him believe that his favourite child bad
JOSEPH ; Sept. 'I*^), son of Jacob been torn to pieces by some wild beast. The
aud Rachel, bom under peculiar circumstances, trick succeeded, and Jacob was grieved beyond
as may be seen in Gen. xxx. 22; on which ac measure.
count, and because he was the sun of his old age Meanwhile the merchants add Joseph to Poti-
(xxxvii. 3), he was beloved by his father more phar, an officer of Pharaoh's, and captain of tlie
than were the rest of his children, though Ben royal guard, who was a native of the country.
jamin, as l>eing also a son ofJacob's favourite wife, It is by no means easy to determine who at this
Rachel, was in a peculiar manner dear to the time was the Pharaoh, or ruling monarch, though,
patriarch. The partiality evinced towards Joseph what is far more important, tlie condition of tlie
by his father excited jealousy on tiie part of his country, and therein the progress of civilization,
brethren, the rather that they were born of different are in certain general and important features
mothers (xxxvii. 21. Joseph had reached his made clear in the course of tlie narration. Ac
seventeenth year, having hitherto been engaged in cording to Syncellus, however, the general opinion
boyish sports, or aiding in pastoral duties, when in his day was that the sovereign's name who
some conduct un the part of ' the sons of liilhah ruled Egypt at the time of the deportation of
and the sons of Ellput, his father's wives, seems Joseph was Aphophis.
to have been such as in the opinion of Joseph to In Potiphars house Joseph enjoyed the highest
require the special attention of Jacob, to whom, confidence and the largest prosperity. A higher
accordingly, he communicated the facts. This power watched over him ; and whatever he under
regard to virtue, and this manifestation of filial took succeeded, till at length his master gave
fidelity, greatly increased his brothers1 dislike, every thing into his hand*. The Hebrew race
who henceforth ' hated him, and could not speak have always been remarkable for personal lieauty,
jteaceably unto him * (xxxvii. 4). Their aver of which Joseph seems tu have bad an unusual
sion, however, was carried to the highest pitch share. This fact explains, if it cannot palliate,
when Joseph acquainted them with two dreams the conduct of Potiphar's wife, who tried every
that he had had, to the effect the first, that while means to bring the uncontaminated and pure-
he and they were binding sheaves, his sheaf arose minded youtli to fulfil her unchaste desires. Foiled
and stood erect, while theirs stood round and did in her evil wishes, she resolved to punish Joseph,
obeisance to his ; the second, that 'the sun and who thus a second time innocently brings on him
the moon and the eleven stars paid him homage/ self the vengeance of the ill-disposed. Charged
These dreams appeared to indicate that Joseph with tlie very crime to which he had in vain been
would acquire pre-eminence in rhe family, if not tempted, he is, with a fickleness characteristic of
sovereignty ; and while even his father rebuked Oriental lords, at once cast into the state jirison.
him, his brothers were filled with envy- Jacob, The narrative, which is obviously constructed
however, was nut aware of the depth of their ill in order to show the workings of divine Providence,
will; so that on one occasion, having a desire to and may not impossibly have received some shaj*
hear intelligence of bis sons, who were pasturing or hue from the predominant idea, states, however,
their Hocks at a distance, he did not hesitate to that Joseph was not left without special aid, in
make Joseph his messenger for thai purpose. His consequence of which he gained favour with tlie
appearing in view of his brothers was the signal keeper of tlie prison to such an extent that every
for their malice to gain iir.nl. They began to tiling was put under his direction. If the sudden
devise means for his immediate destruction, which ness and magnitude of this and other changes in
they would unhesitatingly have effected, but for the lot of Joseph should surprise anyone, the feel
his half-brother, Reuben, who, as the eldest son. ing will be mainly owing to his want of acquaint
might well be the parry to interfere on behalf of ance with the manners aud customs of the East,
Joseph. A compromise was entered into, in where vicissitudes not less uiaiked and sudden
virtue of which tlie youth was stiipped of the than are those presented in our present history are
distinguishing vestments which he owed to his not uncommon; for those who come into tlie
father's affection, aud cast into a pit. Having charmed circle of an Eastern court, especially if
performed this evil deed, and while they were they are person* of great energy of character, are
taking refreshment, the brothers beheld a caravan subject to the most wonderful alternations ot for
of Arabian merchants, who were hearing the spices tune, the slave of to-day being the vizier of to
and aromatic gums of India down to the well- morrow.
known aud much-frequented mart, Egypt. Judah Among tlie many advantages secured to ]>os-
on this feels a bitter emotion arise in his mind, terity by this interesting and admirable narrative
and proposes that, instead of allowing Joseph to regarding the patriarch Joseph, is an intimate ac
perish, they should sell him to the merchants, quaintance (so far as il goes) with the state, at the
whose trade obviously from this embraced human time to which it refers, of civilization in Egypt.
beings as well as spicery. Accordingly the un In the part at which we are now arrived we read
happy young man was sold for a slave, to be con of * the chief of tlie butlers ' and * the chief of the
veyed by his masters into Egypt. While on his bakers;' officers who vouch, by the duties which
way thither, Reuben returned to the pit, intending they had to discharge, for the advanced and com
to rescue his brother, and convey him safely hack plex condition of society in which their services
to their father. Joseph was gone. On which were required and supplied. How true and trust
Reuben went to the wicked young men, who, not worthy, too, the Biblical narrative is, may be
content with jelling a brother into slavery, deter- learned by an implication which is here offered.
JOSEPH. JOSEPH.
The tiead-butler hod a dream in which he saw a before Joseph, whose licence for the purchase of corn
rine. On the authority of Herodotus and others, was indispensable. Joseph had probably expected
it was long denied that the vine grew in Egypt ; to see them, and he seems to have formed a deli
and if so, the imagery of the butler's dream would berate plan of action. His conduct has brought
hardly have been appropriate. \Vilkinson,however, on him the always ready charges of those who
has shown beyond a question that vines did grow would rather impeach than study the Bible, and
in Egypt, and thus not only removed a doubt, even friends of that sacred book have hardly in
but given a positive confirmation of the sacred this case done Joseph full justice (Niemeyer,
record (Manners of the Anc. Egypt, ii. 152). Charakt. ii. 366 ; Heuser, Diss, non inhumaniter
The two regal officers just mentioned had, while sed prudeiitissime Josephum cum fratribtts fe~
in prison with Joseph, each oue a dream, which cis3cy Hal. 1773). Joseph's main object appears
Joseph interpreted correctly. The butler, whose to have been to make his brothers feel and recog
f.ite was auspicious, promised the young Hebrew nise their guilt in their conduct towards him. For
to employ his influence to procure his restoration this purpose sufTcring, then as well as now, was
to the free air of day ; but when again in the indispensable. Accordingly Joseph feigned not to
enjoyment of his 1 butlership,* * he forgat* Jo know his brothers, charged them with being spies,
seph Cxi.). Pharaoh himself, however, had two threatened them with imprisonment, and allowed
dreams, which found in Joseph a successful ex them to return home to fetch their younger bro
pounder; for the butler remembered the skill of ther, as a proof of their veracity, only on condition
his prison-companion, and advised his royal mas that one of them should remain behind in chains,
ter to put it to the test in his own case. Pharaoh's with a prospect of death before him should not
dream, as interpreted by Joseph, foreboded the their words be verified. Then it was, and not be
approach of a seven years' famine ; to abate the fore, that * they said one to another, We are verily
evils of which Joseph recommended that some guilty concerning our brother, in that we saw the
' discreet and wise * man should be chosen and anguish of his soul and would not hear; therefore
set in full power over the land of Egypt. The is this distress come upon us. And Reuben said,
monarch was alarmed, and called a council of Spake I not unto you, saying, Do not sin against
his advisers. The wisdom of Joseph was recog the child, aud ye would not hear? therefore, be
nised as of divine origin and supereminent value; hold, also his blood is required ' (xlii. 21). On
and the king and his ministers (whence it appears which, after weeping bitterly, he by common
that the Egyptian monarchy at Memphiswas agreement bound his brother Simeon, and left him
not despotic, hut constitutional) resolved that in custody. How deeply concerned Joseph was
Joseph should be made (to borrow a term from for his family, how true and affectionate a heart
Rome) Dictator in the approaching time of need. he had, may be learned from the words which
* And Pharaoh said unto Joseph, Forasmuch as escai* from the brotheis in their entreaty that
God hath shewed thee all this, there is none so Jacob would allow Benjamin to go into Egypt,
discreet and wise as thou art. Thou shalt be over as required by Joseph : * The man asked us
my house, and according unto thy word shall all straitly of our state and of our kindred, saying.
my people be ruled : only in the throne will I be Is your father yet alive? have ye another brother?*
greater than thou. See, I have set thee over all (xliii. 7). At length Jacob consents to Benjamin's
the land of Egypt. And Pharaoh took off his going in company with his brothers : * And God
ring and put it ujwn Joseph's hand, and arrayed Almighty give you mercy before the man, that he
him in vestures of fine linen, and put a gold chain may send away your other brother, and Benjamin.
about his neck ; and he made hiin to ride in the If I be bereaved of my children, I am bereaved *
second chariot which he had ; and they cried be (ver. 14). Thus provided, with a present consist
fore him, Bow the knee. And Piiaraoh said unto ing n!' balm, honey, spices and myrrh, nuts and
Joseph, I am Pharaoh, ami without thee shall no almonds, and with double money in their hands
man lift up his hand or foot in all the laud of (double, in order that they might repay the sum
Egypt And Pharaoh called Joseph's name which Joseph had caused to be put into each
Zaphnath-paaneah ('saviour of the woi Id"; comp. man's sack at their departure, if, as Jacob sup
Jablousky, Opttsc. i. 207, sq.) ; and he gave him posed, * it was au oversight *), they went again
to wife Asenath, the daughter of Poti-pherah, down to Egypt and stood before Joseph (xliii.
priest of On. And Joseph went out over all the 15) ; aud there, too, stood Benjamin, Joseph's
land of Egypt' vxli. 39, sq.). It has been sup beloved brother. The required pledge of truth
posed lhat Joseph was taken into the priestly order, fulness was given. If it is asked why such a
and thus ennobled. The Biblical narrative does pledge was demanded, since the giving of it
not support this opinion, though it leaves it with caused pain to Jacob, the answer may lie thus :
out a doubt that in reality, if not in form as well, Joseph knew not how to demean himself towards
the highest trust and the proudest honours of the his family until he ascertained its actual condition.
state were conferred on one so recently a Hebrew That knowledge he could liardly be certain he
stave. had gained from the mere words of men who had
Seven years of abundance afforded Joseph op sjmred his life only to sell himself into slavery.
portunity to carry into efl'ect such plans as secured How had these wicked men behaved towards his
an ample provision against the seven years of need. venerable father? His beloved brother Benjamin,
The famine came, but it found a prepared people. was he safe? or had he suffered from their jealousy
The visitation did not dejjend on any mere local arid malice the worse fate with which he himself
causes, for * the famine was over all the face of had been threatened ? Nothing but the sight of
the earth ;' * and all countries came into Egypt to Benjamin could answer these questions, and re
Joseph to buy com ' (ver. 56, 57). Among these solve these doubts.
customers appeared ten brethren, sons of the Benjamin had come, and immediately a na
Hebrew Jacob. They had of necessity to appear tural change took place in Joseph's conduct : the
160 JOSEPH. JOSEPH.
brother began to claim his rights in Joseph's vessel. They on their part vehemently repel the
bosom, Jacob was safe, and Benjamin wan safe. accusation, adding, * with whomsoever of thy ser
Joseph's heart melted at the sight of Benjamin : vants it be found, both let him die, and we also
* And he said to the ruler of his hnu*e. Bring these will lie my lord's bondmen.' A search is made,
men home, and slay and make ready, for these men and the cup is found in Benjamin s sack. Accord
shall dine *ith me at noon' (xliii. 16). But guilt ingly they return to the city. And now comes
is always the ready jiarcut of fear. Accordingly the hour of trial : Would they purchase their own
the brothers expected nothing hut being reduced liberation by surrendering Benjamin? After a
to slavery. When taken to their own brother's most touching interview, in which they prove
house, they imagined they were being entrapped. themselves worthy and faithful, Joseph declares
A colloquy ensued ltdween them and Joseph's himself unable any longer to withstand the appeal
steward, whence it appeared tliat the money put of natural affection. On this occasion Judah,
into their sacks, to which they now attributed their who is the spokesman, shows the deepest record
peril, was in truth a present from Joseph, designed, to his aged father's feelings, and entreats for the
after his own brotherly manner, to anl his family liberation of Benjamin even at the price of his
in their actual necessities. Hie steward said, own lil>erty. In the whole of literature we know
* Peace be to yon, fear not : your God and the God of nothing more simple, natural, true, and im
of your father hath given you the treasure in yeur pressive ; nor, while passages of this kind stand
sucks. I had your money' (ver. 23). in the Pentateuch, can we even understand what
Noon came, ami with it Joseph, whose first is meant by terming tliat collection of writings
question regarded Itome : ' He asked them of their * the Hebrew national epic,' or regarding it as an
welfare, and said, Is your father well, the old man aggregation of historical legends. If here we have
ofwhom ye spake? is he yet alive? And he lifted not history, we can in no case he sure that history
up his eyes and saw In- brother Benjamin, his is before us (xliv.).
mother s son, and said, Is this your younger bro Most natural and impressive is the scene also
ther? And Ite said, God be gracious unto thee, which ensues, in which Joseph, after informing
my son !* 1 And Joseph made haste, for his his brethren who he was, and inquiring, lirst of
bowels did yearn upon his brother, and he sought all, * Is my father alive?' expresses feelings free
where to weep, and he entered into Ids chamber from the slightest taint of revenge, and even shows
and wept there.* Does this look like harshness ? how, under Divine Providence, the conduct of his
The connection brings into view an Egyptian brothers had issued in pood'God sent roe before
custom, which n at more than ordinary import you to preserve a posterity in the earth, and to
ance, in consequence of its l>eing adopted in the save your lives by a great deliverance/ Five
Jewish polity ; 1 And they set on (food) for him years hud yet to ensue in which 1 there would
by himself (Joseph), and for them by themselves be neither earing nor harvest;' and therefore the
(the brethren), and for the Egyptians which did brethren were directed to retssrn home and bcUsK
eat witli them, by themselves : because the Egyp Jacob down to Kirypt with all speed. * And he
tians might not eat bread with the Hebrews; for fell UpOB his brother Benjamin's neck and wept;
tiutt is an abomination with the Kgyptiaus' (ver. and Benjamin wept upon his neck. Moreover,
32). This passage is also interesting, as proving lte kissed all his brethren and wept upon them ;
that Joseph had not, in his princely grandeur, and after that his brethren talked with him '
become ashamed of his origin, nor consented to (xlv. H, 15).
receive adoption into a strange nation : lie was The news of these striking events was carried to
still a Hebrew, waiting, like Moses after him, for Pharaoh, who being pleased at Joseph's conduct,
the proper season to use his power fur the good of gave directions that Jacob and his family should
his own people. come forthwith into Egypt*I will give yon the
Other customs appear in this interesting nar good of the land of Egypt, and ye shall eat the
rative : * And they (tiie brothers) sat before him fat of the land ; regard not your stuff, for the
(Joseph), thefirst-born according to his birthright, good of all the land is yours.* The brethren de
and the youngest according to his youth.* ' And parted, being well provided for* And to his
he sent messes (delicacies) unto them from l>efore father Joseph sent ten asses laden with the gutnl
him ; but Benjamin's i was five times ho much things of Egypt, and ten she asses laden with
as any of theirs ' (ver. 32, 33). Fear had now corn and bread and meat for his father by the
given place to wonder, and wonder at length issued way.*
in joy and mirth (camp. ver. IS, 33, 34V Thus The intelligence which they bore to their
ended the second act in the drama. Another now father was of such a nature tliat ' Jacob's heait
opens. fainted, for he believed them not* When, how
Joseph, apparently with a view to ascertain how ever, he had recovered from the thus nuturalh
far his brethren were faithful to their father, hit told effects of his surprise, the venerable patriarch
upon a plan which would in its issue serve to said, 'Enough; Joseph my son is yet alive:
show whether they would make any, and what, I will go and see him before I die* (xlv. 2C, 28).
sacrifice, in order to fulfil their solemn promise Accordingly Jacob and his family, to the num
of restoring Benjamin in safety to Jacob. Ac ber of threescore and ten souls, go down to Kgypt,
cordingly he orders not only that every man's and by the express efl'orts of Joseph, are allowed
money (as before) should be put in his suck's to settle in the district of Goshen, where Joseph
mouth, but also that his 'silver cup, in which my met his father: ' And he fell on his neck, and
lord drinketh, and whereby he divincth,' should wept on his neck a good while.* There Joseph
be put in the sat k's mouth of the youngest. The 'nourished his father and his brethren, and all
brethren leave, but are soon overtaken by Joseph's Ins father's household, with bread, according to
steward, who charges them with having surrepti their families ' (xlvii. 12).
tious]^ carried oil' this costly and highly-valued Meanwhile the predicted famine was pauper
JOSEPH. JOSEPH. 151
iting Egypt The inhabitants found their money (1. 23). And so having obtained a promise from
exhausted, and their cattle and substance all gone, his brethren, that when the time came, as he
being parted with in order to purchase food from assured them it would come, mat God should
the public granaries, until at length they had visit them, and * bring them unto the land which
nothing to give in return fur sustenance but them he swaie to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob,'
selves. * Uuy us 1they then imploringly said they would cany up his bones out of Egypt,
to Joseph* and our land for bread, and we and Joseph at length 'died, and they embalmed him,
our land will be slaves unto Pharaoh.' ; And and he was put in a coffin1 (1. 26). This pro
Joseph bought all the land of Egypt for Pharaoh, mise was religiously fulfilled. His descendants,
so the land became Pharaoh's.' The people too, after carrying the corpse about with them in their
* Joseph removed to cities from one end of the wanderings, at length put it in its final resting-
borders of the land to the other end.' Religion, place in Shechem, in a parcel of ground that
however, was too strong to submit to these politi Jacob bought of the sons of Humor, which became
cal and social changes, and so the priests still the inheritance of the children of Joseph (Josh,
retained their land, being supplied with provi xxiv. 32).
sions out of the common store gratuitously. The By his Egyptian wife Asenath, daughter of the
land, which was previously the people's own, was high priest of Heliopolis, Joseph had two sons,
now let to them on a tenancy, at the rent of one- Manasseh and Ephraim (Gen. xli. 50, sq. whom
fifth of the produce : the land of the priests being Jacob adopted (Gen. xlviii. 5), and who accord
exempted. ingly took their place among the heads of the
This is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, twelve trilies of Israel. Among other authorities
social revolution recorded in histury. Under the the following may be consulted: Wolfenb.
pressure of famine an entire nation is reduced Fragment ; Less, Geschichte der Rcl. i. 267 ;
from freedom to dependence ; while the popula J. T. Jacobi, Siimmtl. thrift. 3 thl. ; Hess,
tion, which liad been apparently limited to certain Gesch. der Patriarch, ii. 324 ; Niemeyer,
districts, was distributed all over the land on Charakt. ii. 340; Allg. H'clthhL ii. 322;
diflerent spots. Heereu, Ideen, ii. 551.J. R. Ii.
At this distant period it may not be easy to JOSEPH, * the husband of Mary, of whom
understand and explain the entire conduct ob was bom Jesus, who is called Christ' (Matt. i.
served by Joseph in this crisis of the nation's fate ; 16). By Matthew he is said to have been the
but we must protest against the application to it son of Jacob, whose lineage is traced by the same
of measures of judgment which aie derived from writer through David up to Abraham. Luke re
modern notions, ami the pure and lofty morality presents him as being the son of Heli, and trace*
of the Gosiwl. If a great change was suddenly his origin up to Adam. This is not the place to
effected in the social condition of the jjeople, we attempt to reccmcile these two accounts, as it
are not hastily to conclude that the change was would lead to discussion and detail, for which we
for the worse, especially considering that a very have not space; but it may be mentioned that
long and grievous famine had afflicted so fertile Luke appears to have had some specific object
a land as Egypt under the previously existing in view, since be introduces his genealogical line
social condition. And if an opportunity was with words of peculiar import :' Jesus being (as
taken to increase the royal power over the nation, was supfxised) the son of Joseph, which was the
it cannot be denied that the nation was saved son of Heli ' (Luke iii. 23)ets iyofil(*roy * as
from impending destruction by the foresight, wis was supposed,' in other terms, as accounted by
dom, and benevolence of the Hebrew vizier. law, as enrolled in the family registers ; for Joseph
Joseph had now to pass through the mournful being the husband of Mary, became thereby, in
scenes which attend on the death and burial of a law (v6fio$)y the father of Jesus. Ami as being the
father. Having had Jacob embalmed, and seen legal father of Jesus, he might have his origin
the rites of mounting fully observed, the faith traced in the line of Mary's family, as well as in
ful and affectionate sonleave Iteing obtained of that of his own.
the monarchproceeded into the land of Canaan, The statements of Holy Writ in regurd to
in order, agreeably to a promise which the pa Joseph are few and simple. According to a
triarch had exacted, to lay the old man's Ikuics custom among the Jews, traces of which are still
with those of his fathers, in * the field of Epbron the found, such as hand-fasting among the Scotch,
Hittite.' Having performed with long and bitter and betrothing among the Germans, Joseph had
mourning Jacob's funeral rites, Joseph returned pledged his faith to Mary ; but Itefore the mar
into Egypt. The lost recorded act ofhis life forms riage was consummated she proved to be with
a most becoming close. After the death of tlieir child. Grieved at this, Joseph was disposed to
father, his brethren, unable, like all guilty people, break oft' the connection; but, not wishing to make
to forget their criminality, and characteristically a public example of one whom he loved, he con
fiudiug it difficult to think that Joseph had really templated a private disruption of their bond.
forgiven them, grew afraid now tliey were in his From this step, however, he is deterred by a
power, that he would take an opportunity of in heavenly messenger, who assures him that Mary
flicting some punishment on them. They ac has conceived under a divine influence. ' And
cordingly go into his presence, and tn imploring she sliall biiug forth a son, and thou shalt call Ins
terms and an abject manner, entreat his for name Jesus ; for he shall save his jteople from
giveness. ' Fear not 1this is his noble reply their sins* (Matt. i. 18, sq. ; Luke i. 27). To
* I will nourish you and your little ones.1 this account various objections have been taken;
Joseph lived an hundred and ten years, kind but most of them are drawn from the ground
tiii gentle in his affections to the last ; for we are of a narrow, short-sighted, and half-infoimed ra
told, * The children of Machir, the son of Ma- tionalism, which judges everything by its own
uasseh, were brought up upon Joseph's knees' small standard, and either denies miracles alto
153 JOSEPH. JOSEPH OF ARIMATHEA.
gether, or admits only such miracles as find sons, James, the brother of the Lord, was, he
favour in its sight; attempting not to leam what states, the first bishop of Jerusalem. Eusebius
Christianity is, nor what was suitable and proper (Hist. Eccles. ii- 1) agrees in substance with
in the days of Christ, hut to construct a Chris Theophylact; so also does Epiphanius, adding
tianity of it* own, and then to impise the new that Joseph was fourscore years old when he
creation on the writers of the Gospel, and the pri married Mary. Jerome, from whom it appears
mitive church. that the alleged mother's name was Escha, op
Joseph was by trade a caqtenter, in which poses this tradition, aiul is of opinion that what
business he probably educated Jesus. In Matt, are termed the brothers of Jesus were really Ins
xiii. 55, we read, ( Is not this the son of the car- cousins. The pointers of Christian antiquity con
^ penter?' and in Mark vi. 3, ' Is not this the car spire with the writers in representing Joseph as an
penter, the son of Mary 1 1 The term employed, old man at the period of the birth of oat Lord
tcktwvi is of a general character (from revxa, 1 I an evidence which is not to be lightly rejected,
form '), and may lie fitly rendered by t he English though the precise age mentioned may be but an
word 'artificer' or ' artizan," signifying anyone approximation to fact.
that labours in the yaArication {faber in Latin) Another account (Niceph. ii. 3) gives the name
of articles of ordinary use, whatever the material of Salome as that of Joseph's first wife, who was
may he out of which they are made. Accord related to the family of John the Baptist.
ingly, someiimes it denotes a smith as well as a It is not easy to determine when Joseph died.
carpenter orjoiner,aud in the Septuagint the addi That event may have taken place before Jesus
tional term 1 iron" (<n5^pou) or 1 wood' {%vka>v) entered on his public ministry. This has been
is employed, in order to denote its s)>ecilic appli argued from the fact, that his mother only ap
cation. If some doubt may exist whether car peared at the feast at Cana in Galilee. Ttie
penter * is the necessary rendering of llie word premises, however, hardly bear out the inference.
when applied to Joseph, yet there is no impro With more force of argument, it has been alleged
priety in that rendering, for not seldom tiie word, (Simon, Diet, de la Bible) that Joseph must
when used without any explanatory addition, has have l>een dead before the crucifixion of Jesus,
that signification. Schleusner (in voc.) asserts else lie would in all prolwib'dity have appeared
. that the universal testimony of the ancient church with Mary at the cross. Certainly the absence
represents our Lord as being a car|>enter's son. of Joseph from the public life of Christ, and the
This is, indeed, the statement of Justin Martyr absence of reference to him in the discourses and
(Dial, cum Tryphoney 88), for he explains the history, while * Mary' and 1 His brethren* not
term tkto:v, which he applies to Jesus, by saying unfrequently appear, afford evidence not only of
that he made &porpa kou uya, phnujhs and yokes ; Joseph's death, but of the inferior part which, as the
but Origen, in replying to Olsus, who indulged legal father only of our Lord, Joseph might have
in jokes against the humble employment of our been expected to sustain. So far as our scanty ma
Lord, expressly denied that Jesus was so termed terials enable us to form an opinion, Joseph appears
in the Gospels (Bee the passage cited in Otho's to have been a good, kit id, simple-minded man, who,
Justin Martyr, torn. ii. p. 30<, Jente, 1S43)a while he afforded aid in protecting and sustaining
declaration which suggests the idea that the copies the family, would leave Mary unrestrained to
winch Origen read differed from our own ; while use all the impressive and formative influence of
Hilarius, on Matthew (quoted in Simon's Die- her gentle, affectionate, pious, and thoughtful
twnnaire de la Bible, i. 091), asserts, in terms soul. Those who may wish to pursue this subject
which cannot be mistaken, that J< sua was a smith in its details, we refer to the following works :
(ferrum iyne rincentis, niassamque formantis% J. T. Meyer, Num Jos. tempore Nativ. C.
etc.). Of the tamo opinion was the venerable fuerit sencx dccrepiUts ; Hist. Joseph, fabri
Bow; while others have held that our Lord was lignar., Arab. ed. G. Wall in, a Latin translation
a mason, and Cardinal Cajetan, that lie was a of which may l>e found in Fahricii Pseudepiyr. i.
goldsmith. 300. Tlie traditions respecting Joseph are collected
The last notion probably had its origin in those in Act. Sonet, iii. n. *1, sq. ; there is a Life of
false associations of more modern times which Joseph written in Italian by Affaitati. J. H. B.
disparage hand-labour. Among the ancient Jews JOSEPH OF ARIMATHEA. The name
all handicrafts were held in so much honour, that Arimalhea denotes probably the place where
they were learned and pursued by the first men of Jos ph was born, not that where he resided. We
the nation. make this remark because Michaelis (Begrabniss-
Jewish tradition (Micros. Schaph. c. 14) names und aufersiehungs gesch. Christie p. 41, trans
the father of Jesus NTH3D, Phenedira, and repre luted into English) steles it as his opinion that
sents him (Orig. c. Cels. i. 32) as a rough soldier, it was unlikely that Joseph ]>o$ses*ed a burial-
who became the father of Jesus, after Mary was place in or near Jerusalem, since that city was
betrothed to Joseph. Another form of the legend not bis ordinary abode. So easy is it to be led
sets him forth ( Toled Jeschu, p. 3, ed. Wagenseil ; away by modern associations in interpreting the
Kpiphan. liter. 78. 7) under the name of Fun Scripture, that even a man of Michaelis* learn
dira. Christian tradition makes Joseph an old ing could allow Germany to overpower Palestine,
man when first esjmused to Mary (Kpiphan. liar. and modern days (o give their colouring to an
78. 7), being no less than eighty years of age, and cient ones, and thus hold that * of Arimathea '
father of four sons and two daughters. Theuphy- must of necessity denote the residence and not
l.i r. on Matt. xiii. 55, says that Jesus Christ had the birth-place of Joseph ; whereas a little reflec
brothers and sisters, alt children of Joseph, whom tion might have taught iiim that in a measure in
he had by his sister-in-law, wife of Ins brother his own times, and fully so in the days of our
Cleophas, who having died without issue, Joseph Lord, such a form of speech indicated rather a
Was obliged by law to marry his widow. Of the man's birth-place than his customary abode.
JOSEPH called BARSABAS. JOSHUA- 15S
Arimathea lay in the territory of Benjamin, 1. JOSF.S fI<rir0* son of Mary and Cleopas,
on the mountain range of Ephraim, at no great and brother of James the Less, of Simon and of
distance south of Jerusalem (Josh, xviii. 25; Jude, anil, consequently, one of those who are
Judg. iv. 5), not far from Gibeah (Judg. xix. 13 ; called the ' brethren' of our Lord (Matt. xiii. 55 ;
Isa. x. 29; Hos. v. 8). xxvii. 56; Mark vi. 3; xv. 40, 47). [James;
Joseph was a secret disciple of Jesus' an Jude]. He was the only one of these brethren
honourable counsellor (ov\evHjy), wlio waited who was not an apostlea circumstance which has
for the kingdom of God * (Mark xv. 43), and who, given occasion to some unsatisfactory conjecture.
on learning the death of our Lord, ' came and went It is perhaps more remarkable that three of them
in boldly unto Pilate, and craved the body of were apostles than that the fourth was not,
Jesus.' Pilate having learned from the centurion, 2. JOSES [Barnabas].
who commanded at the execution, that * Jesus
was actually dead,' gave the body to Joseph, who JOSHUA. The name JfW^HJ, W^, or
took it down and wrapped his decea-<ed Lord is rendered by Josephus, the Septuagint,
in fine linen which he had purchased for the pur and the New Testament, *l7?<ro?. In the same
pose ; after which he laid the corpse in a sepul manner is spelt the name of the author of the
chre which was hewn out of a rock, and rolled a apocrypha] book Eccleiiasticus. This is the
stone unto the door of the sepulchre (Mark xv. name of four persons in the Old Testament, and
43, s(j.). From the parallel passages in Matthew means tchose salvation is Jehovah (comj)are the
(xxvii. 58, sq.), Luke (xxiii. 50, seq.), and John German name Gotthilf). The most distinguished
(xix. 38, seq.), it appears that the body was pre of the four persons, so called, who occur in the
viously embalmed at the cost of another secret Old Testament, is Joshua the son of Nun, of the
disciple, Nicodemus, and that the sepulchre was tribe of Ephraim, the assistant and successor of
new, * wherein never man l>efore was laid also Moses. His name was originally VL"in, salva
that it lay in a garden, and was the property of tion (Num. xiii. 8); and it seems that the subse
Joseph himself. This garden was * in the place quent alteration of it by Moses (Num. xiii. 16)
where Jesus was crucified.' Luke descril>es the was significant, and proceeded on the same prin
character of Joseph as * a good man and a just,' ciple as that of Ahram into Abraham (Gen.
adding liuit 'he had not consented to the counsel xvii. 5), and of Sarai into Sarah (Gen. xvii. 15).
and deed of them,' u t. of the Jewish authorities. According to the Tsemach David9 Joshua was
From this remark it is clear that Joseph was a born in Egypt, in the year of the Jewish era
memltr of the Sanhedrim : a conclusion which is 2406 (b.c. 1037). In the Bible he is first men
corrol MMtfjd by the epithet 'counsellor/ applied to tioned as being the victorious commander of
him by both Luke and Mark. Whether or not the Israelite* in their battle against the Amalek-
Joseph was a priest, as Lightfoot (Hor. Heb. p. ites at Rephidim (Exod. xvii. 8-16). He dis
669) thought, there is not evidence to determine. tinguished himself by his courage and intel
Various opinions as to his social condition may ligence during and after the exploration of the
be found in Thiess (KriL Comment, ii. 149). land of Canaan, on which occasion he repre
Tradition represents Joseph as having been one of sented his tribe, which was that of Ephraim
the Seventy, and as having first preached the (Num. xiii., xiv.). Moses, with the divine sanc
Gospel in our own country (Ittig, Diss* de Pat. tion, appointed him to command the Israelites,
Apostol. $ 13 ; Assemani Bibl'wth. Orient, iii. even during his own lifetime (Num. xxvii. 18-23 ;
1. 319, sq.). For an attempt to fix the precise Deut. iii. 28; xxxi. 23). After the death of
spot where Jesus died and was buried, see the Moses he led the Israelites over the Jordan, forti
article Golgotha.J. R, B. fied a camp at Gilgal (Josh. ix. 6 ; x. 6-43),
JOSEPH called BARSABAS was one of conquered the southern and middle portions of
the two Jarsons whom the primitive church, im Canaan (vi.-x.), and also some of the northern
mediately after the resurrection of Christ, nomi districts (ix.). But the hostile nations, although
nated, praying that the Holy Spirit would show subdued, were not entirely driven out and de
which of them should enter the apostolic band stroyed (xiii. ; xxiii. 13 ; Judg. i. 27-35). In
in place of the wretched Judas. On the lots the seventh year after entering the land, it was
being cast, it proved that not Joseph, but Mat distributed among the various tribes, which then
thias, was chosen. commenced individually to complete the con
Joseph bore the honourable surname of Justus, quest by separate warfare (xv. 13, sq. ; xvi.
which was not improbably given him on account 10; xvii. 12, sq.). Joshua died 110 years old
of his well-known probity. He was one of those (b.c. 1427), and was buried at Timnafh-serah
who had 1 compamed with the Apostles alt the (Josh, xxiv.), on Mount Ephraim. According to
time that the Lonl Jesus went in and out amongst the Archeeologia or Antiquities of Josephus (v. 1.
them, l>eginning from the baptism of John,' until 29), Joshua commanded the Jews twenty-five
the ascension (Acts i. 15, sq.). Tradition also years, but, according to other Jewish chronologers,
accounted him one of the Seventy (Euseb. Hist. twenty-seven years. The Tsemach David, on the
Eccles. i. 12). The same historian relates (iii. years of the Jewish era 2489 and 2496, remarks :
39), on the authority of Papias, that Joseph the ' It is written in the Seder Olam that Joshua
Just 'drank deadly poison, and by the grace of judged Israel twenty-five years, commencing
God sustained no harm.' It has been main from the year 2488, immediately from the death
tained that he is the same as Joses surnamed of Moses, to the year 2516. This, however, would
Bamalias, mentioned in Acts iv. 36 ; but the not be known to us but for cabbalistic tradi
manner in which the latter is characterized seems tion, but in some degree also by reasoning,' &c
to point to a different person (Heinrichs, On Hottinger (Smegma, p. 469), says :'According
Acts i. 23 ; Ulimann, in the Theolog. Stud, und to the Midrashy Rahab was ten years old when
Kritiky i. 377).J. R. B. the Israelites left Egypt; she played the whort
JOSHUA. JOSHUA.
the forty years in which the Israelite* passage into the Promised Land, as well as that
were in the desei "he became the wife of out of Egypt, was through water. Jericho was
ght prophets descended from her,
Joshua, and eight token not by might, but by the falling of the walls
viz. Jeremiah, M abasia, Hauamael, Shallum, on the blast of the trumpets of seven priests ; and
Baruch, Ezekiel. Some say also that Huldah in the war against Gibeon the day was prolonged
the prophetess was her descendant.* Some chro- to aflbrd time for the completion of the victory.
It is generally granted that the first twelre
of Joshua to seventeen, and others to twenty-one chapters form a continuous whole : although the
years. author in ch. x. 13, refers to another work, he not
There occur some vestiges of the deeds of merely transcribes but intimately combines the
Joshua in other historians besides those of the quotation with the tenor of his narration. It. is
Bible. Procopius mentions a Phoenician inscri|>- certain that there sometimes occur episodes
tiou near the city of Tingis in Mauritania, the seem to interrupt the chronological connection
sense of which in Greek was:' H1**13 dofity ol for instance the portion intervening between
<t>vy6yr(s axh irpoffdiirov '\rfcov rou \parrov vlov i., ii., and. iii. 1. Especially it has been asse
Nen/7j1 We are those who tied lefore the face of that the whole of the second chapter is an episode
Joshua the robber, the son of Nun ' . Bell. interposed between chapters i. and iii.; but it
Vandal, ii. 10). Suidas (sub voce Xavad*): belongs to the nature of detailed historical works
7}fitU ifTfxtv Xavaveuoi obs ISuvfcv 'Irjaovs 6 to contain such episodes. It would not be diffi
Aij<tHjj* We are the Canaanites whom Joshua cult to select analogous instances from profane
the robber persecuted.' Compare Fabricii Codex works which are considered to be finished models
Pseudepigraphus Veteris Testament*, i. 889, sq., of historiography. Even in writers who have
and the doubts respecting this statement in Dale, most carefully digested their materials, such as
De Origin* et Progressu Idolatrur, p. 749, sq Thucydides, Tacitus, Gibbon, Hume, Robertson,
A letter of Shaubech, "pit?, king of Armenia and others, we meet occasionally with such epi
Minor, in the Samaritan book of Joshua (ch. sodes; and it may lie truly said that, from the
nature of history in general, occasional digres
xxvi.), styles Joshua ^llWp^M nH^K. lupus sions must occur; consequently it is an indica
percuisor, * the murderous wolf ;' or, according tion of thoughtless assertion when those which are
to another reading in the book Juchasin (p. 154, found in the book of Joshua are declared to prove
f. 1), anil in the Shalshelcth Rakkabbalah (p. 96), a variety of authorship, if anything is meant be
mnj? lupus vespertinusy ' the evening yond the truism, that no historical writer ori
wolf (comp. Hab. i. 8; Hottinger, Historia ginates, but only communicates, historical truth.
Orientalis, Tignri, 1651, p. 40, sq. ; Budder, We return to our subject, and assert that if the
Hist. Kccles. p. 964, sq.). A comparison of facts contained in the second chapter were to be
Hercules, according to the Phoenician and Greek related at all, they stand very properly between
mythology, with Joshua has been attempted by those of the first and third chapters, and that it
Hercklitz (Quod Hercules idem sit ac Josua, would be difficult to find for them a more lilting
Lipsiae, 1700, 4to.) place.
The book of Joshua is so called from the per The whole tenor of the first twelve chapters
sonage who occupies the principal place in the nar bespeaks an eye-witness who bore some part in
ration of events contained therein, and may l>e the transactions. Compare the expression 13"1iV,
considered as a continuation of the Pentateuch. It Wl passed over, in ch. v. I, where the At* has
commences with the word *fV!, which may be ren Sept. hiafialvttv atnovs, Vulg. transirent.
dered thereupon it happened. Books beginning The Chaldee paraphrase in the Targum of Jona
with what Dr. Samuel Lee calls the illative vau, than has also iT3jn *ty, until they passed over,
are to be regarded as continuations of earlier and so the Syriac and Arabic. On account of this
works. The Pentateuch, and especially Deute At* and the various ancient renderings, which
ronomy, are repeatedly referred to in the book of substitute the third for the first person, we must
Joshua, the narration of which begins with the not lay too much stress on the usual reading,
death of Moses and extends to the death of although we deem it correct, corresjxuiding as it
Joshua, embracing a chronological period of some
what less tlian thirty years. The subject of the does to 13^, to us, in the sixth verse. But we
book is thus briefly stated in ch. i. 5, 6 : ( There rely less ou such isolated expressions than on the
hall not any man be able to stand before thee circumstantial vividness of the narrative, which
all the days of thy life. As I was with Moses, clearly indicates that the writer was an eye
so I will be with thee : I will not fail thee, nor witness. This feature is so striking thai Van
forsake thee. Be strong and of a good courage ; Herweden, wtio, in his Disputatio de libro Josua,
for unto this people shalt thou divide for an sive de diversis ex quibus constat Josua liber
inheritance the laud which I sware unto their monumcntis, deque trlatc qua eorum vixerunt
fathers to give them/ In these two verses is also auctores, Groniugs, 1820, has endeavoured to
indicated the division of the book into two princi dissect the book of Joshua into ten different
pal portions, witli reference to the conquest and the monumenta, or original documents, nevertheless,
distribution of the land of Canaan. The conquest in page 123, says, in reference to Josh. vi. 25:
is narrated in the first twelve, and the distribution alterutrum esse verum oportet: aut impostor hsec
in the following ten chapters. In the last two scripsit, spqualem se esse rerun gestarum prse se
chapters are subjoined the events subsequent to ferens, quern tamen non esset, aut kkyi.ua
the distribution up to the death of Joshua. The BCKiPsiT i 41 \j is * This was written either
history of the conquest of Canaan is a series of by an impostor who falsely pretended that he
miracles, than which none more remarkable are was a contemporary of the events related, or a
recorded in any part of sacred history. The contemporary really wrote it.'
JOSHUA. JOSHUA. 155
The authority ascribed to the book of Joshua cision; and in the description of the
:>y the Apostles, compels us to embrace the latter (xix. 17-23),L they aare or
hum of this dilemma. Therefore we maintain Such discrepancies in the mode of description
that the first twelve chapters were written by a will be found particularly striking on comparing
contemporary of the events recorded, and most chapters xiii. and xiv. with xviii. and xix. Hence
probably by Joshua himself, towards the close of we infer that the original documents from which
his life. The statement that tiie monuments which these chapters were compiled differed considerably
he erected were extant to this day, indicates that in form, and that the compiler did not feel au
he did not promulgate the book immediately after thorized, in his manifest endeavour after unifor
the events narrated (comp. iv- 9; vii. 26; viii. mity, to introduce any changes in the contents.
28, 29 ; x. 27). The hook could not have been The liet of towns granted to the Levires in
written very long after the time of Joshua, be Josh. xxi. differs from that in 1 Chron. vi. 39-66
cause we find that Rabat) was still alive when it so much that we must suppose the latter to con
was composed (vi. 29). The section from chapter tain abstracts from a source different from that
xiii. to xxii. inclusive, which contains an account in the book of Joshua. That a change of cir
of the distribution of the land, seems to be cumstances might demand changes in such lists
based upon written documents, in which the pro becomes evident, if we consider the fate of indi
perty was accurately described. That this was vidual cities. For instance, Ziklag was given to
the case is likely not merely on account of the the tribe of Simeon (Josh. xix. 5); nevertheless we
)>eculiar nature of the diplomatic contents by read iu 1 Sum. xxvii. 6, that Achish gave Ziklag
which this ' Doomsday Book 1 is distinguished to David, and therefore 'Ziklag pertaineth to ibe
from the preceding ])art of Joshua, but also on kings of Judah unto this day.' The town of Nob
account of the statement in chapter xviii. 4, where does not occur in the list of Levitical towns in the
Joshua says to the children of Israel, * Give out book of Joshua, but in the days of Saul it is styled
from among you three men from each tribe : and DW3PI TV, city of the priests. All this abund
I will send them, and they shall rise, and go antly proves that there took place changes in
through the land, and describe it (iimtt 13113*1) regard to particular places which required corre
according to the inheritance of them ; and they sponding changes in the lists written at various
shall come again to me.* Comjxire verse 6, periods.
* Ye therefore shall describe the land (1211311 Since the book of Joshua contains also a de
)*1Nn HN) into seven parts.* Compare also scription of the territories of Reuben, Gad, and
verses 8 and 9, * And the men arose and went the half tribe of Manasseh, situated on the left
iu ay ; and Joshua charged them that went to bank of the Jordan, which tril>es entered into pos
describe the land, saying, Go, and walk through session before the death of Moses, the Pentateuch
the land, and describe it, and come again to me, itself may be considered as one of the sources
that 1 may here cast lots for you before the Lord from which the second pari of the book of Joshua
in Shiloh. And the men went and passed through has been compiled. That the author of the book
(he land, and described it by cities into seven of Joshua derived part of his information from the
I urts in a hook, and came again to Joshua to the Pentateuch is evident, if we compare Deut. xviii.
liost at Shiloh/ It seems that the author of this 1, 2, and Num. xviii. 20, with Josh. xiii. 14, 33 ;
lection, following the * Doomsday Book ' com xiv. 4. Even the unusual form ^K'N is repealed
piled ky the body, to which each tribe sent three in Joshua. Compare also Num. xxxi. 8, with
representatives, furnished a more accurate de Josh. xiii. 21 and 22.
scription than was contained in the book com The author of the book of Joshua frequently
piled under Joshua's direction. It may thus be repeats the statements of the Pentateuch in a
rxplained how, when the various towns mentioned more detailed form, and mentions the changes
are summed up, they seem to be more than the which had laken place since the Pentateuch was
towns introduced into the lists of the possessions of written. Compare Num. xxxiv. 13 and 14,
the separate tribes, and vice versa. This circum with Josh. xiii. 7, sq. ; Num. xxxii. 37. with
stance cannot be explained by supposing a corrup Josh. xiii. 17, sq. ; Num. xxxv. with Josh. xxi.
tion of the Hebrew text, since the text in the book There is also considerable similarity between
uf Joshua is particularly correct. However Judah the following passages iu the books of Joshua and
had more towns than are mentioned in chapter xv. Judges:Josh. xiii. 4, Judg. iii. 3; Josh. xv.
Zabulun had more towns than arc mentioned in 13, sq., Jndg. i. 10,20; Josh, xv. 15-19. Judg.
chapter xix. 15. Naphtali had more towns than i. 11-15; Josh. xv. 62, Judg. i. 21 ; Josh. xvi.
are mentioned iu xix. 35-39. This discrepancy 10, Judg. i. 29; Josh. xvii. 12. Judg. i. 27;
arose not merely from new towns springing up, Josh. xix. 47, Judg. xviii. The book of Joshua
but also from the fact, that it was unnecessary Seems to explain the text of the btMlfc of Judges by
to s]>ecify in the * Doomsday Book 1 alt the inferior brief notices; as, for instance, the names Shesha,
localities of the various tribes, especially since Achiman, and Talmai (Josh.XT. 14), by pJJJH *33
the constant addition subjoined to the names of and pDyn (comp. Judg. i. 13), and makes
the more important towns (JiVlVni, literally and use of more regular grammatical forms, such as
thrir inclosures, usually translated and their
viilaaes) obviates all quibbles. nV9P and nVfinn, instead of the more unusual
Although there is a degree of uniformity iu the forms in the book of Judges, IV^y and JVnnfi.
commencement and close of the descriptions of For these and other equally inconclusive reasons,
the various tribes, there is a considerable differ even Havemick asserts that the second part of the
ence in the contents. There is no little variety book of Joshua was written after the book of
in the arrangement and order of the notices con Judges. Havemick particularly urges that the fuct
cerning each tribe. The boundaries are stated mentioned in Josh. xix. 47, happened according to
sometimes with greater, sometimes with less pre- Judges xviii. 2, after the death of Joshua, end
156 JOSHUA. JOSHUA.
that the private expeditions of separate tribes and burial of Joshua; the continuance of hit in
against the inhabitants of the land of Canaan fluence upon the people ; the interment, in
commenced, according the express statement of Shechem, of the bones of Joseph, which the chil
the book of .fudges, only after the death ofJoshua. dren of Israel had brought from Egypt ; and the
These assertions of Havernick are not sufficiently death and burial of Eleaxar, the son of Aaron,
supported by the sacred text. We certainly learn whom Itis son Phinelias interred in his allotment
from the book of Judges, thai the private expedi on Mount Ephraim. We wish, however, to imi
tions against the Canaanites were especially fre tate the modesty of Hermann Witsius, who, in
quent subsequently to tlie deatti of Joshua, but it the second edition of his Miscellanea Sacra (p.
is nowhere stated that no such expedition hap 2U9), thus sums up the argument an this head :
pened before the death of Joshua. On the con ' It seems to me that the argumentation of Iluet
trary, we read in Josh. xvii. 15, that Joshua has not the weight of a real demonstration, who,
replied to the children of Joseph, who complained from the words just quoted"Joshua wrote all
that their territory was not proportionate to their these words iu the book of the law of the Lord**
numbers, * Get thee up to the wood-country, and makes the following inference :" This certainly
cut down for thyself there in the land of the proves that Joshua, like Moses, wrote an account
Perizzites and tlie giants.' of bs own doings, and that lie subjoined his book
The whole position of (he tribes would render to the Mosaical law, which is still its place.'1
it likely that such expeditions were as frequent But I say that every attentive reader will easily
as the iiostile incursions of the Dutch boors at the perceive that in Josh. xxiv. 26 there is not men
Cape of Good Hope are into the territories of the tioned the whole history of Joshua, but only the
Bushmen, Hottentots, and CaflYes ; which incur solemn renewal of the covenant, and that it is by
sions, if they do not lead to permanent possession, no means stated there that another volume should
are frequently repeated under similar circum be subjoined to tlie volume of the law, but only
stances. If we take this into consideration it must that the reiietition of the covenant was inscribed
appear very doubtful, whether the facts men in the volume of the law. But the opposite argu
tioned in Josh. xix. -17, and Judg. xviii. 2, are ments also are mostly such as might easily lie
one and the same ; and even if they are admitted refuted. Therefore I beg leave to withhold my
to be so, the priority of the book of Judges does decision.1
not necessarily follow. The authority of the book of Joshua mainly
The discourses of Caleb, Joshua, and Phinehas, rests upon the manner in which it is treated in
recorded in Josh. xiii. 1-6; xiv. 6-15; xvii. other part* of the Bible.
14; xviii. 22, are not contained in the above- Besides the above allusions in the hook of
mentioned sources, and are either derived from Judges, we find Joshua referred to in I Kings xvi.
written documents, ur are tbe condensations of a 34:'In his days did Hiel the Bethelite build
witness present at their delivery. Jericho : he laid the foundation thereof in Abiram,
It seems to have been the intention of the author his first- born, and set up tlie gates thereof in bis
of chapters xiii.-xxii. to furnish authentic records youngest son Segub, according to the wonl of the
concerning tlie arrangements made by Joshua Lord, which he spake by Joshua the son of Nun.'
after tlie conquest of Canaan. Since we do not (Comp. Josh. vi. 26.) The second and third verses
find in the subsequent history that the tribes, after of Psalm xliv. contain a brief summary of the
the death of Joshua, disagreed among themselves whole book of Joshua: ' Thou didst drive out
about the ownership of the land, it would apj>ear the heathen with thy hand, and plantedst them :
that the object of tlie book of Josliua, as a ' Dooms thou didst afllict the people, and cast them out.
day Book/ was fully attained. The circumstance For they got not the laud in possession by their
that the book of Joshua contains many Canaan- own sword, neither did their own arm save them:
itish names of places to which the Hebrew names but thy right hand and thine arm, aud the light
are added, seems also to indicate that the second of ihy countenance, because thou hadst a favour
) '.ni originated in an early age, when neither the unto them/ (Compare Psalm lxvi'u. 12-14 ;
Canaauitish name was entirely forgotten, nor the lxxviii. 54, 55 ; cxiv. 3 and 5, which refer to the
Hebrew name fully introduced ; so that it was book ofJoshua.) Also, Hah. ill. 11 : 'The sun and
expedient to mention both. moon stood still in their habitation,' &c. Heb.
In tlie last two chapters occur two orations of xiii. 5 : * For he hath said, I will never leave
Joshua, in which he bids farewell to tbe people thee, nor thrsake thee.* (Conqiare Josh. i. 5.)
whom he had commanded. In chapter xxiv. 26, Heb. xi. 31 : 1 By faith the harlot Rahab perished
we read, ' And Josliua whotk these words in not with them that believed not, when she had
the Iwok of the law of God.' The expression, received the spies with peace;* and James ii. 25:
these trorrfs, seems to refer only to his last ad * Likewise also was not Kahab the harlot jus
dress, and tlie subsequent resolution of the people tified by works, when she had received the mes
to follow his example. We are here, however, sengers, and bud sent them out another way 1*
expressly informed that Joshua did whitk this (Compare Josh, ii.and vi. 22-25.) Acts vii. 45:
much ; and consequently, we deem it the more * Which (the tabernacle) also our fathers that
likely that he also committed to writing the other came after brought in with Jeans into the pos
memorable events connected with his career, such session of the Gentiles, whom God drave out
as tbe conquest and the distribution of the land. before the face of our fathers.' (Compare Josh. iii.
Viewing all the circumstances together, we 14.) Heb. xi. 30 : ' By faith the walls of Jericho
consider it highly probable that the whole book of fell down, after they were compassed about seven
Joshua was composed by himself up to the twenty- days.' (Comjiare Josh. vi. 17-23.) Heb. iv. 8:
eighth verse of tlie last chapter ; to which a 1 For if Jesus [Joshua] had given them rest,
friendly hand subjoined some brief notices, con then would he not afterwards have spoken ot
tained in verses 29-33, concerning the death, age, another day.'
v JOSHUA. JOSHUA. 157
The value ascribed to the book of Joshua stand in battle before him, and that he destroyed
will be variously estimated according to the theo those whom he overcame. But this is not contra
logical and philosophical system of the divines dicted by the fact that some Canaanites kept out
who have ventured, and who venture, to express of the way, having taken refuge in their fastnesses,
their opinion on tins subject. It is evident that and that these gathered strength again alter the
writers who proceed on the supposition that nothing days of Joshua. It has also been urged that
miraculous ever has happened, must, in consis Jericho anil Ai, which Joshua destroyed, were at
tency, declare the contents of the hook of Joshua a later period inhabited again ; but this argu
to Ik; fabulous, mythical, unhistorical, and even ment seems to have no weight, and therefore re
immoral and wicked ; while these divines who quires no answer, the purpose of Joshua being
are convinced that miracle* are possible, and fulfilled by the demolition of their fortifications.
have actually happened, find no difficulty in ad It is also doubtful whether the new cities stood
mitting the authority ascril>ed to the nook of on the sites which the old ones occupied [Jx-
Joshua in the New Testament, where it is repeat richo].
edly quoted. The chief stumbling-block has The quotation from the book of Jasher (Josh. X.
been the quotation from the hook of father re 13) is said to be contradicted by 2 Sam. i. 18,
specting the standing still of the sun and moon where it appears that this book was written in the
at the command of Joshua : but this subject has days of David. But this is by no means clear
been already considered in the article Jamiikh. from the passage referred to; and even if it were
The inquiry respecting the author of the book so, it would seem that the book of Jasher was an
of Joshua, led Carpzov to a result which he thus anthologia, augmented in the days of David.
expresses in his Introduction, p. l.V> : * It is likely Others have based upon this quotation the infer
that Joshua himself committed to writing most of ence that the book of Joshua was written after
the contents of this book, although if cannot be the times of David. De Wette, in his Einleitung
said that he composed the whole hook ; and it (Berlin, 1833, p. 219), asserts that the book of
cannot be made out clearly whether Samuel, or Joshua was written after the Babylonian captivity.
some other pious person, composed the whole The mention of the book of Jasher has given
book, or only augmented and completed it by rise to some spurious compilations under that
adding the events which hap|>ened after the death name, as well in Hebrew as in Knglish. See
of Joshua.' the article Jasiikr.
Our investigations have led us to a more definite The Samaritans, who for dogmatical purposes
result; namely, that the book was written before endeavoured to depreciate the authority of i>er-
the death of Rahab fvi. 26), but not immediately sous mentioned in the latter books of the Old
after the erection of monuments by Joshua, be Testament, such as Eli, Samuel, Zerubbabcl. and
cause it is said that they exist until this day others, had no such interest to attack the person
an observation which indicates that they had l>een of Joshua. Kulogius, according to Photii
standing for some time. As, however, various Codex, p. 230, states : Ta>v 2Lauap(nwv rb Tr\r,$os
opinions concerning the author, and concerning oi fitv *It)<tovv rbv New?) &6aov tlvat irepl oZ
the so-called apparent contradictions of the liook Mtovtrrjs ?ir, irpotyfiryv fffuit avaar^aft Kvptos,
of Joshua, have occupied the attention of biblical etc. ' The Samaritan multitude believes that
scholars, so much so as to become themselves sub Joshua, the son of Nun, is the person concerning
jects of history, it is becoming tiiat we furnish our whom Moses said, " The Lord will raise us up a
readers with a brief survey of these rather incon prophet,'1 1 &c. (Compare Lampe, Comment, in
clusive lucubrations. Erantjelium Johannis, vol. i. p. 74S.) The Sama
It has Wen urged esj)ecially that the conquest ritans even endeavoured to exalt the memory of
of the whole country is ascril>ed to Joshua in Joshua by making him the nucleus ofmany strange
some passages of this book, while in others, and legends which they embodied into their Arabic
in the book of Judges, it is stated that some book of Joshua, a work which seems to have t>een
portions were still to be subdued. To this we compiled in the middle ages, and is quoted by
reply that Joshua conquered the whole country, the Kabhinical chroniclers of that period, Sepber
so far as to render it possible for individual tribes Jucbasin, R. Samuel, Schullam (f. 154). Schal-
and families gradually to complete its occupa scheleth (Kakabbalah, p. 9fi), Hottingei (/f#-
tion by private warfare. We read in x. 40, toria Orientate, p. 4U, sq.), Zunz (Gottetdietut-
* Joshua smote all the country of the hills, and of liche Gcbraische tier Judcn, p. 140). Keland
tliesoulh ; and in xi, 1 G, ' Joshua took all that land, supposed that this book was written at an earlier
the hills, and all the south country.' It is urged period, and augmented in the middle ages ; but
that these passages strikingly contradict xiii. 4, it is more likely that the whole is a lute compi
where it is read, 'These remaineth yet very much lation. (Compare Johaunii Henrici Hottingeri
land to In* possessed from the south, all the land Historia Orientate, p. 40, sq. ; and Hottingeri
of the Canaan ires unto Mearah, that beside the Smeymoy p. 468.)
S^donians,' &c. Here it has been overlooked, that The so-called book of Joshua of the Samaritans
the south country beside the Sidnnians differs consists of compilations from the Pentateuch,
from the southern regions of Palestine. our book of Joshua, the liooks of Judges, and of
In a similar manner the distribution of the Samuel, intermixed with many Jewish legends.
country ascribed to Joshua, lias been said to be Its compiler pretends that it is translated from
contradicted by subsequent distribution! in the the Hebrew into Arabic, but it was probably
book of Judges; but we reply tliat the later dis originally written in Arabic, and manifestly after
tribution in detail is perfectly consistent with an the promulgation of the Koran, which exercised a
earlier general distribution. perceptible influence upon it. Compare Reland
When the destruction of all the Canaanit is Do Samaritonis, DUsertationes Miscellanete* ii,
ascribed to Joshua, it is meant that none could pp. 12 and 68. The author of this compilation
168 JOSHUA. JOSIAH.
endeavours to prove that the Samaritans are JOSIAH tfnjBM\ God-healed; Sept. *\wiias\
Israelites, and he claims for them the celebrity seventeenth king of Judah, and son of Amou,
of the Jews. He attempts to turn the traditions whom he succeeded on the throne in B.C. 698, at
of Jewish history in favour of the Samaritans. By the early age of eight years, and reigned thirty-
his account Joshua built the temple on Mount one years.
Gerizim, and there established public worship ; As Josiah thus early ascended the throne, we
the schism between Jews and Samaritans com may the more admire the good qualities which
menced under Eli, who, as well as Samuel, was he manifested, seeing, as Coquerel remarks,
an apostate and sorcerer; after the return from 1 qu'il est difficile de recevoir une bonne educa
the Babylonian exile, the Samaritan form of tion sur le trone' ( Biographie Sacrec, p. 305).
worship was declared to le the legitimate form ; Avoiding the example of his immediate prede
Zemhbabel and his sacred books, which were cor cessors, he 1 did that which was right in the sight
rupted, were authoritatively rejected ; Alexander of the Lord, and walked in all the ways of David
the Great expressed his veneration, not for the his father, and turned not aside to the right hand
Jews, but for the Samaritans; these were op or to the left' (2 Kings xxii. I, 2; 2 CIiron,
pressed under the Emperor Adrian, but again xxxiv. 1, 2). So early as the sixteenth year of
obtained j>ermission to worship publicly on Mount his age he began to manifest that enmity to idol
Gerizim. The whole book consists of a mixture atry in all its forms which distinguished his
of biblical history and legends, the manifest aim character and reign ; and he was not quite twenty
being to falsify facts for dogmatical pursues. years old when he proclaimed open war against
This book terminates with the history of the it, although more or less favoured by many men
Jewish war under Adrian. The only known of rank and influence in the court and kingdom.
copy of this book is that of Jos. Scaliger, which He then commenced a thorough purification of
is now in the library at Leydeu. Although toe the land from all taint of idolatry, by going
language is Arabic, it is written in Samaritan about and siqwrinteuding in person the ojierations
characters. Even the Samaritans themselves of the men who were employed in breaking down
seem to have lost.it. Huntington, in bit Epis- idotutrous altars and images, and cutting down
t-'r. London, 1701. p. Is. mentions that lie could the groves which had been consecrated to idol-
not find it at Nabulus, nor have subsequent in worship. His detestation of idolatry could not
quiries led to its discovery there. have ben more strongly expressed than by ran
Besides this adulterated version of the history sacking the sepulchres ol the idolatrous priests of
of Joshua, there exists still another in the Sama former days, and consuming their bones upon
ritan chronicles of Abul Phetach. See Acta the idol altars before they were overturned Yet
Eruditorum Lips., anni 1691, p. 167; Sehnur- this operation, although unexampled in Jewish
rer's SamarUaytischcr Briefwechsel^ in Eich- history, was foretold 320 years l*fore Josiah
liorn's Bepertorium, ix. M; a specimen by was born, by the prophet who was commissioned
Schnurrer, in Paulus's Xettem Hepertoriumy i. to denounce to Jeroltoam the future punishment
117, of his sin. He even named Josiah as the jicrson
Forq.further information see, besides the Intro by whom tiiis act wan to l>e jierformcd ; and said
ductions of Eichliom, I)e VVette, and HUvernick, that it should Ire performed in Beth-el, which was
the following works : Josuee Ilistoria illustrata then a jiart of the kingdom of Israel (I Kings
ah Andr. J/ast'o, Antverpia?, 1374, fol. ; Sebas xiii, 2). All this seemed much beyond the range
tian! Schmidt 1 'ratcctioncs in viii. priora capita of human probabilities. But it was performed
libri Josuar ; JohaiinU Clcrici (,'ommcntarius in to the letter ; for Josiah did not confine his pro
Josuam; Johanuis DrtUti Anuotationes in loca ceedings to his own kingdom, but went over a
difficiliora Josh p ; A.J. Osiaudii Commentarius considerable patt of' the' neighUniring kingdom
in Josuam, Tuhingir, 1 OS 1 ; Jacobi Bonfrerii of Israel, which then lay comparatively desolate,
Commentarius in Josuam, Judives, ct liuth, with the same object in view; and at Betb-fL in
Paris, 1631, fob; Nic. Serarii Commentarius in particular, executed all that the prophet had fore
libros Josuatt Judicum, llttthy Begum* ct Para- told (2 King-* xxiii. 1-19; 2 CUou. xxxiv. 3-7,
lipomenon* Mog. 1609, x. 2 vols, fob; Exege* 32). In these proceedings Josiah seems to have Ifeen
tisches Handbuch des Alien Testamentes ; Erstes actuated by an absolute hatred of idolatry, such
und drittes Stiick; Paulus Bliehe, In das liuch as no other king since David liad manifested, anil
Josua* in his Thvotogisch-exegetisches Conserva- which David hud scarcely occasion to manifest in
torium. ii. 149, sq. ; T. J. V. I). Maurer, Com- the same degree.
mentar iiber das Buck Josua, Stuttgart, 1831; In the eighteenth year of his reign and the
RosenmulItT in Josuam, Lipsue, 1833; George twenty-sixth of his ace, when the land had l>oeu
Bush, Aotcs on Joshua and Jwigcs, New York, thoroughly purified from idolatry and all that he-
1838. longed to it, Josiah proceeded to repair and
The other persons of this name in the Bible are: beautify the temple of the Lord, In the course
Joshua, a Beth-shemite (1 Sam. vi. 14, 18), an of tins pious labour, the high-priest Hilkiah dis
Israelite, the owner of the field into which the cart covered in the sanctuary a volume, which pntved
came which bore the ark on its return from the to contain the Itooks of Moses, and which, from the
laud of the Philistines. terms employed, seems to have been considered
the original of the law as written by Moses. On
Joshua (2 Kings xxiii. 8), the governor of the tliis point there has !>cen much anxious discussion
city of Jerusalem at the commencement of the and some rash assertion. Some writers of the
reign of Jotiab. German school allege that there is no external
Joshua, the sou of Josedec (Hagg. i. 1, 12, 14 ; evidencethat is, evidence betide the law itself
Zech. iii. 1, 3, 9 ; vi. 1 l),a high-priest in the time that the book of the law existed till it was thus
of Haggai and Zcchariah [Jkshla]. produced by Hilkiah. This assertion it is the leu
JOSIAH. JUBILEE. 139
necessary to answer here, as it is duly noticed in among the people, but which is not now fa
the art. Pentateuch. But it may be observed existence (2 Kings xxiii. 29-37 ; 2 Chron. xxxv.
that it is founded very much on the fact that the 20-27).
king was greatly astonished when some parts of 1. JOTHAM (DHV, God is upright; Sept.
the law were read to him. It is indeed perfectly *I<u<f&u-), the youngest of Gideon's seventy legiti
manifest that he had previously been entirely mate sons ; and the only one who escaped when
ignorant of much that he then heard ; and he the rest were massacred by the order of Abimelech.
rent his clothes in consternation when he found When the fratricide was made king by the people
that, with the best intentions to serve the Lord, he of Shechem, the young Jotham was so daring as
and all his people had been living in the neglect to make his appearance on Mount (ierizim for the
of duties which the law declared to !> of vital purpose of lifting up a protesting voice, and of
importance. It is certainly difficult to account giving vent to his feelings. Tin's he did in a
for this ignorance. Some suppose that all the beautiful parable, wherein the trees are represented
copies of the law had perUhed, and that the king as making choice of a king, and bestowing on the
had never seen one. But this is very unlikely ; bramble the honour which the cedar, the olive,
but however scarce complete copies may have and the vine would not accept. The obvious ap
been, the pious king was likely to have been the plication, which indeed Jotham failed not himself
possessor of oue. The probability seems to be to ]>oint out, must have been highly exasperating
that the passages read were those awful denun to Abimelech and his friends ; but the speaker
ciations against disobedience with which the hook fled, as soon as he had delivered his parable, to
of Deuteronomy concludes, and which from some the town of Beer, and remained there out of his
cause or other the king hail never l>cfore read, or brother's reach. We hear no more of him; but
which had never l>efore produced on his mind the three years after, if then living, lie saw the ac
am6 strong conviction of the imminent dangers complishment of the malediction he had pro
under which the nation lay, as now when read to nounced (Judg. ix. 5-21).
him from a volume invested with a character so 2. JOTHAM, tenth king of Jndah, and son of
venerable, and brought with such interesting cir I'zziah, whom he succeeded in h.c. 758, at the age
cumstances under his notice. of twenty-live: be reigned sixteen years. His
The king in his alarm sent to Huldah 4 the father having during his last years been excluded
pmphetess,' for her counsel in this emergency by leprosy from pubic life [L'zziah], the govern*
[Hui.oah] : her answer assured him that, although ment was administered by his son. Jotham pro
the ilread penalties threatened by the law had fited by the experience which the reign of his father,
been incurred and would lie inflicted, he should and of the kings who preceded him. afforded, and
be gathered in peace to his fathers l>efore the days he ruled in the fear of God, although he was
of punishment and sorrow came. unable to correct all the corrupt practices into
It was |ierhaps not without some hope of avert which the people had fallen. His sincere inten
ing tiiis doom that the king immediately called tions were rewarded with a prosjiemus reign. He
the people together at Jerusalem, and engaged was successful in his wars. The Ammonites,
them in u otamn renewal of the ancient covenant who had 'given girts' as a sort of tribute to
with fiod. When this had been done, the Pass Uzziah, but had ceised to do so after his leprosy
over was celebrated with careful attention to the bail incapacitated him fnnn governing, were con
directions, given in the law, ami on a scale of strained by Jotham to pay for three years a heavy
unexampled magnificence. But all was too late; tribute in silver, wheat, and barley (2 Chron.
the hour of mercy had |>u*sed ; for * the Lord xxvi. 8; xxvii. 5, (i). Many important public
turned not from the fierceness of his great wrath, works were also undertaken and accomplished
wherewith his anger was kindled against Jndah * by Jotham. The principal gate of the temple was
(2 Kings xxii. 3-20 ; xxiii. 21-27; 2 Chron. rebuilt by him on a more magnificent scale; the
xxxiv. S-33; xxxv. 1-19). quarter of Ophel, in Jerusalem, was strengthened
Thai removal from the world which had been by new fortifications; various towns were built
promised to Josiah as a blessing, was not long or rebuilt in the mountains of Judah; and castles
delayed, and was brought about in a way which and towers of defence were erected in the wilder
he had probably not expected. His kingdom was ness. Jotham died greatly lamented by his
tributary to the Chaldean empire; and when people, and was buried in the sepulchre of the
Phamoh-necho, king of Egypt, sought a passage kings (2 Kings xv. 38 ; 2 Chron. xvii. 3-9).
through his territories, on an expedition against
the Chaldeans, Josiah, with a very high sense of JUBAL jubilant, i. e. music; Sept.
the obligations which bis vassalage imposed, *lov@d\), one of Cain's descendants, son of
refused to allow the march of the Egyptian army Lantech and Adah. He is described as the in
through his dominions, and prepared to resist the ventor of the HJ3 kinnor, and the ugab,
attempt by force of arms. Necho was very un rendered in our version 1 the bam and the organ,'
willing to engage in hostilities with Josiah : the but perhaps more properly 1 the lyre and mouth-
apjiearance of the Hebrew army at Megiddo, organ,' or Pandean pipe (Gen. iv. 21) [Music].
however, brought on a battle, in which the king
of Judah was so desperately wounded by arrows JUBILEE (^3Vn nX>, or merely 72)\ as in
that his .attendants removed him from the war- Lev. xxv. 28; Sept. (rot r^s a4>*<r*a>i, or simply
chariot, and placed him in another, in which he 6.<prt$\ \'\\\%. Annus Jtibileiy or JubiUms). ac
was taken to Jerusalem, where he died. No king cording to some a period of fifty years, according
that reigned in Israel was ever more deeply la to others, of forty-nine years, the termination of
mented by all his subjects than Josiah : and we which led to certain great changes in the con
are told that the prophet composed on the occa dition of the Hebrews, all of which seem to have
sion an elegiac ode, which was long preserved been designed and fitted to bring about from time
160 JUBILEE. JUBILEE.
to time a restoration of the original social state all the land unto all the inhabitants tltereof; and
instituted by Moses, and so to sustain in its unim ye shall return every man unto his possession and
paired integrity the constitution of which he was unto his family. A Jubilee shall that fiftieth
the author. We remark at the commencement, year l>e unto you. Ye shall not sow, neither reap
i li.it notwithstanding the many great names which that which groweth of itself in it, nor gather the
favour the shorter jieriod namely, forty-nine grapes of thy vine undressed; for it is the Jubilee;
yearswe consider that the language of Scripture it shall be holy unto you ; yeshall eat the increase
is very clear in behalf of the longer oue : on opinion thereof out of the field. And if thou sell ought
for which it would be easy to marshal at least as unto thy neighbour or huyest ought, according to
many and as great authorities as for the other. the number of years after the Jubilee thou shalt
Many of these authorities may be found mentioned buy, and according to the fewness of years (to the
in the most recent tractate with which we are ac ensuing Jubilee) tliou shalt diminish the price of
quainted on the subject, that of J. T. Kranuld, De it, for according to tlie number of the fruits (or
Anno Hebreto Jubiltro, Gottiug. p. 23. In the harvests) doth he sell. And the land shall yield
lame piece tlte reider may find a pretty full dis her fruits, and ye shall eat your fill and dwell
cussion respecting the derivation and import of therein in safety. I will command my blessing
the term Jubilee (p. 18 *q.); of which it may upon you in the sixth year (' in six years 1 con
suffice here to say that, while difference of opinion jectures Michaelis, Comment, vol. i. p. 290), and
prevails as to its exact significationand hence it shall bring forth fruit for three years. And ye
appears the propriety of the course taken by King shall sow tlie eighth year and eat of old fruit
James's translators in retaining the original word until tlie ninth year. The laud shall not be sold
itselfthe root-idea of the word seems to be con for ever, for the land is mine : in all the land of
nected with two external actsflowing (Gen. vi. your possession ye shall grant a redemption for
17) and sounding ((Jen. tv. 21), which are ob the land' (Lev. xxv. s-'2i . Land might lie re
viously one and the same in different Upecb deemed by a kinsman or by the party who sold it ;
for sound is but the flow of breath or wind, as a but in the Jubilee year it must return to its
stream is the flow of water. From this idea of original proprietor. Dwelling-houses within a
pouring forth came the particular meaning of the walled city might be redeemed within the first
term Jubilee, as employed in relation to the year year; if not redeemed within the space of a full
so called, which was announced and introduced year they liecame the freehold of the purchaser.
by the blast of a trumpet, the signal for the dis The houses of villages were to be counted as the
solution of curtain existing arrangements, and a fields of tlie country. The cities and houses of
general system of restitution : whence it seen the tlie Levites were redeemable at any time, and
propriety of that translation of the Hebrew which could never le held longer than the ensuing
the Seventy give, Kros a<p4<reus, * year of release' Jubilee: the field of ihe suburbs of their cities
or 'restoration.* And as the restitutions which might not lie sold (vers. 2-3-38). Israelites who
then took place were occasions of joy to thousands, were hired sew*auts ( Israel it isli bondservants were
so the term Jubilee came to imply a period of not allowed) might serve till the year of Jubilee,
general gladness. when they returned to their possesions. A He
Intimate]J connected with the Jubilee was brew sold as a slave to a foreigner resident in
another singular Mosaic institution, namely, the Palestine was redeemable by himself or relatives
Sabbatical year. On this account we shall sjieak at any time, by making payment according to the
briefly of the latter, as preparatory to a right number of years to elapse before the next J ubilee ;
understanding of the former. but at tlie Jubilee such bondsman was, under all
While yet wandering in the wilderness, and circumstances, to be set at liberty (vers. 39-55).
therefore, before they had entered 1 the land of The only exception to this system of general in
promise,' the children of Israel received from stitution was in the case of property set ajiatt and
the lips of their great legislator the following devoted to the Divine service'Every devoted
law* six years thou shalt sow thy land, and thing is most holy unto the Lord; none devoted
sh.ilt gather in the fruits thereof: but the shall be redeemed' (Lev. xxvii. 28-29).
seventh year thou shalt let it rest ; that thine With these scriptural details the account given
ox and thine as* may test, and the sou of by Josephus (Antig. iii. 12. 3) substantially
thy handmaid and the stranger may be refreshed ' agrees. The latter, however, states that in the
(Exod. xxiii. 10 sq.). This injunction is re year of Jubilee 'debtors are freed from their
peated in Lev. xxv. 1-7, where it stands as debts.' And in regard to the restitution of land,
Siroceeding immediately from the Lord. The he says, ' when tlie Jubilee is come, which name
and is to keep 'asabliath for the Lord.' It is denotes liberty, he that sold the land and he that
added -'that which groweth of its own accord of bought it meet together, and make an estimate on
thy harvest thou slialt not reap, neither gather the oue hand of the fruits gathered, and on tlie other
grapes of thy vine undressed. And the sabbath of the expenses laid out upon it If the fruits
of the land shall be meat for you; for thee, and gathered come to more than the expenses laid out,
for thy servant, and for thy cattle.' Then in im he who sold it takes the land again; but if the
mediate Sequence follows the law relating to the expenses prove more than the fruits, the present
Jubilee (Lev. xxi. H). 'And thou shalt num- possessor receives of the former owner the differ
t>er seven sabbaths of years unto thee, seven times ence, and leaves the land to him ; and if tlie fruits
seven years, forty and nine years; then shalt thou received arid the expenses laid out prove equal,
cause the trumpet of the Jubilee to sound in the the present possessor relinquishes it to tlie former
tenth day of the seventh month, in the day of owner.'
atonement shall ye make the trumpet sound Our object in making this quotation is not
throughout all your land. And ye shall hallow merely to aflbrd an illustration of the way in
the fiftieth year, and proclaim liberty throughout which the law of release was worked, but to show
JUBILKE. JUBILEE. 161
that the Jewish historian speaks of the law as a quently, to demand entire equality on the part
reality, as a present reality, as something in of the people. But the power of perpetual aliena
actual operation: the importance of which evi tion in regard to land would have soon given rise
dence will presently appear. to the greatest inequalities of social condition, pre-,
The time required oy the Sabbatical year and senting what modeni states have, alas! exhibited
by the Jubilee to be rescued from the labours of but too much ofsplendid affluence on one side
the field, was very considerable. Strictly inter and sordid pauperism on the other. But these
preted the language we have cited would take out laws tended to preserve the original level which
of the ordinary course of things every sixth, had a divine origin ; for they would prevent vast
seventh, and eighth year, during each successive accumulations, restrain cupidity, preclude do
septenary, till the circle of fifty years was in each mestic tyranny, and constantly remind rich and
period completed. Nay more, the old store, pro p>or of their essential equality in themselves,
duced in the sixth year, was to lost until the ninth in the state, and before God. A passage in
year, for the sixth year was to bring forth fruits Deuteronomy (xv. 4), when rightly understood, as
for three years. in the marginal translation' to the end that there
The reader lias now before him tlte whole of be no poor among you 1seems expressly to de
this extraordinary piece of legislation, which, clare that the aim in view, at least, of the Sabba
viewed in all its bearingsin its effects on human tical release, was to prevent the rise of any great
lal)our, on character, on religious institutions and inequality of social condition, and thus to pre
observances, as well as on the general condition serve unimpaired the essential character of the
of society, no less than on the productiveness of theocracy. Equally benevolent in its aim and
the land, and the means of sustenance to its tendency does this institution thus appear, show
inhabitants is wholly unparalleled by any event ing how thoroughly the great Hebrew legislator
in the history of the world. But are we therefore cared and provided fur individuals, instead of
to disbelieve and reject it f The admission that favouring classes. Beginning with a narrow cycle
these laws were not only given but executed, is of of seven days, he went on to a wider one of as
course an acknowledgment of the divinity of the many years, embracing at last seven times seven
Mosaic institutions : an acknowledgment which annual revolutions, seeking in all his arrange
involves the further recognition of miracle ments rest for man and beast, and, by a happy
indeed of a continually revolving cycle of mi personification, rest even for the brute earth ; and
racles. Such a recognition, however, is opposed to in the rest w hich he required for human beings,
what some theologians, with a strange jwrverskm providing for that more needful rest of mind
of the name, have regarded as a first principle in which the sharp competitions and eager rivalries
their system, namely, that miracles are inadmis- of modern society deny to ten thousand times ten
sihle, either as being impossible or improbable. thousand. As being of a benign character and
Accordingly, since the existence of the law is un tendency, the law of the Sabbatical and Jubilee
questionable, its execution has been denied. year is in accordance with the general spirit of
We at once admit that the Scriptures do not the Mosaic legislation, and appears not unworthy
afford strictly historical data by which we are of its divine origin.
enabled to prove that the law was carried into Warburlon adduced this law (Divine Legation
effect in the earlier period! of the Jewish state. of Moses) in order to show that Moses was in
But how rash to deduce a t msitivc conclusion truth sent and sustained by God, since nothing
from a mere negation ! In order that such an but a divine power could have given the neces
inference should possess any weight, it is necessary sary supplies of food in the sixth year. That
to show that the sacred history was designed and there is sume force in this argument no unpreju
fitted to give u complete detail of all that con diced person can well deny : how much snrpiUed
cerned the Hebrew nation, and socially to ex then will the reader I>e, after perusing the forego
hibit in actual operation the laws given by Moses. ing remarks, to find Michaelis (Comment, i. 391,
No such aim have the Scriptures in view, no such note) speaking thus:* This proof would in plain
office do they execute; nor are we sure that English amount to this : this law is so extremely
their credibility would l>e at all enhanced, did absurd, that he who gave it must necessarily have
they appear framed for any such unlikely, not to been sent from God, because none but God is
say suspicious, purpose. capable of counteracting the destructive effects of
There are some p">umptions in favour of the such a law.'
reality ff the 1jws under consideration. The re To our mind, we remark in continuation of
curring jA-riods of seven years are in keeping with these presumptive evidences, there is something
the institution of the seventh day as a Sabbath noble, as well as self-relying in the annunciation
for man and beast. The aim in both is similar of these laws iu the desert, ere yet the land was
needful repose. The leading idea involved in the gained, as a part of a general system of religious
Jubilee namely, restitution also harmonizes and social polity, before a horde rather than a
with the fundamental principles of the Mosaic nation, a people thirsting for a tranquil settlement,
system. The land was God's, and was entrusted and therefore hostile to any mere illusions, and
for use to the chosen" people in such a way that likely to visit on their author's head such fond
every individual had his portion. A power of per notions as, according to Michaelis, these com
petual alienation would have been a virtual denial mands appeared. And why, if the attempt was
of God's sovereign rights, while the law of Jubilee unreal or unsupported, why this legislation for
was one continued recognition of them. The future times? Why, unless Moses was supported
conception is purely thtocratical in its whole by a consciousness of a divine guidance, this risk
character and tendencies. The theocracy was of of provoking either the ridicule or the disgust **f
such a nature as to disallow all subordinate his wandering tribes? In truth, however, Mosus
* thrones, principalities, and powers j' and cotise- in these laws lays the foundation, while yet in
YOsV II.
162 JUBILEE. JUBILEE.
the wilderness, of institutions which were in full and subsist ubstantially on the remainder,
harmony witli the entire system which he said their imports consisting mostly of luxuries*
he had received of God. Again, in England nearly three quarters of the
But these laws either emanated from Moses, or families are engaged in commerce, manufactures,
they did not. If they did not, they arose after professions, and unproductive pursuits; but in
the settlement in Canaan, and are of such a na Judaea every man was a producer of food, with
ture as to convict their fabricator of imposture, if, the advantage of a tine climate and a rich soil.'
indeed, any one could have been found so daring The remainder is worth consulting.
as to ..mi/ forth laws implying institutions which It may le of some importance; to remark that
did not exist, and which under ordiuary cir those who beliere tliat these laws were good, and
cumstances could not find permanence, even if were also executed, are not therefore required to
they could ever be carried into o[>eration at all. maintain that the regular and intended series of
But if these laws emanated from Moses, is it things was never interrupted. The promises of
credible that he would have given utterance to God are in all cases conditioned on human obedi
commands which convict themselves of impos ence. This condition is expressly laid down in
sibility? or caused the rise of institutions, which, the case before us (Lev. xxv. 18, 36, 38). At the
if unsup|>orted of heaven, must come to a speedy same time, the silence of the sacred history before
termination, and in so doing act to his own dis the captivity looks as if the law in question was so
credit as a professed divine messenger? There is uninterruptedly, regularly, and as a matter of
a species of self-confidence, there is a moral course, observed from Jubilee to Juhilee, that no
daring which of itself vindicates its divine origin : occasion transpired for remark. In history, as in
the case before us seems to be an instance. every tlay life, more is said of the exceptional
Nor can we see that the law is either 'absurd ' than the periodical and the ordinary.
or * pernicious ' (Michael is, nt supra). That for The tenor of these observations will prolably
its successful execution special divine aid was lead the reader to consider it a somewhat sur
needful, we by no means deny ; but the Mosaic prising assertion, that these laws were not executed
polity was in its origin, and in its very nature, before the Babylonish exile ; yet such is the state
special, and, 4 according to the Scriptures,' received ment of Winer ( Real-tcnrterb. s. v. 'Jubeljahr')
special aid of God. and De Wette ( Jjthrb. der Archiiol. p. 15S"). Some
So far as the system of restitution is concerned, passages of Scripture are referred to, which are
we see nothing but what the power of law and thought to imply the tnith of this position, as
the authority of religion were cajMihle of bringing 1 Kings xxi. 2; Isa. v. 8; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 21 ;
about. But could the land sustain the people ? Lev. xxvi. 34. Our space does not allow us to
Why not 1 Palestine had a most fertile soil. go into a critical examination of these texts, but
Every man having land, would be a husband we may say, that having carefully considered
man, and therefore every part would be carefully their import and bearing, we cannot find in them
tilled. And as his sustenance and that of his the alleged implication.
family would, in the case of each proprietor, For the opposite view, there is, in agreement
depend, not only on his industry but his fore with the general tenor of this article, Mime posi
thought, on making provision not for a contingent tive evidence which must, lie briefly indicated.
but a certain want ; so every head of a house The Roman historian Tacitus Itears witness to
would lat>our wisely and well, and husband with the observance of the Sabhatical year at least, in
due care for the year of rest : thus, while making the following terms:4Septimo die otium pla-
provision for his bodily wants, rising in a proper cuisse ferunt, quod is Qnem faboram tulerit; dein
self-respect, and cultivating many important blandiente inertia, sept i mum quoque annum ig-
moral qualities. Besides, a year of rest was a navi;e datum :' 'They give the seventh day to ease
great tiling to work fur; which would sharpen all because it put an end to labours; moreover,
a man's faculties and quicken his hands; and through the allurements of idleness, the seventh
when at length the wished for time arrived, year also is given to inactivity' (Tac. Hist. v. 4).
the excellence of character which the system Of course this is an enemy's version, but the
fostered would save the licence from abuse, if not evidence is distinct, pointed, and unquestionable.
turn it to most important intellectual ami re We find another strung evidence furnished by
ligious purposes. We shall be much deceived in Josephus [Antiq, xiv. 10. 6), where, giving cer
our estimate of the moral and social effects of the tain decrees of Julius Cassar m the terms in which
Juhilee, if we judge from what is probable in they were issued, he records these words :
regard to the overworked, uninstructed, and irre 1 Ca?sar hath ordained that the Jews pay a tribute
ligious thousands which crowd our modem cities or yearly excepting the seventh, which they call the
cover our fields. On the possibility of the land's Sabbatical year, because thereon they neither
affording sufficient food, we find the following receive the fruits of their trees, nor do they sow their
important passage in Palfrey's ' Lectures on the land ;* further on he says : * every year, the seventh
Jewish Scriptures,' Boston, 1841, vol. i. p. 303 : year excepted, which they call the Sabbatic year,
*I find no difficulty arising from any inadequacy whereon they neither plough nor receive the pro
of the produce of six years to afford sustenance to duct of their trees.* Another testimony is found
the people for seven. To say that this was in in I Mace. vi. 49: 'for they came out of the
tended would merely l>e to say that the design city (Bethura), lecause they had no victuals there
was that the consumption of each year should to endure the siege, it being a year of rest to
only amount on an average to six-sevenths of the land." In Kzekiel a passage occurs, when*
its pnxluce. In such an arrangement it can beyond a question the year of Jubilee is intended
not be thought that there was anything imprac (x] vi. 17) : ' if he give a gift of his inheritance to
ticable. There are states of this Union which one of his servants, then it shall be his to the year
export yearly more than half their produce, of liberty.' But there is a j)assage in Isaiah (Ixi.
163
I, 2) which appears to us to furnish remarkable became a Roman province dependent on Syria
and satisfactory evidence that the Jubilee itself and governed by procurators, and this was its con
was observed before the captivity :1 The spirit of dition during our Lord's ministry. It was after
the Lord God is upon me, because the Lord hath wards for a time ]>artly under the dominion of
anointed me to preach good tidings unto the Herod Agrippa the elder (Acta xii. 1-19), but
meek, to proclaim liberty to the captives, and on his deatli it reverted to its former condition
the opening of the prison to them that are bound, under the Romans.
to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord* It is only Judaea, in the provincial sense, that
The words of Isaiah we consider very strong. requires our present notice, the country at large
It is admitted that they allude to the year of being described in the article Palestinb. In
Jubilee (Kranold De Anno Jubil&o, p. 80)but this sense, however, it was much more extensive
then they are poetry, not history. Why, what a than the domain of the tribe of Judah, even more
purblind objection is this! The clear implications so than the kingdom of the same name. There
of poetry are the l>est and truest history, for they are no materials for describing its limits with
are an appeal to what is generally known and precision ; but it included the ancient territories
recognised in the public mind. There would of Judah, Benjamin, Dan, Simeon, and part of
have been no pertinency in the words of Isaiah, Kphraim. It is, however, not correct to describe
bad not the Jubilee beeu a thing of which the Idumaea as not anciently belonging to Judah.
world around him had actual experience} just The Idumcea of later times, or that which be
a* the force and import of the words do not longed to Judaea, was the southern ]>art of the
appear to the mind of a modem reader, until he ancient Judah, into which the IdumsBans had
is acquainted with the Mosaic laws, and the iutruded during the exile, and the annexation of
Jewish observances on the point. which to Judaea only restored what had anciently
If, however, the essential clement of this system belonged to it.
of law, namely the Sabbatical year, was, as we In the rabbinical writings Judeea, as a division
have seen, an established institution in the days of of Palestine, is frequently called * the south,' or
Tacitus, Josephus, the Maccabees, Kzekiel, and the south country,' to distinguish it from Galilee,
Isaiah, we think the fair and legitimate inference which was called * the north* (Lightfoot, Chorog.
is in favour of those laws having been long pre Cent. xii.). The distinction of the tribe of Judah
viously observed, probably from the early periods into ' the Mountain,* 4 the Plain,' and 4 the Vale,'
of the Hebrew republic. Their existence in a which we meet with in the Old Testament (Num.
declining state of the commonwealth cannot xiii. 30), was preserved under the more extended
be explained without seeking their origin nearer denomination of Judaea. The Mountain, or hill
the fountain-head of those pure, living waters, country of Judaea (Josh. xxi. 11 ; Luke i. 39),
which, with the force of all primitive enthusiasm, was that 1 broad back of mountains,' as Lightfoot
easily effected great social wonders, especially calls it {Chorog. Cent, xi.), which fills the centre
when divinely guided and divinelv sustained. of the country from Hebron northward to beyond
J. R. B. Jerusalem. The Plain was the low country
JUD^A, the southernmost of the three divi towards the sea-coast, and seems to have included
sions of the Holy Laud. It denoted the kingdom not only the broad plain which extends between
nf Judah as distinguished from that of Israel. the sea and the hill country, but the lower parts
Hut after the captivity, as most of the exiles who of the hilly region itself in that direction. Thus
returned belonged to the kingdom of Judah, the the rabbins allege that from Bethoron to the sea is
name Judaea (Judah) was applied generally to one region (T. Hieios. Sheviith, ix. 2). The Vale
the whole of Palestine west of the Jordan (Hag. is defined by the rabbins as extending from En-
i. I, 14 ; ii. 2). Under the Romans, in the time gedi to Jericho (Lightfoot, Panergon, 2) ; from
of Christ, Palestine was divided into Judaea, Ga which, and other indications, it seems to have
lilee, and Samaria (John iv. 4, 5; Acts ix. 31), included such j^arts of the Ghor, or great plain of
the last including the whole of the southern the Jordan, as lay within the territory of Judaea.
part west of the Jordan. But this division was This appropriation of the terms is far preferable to
only observed as a political and local distinction, that of some writers, such as Lightfoot, who sup
for the sake of indicating the part of the country, pose 4 the Plain * to 1* the broad j>lain of the
just as we use the name of a county (Matt. ii. Jordan, and ' the Valley ' to l# the lower valley
1,5; iii. 1 ; iv. 2o ; Luke i. *5); but when the of the same river. That which is called the
whole of Palestine was to be indicated in a Wilderness of Jud<rat was the wild and in
general way, the term Judaea was still employed. hospitable region lying eastward of Jerusalem, in
Thus persons in Galilee and elsewhere spoke of the direction of the Jordan anil Dead Sea (lsa.
going to Judaea (John vii. 3; xi. 7), to distin xl. 3 ; Matt. iii. 1 ; Luke i. 80 ; iii. 2-4). We
guish the part of Palestine to which they were may have some notion of the extent northward
proceeding ; but when persons in Rome and other which Judara had obtained, from Josephus calling
places spoke of Judaea (Acts xxviii. 21), they Jerusalem the centre of the country (De Bell.
used the word as a general denomination for ihe Jltd. iii. 3. 5); which is remarkable, seeing that
country of the Jews, or Palestine. Indeed, the Jerusalem was originally in the northernmost
name seems to have had a more extensive appli border of the tribe of Judah. In fact, he describes
cation than even to Palestine west of the Jordan. the breadtli of the country as extending from the
It denoted all the dominions of Herod the Great, Jordan to Joppa, which shows that this city was
who was called king of Judaea; and much of in Judaea. How much further to the north the
these lay beyond the river. After the death of boundary lay, we cannot know with precision, as
Herod, however, the Judsa to which his son we are unacquainted with the site of Anuath,
Archelaus succeeded was only the southern pro otherwise Borceros, which he says lay on the
vince so called (Matt. ii. 22); which afterward* boundary line between Jud[?a and Samaria. The
161 JUDAEA. JUDAH.
mers fact that Josephus makes Jerusalem the 120; Nau.p.439; Roger, p. 182; Mariti, ii. 361;
centre of me land seems to prove that the pro Lindsay, ii. 70 : Stephens, ii. 219 ; Elliot, p. 408,
vince did not extend so far to the south as the 1U9; Olin, ii. 323).
ancient kingdom of the same name. As the
southern boundary of Judtca was also that of the JUDAH (HTliT, celebrated; Sept. *lotias)t
whole country, the questions connected with it fourth son of Jacob and Leah (b.c, 1755). The
belong to the article Palestine ; and it is only narrative in Genesis brings this patriarch more
necessary to remark that Josephus places the Ik?fore the reader, and makes known more of his
southern boundary of the Judsea of the time of history and character, than it does in the case of
Christ at a village called .Tardan, on the confines any other of the twelve sous of Jacob, with the
of Arabia Petraja. No place of this name lias single exception of Joseph. It is indeed chiefly
been found; and the indication is very indistinct, in connection with Joseph that the facts respecting
from the fact that all the country which lay be Judah transpire; ami as they have already l>een
yond the Idumaea of those times was then called given in the articles Jacob and Jokrph, it is
Arabia. In fixing this boundary, Josephus re only necessary to indicate them shortly in this
gards Iduma?a as part of Judsa, for he imme place. It was Judah's advice that the brethren
diately after reckons that as one of the eleven followed when they sold Joseph to the Ishmaelites,
districts into which Judaea was divided. Most instead of taking his life. By the light of his
of these districts were denominated, like our sulraequent actions we can see that his conduct
counties, from the chief towns. They were, on this occasion arose from a generous impulse,
I. Jerusalem; 2. Gophna; 3. Acrabatta; 4. although the form of the question he put to them
Thumna; 5. Lydda; 6. Emmnus ; 7. Pella; has been sometimes held to suggest an interested
8. Idumsa; 9. Engaddi ; 10. Herodium ; and motive :' What profit is it if we slay our brother
II. Jericho. and conceal his blood? Come, let us sell him,*
Judeca is, as the above intimations would sug &c. (Gen. xxxvii. 26, 27).
gest, a country full of hills and valleys. The Not long after this Judah withdrew from the
hills are generally serrated from one another by paternal tents, and went to reside at Adullam,
valleys and torrents, and are, for the most part, in the country which afterwards bore his name.
of moderate height, uneven, and seldom of any Here lie married a woman of Canaan, called
regular figure. The rock of which they are com Shuah, and hail by her three sons, Er, Onau, and
posed is easily converted into soil, which being .Shelah. When the eldest of these sons became
arrested by the terraces when washed down of fit age, he was married to a woman named
by the rains, renders the hills cultivable in a Tamar, but soon after died. Ashe died childless,
series of long, narrow gardens, formed by these the patriarchal law, afterwards adopted into the
terraces from the base upwards. In this manner Mosaic code (Deut. xxv. 6), required him to
the hills were in ancient times cultivated most bestow upon the widow his second son. This he
industriously, and enriched and beauti fieri with did : but as Otian also soon died childless, Judah
the fig-tree, the olive-tree, and the vine; and it is became reluctant to bestow his only surviving
thus that (lie scanty cultivation which still sub son upon this woman, and put her off with the
sists is now carried on. But when the inhabitants excuse that he was not yet of sufficient age.
were rooted out, and the culture neglected, the Tamar accordingly remained in her father's house
terraces fell to decay, and the soil which had at Adullam. She had the usual passion of
been collected in them was washed down into the Eastern women for offspring, and could not endure
valleys, leaving only the arid rock, naked and the stigma of having been twice married without
desolate. This is the general character of the l>earing children, while the law precluded her
scenery ; but in some parts the hills are beauti from contracting any alliance but that which
fully wooded, and in others the application of Judah withheld her from completing.
the ancient mode of cultivation still suggests to Meanwhile Judah's wife died, and after the
the traveller how ricii the country once was and time of mourning had expired, he went, accom
might be gain, and how l>eautiful the prospects panied by bis friend Hirali, to attend the shearing
which it offered* As, however, much of this was of his sheep at Timnath in the same neighbour
the result of cultivation, the country was probably hood. These circumstances suggested to Tamar
anciently, as at present, naturally less fertile than the strange thought of connecting herself with
either Samaria or Galilee. The present difference Judah himself, under the guise ofa loose woman.
is very pointedly remarked by different travellers ; Having waylaid him on the road to Timnatli,
and Lord Lindsay plainly declares that * all she succeeded in her object, and when the conse
Judaea, except the hills of Hebron and the vales quences began to be manifest in the jtersou of
immediately about Jerusalem, is barren and de- Tamar, Judah was highly enraged at her crime,
solute. But the prospect brightens as soon as you and, exercising the powers which l>elonged to him
quit it, and Samaria and Galilee still smile like as the head of the family she had dishonoured,
the land of promise/ But there is a seasonafter he commanded her to be brought forth, and com
the spring-rain*, and before the summer heat lias mitted to the llames as an adulteress. But when
absorbed all the moisture left by themwhen she appeared, she produced the ring, the brace
even the desert is clothed with venture; and at let, and the staff, which he had left in pledge
that season the valleys of Judaea present a refresh with her; and put him to confusion by declaring
ingly green appearance. This vernal season, how that they belonged to the father of her coming
ever, is of short duration, and by the beginning of offspring. Judah acknowledged them to be his,
May the grass upon the mountains, and every and confessed that he had been wrong in with
vestige of vegetation upon the lower grounds, have holding Shelah from her. The result of this pain
in general completely disappeared (see Pictorial ful affair was the birth of two sons, Zerah and
History of Palestine ; Introduct. pp. 3D, iO, 119, Pharez, from whom, with Shelah, the tribe oft*
JUDAH, TRIBE OF. JUDAH, KINGDOM OF. 164
Juflali descended. Pharez was the ancestor of pected. It seems however to have been usually
the line from which David, the kings of Judah, considered that the birthright which Reuben for
and Jesus came (Gen. xxxviii. ; xlvi. 12; 1 feited had passed to Judah under the blessing of
Citron, ii. 3-0 ; Matt. i. 3 ; Luke iii. 33). Jacob; and a sanction was given to this impression
These circumstances seem to have disgusted when, after the death of Joshua, the divine oracle
Judah with his residence in towns; for we find nominated Judah to take precedence of the other
him ever afterwards at his father's tents. His tribes in the war against the Canaanites (Judg.
experience of life, and the strength of his cha i. 2). It does not appear that any tribe was dis
racter, appear to have given him much influence posed to dispute the superior claim of Judah on
with Jacob; and it was chiefly from confidence its own account, except Ephraim, although in
in him that the aged father at length consented doing this Ephraim had the support of other
to allow Benjamin to go down to Egypt. That tribes. Ephraim appears to have rested its claims
this confidence was not misplaced has already to the leadership of the tribes upon tle ground
l>een shown [Joseph.] ; and there is not in the that the house of Joseph, whose interest it repre
whole range of literature a finer piece of true sented, had received the birthright, or double por
natural eloquence than that in which Judah offers tion of the eldest, by the adoption of the two sons
himself to remain as a bond-slave in the place of of Joseph, who became the founders of two tribes
Benjamin, for whose safe return he had made in Israel. The existence of the sacerdotal esta
himself responsible to his father. The strong emo blishment at Shiloh, in Ephraim, was doubtless
tions which it raised in Joseph disabled him from also alleged by the tribe as a ground of superiority
keeping up longer the disguise he had hitherto over Judah. When, therefore, Judah assumed
maintained, and there are few .who have read it the sceptre in the person of David, and when the
without being, like him, moved even to tears. sacerdotal establishment was removed to Jeru
We hear nothing more of Judah till he re salem, Ephraim could not brook the eclipse it had
ceived, along with his brothers, the final blessing sustained, and took the first opportunity of erect
of his father, which was conveyed in lofty lan ing a separate throne, and forming separate esta
guage, glancing far into futurity, and strongly blishments for worship and sacrifice. Perhaps the
indicative of the high destinies which awaited the separation of the kingdoms may thus be traced to
tribe that was to descend from him. the rivalry of Judah and Ephraim. After that
2. JUDAH, TRIBK OF. This tribe sprang separation the rivalry was between the two king
from Judah, the son of Jacob. When the Israelites doms ; but it was still popularly considered as
quitted Egypt, it already exhibited the elements representing the ancient rivalry of these great
nf its future distinction in a larger population tribes; for the prophet, in foretelling the repose of
than any of the otfier tribes possessed. It num a coming time, describes it by saying, * The envy
bered 74,000 adult males, being nearly 12,000 also of Ephraim shall depart, and the adversaries
more than Dan, the next in point of numbers, and of Judah shall be cut oft': Ephraim shall not envy
31,100 more than Ephraim, which in the end con Judah, and Judah shall not vex Ephraim1 (Isa.
tested with it the superiority among the tribes. xiii. 12).
During the sojourn in the wilderness, Judah 3. JUDAH, KINGDOiM OF. When the ter
neither gained, like some tribes, Dor lost like others. ritory of all the rest of Israel, except Judah and
Iu numbers had increased to 76,500, being Benjamin, was lost to the kingdom of Rehohoum,
12,100 more than Issachar, which had become a S]>ecial single name was needed to denote that
next to it in population (Num. i. 25). In the which remained to him ; and almost of necessity
first distribution of lands, the tribe of Judah re the word Judah received an extended meaning, ac
ceived the southernmost part of Palestine, to the cording to which it comprised not Benjamin only,
extent of fully one-third of the whole country to but the priests and Levites, who were ejected in
be distributed among the nine and a half tribes great numbers from Israel, and rallied round the
for which provision was to be made. This over house of David. At a still later time, when the
sight was discovered and rectified at the time of nationality of the ten tribes had been dissolved,
the second distribution, which was founded on and every practical distinction between the ten
an actual survey of the country, when Simeon and the two had vanished during the captivity,
and Dan received allotments out of the territory the scattered body had no visible head, except in
which had before been wholly assigned to Judah Jerusalem, which had been re-occupied by a por
(Josh. xix. 9). That which remained was still tion of Judah's exiles. In consequence the name
very large, and more proportioned to the future Judah (or Jexc) attached itself to the entire
greatness than the actual wants of the tribe. We nation from about the epoch of the restoration.
now also know, through the researches of recent But in this article Judah is understood of the
travellers, that the extent of good land belonging j>eople over which David's successors reigned, from
to this tribe, southward, was much greater than had Reholwam to Zedekiah. Under the article Iskael
usually been supposed, much of that which had the chronology of the two kingdoms has been dis
been laid down in maps as mere desert, being actu cussed, which, however, was not carried lielow the
ally composed of excellent pasture land, and in capture of Samaria. In the lower part of the list
part of arable soil, still exhibiting some traces of we lose the check which the double line of kings
ancient cultivation. When Judah became a afforded ; but for the same reason the problem is
kingdom, the original extent of territory assigned simpler. The only difhculty encountered here
to the tribe was more than restored or compen rises out of the ages assigned to some of the kings
sated, for it must have included the domains of of Judah. For this reason, in the following list,
Simeon, and we know that Benjamin was in all their ages are inserted, so far as they are
cluded in it. recorded. It has been thought sufficient to add
The history of the Judges contains fewer facts Winer's chronology to the dates as given above
respecting this important tribe than might be ex in the article Isiiakl.
IM JUDAH, KINGDOM OF. JUDAH, KINGDOM 07.
Father's he lived, would have been a great-grandfather (w
Yen Aget the male line) at the age of 47 ; a thing so un
Accession ot of Son's paralleled as to lead to the suspicion that the
Keign. Age. B. 0. Birth. later chronology, where we lose the double series
of kings, is less to be depended on. There is an
Rehoboam . . 17 41 975 apparent difficulty also as to Ahaziah, found in
Abijah . . 3 957 *22 2 Chron. xxii. 1, 2. That he was * 42 years old
Asa .... 41 !i.-)5 *22 at Ins accession is an obvious error for 22
Jehoohaphat . . 25 35 914 *22 (2 Kings viii. 26) : that he should have been the
TJehomm installed 1 8 32 youngest of many suns, and yet only 17 years
Lanm alone } (35) 89 25 younger than his father, is to be explained by bis
Ahaziah . 1 22 885 17 father already having many wives ; but still it U
[Queen Atbaliali] 7 884 remarkable.
Jehoash . . . 39 ? 7 878 22 Where polygamy prevails, the extermination of
Amaziah . 29 25 838 22 a royal house by the enmity of brothers is notori
Uzziah 63? 16 809 38 ously to lie dreaded, in spite ofthe number of pos
Jotham ... 16 25 757 43 terity which single monarchs can sometimes count.
Aliaz .... 16 20 741 22 That the bouse of David encountered this danger
Hezekiah . . . 29 25 726 10 is not expressly mentioned in the Kings. Two
MauoMeh . . . 55 12 696 42 massacres are therein found ; one of ' the brethren
Amon .... 2 22 641 45 of Ahaziah,1 * forty-two men/ the sons of Jehoram,
Josiah .... 31 R 639 16 by the hypocritical zeal of Jehu; and, almost
Jehoahaz . . . i 23 609 15 simultaneously, ' all the seed-royal' (the sons of
Jehoiakim, his bro Ahaziah?) by Queen Athaliah (2 Kings x. 13,
ther .... 11 25? 609 13f 14 ; xi. 1). Only an infant sou of Ahaziah (all
Jehoiacliin i 18 598 18 in fact must have l>een of tender age) was saved
Zedekiah, his fa from this slaughter, who, 44 years afterwards, was
ther's brotlier . n SI 598 38 assassinated by his own people (2 Kings xii. 20),
Zedekiah is deposed 588 as was his son Amaziah (xiv. 19), and at a later
period Anion (xxi. 23) ; but no massacre of the
The ages of Ahija.li anil Asa at their accession royal family accompanied either of these murders.
not being given, tna three first number* in the last In the Chronicles (2 Chron. xxi. 4) we read that
column are averages only. Rehoboam having been Jehoram slew all his brethren, the sfins of Jeho-
born 66 or 67 years before Jehoshaphat. It is shaphat, from jealousy of the power with which
cleaiiy impossible that Ahaz should have been their father had invested them ; and Jehoram*s
only 10 years older than his son Hezekiah. To own sons are said to have been all slain, but one,
lessen the absurdity, Mr. Clinton follows the by the Philistines and Arabians ; so that Ahaziah
reading of the Sept. in 2 Chron. xxviii. 1, which had no brethren left for Jehu to slay ; but
makes Ahaz 25 years of age at hit accession. * brethren 1 must be taken with some latitude to
But in 2 Kings xvi. 2, the Sept. has 20, so that mean * brothers' sons' (2 Chron. xxi. 4, 17 ; xxii.
no weigiit can be laid on its reading in the other 1, 8). It must, however, be confessed that this
iiassage. Besides, this is inadequate to untie the is irreconcilable with the chronology ; for at tide
cnot ; for it still remains thut Jotham was a time the age of Jehoram, their supposed grand-
grandfather by the male line at the age of 31 tathcr (had he Ik1en alive), would have been 38
(indeed, a year earlier in Mr. Clintons scheme, years ; so that the eldest of these * forty-two men *
who places the accession of Jotham in n.c- 756) ; could barely have been 6 years old. Some error,
nor is it probable that three kings in succession therefore, must be admitted in the narrative of
ascended the throne at the age of 25 years. It the Chronicler concerning Jehoram ami his son ;
arbitrary change must be used, the most effectual and, in fact, this is not the only point in which it
would he to lower the age of Hezekiali at his is inconsistent with that in the Kings. Jehoram
accession by 10 years; but no certainty on these is said to have received a letter from Elijah the
matters ran lie effected. A similar difficulty prophet (2 Chron. xxi. 12) at a time when he hud
occurs with Jehoiakim, whose father Josiah is already ascended into heaven, according to the
made to have I n but 13 years older than lie. Kings: also, in 2 Kings viii. 24, he is stated to
Since, however, it is probable that Jehoahaz was have been buried * with his fathers/ which is
older than Jehoiakim, perhaps the number 25, directly contradicted by 2 Chron. xxi. 20. To
which expresses Jehoiakim'a age at his accession, finish the subject of chronology it may be ob
is corrupt. served : (1.) It is remarkable that Jehoshabeath,
From Rehoboam to Jehoiachin are 16 genera the daughter of Ahaziah, should have Iteen wife
tions and 400 years, between the births of the first of Jehoiada the priest (2 Chron. xxii. 11). For
and last; which gives an average of 25 years to a as Jehoiada lived to the age of 130 (xxiv. 15),
generation. This is rather short for the direct line and died many years before Jehoash, the priest
of descent, especially when we consider that, where must have been some 70 venrs older than his
polygamy is practised, the eldest son is by no means wife. (2.) The date < 36 'years.' in 2 Chron.
so certain, when alive, to succeed to the throne as xvi. 1, is certainly wrong, since Baasha died in
with us. In fact, from the ages of their fathers the twenty-sixth year of Asa. The number 16
we may probably infer that Amon, Manasseh, instead of 36 would agree sufficiently well with
Jotham, and Uzziah, were younger sons, as Aba the history ; but we cannot with propriety so cor
ciAh is said to have been (2 Chron. xxii. 1). The rect the text, because of (lie date 35 in the last
three last generations of the scries together occupy verse of the preceding chapter} not to mention
but 164-13 + 18 = 17 years; so that Amon, had that the narrative in the Chronicles represents tin
JUDAH, KINGDOM OF. JUDAH, KINGDOM OF. 167
declension of the pious Asa as being only towards tural emendation. But if they have l>een cor
the end oi' his reign (xv. 17). Clinton overlooks rupted, it is by system, and on purpose ; for there
this, and wishes ( ' with many commentators ') to is far too great uniformity in them to be the result
interpret ' the thirty-sixth year of the reign of of accident. It ]>erhaps deserves remark, that in
Asa ' to mean ' the thirty-sixth year of the divided the book uf Kings no numbers of such startling
monarchy but this is not interpretation at all. magnitude are found. The army ascribed to
When the kingdom of Solomon became rent Rehoboam (1 Kings xii. 21) is, indeed, as in
with intestine war, it might have been foreseen Chronicles, 180,000 men ; but if we explain it of
that the Edomites, Moabites, and other surround those able to fight, the number, though certainly
ing nations would at once refuse their accustomed large, may be dealt with historically. See the
tribute, and become again practically inde article on Population.
pendent; and some irregular invasion of these As the most important external relations of
tribes might have beeu dreaded. It was a mark Israel were with Damascus, so were those of
of conscious weakness, and not a result of strength, Judah with Edom and Egypt. Some revolution
that Rehoboam fortified 15 cities (2 Chron. xi. in the state of Egypt appears to have followed the
5 11), in which his people might find defence reign of Shishak. Apparently the country must
against the irregular armies of his roving neigh- nave fallen under the power of an Ethiopian
ljours. But a more formidable enemy came in, dynasty ; for the name of the Lubim, who ac
Shishak king of Egypt, against whom the for companied Zerah in hi - attack on Asa, is gene
tresses were of no avail (xti. 4), and to whom rally regarded as proving that Zerah was from
Jerusalem was forced to open its gates ; and, from Scnnaar, the ancient Meroe. But as this inva
the despoiling of his treasures, Rehoboam pro sion was signally repulsed, the attempt was not
bably sustained a still greater shock in its moral repeated ; and Judah enjoyed entire tranquillity
effect on the Moabites and Edomites, than in the from that quarter until the invasion of Pharaoh-
direcl kwt: nor is it easy to conceive that he any necho. In fact it may seem that this success
longer retained the commerce of the Red Sea, or assisted the reaction, favourable to the power of
any very lucrative trade. Judged of by the Judah, which was already begun, in conse
number of soldiers recounted in the Chronicles, quence of a change in the policy of Damascus.
the strength of the early kings of Judah must have Whether Abijah had been in league witli the
l>een not only great, but rapidly increasing. The father of Benhadad I. (as is generally inferred
following are the armies there given : from 1 Kings xv. 19) may be doubted; for the
Rehoboam gathered 180,000 chosen men (2 address cannot be rendered, * Let- there be a
Chron. xi. 1). (Shishak attacked him with league between me and thee, as there teas between
60,000 horse, 1200 chariots, besides infantry.) my father and thine ;* and it possibly is only a
Abijah set in array 400,000 valiant men (xiii. hyperbolical phrase of friendship for, ' Let us be
% 1 7), and slew 500,000 of Jeroboam's 800,000 in close alliance ; let us count our fathers to have
in one battle. Asa had 300,000 heavy armed, been allies.' However this may be, Asa bought,
ind 280,000 light armed men (xiv. 8). (Zerah by a costly sacrifice, the serviceable aid of the
civaded him with 1,000,000 men and 300 cha- Damascene king. Israel was soon distressed, and
iots.) Jehoshaphat kept up : Judah became once more formidable to her south
300,000 under Adnah, ern neighbours. Jehoshaphat ap|>ears to have re
280,000 under Jehonahan, asserted the Jewish authority over the Edomites
200,000 under Amasiah. without \var, and to have set his own viceroy over
200,000 (light armed) under Eliadah, them (1 Kings xxii. 47). Intending to resume
180,000 under Jehozabad (xvii. 14-19). the distant commerce which had been so profitable
to Solomon, he built ships suitable for long voy
Total . 1,160,000 for field service. ages ('ships o/Torshish' as they are rightly called
* These waited on the king besides the garrisons in 1 Kings xxii. 43a phrase which the Chronicler
' in the fenced cities.' has misunderstood, and translated into 'shij to
After Jehoshaphat followed the calamitous go to Tarshish,' 2 Chron. xx. 36); but not hav
affinity with the house of Aliab, and the mas ing the advantage of Tyriau sailors, as Solomon
sacres of both families. Under Jehoioda the had, he lost the vessels by violent weather before
priest, and Jehoash his pupSl, no martial efforts they liad sailed. Upon this, Ahaziah, king of
were made ; but Amaziah son of Jehoash, after Judah, offered the service of his own mariners, pro
hiring 100,000 Israelites to no purpose, made bably from the tribe of Asher and othera accus
war on the Edomites, slew 10,000, and threw tomed to the Mediterranean; but Jehoshaphat
10,000 more down from the top of their rock was too discouraged to accept ins offer, and the
(xxv. 5, 6, 11, 12). His own force in Judah, experiment was never renewed by any Hebrew
from 20 years old and upwards, was numbered king. The Edomites, who paid only a forced
at only 300,000 choice men, able to handle spear allegiance, soon after revolted from Jehoram, and
and shield. His son Uzziah had 2600 military elected their own king (2 Kings viii. 20, 22). At
officers, and 307,500 men of war (xxvi. 12, 13). a later time they were severely defeated by Ama
Ahaz lost, in a single battle with Pekah, 120,000 ziah (2 Kings xiv. 7), whose son, Uzziah, fortified
valiant men (xxviii. 6), after the severe slaughter the tow" of Elath, Intending, probably, to resume
ne had received from Kezin king of Syria; after maritime enterprise; but it remained a barren
which no further military strength is ascribed to possession, and was finally taken from them by
the kings of Judah. As to all these numbers the Kezin, in the reign of Ahaz (2 Kings xvi. 6).
Vatican Sept. agrees with the received Hebrew The Philistines, in these times, seem to have fallen
text. from their former greatness, their league having
These figures have caused no small perplexity, been so long dissolved. The most remaikable event
and have suggested to some the need of conjec in which they are concerned is 1 he assault on Je
168 JUDAH, KINGDOM OF. JUDAH, KINGDOM OF.
rusalem, in the reign of Jehoram (2 Chron. xxi. known in the house of David) between the crown
16, 17). and the priestly order; which, after Jehoiada's
It is strikingly indicative of the stormy scenes death, led to the murder of his son Zachariah.
through which the line of David passed, that tiie The massacre of the priests of Baal, and of Atlia-
treasures of the king and of the Temple were so liah, grand-daughter of a king of Sidon, must
ofren plundered or bargained away. First, under also have destroyed cordiality between the Pbcp-
Rehobnam, all the hoards of Solomon, consecrated nicians and the kingdom of Judah ; and when
and common alike, were carried oil' by Shishak the victorious Hazael had subjugated all Israel
(1 Kings xiv. 26). Two generations later, Asa and showed himself near Jerusalem, Jehoash
emptied out to Benhadad all that had since accu could look fornohelpfrom without, and had neither
mulated ' in the house of Jehovah or in the king's the faith of Hezekiah nor a prophet like Isaiah to
house.' A third time, when Hazael had taken supjtort him. The assassination of Jehoash in his
Oath, and was preparing to march on Jerusalem, bed by 4 his own servants' is described in the Chro
Jehoash, king of Judah, turned him away by nicles as a revenge taken upon him by the priestly
sending to him all' that Jehoshaphat, Jehoram, party fa his murder of * the sons' of Jehoiada;
Ahaziah and Jehoash himself had dedicated, and and the same fate, from the same influence, fell
all the gold that was found in the treasures of the ii]K>n his son Amaziah, if we may so interpret the
house of Jehovah and in the king's house' (2 words in 2 Chron. xxv. 27 : * From the time that
Kings xii. 18). In the very next reign Jehoash, Amaziah turned away from following Jehovah
king of Israel, defeated and captured Amaziah, they made a conspiracy against him,' &c. Thus
took Jerusalem, broke down the walls, carried off the bouse of David appeared to be committing
hostages, and plundered the gold and silver depo itself, like that of Saul, to permanent enmity
sited in the temple and in the royal palace (2 Kings with the priests. The wisdom of Uzziah, during
xiv. 11-11). A fiith sacrifice of the sacred and of a long reign, averted tins collision, though a
the royal treasure was made by Ahaz to Tiglath- symptom of it returned towards its close. No
pileser (2 Kings xvi. S). The act was re[>eated further mischief from this cause followed, until
by his son Hezekiah to Sennacherib, who had de tlu* reign of his grandson, the weak and unfor
manded * 300 talents of silver and 30 talents of tunate Ahaz : after which the power of the king
gold.' It is added, i Hezekiah cut off the gold dom rapidly mouldered away. On the whole i*
which he had overlaid, from the doors of the temple would appear that, from Jehoiada downward, the
and from the pillars' - Kings xviii. 1 1-16). In authority of the priests was growing stronger, and
the days of Josiah, as in those of Jehoash, the that of the crown weaker; for the king could not
temple appears to have l>een greatly out of repair rule successfully, except by submitting to (what
(xii. and xxii.) ; and when Pharaoh-necho, hav we might call) * the constitutional check' of the
ing slain Josiah,had reduced Judah to submission, priests; and although it is reasonable to believe
the utmost tribute that could be exacted was 100 that the priests became less simple-minded, more
talents of silver and one talent of gold. Even worldly, and less religious, as their order ad
this sum was obtained by direct taxation, and no vanced in authority (whence the keen rebukes of
allusion is made to any treasure at all, either in them by the prophets), it is not the less certain
the temple or in the king's house. It is the more that it was desirable for Judah, both in a temporal
extraordinary to find expressions used when Ne- and a spiritual sense, to have the despotic power
bucliadne2zar took the city, which at first sight of the king subjected to a strong priestly pressure.
imply that Solomon's far-famed stores were still The struggle of the crown against this control
untouched. * Nebuchadnezzar carried out all was perhaps the most immediate cause of the ruin
the treasures of the house of Jehovah and of the of Judah. Ahaz was probably less guided by
king's house, and cut in pieces all the vessels of policy than by suiterstition, or by architectural
gold which Solomon had made in the temple of taste, in erecting his Damascene altar (2 Kings
Jehovah' (2 Kings xxiv. 13). They must evi xvi. 1 0-1 But the far more outrageous pro
dently have been few in number, for in 1 Kings ceedings of Manasseh seem to have been a sys
xiv. 26, * all ' mus', at least, mean ' nearly all :' tematic attempt to extirpate the national religion
1 Shishak took away the treasures of the house of l>ecause of its supporting the priestly power| and
Jehovah, and of the king's house; he even took the * innocent blond very much,' which he is stig
away //.' Yet the vessels of gold and silver taken matized for shedding (2 Kings xxi. 16), was
away by Nebuchadnezzar and restored by Cyrus undoubtedly a sanguinary attack on the |>arty
are reckoned 5400 in number (Kzm i. 11). opposed to his impious anil desjtotic innovations.
The severest shock which the house of David The storm which he had raised did not burst in
received was the double massacre which it endured his lifetime; but, two years after, it fell on the
from Jehu and from Athaliah. After a long mi head of his son Amon ; and the disorganization of
nority, a youthful king, the sole surviving male the kingdom which his madness had wrought is
descendant, of his great-grandfather, and reared commemorated as the cause of the Babylonish
under the paternal rule of the priest Jehoiada, to captivity (2 Kings xxiii. 26; xxiv. 3, 4). It is
whom he was indebted not only for his throne but also credible that the long-continued des|x>tism
even for his recognition as a son of Ahaziah, was had greatly lessened patriotic spirit; and that
not in a situation to uphold the royal authority. the Jewish people of the declining kingdom were
That Jehoash conceived the priests to have abused less brave against foreign invaders than against
the power which they had gained, sufficiently kindred and neighbour trilies or civil opjionents.
appears in 2 Kings xii., where he complains that Faction hud l>ecome very fierce within Jerusalem
they had for twenty-three years appropriated the itself (Exek. xxii.), and civil bloodshed was com*
money, which they ought to have sjtent on the mon. Wealth, where it existed, was generally a
repairs of the temple. Jehoiada gave way ; but source of corruption, by introducing foreign
we see'herc the beginning of a feud (hitherto un luxury, tastes, manners, superstitions, immo*
JUDAS. JUDAS ISCARIOT. 19
rality, or idolatry; and when consecrated to consequently open to inquiry. Our conclusions
pious purposes, as by Hezekiah and Josiah, pro must be guided by the facts of the case, and the
duced little more than a formal and exterior re known feelings and principles of human nature.
ligion. Some hypothesis is necessarily formed by every
Thoroughly to understand the political working reader. That one of our Lord's immediate fol
of the monarchy, we ought to know, 1. What con lowers and delegates, the treasurer of his house
trol the king exercised over ecclesiastical ap|>oint- hold, who was admitted to his most secret coun
ments; 2. How the Levites were supported when sels, and to the observation of his most private
ejected from Israel; 3. What proportion of them character, should at that particular juncture
acted as judges, lawyers, and scribes, and how wait upon the Jewish rulers, and engage, for a
far they were independent of the king. The na pecuniary recompense, to lead their officers to his
ture of the case and the precedent of David may retiring-place, anil, after time for reflection,
salMy us that the king appointed the high- should actually fulfil his engagement, and thus
priest a* his own pleasure out of the Aaronites ; become the means of bringing his Master to the
but (as Henry II. of England und hundreds of cross, is a fact too nearly connected with the
monarch* tiesides have found) ecclesiastics once honour of Christianity to allow us to remain un
in office often disappoint the hopes of their patron, concerned as to his motives. Even the credibility
and to eject them again is a most dangerous of this part of the narrative depends upon our
exertion of the prerogative. The Jewish king being able to form a rational conception of them.
would iw'urally avoid following the law of de There is no reason to doubt his sanity. We can
scent, in oider to preserve his right of election neither ascribe his conduct to the mere love of
unimpaired ; and it maybe suspected that the evil, nor can we entertain the idea that it resulted
line of Zadok was rather kept in the background from an arbitrary decree or impulse of the Al
by royal jealousy. Hilkiah belonged to that mighty. His conduct might have been foreseen
line ; and if any inference can he drawn from (Acts i. 16), but surely it was not commanded.
his geirealogy, as given in 1 Chron. vi. 8-15, it Even supposing him to have been perfectly obdu
is, tut noneof his ancestors between the reigns rate, and judicially abandoned to fall by his own
of Solomon and Josiah held the high-priesthood. wickedness, we must still seek the proximate
Kven Azariah, who is named in 2 Chron. xxxi. cause of his ruin in his own intelligible motives.
10 as of the line of Zadok, is not found among But his well known confession and remorse
Ililkiahs progenitors. Jehoiada, the celebrated clearly prove that he was not wholly i
priest, and Urijah, who was so complaisant to the Had he been so, he would have persisted in his c
innovating Aliaz ('2 Kings xvi.), were of a dif duct, or have attempted to calumniate Jesus and
ferent family. It would seem that too many his disciples ; or, perhaps, under the auspices of
high-priest* gained a reputation for subservience the chief-priests, have headed a most powerful op
(for it ,oflen happens in history that the eccle position to Christianity. The only conceivable
siastical heads are more subservient to royalty motives for the conduct of Judas are, a sense of
than ill mass of their order) ; so that, after Hil duty in bringing his Master to justice, resent
kiah, the race of Zadok became celebrated for ment, avarice, dissatisfaction with the procedure
uprightness, in invidious contrast to the rest of the of Jesus, and a consequent scheme for the accom
priests; and even the Levites were regarded as plishment of his own views. Writh regard to the
more zealous than the generality of the Aaronites first of these motives, if Judas had (>een actuated
(2 Chn n. xxix. 34). Hence in Ezekiel and other by a sense of duty in bringing his Master tojustice
late wi iters the phrase ' the priests the sons of for anything censurable in his intentions, words,
Zadok, or even ' the priests the Levites,' is a more or actions, he would certainly have alleged some
honourable title than 4 the priests the sons of charge against him in his first interview with the
Aaron.' Hilkiah s name seems to mark the era chief-priests, and they would have brought him
at whicli (by a reaction after the atrocities of forward as a witness against Jesus, especially
Manasseh and Amon) the purer priestly senti when they were at so great a loss for evidence ; or
ment obtained its triumph over the crown. But they would have reminded him of his accusations
the victory came too late. Society was corrupt when he appealed to them after our Loid's con
and convulsed within, and the two great nowers demnation, saying, 1 I have sinned in that I have
of Egypt and Babylon menaced it from without. betrayed innocent blood' a confession which
True lovers of their God and of their country, amounts to an avowal that he had never seen
like Jeremiah, saw that it was a time rather for anything to blame in his Master, but everything
weeping than for action; and that the faithful to approve. Moreover, the knowledge of the
must resign themselves to the bitter lot which the slightest fault in Jesus would have served, at
sins of their nation had earned.F. W. N. least fur the present, to tranquillize his own feel
JUDAS is merely the Greek form of the ings, and prevent his immediate despair. The
Hebrew name Jluau. The Septuagiut, however, cbief-priests would also most certainly have al
represents Judah by 'lov5a, Juda, which we b'nd leged any charge he had made against Jesus,
also in Luke iii. 2b', 30, as the name of two of as a jusiitication of their conduct, when they
the ancestors of Christ not otherwise known. The afterwards endeavoured to prevent his apostles
persons named Judas were the following : from preaching in his name (Acts ir. 15*23;
1. JUDAS MACCABEUS. [Maccabees.] v. 27, 28-40). The second motive supposed,
2. JUDAS ISCARIOT. The object of this namely, that of resentment, is rather more plau
article is not to elucidate all the circumstances sible. Jesus had certainly rebuked him for
recorded respecting this person, but simply to blaming the woman who had anointed him in the
investigate his motives in delivering up Jesus to house of Simon the leper, at Bethany (comp.
the cilief-priests. The evangelists relate his pro Matt. xxvi. 8-17; John xii. 4, 5); and Mat
ceedings, but give no opinion. The subject is thews narrative seems to connect his going to the
170 JUDAS ISCARIOT. JUDAS ISCARIOT.
chief-priests with that rebuke (ver. 14). * Then lowing Jesus, could no longer be restrained, and
one of the twelve, called Judas Iscariot, went that our Lord's observations at Bethany served
unto the chief-priests ;' but closer inspection will to mature a stratagem he had meditated long
convince the reader that those words are more before. He had no doubt been greatly disap
properly connected with ver. 3. Besides, the re pointed at seeing his Master avoid being made a
buke was general, * Why trouble ye the woman V king, after feeding the five thousand in Galilee.
Nor was it nearly so harsh as that received by Many a favourable crisis had he seemed to lose,
Peter, 4 Get thee behind me, Satan* (Matt xvi. or liad not dared to embrace, and now while at
23), and certainly not so public (Mark viii. 32, Bethany he talks of his burial (John xii. 7) : and
33). Even if Judas had felt ever so much re though none of his apostles, so firm were their
sentment, it could scarcely have been his sole worldly expectations from their Master, could
motive ; and as nearly two days elapsed between clearly understand such * sayings' (Luke xviii.
his contract with the chief-priests and its comple 34) ; yet they had been made 1 exceeding sorry*
tion, it would have subsided during the interval, by them (Matt. xvii. 23). At the same time
and have yielded to that covetousness which we Judas had long been convinced by the miracles
have every reason to believe was his ruling passion. he had seen his Master perform that he was the
St. John expressly declares that Judas 'was a thief, Messiah (John vii. 31). He bad even heard
and had the bag, and bare (that is, conveyed away him accept this title from his apostles in private
from it, stole, i$dara(*y) what was put therein * (Matt xvi. 16). He had promised them that
(xii. 6; comp. xx. 15, in the original, and see when he should * sit upon the throne of his glory,
a similar use of the word in Joseph, p. 402. 39, ed. they should sit upon twelve thrones judging the
Huds.). This rebuke, or rather certain circum twelve tribes of Israel' (Matt xix. 28). Yet
stances attending it, might have determined him now, when everything seemed most favourable to
to act as he did, but is insufficient, of itself, to the assumption of empire, he hesitates and de
account entirely for his conduct, by which he en sponds. In his daily public conferences, too,
dangered all his expectations of worldly advance with the chief-priests and pharisees, he appears
ment from Jesus, at the very moment when they to offend them by his reproofs, rather than to
seemed upon the verge of beig fulfilled. It is, conciliate their favour. Within a few days, the
indeed, a most important feature in the case, that people, who had lately given him a tiininph.il
the hopes entertained by Judas, and all the apos entry into the city, having kept the passover,
tles, from their Master's expected elevation, as would be dispersed to their liomes, and Judas and
the Messiah, to the throne of Judaea, and, as they his fellow apostles be, perhaps, required to attend
believed, to the empire of the whole world, were their Master on another tedious expedition through
never more stedfast than at the time when he the country. Hence it seems most pro!>ahle that
covenanted with the chief-priests to deliver him Judas resolved upon the plan of delivering up
into their hands. Nor does the theory of mere his Master to the Jewish authorities, when he
resentment agree with the terms of censure in would be compelled, in self-defence, to prove his
which the conduct and character of Judas are claims, by giving them the sign from heaven they
spoken of by our Lord and the evangelists. Since, had so often demanded ; they would, lie believed,
then, this supposition is insufficient, we may elect him in due form as the King Messiah, and
consider another motive to which his conduct is thus enable him to reward his followers. He
more commonly ascribed, namely, covetousness. did, indeed, receive from Jesus many alarming
But if by covetousness be meant the eager de admonitions against his design ; but tlte plainest
sire to obtain 4 the thirty pieces of silver,' with warnings are lost upon a mind totally absorbed
which the chief-priests * covenanted with him' by a purpose, and agitated by many violent
(Matt xxvi. 15), it presents scarcely a less in passions. The worst he would permit himself to
adequate motive. Can it be conceived that expect, was a temporary displeasure for placing
Judas would deliberately forego the prospect of his Master in this dilemma ; but as he most likely
immense wealth from his Master, by delivering believed, judging from himself, that Jesus anti
him up for about four pounds ten shillings of our cipated worldly aggrandisement, he might cal
money, upon the highest computation, and not culate upon his forgiveness when the emergency
more than double in value, a sum which lie should have been triumphantly surmounted. Nor
might easily have purloined from the bag ? Is it was this calculation wholly unreasonable. Many
likely that he would have made such a sacrifice an ambitious man would gladly lie spared tlte
for any further sum, however large, which we responsibility of grasping at an empire, which he
may suppose ' they promwfrfhim' (Markxiv. 11), would willingly find foroed upon him. Sextus
and of which the thirty pieces of silver might Pompey is recorded to have rebuked his servant
have been the mere earnest (Luke xxii. 5)1 Had Menas, wlto offered to put him in possession of
covetousness been his motive, he would have ulti the empire by the treacherous seizure of the tri
mately applied to the chief-priests, not to bring umvirs, for not having, unknown to him, per
again the thirty pieces of silver with the confession, formed the service, which, when proposed to him,
4 1 have sinned in that I have betrayed the inno he felt bound in honour to reject (Suet Octav.).
cent blood1 (Matt, xxvii. 4), but to demand the In Shakspeare's version of his language
completion of their agreement with him. We are ' Ah, this thou shouldst have done,
now at liberty to consider the only remaining And not have spoke on't
motive for the conduct of Judas, namely, dissatis Being done unknown
faction witli the procedure of his Master, and a con I should have fouud it afterwards well done.
sequent sclicmefor the furtherance of his own views. Ant. and Cleop.
It seems to us likely, that the impatience of Judas Judas could not doubt his master's ability to
for the accomplishment of his worldly views, which extricate himself from his enemies by miracle.
we conceive to have ever actuated him in fuW He had known him do so more than once (Jjuke
JUDAS. JUDE. 171
iv. SO; John viii. 59; x. 39). Hence his direc sumamed Barsabas (son of Sabas), who was)
tions to the officers to ' hold him fast,' when he was proposed, with Matthias, to fill up the place of
apprehended (Matt. xxvi. 48). With other Jews the traitor Judas (Acts i. 23). Judas and Silas
he believed the Messiah would never die (Juhn (who was also of the party) are mentioned to
xii. 34); accordingly, we regard his pecuniary gether as 1 prophets ' and ' chief men among the
stipulation with the priests as a mere artful cover brethren.*
to his deeper and more comprehensive design; 4. JUDAS. [Jude.]
and so that he served their purpose in causing the 5. JUDAS, a Jew of Damascus with whom
apprehension of Jesus, they would little care to Paul lodged (Acts ix. 11).
scrutinize his motive. All they felt was being 6. JUDAS, sumamed the Galilsean (6 Ta\i-
* glad' at his proposal (Mark xiv. 11), and the AaTox, Acts v. 37) , so called also by Josephus
plan appeared to hold good up to the very mo (Antiq. xviii. 1. 6 ; xx. 5. 2; De Bell. Jxtd. ii.
ment of our Lord's condemnation ; for after his ap 8. 1 ), and likewise 1 the Gaulonite' (6 TavXovlrns ;
prehension his miraculous power seemed unabated, Antitj. xviii. 1. 1). In company with one Sadoc
from his healing Malchus. Judas heard him he attempted to raise a sedition among the Jews,
declare that he could even then * ask, and his father but was destroyed by Cyrenius (Quirinus), then
would give him twelve legions of angels' for his proconsul of Syria and Juda&.
rescue. But when Judas, who awaited the issue JUDE, or JUDAS CUttm). There were
of the trial with such different expectations, saw two of this name among the twelve Apostles
that though Jesus had avowed himself to be the Judas, called also Lcbbreus and Thaddaeus
Messiah, he had not convinced the Sanhedrim ; (Matt. x. 4; Mark iii. 18, which see), and Judas
and, iitstead of extricating himself from their Iscariot. Judas is the name of one of our Lord's
power by miracle, had submitted to be * con brethren, but it is not agreed whether our Lord's
demned, buffeted, and spit upon* by his judges brother is the same with the Apostle of this name
and accusers ; then it should seem he awoke [James]. Luke (Gospel, vi. 16; Acts i. 13)
to a full view of all the consequences of his calls him 'IouSas 'lajabfiov, which in the English
conduct. The prophecies of the Old Testa Authorized Version is translated 1 Judas, the brother
ment, ' that Christ should suffer,' and of Jesus, of James.' The ellipsis, however, between 'lovSas
concerning his own rejection and death, flashed and 'lan&cfiuv is supplied by the old Syriac trans
on his mind in their true sense and full force, lator (who was unacquainted with the epistle of
and he found himself the wretched instrument of Jude, the writer of which calls himself 'IouSaf
their fulfilment. He madj a last desperate effort a$e\$bs *IaK(6j9ov) with the wortl son, and not bro
to stay proceedings. He presented himself to the ther. Among our Lord's brethren are named James,
chief-priests, offered to return the money, con Jose*, and Judas (Matt. xiii. 50; Mark vi. 3).
fessed that he had sinned in that he had betrayed If, with Helvidius among the ancients (see Jerome,
the innocent blood, and upon receiving their Contra Ilelvidium), and Kuinoel, Neander, and
heartless answer was wrought into a phrenzy of a few other modern commentators, we were to
despair, during which he committed suicide. consider our Lord's brethren to be children of Jo
There is much significancy in these words of seph and the Blessed Virgin (an hypothesis which
Matt, xxvii. 3, 'Then Judas, when he saw he teas Kuinoel acknowledges to (>e incapable of proof
condemned, not expiring on the cross, ( repented from Scripture), we should be under the necessity
himself,' &c. If such be the true hypothesis of his of supposing that there was a James, a Joses, and
conduct, then, however culpable it may have been, a Judos, who were uterine brothers of our Lord,
as originating in the most inordinate covetous- together with the Apostles James and Judas, who
ness, impatience of the procedure of Providence, were children of Mary, the sister or cousin of the
crooked policy, or any other bad quality, he is Virgin (see Pearson On the Creed, art. iv.). If,
certainly absolved from the direct intention of however, the hypothesis of their being chiluren of
procuring his Master's death. * The difference,* the Blessed Virgin be rejected, an hypothesis in
says Archbishop Whately, 'between Iscariot and consistent with the ancient and universal tradition
his fellow a]H)stlt*s was, that though they all had of the perpetual virginity of the Virgin, a tra
the same expectations and conjectures, he dared dition the truth of which is received even by Dr.
to act on his conjectures, departing from the plain Lardner (Hist, of the Apostles), there remains for
course of his known duty to follow the calcula us only a choice between the two opinions, that our
tions of his worldly wisdom, and the schemes of Lord's brethren were children of Joseph by a for-
his worldly ambition.' The reader is directed to mer wife (Escha or Salome, according to an Apo
the Primate's admirable Discourse on the Trea cryphal tradition), which was the sentiment of the
son of Judas Iscariot, and Notes, annexed to majority of the fathers (still received in the Oriental
Essays on some of the Dangers to Christian church), and that adopted in the Western
Faith, Lond. 1839; Whitby on Matt, xxvii. 3, church, and first broached by St. Jerome (Cont.
for the opinions of Theophylact, and some of the Helvid.), that the brethren of our Lord were his
Fathers ; Bishop Bull's Sermo?ts, ii. and iii., On cousins, as being children of Mary, the wife of
some Important Points, vol. i., Lond. 1713; Cleophas, who must therefore be considered as the
Hales*s Acto Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. same with Alphecus [see James]. If we consider
b. ii. pp. 877, 878 ; Macknight's Harmony of James, the brother of our Lord, to be a different
the Gospels, vol. ii. pp. 427-30, Loud. 1822; person from James the son of Alphseus, and not
Rosenmiiller, Kuinoel, in loc.J. F. D. one of the twelve, Jude, the brother of James,
3. JUDAS, or JUDE, sumamed Baksabas, must consequently be placed in the same cate
a Christian teacher sent from Jerusalem to An- gory [James] ; but if they are one and the same,
tiocli along with Paul and Barnabas (Acts xv. Jude must be considered as the person who is
22, 27, 32). He is supposed to have been one of numbered with our Lord's Apostles. We are not
the seventy disciples, and brother of Joseph, also informed as to the time of the vocation of the
172 JUDE, EPISTLE OF. JUDE, EPISTLE OF.
Apostle Jude to that dignity. Indeed, the only apostolic source at least, if not its canonicity,
circumstance relating to him which is recorded was called in question by Luther (Walchised.
in the Gospels consists in the question put by vol. xiv. 150), Grotius, Bolten, Dahl, Berger,
nim to our Lord (John xiv. 22). 1 Judas saith and Michaelis, but it is acknowledged by must to
unto him (not Iscariot), Lord, how is it that be genuine. Indeed, the doubts thrown upon its
thou wilt manifest thyself to us, and not unto genuineness arose, as we have already seen, from
the world V Nor have we any account given of the fact of the writer having cited two apocryplial
his proceedings after our Lord's resurrection, for books (Enoch and the Assumption of Moses). In
the traditionary notices winch have been preserved reference to this subject Tertullian has a long
of him rest on no very certain foundation. It has statement, in which, from the fact that ' Enoch
been asserted that he was sent to Edessa, to had some value as an authority tcith the apostle
Abgarus, king of Osrbene (Jerome, Annot. in Jude,' he is disposed to uphold the authenticity
Matt), and that he preached in Syria, Arabia, of the book of Enoch. As, however, that book,
Mesopotamia, and Persia ; in which latter country which is still extant, is universally reckoned a
he suffered martyrdom (Lardner's Hist, of the spurious production, the circumstance of Judes
Apostles). Jude the Apostle is commemorated having employed a citation from it is one of the
in the Western church, together with the Apostle most difficult and embarrassing in sacred criti
Simon (the name, also, "of one of our Lord's cism, especially as Jude expressly calls Enoch the
brethren) on the 8th of October. There is an 1 seventh from Adam* (ver. 14). That the ancients
interesting account preserved by Hegesippus (Eu- were acquainted with the Prophecy of Enoch is
sebius, Hist. Eccles. iii. 20) concerning some of evident from the testimony of several of the
Jude's posterity : * When Domitian,' he observes, fathers, and from the copious fragments of it pre
'inquired after David's posterity, some grandsons served by Synccllus in his Chronography (Fa-
of Jude, called the Lord's brother, were brought bricii Cod. Pseud.), which were discovered by
into his presence. Being asked concerning their George Scaliger. None uf these, however, con
possessions and mode of life, they assured him tain the passage in Jude 14.
that they had thirty-nine acres of land, the value It was not until the eighth century that the
of which was nine thousand denarii, out of which book of Euoch sunk into oblivion. Since the
they paid him taxes, and maintained themselves commencement of the seventeenth century, how
by the labour of their hands. The truth of this was ever, it had been supposed tliat this long-lost book
confirmed by the hardness of their hands. Being was still extant in an Eihiopic version in Abys
asked concerning Christ and the nature of his king sinia, and this fact was fully established by
dom, they replied that it was not a kingdom ofthis Bruce, who first brought it into Europe [Enoch].
world, but of a heavenly and angelic nature; This work contains the words of the prophecy
that it would t>e manifested at the end of the cited by Jude ; but whether Jude cited it from
world, when he would come in glory to judge the book of Enoch, or from a Jewish tradition, is
the living and the dead, and render to every man a point still in delate. The decision of this
according to his works. Having observed their question is inseparably connected with tliat of
humble condition and their harmless principles, the age of the present book of Enoch, a point on
he dismissed them with contempt, after which which critics are not quite agreed. Dr. Lau
they ruled the churches, both as witnesses and rence (its learned translator) attributes the book
relatives of the Lord.' of Enocti to an early period of the reign of Herod
St. Luke (Acta xv. 22,27-33) speaks of Judas, the Great, to which time Hoffmann (Das Huch
the son of Barsabas, in company with Silas, both Henoch) also assigns it ; while Lucke and others,
of whom he styles * prophets,' and ' chief men who have subsequently investigated the subject,
among the bretliren.' Schott supposes that Bar place it in the second half of the first century,
sabas means the son of Sabas, or Zabas, which and after the destruction of Jerusalem (see Lucke,
he looks upon as an abridged form for Zebedee, Versuch einer vollstiindigen Einleitung in die
and concludes that the Judas here mentioned Offenbarung Johantus). It was a well known
was a brother of the elder James aud of John. book at the time of the writing of the Testament
JUDE, EPISTLE OF [Antileqomkna], of the Twelve Patriarchs at the close of the first
is placed by Eusebius among the controverted or commencement of the second century* [Re-
books (Hist. Eccles., vii. 25), having been rejected VKLATIONS, SpUKIOL's].
by many of the ancients. * Jude, the brother of The writer of the epistle is also supposed to
James,' says Jerome, 4 has left us a short epistle, have cited an apocryphal work (in ver. 9), where
which is one of the seven called Catholic, and he speaks of the dispute of the archangel Michael
because it cites a testimony from the apocryphal with the Devil respecting the body of Moses.
book of Enoch it is rejected by most. It has, Origeu found this very relation in a Jewish
however, obtained such authority by antiquity Greek book called the Assumption of Moses
and use that it is now reckoned among the Holy ('AytiAT^is MwtrVwr), ;uid was so persuaded that
Scriptures.* It is cited by Clemens Alexandriuus this was the book which Jude had cited, that he
(Strom, iii. 431), by Origen (Com. in Matt., quoted the work itself as of authority (Marsh's
&c. &c.J, and by Tertullian (De Habit. Fcem). It Michaelis, vol. vi. p. 379). The work is also
is also included among the books of the New cited by (Ecumenius (vol. ii. p. 629), where the
Testament in the ancient catalogue discovered by passage actually refers to the dispute of Michael
Muratori, a work of the second century. It is the archangel and the devil respecting the body
fouud in the catalogues of the Councils of Lao-
dicea, Hippo, and Carthage, and in the Apos- * A writer in the Christian Observer (vol.
tolical canons, but is wanting in the Peshito, or xxx.) attempts to prove the book of Enoch a work
ancient Syriac version. It is, however, cited as which could not have been written earlier than
of authority by Ephrem. In modem times its the middle of the second century.
JUDE, EPISTLE OF. JUDGES. 173
of Moses. There is a work still extant in He of these writers had seen the other's work ; but
brew, entitled Phetirah Moshe, or * The death of we shall reserve the discussion as to which was
Moses of this two editions have been published, the earlier writing until we come to treat of
one at Constantinople in 1518, and the other at St, Peter's Epistle. Dr. Lardner supposes that
Venice in 1514 and 160ft. De la Rue and other Jude s Epistle was written between the years 64
critics have supposed that this is the same work and 60, Beausobre and L'Enfant between 70 and
which was kiunvn to Origeu. lint Michael is lias 75 (from which Dodwell and Cave do not mate
shown that the present work is so unlike the rially differ), and Dr. Mill fixes it to the year 90.
former (besides containing quotations from the If Jude has quoted the apocryphal book of
Talmud also, and even from Aben Ezra), that, Enoch, as seems to be agreed upon by most mo
although it contains similar relations, it is un dern critics, and if this book was written, as
questionably a modern production. Liicke thinks, afler the destruction of Jerusalem,
Others, embarrassed by the circumstance of the age of our epistle best accords with the date
Jnde's citing an apocryphal book, not merely for assigned to it by Mill.
illustration, as St Paul cites Aratus, Menander, It is difficult to decide who the persons were to
and Kpimenides, but as of authority (as when he whom this epistle was addressed, some supposing
cites Enoch, the seventh from Adanx), have en that it was written to converted Jews, others to
deavoured to give a mystical explanation to all Christians without distinction. Many of the
Juile's assertion respecting the dispute about the arguments seem best adapted to convince the
body of Moses. Among these are Vitringa and Jewish Christiana, as appeals are so strikingly
Dr. Lardner. They think that by the body of made to their sacred books and traditions.
Moses is meant the Jewish nation, and that Jude The design of this epistle is to warn the Chris
alludes to the vision in Zech. iii. 1 ; and Vitringa tians against the false teachers who had insinuated
even proposes to alter the 'body of Moses' into themselves among them and disseminated dan
the ' Imdy of Joshua.' For the details of this in gerous tenets of insubordination ami licentious
genious explanation we must refer the reader to ness. The author reminds them, by the example
Lardner's Hist, of the Apostles. of Sodom and Gomorrah, that God had punished
Author, age, ArcNotwithstanding these diffi the rebellious Jews ; and that even the disobedient
culties, this epistle was treated by the ancients angels had shared the same fate. The false teachers
with the highest respect, and regarded as the to whom he alludes * speak evil of dignities,'
genuine work of an inspired writer. Although while the archangel Michael did not even revile
Ongen on one occasion speaks doubt fully, calling Satan. He compares them to Balaam and Korah,
it the ' reputed epistle of Jude,' yet on another to clouds without water, 'and to raging waves.
occasion, and in the same work (Com. in Matt.), Enoch, he says, foretold then wickedness; at the
he says. * Jude wrote an epistle, of few lines in same time he consoles believers, and exhorts them
deed, but full of the powerful words of heavenly to |>ersevere in faith and love. The epistle is
grace, who at the beginning says, " Jude, the ser remarkable for ihe vehemence, fervour, and energy
vant of Jesus Christ and brother of James."' ' The of its composition and style. W. W.
same writer (Com. in Horn, and De Princip. iii. JUDGES. This name is applied to fifteen per
2, i. 13S) calls it the writing of Jude the Apostle. sons who at intervals presided over the affairs of (he
The moderns are, however, divided in opinion Israelites during the 150 years which elapsed from
between Jude the apostle and Jude the Lord's the death of Joshua to the accession of Saul. The
brother, if indeed they le different persona : Hug \exm Judges, used in the English Bibles, does not
and De Weds ascribe" it to the latter. The author exactly represent the original D^pSE^' shopheHtn9
simply calls himself Jude, the brother of James,
and a servant of Jesus Christ. This form of ex i. e. ' rulers of the jwople," from ODC. which is
pression has given rise to various conjectures. not synonymous with judunrt; but signifies
Hug supposes that he intimates thereby a nearer in its general acceptation, causam alicujus agere,
degree of relationship than that of an apostle. Uteri (see Bertholdt, Theolog. Litt. Blatt. vii.1, sq. ;
This accords also with the sentiment of Clemens comp. Gesenius s.v. BSC). The station and office
Alexandrinus (Adumb.; Opp. ii. p. 1007, ed. of these shophctim are involved in great obscurity,
Venet)! 'Jude, who wrote the Catholic epistle, partly from the want of clear intimations in the
one of the sons of Joseph, a pious man, although history in which their exploits and government are
he well knew his relationship to Jesus, yet did recorded, and partly from the absence of parallels
not call himself his brother, but said, Jude, the in the history of other nations, by which our
servant of Jesus Christ (as the Lord), and the notions might l>e assisted. In fact the government
brother of James/ At the same time it must he of the judges forms the most singular part of the
acknowledged that the circumstance of his not Hebrew institutions, and that which appears most
naming himself an apostle is not of itself neces difficult to comprehend. The kings, the priests, the
sarily sufficient to militate against his Ijciug the generals, the heads of tribesall these olier some
npnstle of that name, inasmuch as St. Paul does points of comjKLrison with the same functionaries
not upon all occasions (as in Philippians, Thessa- in other nations; but the judges stand alone in
lonians, and Philemon) use this title. From his the history of the woild : and when we ih'ink that
calling himself the brother of James, rather than we have found officers resembling them in other
the brother of the Lord, Michael is deduces that nations, the comparison soon breaks down in some
he was the son of Joseph by a Conner wife, and point of importance, and we still find that no
not a full brother of our Lord's, as Herder thing remains but to collect and arrange the con
contends [Jambs, Jude]. From the great coin cise intimations of the sacred text, and draw our
cidence both in sentiment and subject which exists conclusions from the facts which it records.
between cur epistle and the second of St. Peter, The splendid administrations of Moses and of
it has been thought by many critics that one Joshua so fill the mind of the reader of Scrip
JUDGES. JUDGES.
ture, that after their death a sense of vacancy is Jehovah had taken upon himself the function
experienced, and we wonder how it happens that of king of the chosen people, and lie dwelt among
no successor to them was appointed, and how the them in his palace-tal>ernacle. Here he was
machinery of the government was to l>e carried always ready, through his priest, to counsel them
on without some similar leaders. But when we in matters of general interest, as well as in those
come to examine the matter more closely, we having reference only to ]articular tribes; and
perceive that the offices filled by Moses and m his court they were all required by the law to
Joshua, whose presence was so essential for the repair three times every year. Here, then, was
time and the occasion, were not at all involved in the principle of a general administration, calcu
the general machinery of the Hebrew government. lated and designed to unite the triltes into a nation,
These persons formed no part of the system : they by giving them a common government in all the
were specially appointed for juirticular services, higher and more general branches of adminis
for the performance of which they were invested tration, and a common centre of interest for all
with extraordinary powers ; but when their mis the political and ecclesiastical relations of the
sion was accomplished} society reverted to its community.
permanent institutions and its established forms It was on this footing that the law destined the
of government. It is, therefore, in the working government of the Hebrews to proceed, after the
of these institutions, after the functions of the peculiar functions of the legislator and the con
legislator and the military leader had ceased, that queror had been fulfilled.
we must look for the circumstances that gave rise The fact is, however, that, through the per
to the extraordinary leaders which engage our versity of the people, this settlement of the general
present attention. Now we shall tind that, apart government on theocratical principles was not
1".urn such offices as those of Moses and Joshua, a carried out in its proper form and extent) and it
very excellent provision existed for the govern is in this neglect we are to seek t he necessity fur
ment of the chosen people, both as regarded the those officers called Judges, who were from tiine
interests of the nation generally, as well as of the to time raised up to convct some of the evils
several tribes. which resulted from it. It is very evident, from
To this latter branch of the government it is the whole history of the judges, that after the
important to draw particular attention, l>ecause, as death of Joshua the Israelites threw themselves
it existed before the law, and is assumed through back upon the segregative principles of their go
out as the basis of the theocratical constitution, vernment by trilws, and all but utterly neglected,
we hear but little of it in the books of Moses, and and for long periods did utterly neglect, the rules
arc apt to lose sight of it altogether. This part of and usages on which the general government was
the subject belongs, however, to the art. Thiiik; established. There was, in fact, no human pSjSjsr
and it suffices to mentiuii in this place that every adequate to enforce them. They were good in
tribe had its own hereditary chief or 'prince,' who themselves, they were gracious, they conferml
presided over its affairs, administered justice in high privileges; but they were enforced by Mil
all ordinary cases, and led the troojis in time of sufficient authority. No one was amenable to
war. His station resembled that of the Arabian any tribunal for neglecting the annual feasts, or for
emirs, or rather, perhaps, ofthe khans of the Tartar not referring the direction of public affairs to the
tribes inhabiting Persia and the countries further Divine King. Omissions on these points involved
east, lie was assisted in these important duties the absence of the divine protection and blessing,
by the sutmrdinate officers, the chiefs of families, and were left to l>e punished by their consequences.
who fonnetl bit council in such matters of policy The man who obeyed in this ami other things, was
as afl'ected their particular district, supported his blessed ; the man who did not, was not blessed ;
decisions in civil or criminal inquiries, and com and general obedience was rewarded with national
manded tinder him in the field of battle (Num. blessing, and general disobedience with national
xxvi. xxvii. ; Josh. vii. 10-18). This was, in fact, punishment. The enormities and transgressions
the old patriarchal government, to which the into which the people fell in consequence of such
Hebrews were greatly attached. It seems to have neglect, which left them an easy prey to idoiatnuis
been sufficient for all the purposes of the separate influences, are fully recorded in the besjfe of
government of the tribes : but, as we find in simi Judges. The people could not grasp the idea of
lar cases, it was deficient in force of cohesion u Divine and Invisible King : they could not bring
among the tribes, or in forming them into a com themselves to recur to him in all those cases in
pacted nation. In fact, it was an institution suited which the judgment of a human king would have
to the wants of men who live dispersed in loosely determined the course of action, or in which his
connected tribes, and nut to the wants and exi arm would have worked for their deliverance.
gencies of a nation. It was in principle segre Therefore it was that God allowed them judges,
gative, not aggregative; and although there are in the persons of faithful men, who acted for the
traces of united agreement through a congress most part as agents of the di\ ine will, regents for
of delegates, or rather of national chiefs and the Invisible King; ami who, holding their com*
elders of the tribes, this was an inefficient in mission directly from him, or with Ins sanction,
strument of general government, seeing that it was would lie more inclined to act as dependent vas
only applicable or applied to great occasions, and sals of Jehovah than kings, who, as members of
could have no bearing on the numerous questions royal dynasties, would come to reign with notions
of an administrative nature which arise from of independent rights and royal privileges, which
day to day in every state, and which there should would draw away their attention from their true
somewhere exist the power to arrange and deter place in the theocracy. In this greater defwid
mine. This delect of the general government it enee of the judges upon the Divine King we see
was one of the objects of the theocratical institu the secret of their institution. The Israelites were
tions to remedy. disposed to rest upon their separate interests as
JUDGES. JUDGES. I7fl
tribes ; and having thus allowed the standing expect to receive the proposals, remonstrances, or
general government to remain inoperative through complaints of the people through some person re
disuse, they would in cases of emergency have presenting the whole nation, or that part of it to
been disposed * to make themselves a king like the which their intercourse applied. The law pro
nations,' had their attention not been directed to vided no such officer except in the high-ptiest;
the appointment of officers whose authority could but as the Hebrews themselves did not recognise
rest on no tangible -HpAl apart from character and the true operation of their theocracy, much less
services ; which, with the temporary nature of their were strangers likely to do so. On the officer
power, rendered their functions more accordant they appointed to represent the body of the people,
with the principles of the theocracy than those of under circumstances which compelled them to
any other public officers could be. And it is pro deal with foreigners mightier than themselves,
bably in this adaptation to the peculiar circum would naturally devolve the command of the
stances of the Hebrew theocracy that we shall army in war, and the administration of justice
discover the reason of our inability to find any in peace. This last was among ancient nations,
similar office among other nations. In being thus as it is still in the East, regarded as the first and
peculiar it resembled the Dictatorship among the most important duty of a ruler, and the interfer
Romans ; to which office indeed that of the judges ence of the judges was probably confined to the
has been compared; and perhaps this parallel is cases arising between different tribes, for which the
the nearest that can be found. Dut there is this ordinary magistrates would find it difficult to
great difference, that the dictator laid down his secure due authority to their decisions.
power as soon as the crisis which had called for its In nearly all the instances recorded the appoint
exercise had passed away, and in no case could ment seems to have been by the free unsolicited
this unwonted supremacy be retained beyond a choice of the people. The election of Jephthah,
limited time (Liv. ix. 34); but the Hebrew judge who was nominated as the fittest man for the exist
remained invested with his high authority during ing emergency, probably resembled that which was
the whole period of his life; and is therefore usually followed on such occasions; and pro
usually described by the sacred historian as pre bably, as in his case, the judge, in accepting the
siding to the end of his days over the tribes of office, took care to make such stipulations as he
Israel, amid the peace and security which his deemed necessary The only cases of direct divine
military skill and counsels had, under the divine anointment are those of Gideon and Samson, and
blessing, restored to the land. the last stood in the peculiar |>osilion of having
Having thus traced the origin of the office to been from before bis birth ordained * to begin to
the circumstances of the times and the condition deliver Israel.1 Deborah was called to deliver
of the rieople, it only remains to inquire into the Israel, but was already a judge. Samuel was
nature of the office itself, and the powers and pri called by the Lord to be a prophet, but not a
vileges which were connected with it. This is judge, which ensued from the high gifts which
by no means an easy task, as the nature of the the people recognised as dwelling in him ; and as
record enables us to perceive better what they were to Eli, the office of judge seems to have devolved
not than what they were, what they could not than naturally, or rather ex-ojficio, upon him ; and
what they could accomplish. his case seems to be the only one in which the
It is usual to consider them as commencing high-priest appears in the character which the
their career with military exploits to deliver Israel tlieocratical institutions designed for him.
from foreign oppression ; but this is by no means The following clear summary of their duties
invariably the case, Eli and Samuel were not and privileges is from Jahn (Bibliacket Archao-
military men; Deborah judged Israel before she logiey Hi. ii. bd. 1, sect. 22; Stowe's translation,
lanned the war against Jabiu ; and of Jair, ii. 80) :' The office of judges or regents was
] hzan, Elon, and Abdon, it. is at least uncertain held during life, but it was not hereditary, neither
whether they ever held any military command. could they apjtoint their successors. Their au
The command of the army can therefore l>e thority was limited by the law alone; and in
scarcelyconsidered thedistinguishing characteristic doubtful cases they were directed to consult the
of these men, or military exploits the necessary Divine King through the priest by Urim and
introduction to the office. In many cases it is Thummim (Num. xxvii. 21). They were not
true that military achievements were the means obliged in common cases to ask advice of the
by which they elevated themselves to the rank of ordinary rulers; it was sufficient if these did not
judges; but in general the appointment may be remonstrate against the measures of the judge.
said to have varied with the exigencies of the In important emergencies, however, they con
times, and with the particular circumstances voked a general assembly of the rulers, over
which in times of trouble would draw the public which they presided and exerted a powerful in
attention to persons who appeared suited by their fluence. They could issue orders, but not enact
gifts or influence to advise in matters of general laws ; they could neither levy taxes nor appoint
concernment, to decide in questions arising be officers, except perhaps in the army. Their au
tween tribe and tribe, to administer public affairs, thority extended only over those tribes by whom
and to appear as their recognised head in their they had been elected or acknowledged ; for it
intercourse with their neighbours and oppressors. is clear that several of the judges presided over
As we find that many of these judges arose during separate tribes. There was no income attached
times of oppression, it seems to us that this last to their office, nor was there any income appro
circumstance, which has never l*en taken into priated to them, unless it might I* a larger
account, must have had a remarkable influence share in the spoils, and those presents which
in the appointment of the judge. Foreigners were made them as testimonials of respect
could not be expected to enter into the pecu (Judg. viii. 24). They bore no external marks
liarities of the Hebrew constitution, and would of dignity, and maintained no retinue of cour-
176 JUDGES. JUDGES.
tiers, though some of them were very opulent. itself, for the most part, mentions only a few tribes
They were nut only simple in their manners, in which the epidemic prevailed, and notices long
moderate in tiieir desires, and free from avarice periods during which it had universally ceased.
and ambition, but noble and magnanimous men, Whatever may be the result of more accurate in
who felt that whatever they did for tiieir country vestigation, it remains undeniable that the condi
was aliove all reward, and could not be recom tion of the Hebrews during this period perfectly
pensed ; who desired merely to promote the public corresponds throughout to the sanctions of the law ;
good, and who chose rather to deserve well of tiieir and they were always prosperous when they com
country than to be enriched by its wealth. This plied with the conditions on which prosperity was
exalted patriotism, like everything else connected promised tliem ; it remains undeniable that the
with politics in the theucratical state of the He government of God was clearly manifested, not
brews, was partly of a religious character, and only to the Hebrews, but to their heathen neigh
those regents always conducted themselves as the bours ; that the fulfilling of the promises and
officers of God ; in all their enterprises they relied threatening of the law were so many sensible
upon Him, and their only care was, that their proofs of the universal dominion of the Divine
countrymen should acknowledge the authority of King of the Hebrews ; and, consequently, that all
Jehovah, their invisible king (Judg. viii. 22. sq. ; the various fortunes of that nation were so many
comp. Heb. xL). Still they were not without means of preserving the knowledge of God on the
faults, neither are they so represented by their earth. The Hebrews had no sufficient reason to
historians; they relate, on the contrary, with the desire a change in their constitution ; all required
utmost frankness, the great sins of which some was, that they should observe the conditions on
of them were guilty. They were not merely de which national prosperity was promised them.'
liverers of the state from a foreign yoke, but The chronology of the period in which the
destroyers of idolatry, foes of ]>agau vices, pro judges ruled is tteset with great and jierhaps in
moters of the knowledge of God, of religion, and alterable difficulties. There are intervals of time
of morality; restorers of theocracy in the minds the extent of which is not specified; as, for
of the Hebrews, and jwwerful instruments of instance, that from Joshua's death to the yoke of
Divine Providence in the promotion of the great Cushan Rishathaim (ii. 8); that of the rule of
design of preserving the Hebrew constitution, Shamgar (iii. 31); that between Gideon's death
and, by that means, of rescuing the true religion and Abimelech's accession (viii. 31, 32); and
from destruction/ that of Israel's renewal of idolatry previous to
The same writer, in the ensuing section, gives a their oppression by the Ammonites (x. 6, 7).
clear view of the general condition of the Hebrews Sometimes round numbers seem to have been
in the time of the judges. 4 By comparing the given, as forty years for the rule of Othniel, forty
periods during which the Hebrews were oppressed years for thut of Gideon, and forty years also for
by their enemies, with tlrnse in which they were ihe duration of the oppression by the Philistines.
independent and governed by their own constitu Twenty years are given for the subjection In
tion, it is apparent that 1 lie nation in general ex Jabin, and twenty years for the government of
perienced much more prosperity than adversity in Samson ; yet the latter never completely con
the time of the judges. Their domiuion con quered the Philistines, who, on the contrary,
tinued four hutidred and fifty years ; but the whole succeeded in capturing him. Some judges, who
time of foreign oppression amounts only to one are commonly considered tu have been successive,
hundred and eleven years, scarcely a fourth part were in all probability coiitem|H>raneous, and
of th.it period. Even during these one hundred ruled over different districts. Under these cir
and eleven years, the whole nation was seldom cumstances, it is iinjtosnble to fix the date of each
under the yoke at the same time, but for the most particular event in the hook of Judges; but
part separate tribes only were held in servitude ; attempts have been made to settle its general
nor were their oppressions always very severe ; and chronology, of which we must in this place men
all the calamities terminated in the advantage tion the most successful.
and glory of the people, so soon as they aUilished The whole period of the judges, from Joshua to
idolatry and returned to their King, Jehovah. Eli, is usually estimated at 299 years, in order to
Neither was the nation in such a state of anarchy meet the ISO years which (I Kings vi. 1) axe
at this time as had been generally supjwsed. said to have elapsed from the departure of the
There were tegular judicial tribunals at which Israelites from Egypt to the foundation of the
justice could be obtained ; anil when there was temple by Solomon. But St. Paul says (Acts
no supreme regent, the public welfare was pro xiii. 20), ' God gave unto the people of Israel
vided for by the ordinary rulers' (Ruth iv. 1-11 ; judges uUitit (lie space of 450 years until Samuel,
Judg. viii. 22; x. 17, IS- xi. 1-11; 1 Sam. iv. the prophet.' Again, if the number of years spe
1 ; vii. 1-2). cified by the author of our itook, in stating facts,
1 These times would certainly not le considered is summed up, we have 410 years, exclusive of
so turbulent and barbarous, much less would they those years not specified for certain intervals of
be taken, contrary to the clearest evidence and to time above mentioned. In order to leduce these
the analogy of all history, for a heroic age, if they 410 years and upwards to 299, events and reigns
were viewed without the prejudices of a precon must, in computing their years of duration^ either
ceived hypothesis. It must never U' forgotten that be entirely passed over, or, in a most arbitrary
the book of Judges is by no means a complete way, included in other lteriods preceding or sub
history. This uo impartial inquirer can ever deny. sequent. This has t>eeu done by Archbishop Usher,
It is, in a manner, a mere register of diseases, whose peculiarly faulty system has been adopted
from which, however, we have no right to conclude in the Authorized Version of the Scriptures. He
that there were no healthy men, much less that excludes the repeated intervals during which the
there were no healthy seasons ; since the Iwok Hebrews were in subjection to their enemies, and
JUDGES JUDGES. 177
reckons only the years of peace and rest which were the Hebrew or Greek Bibles in the days of Jo
aligned to the successive judges. For example, sephus ; for he alludes to the verse in which it is
he passes over the eight years of servitude in contained without making the slightest observa
flicted upon the Hebrews by Cushan-rishathaim, tion in regard to it, although the period which he,
and, without any interruption, connects the peace at the same time, states as having elapsed between
obtained by the victories of Othniel with that the exode and the foundation of the temple, is
which had been conferred on the land by the directly at variance with it to the extent of not
government of Joshua; and although the sacred less than 112 years (Antiq. viii. 3). If the num
historian relates in the plainest terms possible that ber 1 480 years' had then existed in the text, he
the children of Israel served the king of Mesopo could not, while referring to the passage where it
tamia eigtit years, and were afterwards delivered is now inserted, have dared to state a numlier so
by Othniel, who gave the land rest forty years, very different* Then we have the testimony of
the archbishop maintains that the forty years now St. Paul (Acts xiii. 20), who makes the rule of
mentioned began, not after the successes of this ' the judges until Samuel' extend over 450 years,
judge, but immediately after the demise of Joshua. which, with the addition of ascertained num
Nothing certainly can be more obvious than that bers, raises the amount for the whole jwriod to
In this case the years of tranquillity am! the years 592 years. This evidence seems so conclusive
of oppression ought to be reckoned separately. that it is scarcely necessary to add any other;
Again, we are informed by the sacred writer, that but it may be mentioned that Origen, in his
after the deatli of Ehud the children of Israel Commentary on St. John^ cites I Kings vi. 1,
were under the oppression of Jabin king of Hazor and even mentions the year of Solomon's reign,
for twenty years, and that afterwards, when their and the mouth in which he began to build the
deliverance was effected by Deborah and Barak, temple, without the slightest notice of the number
the land had rest forty years. Nothing can be of years (as now staled in the text) which inter
clearer than this; yet Usher's system leads him vened between that event and the exode. It has
to include the twenty years of oppression in (lie consequently been inferred, with good reason, that
forty of peace, making Imtli but forty years. All in a.u. 2J0, when Origen wrote, the interpolation
this arises from the obligation which Usher un of the date in question had not yet taken place.
fortunately conceived himself under of following Eusebius, however, in his Chronicon, written
the scheme adopted by the Masoretic Jews, who, about a.d. 325, does use the date as the basis of
as Dr. Hales remarks, have by a curious inven a chronological hvixrthesis; whence it is inferred
tion included tiie four first servitudes in t tie years that the date was inserted about the beginning of
of the judges who put an end to them, contrary the fourth century, and probably under the direc
to the express declarations of Scripture, which tion of the Masoretic doctors of Tiberias. It is
represents the administrations of the judges, not us also to Ie remarked that Eusebius, in the Preep.
synchronising with the servitudes, but as succeed Evangclica* a work written some years after the
ing them. The Rabbins were indeed forced to Chronicon, and in all his other works, uses the
allow the fifth servitude to have been distinct more common and ancient system of dates.
from the administration of Jephthah, because it It may also be remarked that even the ancient
was too long to be included in that administra versions, as l hey at present exist, do not agree in
tion ; but they deducted a year from the Scrip the number. The present copies of the Septuagint,
ture account of the servitude, making it only six for instance, have 440, not 480 years ; on which
instead of seven years. They sank entirely the and other grounds some scholars, who have hesi
sixth servitude of forty years under the Philistines, tated to regard the text as an interlopation, have
Itfcause it was too long to be contained in Sain deemed themselves authorized to alter it to 592
son's administration; and, to crown all, they years instead of 480, producing in this way the
reduced Saul's reign of forty years to two years same result which would be obtained if ti e text
only. had no existence. This, it has been alieady
The necessity for all these tortuous operations remarked, is the_ number given hy Josephus
has arisen from a desire to produce a confonnity (Antiq. viii. 3. 1), nod is in agreement with the
with the date in 1 Kings vi. 1, which, as already statement of St. Paul. The computation of the
cited, gives a period of only 480 years from the Jews in China has also been produced in support
Exode to the inundation of Solomon's temple. of it (see Isaac Voss, Dissert, de LXX. Interp.
.As this date is incomnatible with the sum of the eorumqut t~"tnslat time et chronologia. Hags
different numbers given in the U>ok of Judges, Comit 16o*i. 4; Michaelis, Orientalischc Bib-
and as it differs from the computation of Josephus liothek, v. feH). There would then be for the
and of all the ancient writers on the subject, period from Moses's death to Saul's accession
whether Jewish or Christian, it is not unsatis 468 years, and the whole lieriod of the jodgea
factory to find grounds which leave this text from the death of Joshua to that of Samuel might
oj>en to much doubt and suspicion. We cannot be estimated at 450 years, agreeably to Acts xiii.
here enter into any lengthened proof ; but that 20. If we add to these 450 years forty years for
the text did not exist in the Hebrew and Greek the march in the desert, eighty-four years lor the
copies of the Scripture till nearly three cen reign of Saul, David, and Solomon, until the
turies after Christ, is evident from the absence foundation of the temple, the amount would be
of all reference to it in the works of the learned 574 years. For the time when Joshua acted as
men who composed histories of the Jews from an independent chieftain, eighteen years may be
the materials supplied to them in the sacred counted, which added to 574 would make up the
liooks. This may be shown by reference to va above number of 592 years (comp. Michaelis,
rious authors, who, if the number specified in it Orientalische Bibliothekj v. 228, whose arrange
had existed, could not fail to have adduced it. ment of years differs in some points from the
I. particular, it is certain that it did not exist in above). It must, however, be observed that the
VOL. II. N
178 JUDGES. JUDGES.
number of 450 years represents only the sum northern tribes, for which (Judg. it. 12) are reck
total of all chronologically ~t < i ii- . 1 facts of our oned forty years. lie next estimates the period
book down to the death of Eli, ami does not in from the distribution of the land under Joshua to
clude the intervals of time of which the years are tiie invasion hy the king of Mesopotamia at ten
not given. The statement of Joseph us ahove re years, and the period from the time when the
ferred to rests only on his own individual computa Philistines were conquered until the death ot
tion, and is contrary to another statement of the Saul at thirty-nine years, thus making up the
same author (Antiq. xx. 10; Cont. Apion, ii. 2). aliove nnmfaw of 480 years. In this attempt at
The latest attempt towards settling the chro settling 1 lie chronology of the book of Judges
nology of the Judges is that of Dr. Keil, in Dr. Kiel evinces great ingenuity and teaming :
his work DwpUche liettragc zu den Thcolo* but it apfiears that his computations rest on his
gUchen Wissenschaften, or, * Contributions to torical and chronological assumptions which can
wards the furtherance of the theological sciences,' never l>e fully established. In order satisfactorily
by professors of the university of Dorpat. He to settle the chronology we lack sufficient data,
supports the number of years hi 1 K and the task has t herefore lieen abandoned by the
vi. I, and from the invasion of Cushan-rishathaim ablest modern critics, as Kichhom, De Wette, and
to Jair (Judg. iii.-x.) retains the chronological others. Nothing tieyond general views is attain
statements of our book for events which be con able on this subject.
siders successive. But the period of the domina Having explained this matter, it only remains
tion of the Philistines over the (western) Israelites to arrange the different systems of the chronology
until the death of Saul, a space of seventy-nine of this period so as to exhibit them in one view
years, he considers contemporaneous with the time to the eye of the reuder. It has been deemed
of oppression find deliverance of the eastern ami right, for the better apprehension of the differences,
J
KANEH BOSEM- KARCOM.
as tho,t which produced tlie aromatic reed; while which the calamus aromatic** or sweet-cane
Dioscorides, the only author who writes ex has received, than any other plant that has been
pressly of the drugs known to the ancients, men described, even the attar of roses hardly excepted.
tions it being the produce of India. Bochart That a grass similar to the fragrant andropogon,
argues against India being the sole country pro or at least one growing in the same kind of soil and
ducing calamus, liecause he supposes that it could climate, was employed by the ancients, we have
not have been open to commerce in those early evidence in the fact of the Phoenicians who ac
times : 4 Tamen solum in India crevisse non companied Alexander in his march across the
concesserim, cum Mosis tevo Judxis jam fuerit arid country of Gedrosia having recognised and
notus, ejusque adeo mentio fiat, Exod. xxx. 23. loaded their cattle with it, as one of the perfumes
Indiam enim Judaeis, aut vicinis gentibus, jam of commerce. It is in a similar country, that is,
turn fuisse apertam, mild nou fit verisimile ' the arid plains of Central India, that the above
(Hieroz. pars ii. lib. v. c. 6). Dr. Vincent, on the andropogon calamus aromaticus is found, and
contrary (Pert'pltts ofthe Erythrcean Sea, ii. 365), where Hie fragrant essential oil is distilled from
says, So far as a private opinion is of weight, I its leaves, culms, and roots (Essay on Hindoo
am fully persuaded that this line of communica Medicine, p. 142).
tion with the East is the oldest in the world- If we compare the foregoing statement with the
older than Moses or Abraham.' Indeed it is now different passages of Scripture, we shall find that
generally acknowledged that India and Egypt this fragrant grass answers to all that is required.
must have had commercial intercourse during the Thus in Exod. xxx. 23, the fragrant reed, along
flourishing state of the kingdom of the Pharaohs. with the principal spices, such as myrrh, sweet
For in this way only can we account for numerous cinnamon, and cassia, is directed to be made into
Indian products being mentioned in the Bible, an oil of holy ointment. So the calamus aro
and for their being known to the early Greek maticus may be found mentioned as an ingredient
writers. Many of these substances are treated of in numerous fragrant oils and ointments, from the
under their respective heads in this work. time of Theophrastus to that of the Arabs. Its
The author of the present article, in his Essay essential oil is now sold in the shops, but under
on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, p. 33, the erroneous name of oil of spikenard, which
remarks, ' With this (that is, the true Spikenard is a very different substance [NakdI. In Cant,
or Nahd) has often been confounded another iv. 14 it is mentioned along with spikenard,
far-famed aromatic of Eastern climes, that is, the saffron, cinnamon, trees of frankincense, myrrh,
true calamus aromaticus, ndXa/xos apufxaruchs of and aloes. Again, its value is indicated in Isa.
Dioscorides, said by him to grow in India. This (xliii. 24) * thou hast bought me no sweet cane
he descril>e immediately after o'xotvos, trans with money and that it was obtained from a dis
lated juncus odoratus, a produce of Africa and tant land is indicated in Jer. vi. 20, 1 to what pur
Arabia, ami generally acknowledged by botanists pose cometh there to me incense from Sheha, and
to be the andropogon schcetumthus, or lemon-grass, the sweet cane from a far country?'while the
a native both of Arabia and India, perhaps also route of the commerce is pointed out in Ezek.
of Africa. The calamus aromaticus immediately xxvii. 19, * Dan also and Javan going to and fro
following this, stated to be also a native of India, occupied in thy fairs : bright iron, cassia, and
and among other uses being mixed with ointments calamus were in thy market' To the Scripture
on account of its odour, appears to me to have notices, then, as well as to the description of
been a plant allied to the former. There is no Dioscorides, the tall grass which yields the fra
plant which more closely coincides with every grant grass-oil of Central India answers in every
thing that is required, that is, correspondence in respect : the author of this article consequently
description, analogy to trxowos, the possession of named and figured it as the Kaneh bosem in his
remarkable fragrance and stimulant properties, Illustr. of Himal. Botany, p. 425, t. 97.
being costly, and the produce of a far country, J. F. R.
than the plant which yields the fragrant grass- KARCOM (Dbn? ; Sept. Kp6tcos) occurs only
oil of Namur (Calcutta Med.Trans. vol. i. p. 367). once in the Old Testament, viz. in Cant. iv. 14,
This oil has been already described by Mr.Hatchett where it is mentioned along with several fragrant
(On the Spikenard of the Ancients'), who refers it and stimulant substances, such as spikenard, cala
to andropogon Jicarancusa. It is derived, how mus, and cinnamon, trees of frankincense, myrrh,
ever, as appears by specimens in my possession, and aloes (ahalim) ; we may, therefore, suppose
from a different plant; to which, believing it to that it was some substance possessed of similar
be a new species, I have given the name of an* properties. The name, however, is so similar
dropogon calamus aromaticus1 (p. 34). * This
species is found in Central India, extends north to the Persian J} karkam, and both to the
as far as Delhi, and south to between the God-
avery and Nagpore, where, according to Dr. Mal- Greek KpSitos, that we have no difficulty in trac
colmson, it is called spear-grass. The specimens ing the Hebrew karcom to the modern crocus or
which Mr. H. obtained from Mr. Swinton, I have saffron ; but, in fact, the most ancient Greek
had an opportunity of examining: they are iden translators of the Old Testament considered
tical with my own from the same part of India' Kp6t<os as the synonyme for karcom. It is also
(Royle, Illust. Himal. Bot. p. 425). probable that all three names had one common
As this plant is a true grass, it has necessarily origin, saffron having from the earliest times
reed-like stems (the cvpiyyta of Dioscorides). been cultivated in Asiatic countries, as it still is
They are remarkable for their agreeable odour: so in Persia and Cashmere. Crocus is mentioned
are the leaves when bruised, and also the delight by Homer, Hippocrates, and Theophrastus. Dios
fully fragrant oil distilled from them. Hence it corides describes the different kinds of it, and
|>pirs more fully entitled to the commendations Pliny states that the benches of the public theatre*
198 KARCOM. KARPAS.
were strewed with saffron : indeed ' the ancients chiefly from France and Spain, though it is alse
frequently made use of this flower in perfumes. sometimes prepared from the native crocus culti
Not only saloons, theatres, and places which were vated for this purpose. Saffron was formerly
to be filled with a pleasant fragrance were strewed highly esteemed as a stimulant medicine, and
with this substance, but all sorts of vinous tinc still enjoys high repute in Eastern countries, both
tures retaining the scent were made of it, and as a medicine and as a condiment.J. V. R.
this costly perfume was poured into small foun
tains, which diffused the odour which was so KARPAS (05*13) occurs in the book of
highly esteemed. Even fruit and confitures placed Esther (i. 6), in the description of the hangings
before guests and the ornaments of the rooms ' in the court of the garden of the king's palace,'
were spread over with it. It was used for the at the time of the great feast given hi the city
same purposes as the modern ]x>t-j>ourri 1 fRosen- Shiishan, or Susan, by Ahasuerus, who ' reigned
miiller, Bibl. Hot. n. 138). In the present day from India even unto Ethiopia.' We sue told Uiat
a very high price is given in India for saffron there were white, preen (karpas). and blue hang
imported from Cashmere ; native dishes are often ings fastened with cords of fine linen and purple
coloured and flavoured with it, and it is in high to silver rings and pillars of marble. Karpa*
esteem as a stimulant medicine. The common is translated green in our version, on the autho
name, saffron, is no doubt derived from the rity, it is said, * of the Chaldee fiaraphrase,'
where it is interpreted leek-green. Rosenmiiller
Arabic fgyJ&J safiran, as are the corresponding and others derive the Hebrew word from tha
terms in most of the languages of Europe. Arabic ^juJ^ kurvfs, which signifies 'garden
parsley,' apium petro$elinum, as if it alluded to
the green colour of this plant; at the same timo
arguing that as ' the word karpas is placed be
tween two other words which undoubtedly denote
colours, viz., the white and the purple-blue, it
probably also does the same.' But if two of the
words denote colours, it would appear a good rea
son why the third should refer to the substance
which was coloured. This, there is little doubt,
is what was intended. If we consider that the
occurrences related took place at the Persian
court at a time when it held sway even unto
India, .ui*l that the account is by some supposed
to have been originally written in the ancient
language of Persia, we may suppose that some
foreign words may have been introduced to in
dicate even an already well-known substance :
but more especially so if the sulistauce itself wasj
then tint made known to the Hebrews.
The Hehrew karpas is very similar to the
Sanscrit kurjxuum, karpasa, or karpase* signi
fying the COftoB ulent Celsius {Hierobot. i.
364. [Crocus sativm.] 159) states that the Arala and Persians have
karjjhas and ktrbas as names for cotton. These
Nothing, therefore, was more likely than that must no doubt lie derived from the Sanscrit, while
saffron should be associated with the foregoing the word kapaa is now applied throughout India
fragrant substances in the passage of Canticles, to cotton with the seed, and may even be seen in
as it 6till continues to be esteemed by Asiatic English prices-current. Kapircurox occurs in the
nations, and, as we have seen, to be cultivated Periplu* of Arrian, who states that the region
by them. Hasselqnist also, in reference to this al>ont the Gulf of Barygaze, in India, was pro
Biblical plant, describes the ground between ductive ot carpasuti and of the fine Indian mus
Smyrna and Magnesia as in some places covered lins made of it. Hie word is no doubt derived
with saffron, and Raowolf mentions gardens and from the Sanscrit karpaia, and though it Itas been
fields of crocus in the neighbourhood of Aleppo, translated fine JHUtlin by Dr. Vincent, it may
and particularizes a fragrant variety in Syria. mean cotton cloths, or calico iu general. Mr.
The name saffron^ as usually applied, does Yates, in his recently published and valuable
not denote the whole plant, nor e\en the whole work, Ttxtrinum Autiquorum, states that the
flower of crocus sativus, but only the stigmas, earliest notice of this Oriental name in any
with part of the style, which, being plucked out, classical author which he lias met with, is the line
are carefully dried. These, when prepared, are 1 Carbatiina, molochina, ampeliua* of Csecilius
dry, narrow, thread-like, and twisted together, of Statius, who died u.c. 169. Mr. Yates infers tliatas
an orange-yellow colour, having a peculiar aro this (Viet translated from the Greek, so the Greeks
matic and penetrating odour, witli a bitterish and must have made use of muslins or calicoes, &C,
somewhat aromatic taste, tinging the mouth and which were brought from India as early as 200
saliva of a yellow colour. Sometimes the stigmas years b.c. See his work, as well as that of Cel
are prepared by being submitted to pressure, and sius, for numerous quotations from classical
thus made into what is called cake saffron, a authors, where carbasiu occurs; proving that not
form in which it is still imported from Persia only the word, but the substance which it in
into India. Hay saffron is obtained in this country dicated, was known to the ancients sidisequent
KEDAR. KENITES. 199
to this period. It might, indeed must, have been city was besieged by the Philistines, David was
known long before to the Persians, as constant commissioned by God to relieve it; notwith
communication took place by caravans between standing which, if he had not made his escape,
the north of India and Persia, as has been clearly the ungrateful inhabitants would have delivered
shown by Heeren. Cotton was known to Ctesias, him into the hands of Saul (1 Sam. xxiii. 1-13).
who lived so long at the Persian court. Keilah was a considerable city in the time of
Nothing can be more suitable than cotton, Nehemiah (Neh. iii. 17, 18), and existed in the
white and blue, in the above passage of Esther, days of Eusebius and Jerome, who place it eight
as the writer of this article long since (1837) re Roman miles from Eleutheropolis on the road to
marked in a note in his Essay on the Antiquity Hebron.
of Hindoo Medicine, p. 145 : ' Hanging curtains KEMUEL fate?, assembly of God; Sept.
made with calico, usually in stripes of different KtutoiWjA), third son of Abraham's brother Nalior,
colours and padded with cotton, called purdahs, and father of six sons, the first of whom is
are employed throughout India as a substitute for named Aram, and the last Bethuel (Gen. xxii.
doors.' They may be seen used for the very pur 21, 23). All these are unknown, except the last,
poses mentioned in the text in the court of the who was the father of Lahan and Reliekah (Gen.
King of Delhi's palace, where, on a paved xxiv. 15). Aram is manifestly no other than a
mosaic terrace, rows of slender pillars support a proper name which Kemuel gave to his first
light roof, from which hang by rings immense born ; but as it is also the Hebrew name of Syria,
padded and striped curtains, which may be rolled some commentators have most strangely conceived
up or removed at pleasure. These either increase that the Syrians were descended from him. This
light or ventilation, and form, in fact, a kind of is truly surprising, seeing that Syria was already
movable wall to the building, which is used as peopled ere he was bom, and that Lahan (Gen.
one of the halls of audience. This kind of xxviii. 5) and Jacob (Deut. xxvi. 5) are both
structure was probably introduced by the Persian called ' Syrians,' although neither of them was
conquerors of India, and therefore may serve to descended from Kemuel's son Aram. The mis
explain the object of the colonnade in front of conception originated with the Septuagiut, which
the palace in the ruins of Persepolis [Cotton]. too often undertakes to translate proper names,
J. F. R. and in this case renders ' father of
KEDAR CTtJ), black; Sept. KvSap% a son Aram,' by irartpa 2upoic, ' father of the Syrians.'
of Ishmael, and the name of tht tribe of which
he was the founder. The name is sometimes KENAZ (tJD, hunting; Sept. KtviQ. 1. A
used in Scripture as that of the Bedouins gene descendant of Esau; also a place or tract of
rally, probably because this tribe was the nearest country in Arabia Pctrcea, named after hira
to them, and was best acquainted with them (Gen. xxxvi. U, 15, 42\
(Cant i. 5; lav xxi. 16, 17; lx. 7). A great 2. The younger brother of Caleb, and father
body of speculation founded upon the mean of Othniel, who married Caleb's daughter (Josh,
ing of the word, namely, * black,' may be dis xv. 17; Judg. i. 13; 1 Chron. iv. 13).
missed as wholly useless. The Kedarenes were so 3. A grandson of Caleb (1 Chron. iv. 15).
called from Kedar, and not because they lived KENITES Qi"1]?. ; Sept. Kirawi), a tribe of
in ' black 1 tents, or because they were ' blackened' Midianities dwelling among the Amalekites
by the hot sun of Southern Arabia ; neither of (1 Sam. xv. 6 ; comp. Num. xxiv. 20, 21), or
which circumstances could, even if true, have occupying in semi-nomadic life the same region
been foreseen at the time that Kedar received with the latter people in Arabia Petrxa. When
his name. Saul was sent to destroy the Amalekites, the
KEDEMOTH (nb"!P; Sept. BajctS/uie), a Kenites, who had joined them, perhaps upon com
city in the tribe of Reuben (Josh. xiii. 18), near pulsion, were ordered to depart from them that
the river Anion, which gave its name to the wil they might not share their fate ; and the reason
derness of Kedemoth, on the borders of that river, assigned was, that they ' shewed kindness to the
from whence Moses sent messengers of peace to children of Israel when tliey came out of Egypt'
Silion, king of Heshbon (Deut. ii. 26), the southern This kindness is supposed to have been that
frontier of whose kingdom, and the boundary which Jethro and his family showed to Moses,
between the kingdom of the Ammonites and the as well as to the Israelites themselves, in conse
Moabites, was the Anion. quence of which the whole tribe appears to have
been treated with consideration, while the family
KEDESH (ehj) ; Sept Kao^r). There were of Jethro itself accompanied the Israelites into
two cities of this name, one in the tribe of Judah Palestine, where they continued to lead a nomade
(Josh. xv. 23), and the other in the tribe of life, occupying there a position similar to that
Naphtali (xix. 37). This last was the more con of the Tartar tribes in Persia at the present day.
siderable of the two: it was a Levitical city, To this family belonged Heber, the husband of
and one of the six cities of refuge. As the Kedesli, that Jael who slew Sisera, and who is hence called
whose king was slain by Joshua, is mentioned ' Heber the Kenite ' (Judg. iv. 11). At a later
among the cities of the north (xii. 22), it was age oilier families of Kenites are mentioned as
doubtless the Kedesh of Napbtali, of which also resident in Palestine, among whom were the
Barak was a native (Judg. iv. 6). Rechabites (1 Chron. ii. 55 ; Jer. xxxv. 2) ; but
KEDRON. [Kidbon. it is not clear whether these were subdivisions of
the increasing descendants of Jethro, as seems
KEILAH (n^?i? ; Sept KelAi), a city of most likely, or families which availed themselves
the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 44), about twenty of the friendly dispositions of the Israelites towards
miles south-west from Jerusalem. When this the tribe to settle in the country. It appear*
300 KENIZZITES. KETZACH.
that, wliatever was the general condition of the at least restrict it to a certain group, namely, to
Midianites, the tribe of the Kenites possessed a such as are cultivated. Thus, ver. 25, ' When
knowledge of the true God in the time of Jethro lie (the ploughman) hath made plain the face
[Hobau] ; and that those families which settled in thereof, doth he not cast abroad the fitches
Palestine did not afterwards lose that knowledge, {ketzach) T And again, ver. 27, * For thefitches
but increased it, is clear from the passages which are not threshed with a threshing instrument,
hove \>>-en cite I [Midianitks ; Rkchabitks]. neither is a cart-wheel turned about upon the
KENIZZITES (HJf; Sept. KeKffoioi), r cummin; but fitches are beaten out with a staff,
CanaanitUh tribe, mentioned in Gen. xv. 19, along and the cummin with a rod.' From which we
with others, over which it was promised that learn that the grain called ketzach was easily
the seed of Abraham should have dominion. The sejiarated from its capsule, and therefore beaten
notion that they sprung* from Kenaz. the grandson out with a stick.
of Edom, and had their dwelling somewhere iu
Iduma*a, cannot be entertained, seeing that the
tribe is named long before Kenaz had existence.
The Ketii/.zites of Num. xxxii. 12; Josh. xiv. 6,
appear, however, to be a different race, the origin
of which may without improl>ahility be ascribed
to Kenaz. The Kenizxites are not named among
the nations whom the Israelites eventually sub
dued ; whence it may be supposed that ttiey had
by that time merged into some of the other na
tions which Israel overcame.
KETURAH (rn-IDi?, incense; Sept. Xer-
'i.i,'. the second wife, or, as she is called in 1
Chron. i. 3*2, the concubine of Abraham, by whom
he had six sons, Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian,
Ishhak, and Shuah, whom lie lived to see grow
to man's estate, and whom lie established < in
the East country,1 that they might not interfere
with Isaac (Gen. xxv. 1*6). As Abraham was
100 yean old when Isaac was ovnt, who was
given to him by the special bounty of Providence
when ' he was as good as dead' (Heb. xi. 12),
as lie was 140 years old when Sarah died ; and
ai he himself died at the age of 175 years,it has
seemed improbable that these six sons should have
been born to Abraham by one woman after he
was 1 10 years old, and that he should have seen
them all grow up to adult age, and have sent
them forth to form independent settlements in
that last and feeble period of his life. If Isaac
was born to him out of the course of nature when 389. [Nigelli satin.]
he was 100 years old, how could six sous be
born to him in the course of nature after be was Although ketzach, in Chaldee kizcha, is al
140? It has therefore been suggested by good ways acknowledged to denote some seed, yet
commentators, that as Keturah is called Abra interpreters have had great difficulty in deter
ham's 1 concubine' in Chronicles, and as she and mining the particular kind intended, some trans
Hagar are probably indicated as his * concubines' lating it ;>i*, others, as Luther and the English
in Gen. xxv. 6, Keturah had in fact been taken Version, vetches, but without any proof. MeiUv-
by Abraham as his secondary or concubine-wife mtus considers it to be the ichitc poppy, and others,
before the death of Sarah, although the historian a black seed. This last interpretation has the most
relates the incident after that event, that his lead numerous, a< well as the oldest, authorities in its
ing narrative might not be interrupted. Accord sup|K>rt. Of these a few are in favour of the
ing to the standard of morality then acknowledged, black jmppy-seed, but the majority, of a black
Abraham might quite as properly have taken seed common in Egypt, &c. (Celsius, Hierobot.
Keturah l*efore as after Sarah's death ; nor can ii. 70). The Sept. translates it /ifAdVoW, the
any reason why he should not have done so, or Vulg. git, and Tremelliui melanthiumy while
why he should have waited till then, be con the Arabic has shooncz. All these mean tle
ceived. This explanation obviates many diffi same thing, namely, a very black-coloured and
culties, and does nut itself contain any. aromatic seed, still cultivated and in daily
employment as a condiment in the East Thus
KETZACH (HVg; Sept. MAdV<W), also Pliny* {xx. 17. 71), ' Gith ex Gnecis, alii
written KftZACH and Ketsaii, occurs only in Isa. melanthion, alii mclanspennon vocaut. Opti
xxviii. 25, 27, ami is translated fitches, that is, mum, (piam excitatissimi odoris et quam niger-
vetches, in the Authorized Version. It is no rininm." By Oioscoride* (iii. 93), or tlie ancient
doubt from the difficulty of proving the precise author who ';-.,;->! to have added the syno-
meaning of ketzach, that different plants have nymes, we are informed that ^KavOtov was also
been assigned as its representative. But if we refer called the * wild black poppy/ that the seed
to the context, we learn some particulars which was black, acrid, and aromatic, and that it was
KETZIOTH. KETZIOTH. 201
added to bread or cakes. 2irep/ia fx*\av, Zpt^d, ketzioth of Ps. xlv. 8, both signify tlie same
fuw5y, KtxrairKaaaSfj.fvov us &provs. Pliny also thing. This has not been tbe opinion of several
ays, 1 Melanthii, vel melanspermi semen gratis- translators and commentators ; the first having
sime panes condit.' Melaiitliium is universally been variously rendered iris, stacte, costus, ginger,
recognised by botanists to lw the Nigella. Tims canna, fistula, amber, ketziah, and cassia, while
Bauhin Pinax, 1 Nigella, a nigro seminis colore ketzioth, or ketziah, has been rendered cassia,
communiter dicta (j.t\dvdiov est.' The j*jyJ* acacia, amber, ginger, and aloes. The Arabic
translator has considered it synonymous with the
thoonez, of the Arabs is, moreover, the same plant Arabic name salicha, which is no doubt applied
or seed, which is usually called* black cumin.' to cassia.
So one kind of cumin is said by Dioscorides Mr. Harmer has already remarked that, little
fo have seeds like those of melanthion or nigella. copious as the Hebrew language is, there are
It was communly cultivated in Egypt, and in it no fewer than four different words, at least,
P. Alpinus mentions it as * Suneg ^Egyptiis.' which have been rendered * linen,* or 1 fine linen,*
The Arabs, besides shoonez, also call it hub-al~ by our translators. This would hardly have been
soitda, and the Persians seah dana, both wurds the case had there not been different kinds of linen.
signifying black seed. One species, named The same thing may be said of cassia, for which
A. Indica by Dr. Roxburgh, is called kalajccra we have seen that there are two distinct words
in India, that is, black zeera or cumin, of the in the HebrewKiddah, which will be treated
family of Ranunculacese. 4 Nigella sativa is of in a separate article, and Ketzioth, to which
alone cultivated in India, as in most eastern it is now our object to direct attention. It
countries, and continues in the present day, as in occurs only once, in Ps. xlv. 8 : 1 All thy gar
the most ancient times, to I* used both as a con ments smell of myrrh, and aloes (ahalim), and
diment and as a medicine' (Must Himal. Bot,, cassia (ketzioth-Y It has been observed with
\). 46"). If we consider that this appears to have reference to this passage that 1 The garments of
been always one of the cultivated grains of the princes are often imbued with costly perfumes,
East, and compare the character of nigella witii those of die high-priests were anointed with holy
the passages in which ketzach is mentioned, we ointment.' We have seen above that ketzioth has
shall find that the former is applicable to them been variously translated, but no one seems to
all. Indeed, Rabbi Obadias de Bartenora states, have noticed the resemblance of this word to the
that the barbarous or vulgar name of the kczach, kooth and koost of the Arabs, of which hooshta
was nielle, that is, nigella. The various species is said by their authors to be the Syriac name,
of nigella are herbaceous (several of them being and from which there is little doubt that the
indigenous in Europe, others cultivated in most k6oto$ of the Greeks, and costus of the Latins,
parts of Asia), with their leaves deeply cut and are derived.
linear, their flowers terminal, most of them having * Costum molle date, et blande mihi turis
under the calyx leafy involucres which often odores,
half surround the flower. The fruit is composed Ure puer costum Assyrium redolentibus aris/
of live or six capsules, which are compressed, ob Kiaros is enumerated by Theophrastus (Hist.
long, pointed, sometimes said to be hornlike, PI. ix. 7.) among the fragrant substances em
united below, and divided into several cells, and ployed in making ointment. Three kinds of
enclosing numerous, angular, scabrous, black- it are described by Dioscorides, among his
coloured seeds. From the nature of the capsules, Aromata (i. 15), of which the Arabian is said to
it is evident, that when they are ripe, the seeds be the best, the Indian to hold the second place,
might easily be shaken out by moderate blows of and the Syrian the third. Pliny mentions only
a stick, as is related to have been the case with two kinds (xv. 12), ' Radix et folium Iudis est
the ketzach of the text.J. F. R. maximo pretio. Radix costi gustu fervens, odore
eximio, frutice alias inutili. Primo statim in-
KETZIOTH (niy*Vi?) is translated Cassia in troitu amnis Indi in Patale insula, duo sunt ejus
the Authorized Version, and is said to he derived genera nigrum, et quod melius, candicans.*
from yp, to cut off: it therefore denotes 1 pieces The Persian writers on Materia Medica in use in
cut off,' or 1 fragments,* &ria" hence is applicable to India, in giving the above synonymes, evidently
cassia. But many of these derivations liave often refer to two of the three kinds of Costus described
been traced out in ignorance of the names and by Dioscorides, one being called Koost llindee,
properties of the various substances known to the and the other Koost Arabee. The writer of this
nations of antiquity. Cassia is mentioned in article obtained both these kinds in the bazaass of
three places (Exod. xxx. 24; Ezek. xxvii. 19; India, and found, moreover, that the koot or koost
and in Ps. xlv. 8), in conjunction with myrrh, of the natives was often, by European merchants,
cinnamon, sweet calamus, and ahalim, or eagle- called Indian orris, i. e. Iris root, the odour of
wood. All these are aromatic substances, and, which it somewhat resembles. Subsequently he
with the exception of myrrh, which is obtained ascertained that this article was known in Cal
from Africa, are products of India and its islands. cutta as Puchuk, the name under which it is
It is probable, therefore, that ketzioth is of a exjwrted to China. The identity of the sub
similar nature, and obtained from the same stance indicated by these various names was
countries. Both cinnamon [Kinnahon] and long ago ascertained, though not then known to the
cassia [Kiddah] were no doubt known to the present writer. Thus Garcias ab Horto, 1 Est
ancients, and this is one step of the investigation ; ergo Costus dictus Arabibus Cost aut Cast:'
but to prove that the Hebrew words are correctly 1 In Malacca, ubi ejus plurimus est usus, Pucho,
translated is another, which must be proceeded et inde vehitur in Sinarum regionem.' Having
with
With before we can infer inter that the
tbe kiddah
ktddah ofot obtained the koost m in the north-western jprovinces
Exod. xxx. 24 and Ezek. xxvii. 19, and the of India, the writer traced it afterwards as un
Mi KIEEROTH. KIDRON.
of the substances brought across the Indus from but allowed to remain on the former. This is,
Lahore {Must. Himal. Bot. p. 360). When however, the characteristic of the (Cochin-Chinese)
Dr. Falconer proceeded on his journey to Cash cinnamomum aromaticum, as we are informed
mere, he was requested to make inquiries respect by Mr. Crawford (Embassy to Siam, p. 470) that
ing this sulistance, and he discovered that it was it is not cured, like tliat of Ceylon, by freeing it
exported from that valley in large quantities into from the epidermis.* There is, certainly, no doubt
the Punjab; whence it finds its way to Bombay that some cassia is produced on the coast of
(as in the time of Pliny to Patala) and Calcutta, Malabar. The name also would appear to be of
for export to China, where it is highly valued as Eastern origin, as Masse koronde is one kind of
one of the ingredients in the incense which the cinuamon, as mentioned by Burmann in his Flora
Chinese burn in their temples and private houses. Zeylonica ; but it will be preferable to treat of
Finding the plant to belong to a new genus, he the whole subject in connection with cinnamon
named it Aucklandia, in compliment to the [Kinnamon].J. F. R.
Governor-General of India, and the species KIDRON (\mp, the turbid: Sept. Kttfwr),
Aucklandia Costus (Linn. Trans, xix. 23). the brook or winter torrent which flows through
Considering, therefore, that costus was one of the the valley of Jeliosliaphat (as it is now called),
articles of ancient commerce and is mentioned by on the east side of Jerusalem. ' The brook Kidron*
Theophrastus as employed in the composition of is the only name by which 'the valley1 itself is
perfumed unguents, and considering the similarity known in Scripture ; for it is by no means certain,
of the Syria*- kooshta, and the Arabic kast, to the nor even probable, that the name 1 valley of Je-
kt tzioth of Scripture, and from their correspond- hoshaphat' in Joel (iii. 12) was intended to apply
ence in properties and uses, the latter appears to this valley. The word rendered ' brook' (2 Sam.
more likely to lie the costus of the ancients,
than cassia, for which there is another name xv. 23; 1 Kings ii. 37, &c), is bra nachal,
[Kiddah].J. F. R. which may be taken as equivalent to the Arabic
KIBEROTH-HATTAVAH, an encampment Wady, meaning a stream and its bed or valley,
of the Israelites in the wilderness [Wanuehino]. or properly the valley of a stream, even when the
stream is dry. The Septuagint, Josephus, and
KIDDAH (rnp), as well as Ketziotii, is the Evangelists (John xviii. 1 . designate it
rendered Cassia in our Authorized Version; but /to^or, a storm brook, or winter torrent.
translators do not uniformly coincide in, though The brook Kidron derives all its importance
the great majority are in favour of, this interpreta frtfm its vicinity to the holy city, being nothing
tion. It is well known that the Greeks were ac more than the dry bed ofa winter torrent, bearing
quainted with several varieties of cassia ; and as marks of being occasionally swept over by a large
one of these was called kitto, kittu (Dioscor. i. 12), volume of water. No stream flows through it,
this has been thought to be the same word as the except during the heavy rains of winter, when
Hebrew PHp, from *np, in Arabic Jj, to split, the waters descend into it from the neighbouring
hills. But even in winter there is no constant
hew, or tear anything lengthwise, as must be flow, and the resident missionaries assured Dr.
done in separating cassia baik from the tree. Robinson that they had not during several years
But it does not follow that this is a correct inter seen a stream running through the valley. The
pretation of the origin of the name of an Kastern ravine in which the stream is collected takes its
product. The word occurs first in Exod. xxx. origin above a mile to the north-east of the city.
24, where cassia (kiddah) is mentioned in con Tins ravine deepens as it proceeds, and forms an
nection with olive oil, pure myrrh, sweet cinna angle opposite the temple. It then takes a south
mon, and sweet calamus ; secondly, in Ezek. east direction, and, passing Itetweeu the village of
xxviii. 19, where Dan and Javan are described Siloam and the city, runs off in the direction of
as bringing bright iron, cassia (kiddah), and the Dead Sea, through a singularly wild gorge, the
calamus to the markets of Tyre. There is no course of which few travellers have traced (Pic
reason why the substance now called cassia torial Palestine, lutrod. p. cxciv.). It is in this
might not have been imported from the shores ravine that the celebrated mouastery of Santa
of India into Egypt and Palestiue. Consi N.il .i is situated. Mr. Madden, who went through
derable confusiun has, however, been created the valley to the Dead Sea, thus sneaks of the
by the same name having been applied by bota character which it assumes as it approaches
nists to a genus containing the plants yielding the monastery :* After traversing for tlie last
senna, and to others, as the cassia Jistula, which hour a wild ravine, formed by two rugged perjieu-
have nothing to do with the original cassia. dicular mountains, the sides of which contained
Cassia-buds, again, though no doubt produced by innumerable caverns, which once formed a sort
a plant belonging to the same, or to some genus of troglodyte city, in which the early Christians
allied to that producing cinnamon and cassia, resided, the sight of the convent in this desolate
were probably not known in commerce at. so place was like a glimpse of paradise.' On leav
early a period as the two latter substances. There ing the convent the next day he says that he
is some difficulty also in determining what the 4 marched through the bed of the Kidron, along
ancient cassia was. The author of this article, the horrible ravine which lie entered the day be
in his Antiquity of Hittdoo Medicine, p. 84, has fore ;' but he gives no account of its outlet into the
already remarked, * The cassia of the ancients it Dead Sea. This detect is supplied by Dr. Ro
is not easy to determine; that of commerce, Mr. binson (Biblical Researches, ii. 249), who, on
Marshall says, consists of only the interior kinds passing along the western borders of the lake,
of cinnamon. Some consider cassia to I * distin came * to the deep and almost impassable laviue
guished from cinnamon by the outer cellular of the Kidron, running down by Mar Saba, and
covering of the bark being scraped off the latter, thence called Wady-er-Rahib, M Monk's Valley;"
KIKATON. KIKAYON. 203
but here also bearing the name of Wady en-Nar, is called wild sesamum by some :* Ricini
" Fire Valley." At this place it was running aitem nomen accepit a similitudine quae est
E.S.E., in a deep narrow channel, between per illius semini cum ricino animali. Arbuscula
pendicular walla of rock, as if worn away by the est parvsd ficus altitudine, foliis platani, trun-
rusl>iug waters between these desolate chalky cis ramisque cavis in calami modum, semine
hills. There was, however, no water in it now ; in uvis asperis. Ex eo oleum kikinum expri-
nor had there apparently been any for a long time.' mitur, cibis quidem inepturn ; sed alias et ad
lucernas et emplastra utile.' Thus giving in a
KIKATON (Pi?1?) occurs only in Jonah iv., few words a graphic description of Ricinus com-
where it is several times mentioned, as in vcr. 6, 7, munis,oT castor-oil plant, of which the seeds have
9, 10. It is translated gourd in our Authorized some resemblance to the insect commonly called
Version, probably from the ko\ok6v$tj of the tick in English, and which is found on dogs and
Septuagint, often rendered cueurbita. In the
margin of the English Bible, Palm-Christ is
given. In the Vulgate kikayon is translated
fyedera, 1 ivy.' Neither the gourd nor ivy is con
sidered by modern writers to indicate the plant
intended; which is remarkable for having given
rise to some fierce controversies in the early ages of
the Church. The difficulties here, however, do not
appear to be so great as in many other instances.
But l>efore considering these, it is desirable to
ascertain what are the characteristics of the plant
as required by the text. We are told, 'The Lord
God prepared a gourd (kikayon), and made it
to come over Jonah, that it might be a shadow
over his head,' &c. (ver. 6). 1 But God prepared
a worm when the morning rose the next day,
and it smote tlie gourd that it withered 1 (ver. 7).
And in ver. 10 it is said of the gourd th.it it
* came up in a night, and perished in a night.'
Hence it appears that the growth of the kikayon
was miraculous, but that it was probably a plant
of the country, being named specifically ; also
that it was capable of affording shade, and might
be easily destroyed. There does not appear any
thing in this account to warrant us in considering
it to be the ivy, which is a plant of slow growth,
cannot support itself, and is, moreover, not likely
to be found in the hot and arid country of an
cient Nineveh, though we have ourselves found 870. [Ricinus communis.]
it in more southern latitudes, but only in the
temperate climate of the Himalayan Mountains. other animals. It has also been called Tenia-
The ivy was adduced probably only from the dactylus and Palma Christi, from the palmate
resemblance of its Greek name, Kt<T<r6$, to kika division of its leaves. It was known at much
yon. That the kikayon was thought to be a earlier times, as Hippocrates employed it in
gourd seems to bare arisen from the kiki of the medicine ; and Herodotus mentions it by the
Egyptians being the kherwa, of the Arabs, name of aiWiKxnrptov (ii. 94) when speaking of
Egypt :4 The inhabitants of the marshy grounds
often incorrectly written keroa, that is, with make use of an oil which they term kiki, ex
out the aspirate, which makes it very similar pressed from the Sillicyprian plant.' That it
to fair*i. when written in Roman characters; has been known there from the earliest times is
evident from Caillaud having found castor-oil
which last in the East is applied to the gourd or seeds in some very ancient sarcophagi. That the
pumpkin (Avicenna, c. 622), and is probably the
Lagcnaria vulgaris. Many modem authors mis Arabs considered their ^jj>- khertca to be the
take the one for the other. To this plant, no doubt,
the following passages refer, 1 The Christians and same plant, is evident from Avicenna on this
Jews of Mosul (Nineveh) say it was not the keroa article,
(p. 301)
or khincaa of the translation of Plempius
* Plantain hac scribit Dioscorides,
whose shadow refreshed Jonah, but a sort of gourd,
el-kcra, which has very large leaves, very large quidam crotona appellant, hoc est ricinum, a
fruit, and lasts but about four months' (Niebuhr, similitudine qua? est illius semini cum ricino
Arabia^ as quoted by Dr. Harris). So Volney : animali.' So Serapion (iii. c. 79):* Cherva
1 Whoever has travelled to Cairo or Rosetta knows sive kerua, sicuti ejus oleum, oleum kiehas.1
that the species of gourd called kerra will, in This oil was not only employed by the Greeks,
twenty*four hours, send out shoots near four inches but also by the Jews, being the p'p ftDf, kik-
oil of the Talmudists, prepared from the seeds of
long' ( Trav. i. 71). the ricinus (Rosenmuller, p. 127). ' Oleum (kik)
The Hebrew name kikayon is so similar to est
the kiki of Dioscoridcs, that it was early thought the quod exit ex granis.* Lady Calcott states that
to indicate the same plant. Dioscorides (iv. namemodern Jews of London use this oil, by the
of oil of kik, for their Sabbath lamps, it
164, srcol kIkcws) states that the kiki, or croton,
201 KIMOSH. KING.
being one of the five kinds of oil which their tra places is rather an European than an Oriental
ditions allow them to employ- idea. Though kimosh has nut yet been proved
Having ascertained that the kiki of the Greeks to indicate the nettle, this plant has been received
is what is now called Ricinus communis* we shall by the rabbins, and is as well suited to the pass
find that its clmracters correspond with everytiling ages in which it occurs as any otiier which has
that is required, except the rapidity of growth, hitherto been suggested.J. F. R.
which must be granted was miraculous. Dr. KING, a title applied in the Scriptures to
Harris indeed states that the passage means, ' Son men (Luke xxii. 25; 1 Tim. ii. 1, 2; 1 Pet. ii.
of the night it was, am) as a son of the night it 13-17), to God (I Tim. i. 17 ; vi. 15, 16), and to
died and that, therefore, we are not compelled Christ (Matt, xxvii. 11; Luke xix. 38; John i.
to believe that it grew in a single night, but 49; vi. 15; xviii. 32-37)to men, as invested
rather, by a Strang Oriental figure, that it was of with regal authority by their fellows; to Goil, as
rapid growth. This, there is no doubt, it is the sole proper sovereign and ruler of the uni verse ;
highlv susceptible of in warm countries where and to Christ, as the Messiah, the Son of God,
there is some moisture. It attains a considerable the King of the Jews, the sole Head and Governoi
size in one season ; and though in Europe it is of his church. The kingdom of Christ, in Luke
only known as a herb, in India it frequently may i. 32, 33, is declared to be without end ; whereas,
he seen, especially at the margins of fields, the in 1 Cor. xv. 28, we are taught that it will have a
size of a tree. So at Busra Niebuhr saw an period, when God shall he ull in all. The con
cl-kcroa which had the form and ap]>earance of a tradiction is only in form and apiarance. Tire
tree. The stems are erect, round, and hollow; kingdom of the Messiah, considered as a media
the leaves broad, judmate, 5 to 8 or 10 lobed, torial instrumentality for effecting the salvation
peltate, supported on long foot-stalks. The flowers of the world, will, of course, terminate when the
in terminal janicles; the lower, male; the up|ter, purjmses for which it was established shall have
female. Capsule tricoccous, covered with spines. been accomplished ; while the reign of the Son of
The seeds are oblong, oval, externally of a greyish God, associated with Ins Father iu the empire of
colour, but mottled with darker-coloured spots the world, will last as long as that empire itself,
and stripes. From the erect habit, and the breadth and never cease, so long as the efleets endure
of its foliage, this plant throws an ample shade, which the redemption of the world stiall produce
especially when young. From the softness and alike in its remotest as in its nearer consequences.
little substance of its stem, it may easily be de Regal authority was altogether alien to the in
stroyed by insects, which Rumphius describes as stitutions of Muses in their original and unadul
sometimes being the case. It would then neces terated form. Their fundamental idea was that
sarily dry up rapidly. As it is well suited to the Jehovah was the sole king of the nation (1 Sara,
country, and to the purpose indicated iuthe text, viii. 7): to use the emphatic words in Isa. xxxiii.
and as its name kiki is so similar to kikayon, 22, * The Lord is our judge, the Lord is our law
it is doubtless the plant which the sacred penman giver, the Lord is our king/ This important fact,
hail in view.J. F. R. however, does not rest on the evidence of single
> KIMOSH and KIMSHON (BHS? and texts, but is implied in the entire Pentateuch, not
jlw'Tpi?) occur, the first in Isa. xxxiv. 13, and to say the whole of the Old Testament. The
Scriptural statements or implications are as fol
Hos. ix. 6, and the second in Prov. xxiv. 31, where lows :God is the creator of the world ; he saved a
it is mentioned along with charul, which we be remnant from the flood ; towards the descendants
lieve to indicate charlock. The field of the sloth of Noali he manifested his special favour; to Abra
ful is there described as being grown over with ham, Isaac, and Jacob, lie promised a land flowing
thorns (chamUim)y ' and nettles (kimakon) had with milk and honey ; in the fulness of time lie
covered the face thereof/ Iu Isaiah it is said, accomplished, by apparently the most unlikely
*And thorns (choach) shall come up in the and untoward means, the oath which lie more
palaces, nettles (kimosh) and brambles in the than once sware to the fathers of Israel ; so that
fortresses thereof.* Hos. ix. 6, *The pleasant eventually, having furnished his people with a
places for their silver, nettles (kimosh) shall pos complete code of laws, lie put them in posses
se** them ; thorns (choach) shall be in their sion of the promised territory, assuming the
tabernacles/ government, and letting forth sanctions alike of
Though different interpretations have been given ample good and terrible ill, in order to keep the
of this won!, as thorns, thistles, wild chamomile, people loyal to hhmelf as to the only Creator and
&c, the greatest number of authors have united God of the universe, and specially as their supreme
in adopting nettles, chiefly in consequence of the sovereign.
authority of Jewish writers. Thus, Rosenmuller We consider it as a sign of that self-confidence
says, Rabbi Tanchum, on Hos. ix. C, explains ki and moral enterprise which are produced in great
mosh by the common nettle, ^a-o^J in Pococke's men by a consciousness of being what they pro
fess, that Moses ventured, with his half-civilised
Comment, on Hoaea. So R. Ben Melech, as quoted hordes, on 1 he bold experiment of founding a
and translated by Celsius (Hierobot. ii. p, 207) * ex society without a king, and that in the solicitude
antiquioribusEbraiis, ad Proverb, xxiii. 13, species which he must have felt for the success of his
est spinarum, et dicitur vulyo Urtica/ Nettles great undertaking, he forewent the advantages
no doubt spring up rapidly in deserted as in in which a regal government would tiave afforded.
habited places, in fields, ditches, and road sides, Nor is such an attempt a little singular and novel
but most frequently where there is some moisture at a period and in a part of the world in which
in the soil or climate. Though they are found royalty was not only general, but held in the
in tropical situations, as well as in temperate greatest resj>ect, anil sometimes rose to the very
climes, yet the springing up of nettles in deserted height of pure despotism. Its novelty is an evi-
KING. KING. 205
*f dence of the divine original to which Moses happiness, and transmit his authority to his de
referred all his polity. Equally honourable is tlie scendants.
conduct of Moses in denying to his lower nature This passage has, indeed, been pronounced to
the gratifications which a crown would have stand apart from any connection in the Penta
impartedwe say denying himself, because it is teuch, and to betray a much later hand than that
beyond a question that the man who rescued the of Moses. If our view is correct, it has a very
Jews from bondage and conducted them to tlie obvious connection, and proceeds from the He
land of Canaan, might, had he chosen, have kept brew legislator himself. Nor can it, we think,
the dominion in his own hands, and transmitted be denied that the reason is by no means an un
a crown to bis posterity. If Washington, at this likely nor insufficient one, by which we have
late (teriod of human history, after tlie accumu supposed Moses to have bean prompted in pro
lating experience of aliove three thousand years, mulgating the provisional and contingent arrange
lias added its sanctions to the great law of dis ments which are found in the passage under
interested Iwtievolence, is held deserving of high consideration. Most emphatically is the act of
honour for having preferred to found a republic taking a king ascribed by Moses to the people
rather than attempt to build up a throne, surely themselves, whom he represents as being iulluenced
very unequal justice is done to Moses, if, as is too by considerations not dissimilar to those which
j* generally the case, we piss in neglect the extra we have assigned : ' When thou,.' &c, 'and shalt
ordinary fact that, with supreme ]K>wer in Ids say,
tions/that
willarc
set aabout
kingme.y
over me, like however,
as all thefrom
na
hands, anil, to all iwWWPCt, scarcely any hin Winer,
drance to tlie assumption of regal splendour, the whom (Real~tcorterb.) we have taken this objec
great Hebrew patriot and legislator was content tion, argues in opposition to Stuudliu (Berthohlt's
to die within sight of the land of promise, a Theol. Jottrn., in. 259, 3G1, sq.), that if Moses
simple, unrewarded, nnhnuoured individual, con had anticipated a demand for a king, he v. i aid
tent to do God's work regardless of self. It is have made provision for such a demand at nu
equally obvious that this self-denial on the part earlier perioda remark which rests on no evi
of Moses, this omission to create any human dence of verisimilitude whatever, the Opposite of
kingship, is in entire accordance with tlie import, the supposed course tieing just as probable. Be
aim, and spirit of tlie Mosaic institutions, as sides, it may l affirmed, without the possibility
being divine in their origin, and designed to of receiving any contradiction but that of mere
accomplish a social work of Providence for man ; assertion, that he made the provision as soon as lie
and, therefore, affords, by its consistency with the foresaw the probable need. Less solid, if possible,
very essence of the system of which it forms a is Winers other argument, namely, that in the
]>art, a very forcible argument in favour of the passage (1 Sam. viii.) in which are recorded the
*T~ divine legation of Moses. people's demand of a king and the prophet Sa
That, great man, however, well knew what muel's reply, no trace is found of a reference to
were the elements with which he had to deal in the alleged Mosaic law on the point. A reference
framing institutions for the rescued Israelites. in form Winer could scarcely exj>ect, a reference
Slaves they had been, and the spirit of slavery in substance we see very cleaily. We have lm.|
was not yet wholly eradicated from their souls. room to go into particulars ; but recomnn ltd the
They had, too, witnessed in Egypt the more than reader carefully to comjiare the two passage*.
ordinary pomp and splendour which environ a The Jewish polity, then, was a sort of sacerdotal v * *^
throne, dazzling the eyes and captivating the republicwe say sacerdotal, tiecause of tlie great f * .g
heart of the uncultured. Not improbably the influence which, from the first, the prietly order
prosperity and abundance which they had seen in enjoyed, having no human head, but being muter ,
Egypt) and in which they hid been, in a measure, the special supervision, protection, aud guidance *'r 1
allowed to partake, might have l>ecn uscrihed by of the Almighty. The nature of the consequences,
them lo the regal form of the Egyptian govern however, of that divine influence avowedly de-
ment. Muses may well, therefore, have appre jiended on the degree of obedience and the general
hended a not very remote departure from the fun faithfulness of the nation. The good, therefore,
damental type,Of his institutions. Accordingly of such a superintendence in its immediate results
he makes a special provision for this contingency was not necessary, but contingent. The removal
(Deut. xvii. \i\ and labours, by anticipation, to of Moses and of Joshua by death soon left the
guard against the abuses of royal power. Should people to the natural results of their own condi
a king be demanded by the people, then he was tion and character. Anarchy ensued. Noble
to be a native Israelite ; he was not to lie diawn minds, indeed, and stout hearts upjeaied in those
awav by the love of show, especially by a desire who weie termed Judges; but the state of the
for that regal display in which horses have always country was not so satisfactory as to prevent au
borne so large a part, to send down to Egypt, still unenlightened jieople, having low and gross atten
\t*t to cause the people to return to that land; tions, from preferring the glare of a crown and
he was to avoid the corrupting influence of a large the apparent protection of a sceptre, to the invi
harem, so common among Eastern monarch?; sible and, therefore, mostly unrecognised aim of
he was to abstain from amassing silver and gold; omnipotence. A king accordingly is requested.
he was to have a copy of tlie law .made ex The misconduct of Samuel's sons, who had been
pressly for his own studya study which he was made judges, was the immediate occasion of the
never to intermit till the end of his days ; so demand leing put forth. Tlie request came with
that his heart might not l>e lifted up above his authority, for it emanated from all the elders of A * J
brethren, that he might not I* turned aside from Israel, who, after holding a formal conference, * KA jTlfm
the living God, but observing the divine statutes, proceeded to Samuel, in order to make him ac- ^ -*
and thus acknowledging himself to be no more quainted with their wish. Samuel was displeased;
than the vicegerent of heaven, he might enjoy but, having sought in prayer to learn tlie divine
206 KING. KING.
will, lie is instructed to yield to the demand on a the king to take a certain course, which proved
ground which we should not assuredly have found successful (see also 2 Sam. ii. 1). Sometimes
stated, hail the bonk in which it appears have indeed, as appears from 1 Sam. xxviii., it was a
been tampered witli or fabricated for any courtly prophet who acted the part of prime minister, or
MtjMHk or any personal ends, whether by Samuel chief counsellor, to the king, and who, as bearing
himself, or by David, or any of his successors that sacred character, must have possessed very
' for they have not rejected thee (Samuel;, but weighty influence in the royal divan (1 Kings
they have rejected me, that I should not reign xxii. 7, sq.). We must not, however, expect to
over them 1 (ver. 7, see also ver. 8). Samuel is, And any definite and permanent distribution of
moreover, directed to * protest solemnly unto them, jiower, any legal determination of the royal pre
and show them the manner of the king that shall rogatives as discriminated from the divine autho
reign over them.' Faithfully does the prophet de rity ; circumstances, as they prompted certain
pict the evils which a monarchy would inflict on deeds, restricted or enlarged the sphere of the mo
the people. In vain : they said, * Nay, but we narch's action. Thus, in 1 Sam. xi. 4, sq., we
will have a king over us.' Accordingly, Saul And Saul, in an emergency, assuming, without
the sou of Kisli, of the tribe of Benjamin, was, by consultation or deliberation, the power of demand
divine direction, selected, and privately anointed ing something like a levy en masse, and of pro
by Samuel ' to be captain over God s inheritance:' claiming instant war. With the king lay tbe
thus lie was to hold only a delegated and subor administration of justice in the last resort (2 Sam.
dinate authority. Under the guidance of Samuel, xv. 2; 1 Kings iii. 16, sq.). He also possessed
Saul is subsequently chosen by lot from among the power of life and death (2 Sam. xiv.). Tc
the assembled tribes; and though his personal provide for and superintend the public worship
ap[>earance had no influence in the choice, yet was at once his duty and his highest honour
when he was plainly pointed out to be the indivi (I Kings viii. ; 2 Kings xii. 4; xviii. 4 ; xxiii. I).
dual designed for the sceptre, Samuel called One reason why the jieople requested a king wa
attention to those qualities which in less civilised that they might have a recognised leader in wai
nations have a preponderating influence, and are (1 Sam. viii. 20). The Mosaic law offered a
never without elVect, at least, in supporting * the powerful hindrance lo royal des[>otism (1 Sam.
divinity which doth hedge a king ' See ye him x. 25). The people also, by means of their elders,
whom the Lord hath chosen, that there is none formed an express compact, by which they stipu
like him among all the people,' for he was lated for their rights (I Kings xii. 4V and were
higher th m any of the people from his shoulders from time to time appealed to, generally in cases
and upward; ' and all the people shouted, God of 'great pith and moment ' (1 Chron. xxix. 1 ;
save the king.' 2 Kings xi. 17; Joseph., De Bell. Jud. ii. L 2).
Emanating as the royal ]>ower did from the Nor did the jieuple fail to interjmse their will,
demand of the jieople and the permission of a where they thought it necessary, in opposition to
prophet, it was not likely to be unlimited in its that of the monarch (1 Sam. xiv. 45). The part
extent or arbitrary in its exercise. The govern which Nathan took against David shows now
ment of God, indeed, remained, being rather con effective, as well as Ixdd, was die check exerted
cealed and complicated than disowned, much less by the prophets ; indeed, most of the prophetic
superseded. The king ruled not in bis own history is the history of the noblest i '['position ever
right, nor in virtue of the choice of the people, but made to the vices alike of royalty, priesthood,
by concession from on high, and partly as the and people. If needful, the prophet hesitated not
servant and partly as the representative of the to demand an audience of the king, nor was he
theocracy. How insecure, indeed, was the tenure dazzled or deferred by royal power and jiomp
of the kingly )>ower, how restricted it was in its (1 Kings xx. 22, 38 ; 2 Kings i. 15). As, bow-
authority, apjK'ars clear from the comparative ever, the mouarxh held the sword, the instrument
facility with which the crown was transferred of death was sometimes made to prevail over
from Saul to David ; and the part which the pro every restraining influence (1 Sam. xxii. 17).
phet Samuel took in efleeting that transference After the transfer of the crown from Suul to
points out the quarter where lay the power which David, tbe royal power was annexed to tbe house
limited, if it did not primarily, at least, control of the latter, passing from fat her 'to son, with pre
the royal authority. It must, however, be added, ference to tbe eldest born, though he might be a
that if religion narrowed this authority, it also minor. .lehoash was seven years old when lie
invested it with a sacreduess which could emanate began to reign (2 Kings xi. 21). This rule was
from no other source. Liable as the Israelite not, however, rigidly observed, for instances are
kings were to interference on the ]iart of priest not wanting in which nomination of a younger son
and prophet, they were, by the same divine power, gave him a preferable title to the crown (1 Kings
shielded from the unholy hands of the profane i. 17 ; 2 Chron. xi. 21): the people, too, and
vulgar; and it was at once impiety and rebellion even foreign powers, at a later period, interrupted
to do injury to ' the Lord's anointed 1 (Ps. ii. 6. 7, the regular transmission of royal authority (2
sq.). Instances are not wanting to corroborate Kings xxi. 24; xxiii. 24, 30 ;" xxiv. 17). The
and extend these general observations. When ceremony of anointing, which was observed at
Saul was in an extremity before the Philistines least in the case of Saul, David, and Solo
(1 Sam. xxviii.), he resorted to the usual methods mon (I Sam. ix. 14; x. 1 ; xv. 1 ; xvi. 12;
of obtaining counsel : ' Saul inquired of the Lord, 2 Sam. ii. 4 ; v. 1 ; I Kings i. 34 ; xxxix. 0),
the Lord answored him not, neither by dreams, and in which the projJiet or high-priest who per
nor by Urim, nor by prophets.1 So David, when formed the rite acted as the representative of the
in need of advice in war (1 Sam. xxx. 7), resorted theocracy and the expounder of the will of heaven,
to Abiathar the priest, who, by means of the must have given to the spiritual power very con
shod, inquired of the Lord, and thereupon urged siderable influence; and both in this particular
KING. KING. 307
and in the very nature of the observance directs bread and a bottle of wine, and a kid.1 The
the mind to Egypt, where the same custom pre indirect detail ' of the substance which was king
vailed, and where the power of the priestly caste David's,* found in 1 Chron. xxvii. 25, sq. (comp.
was immense (Wilkinson's Ancient Egtft>tians, 1 Sam. viii. 14; 2 Chron. xxvi. 10, sq.), shows
v. 279). Indeed, the ceremony seems to have at how early a period the Israelitish throne was
been essential to constitute a legitimate monarch in possession of very large property, both per
(2 Kings xi. 12; xxiii. 30); and thus the autho sonal and real. The royal treasury was re
rities of the Jewish church held in their hands, plenished by confiscation, as in the case of Naboth
and ltad subject to their will, a most important (1 Kings xxi. 16; comp. Ezek. xlvi. 16, sq. ;
power, which they could use either for their own 2 Sam. xvi. 4). Nor were taxes unknown.
purposes or the common good. In cousequence Samuel had predicted (1 Sam. viii. 15), 4 He
of the general observance of this ceremony, the will take the tenth of your seed and of your vine
term * anointed,* * the Lord's anointed ' (1 Sam. yards,' &c. ; and so in other passages (1 Kings
ii. 10; xvi. 6; xxiv. 6; 2 Sam. xix. 21; Ps. v. 13 ; ix. 21) we find that levies both of men
ii. 2; Lam. iv. 20), came to 1* employed in and money were made for the monarch's pur
rhetorical and poetical diction as equivalent in poses; and, in cases of special need, these exac
meaning to the designation king. We have seen tions were large and rigorously levied (2 Kings
in the case of Saul that jiersonal and even ex xxiii. 35), as when Jehoiak'im * taxed the laud to
ternal qualities had their intluence in procuring give the money according to the commandment
ready obedience to a sovereign ; and further evi of Pharaoh; he exacted the silver and the gold of
dence to the same effect may be found in Ps. xlv. the people of the land, of every one according to
3; Kzek. xxviii. 12 : such qualities would natu his taxation.' So long, however, as the native
rally excite the enthusiasm of the people, who vigour of a young monarchy made victory easy
appear to have manifested their approval by accla and frequent, large revenues came to the king
mations (I Sam. x. 24 ; 1 Kings i. 25; 2 Kings from the spoils of war (2 Sam. viii. 2, sq.). Com
ix. 13; xi. 13; 2 Chron. xxiii. 11 ; see also Jo merce also supplied abundant resources (1 Kings
seph. De Bell. Jud., i. 33. 9). Jubilant music x. 15). In the 14th verse of the chapter last
formed a part of the popular rejoicings (1 Kings referred to, it is said that * the weight of gold that
i. 40) ; thank-offerings were made (1 Kings i. 25); came to Solomon in one year was six hundred
the new sovereign rode in solemn procession on the three score and six talents of gold.* In the same
royal mule of his predecessor (1 Kings i. .18), and connection we find particulars which give a high
took jjossession of the royal hareman act which idea of Solomon's opulence and splendour: * Two
seems to have been scarcely less essential than hundred targets of beaten gold, each of six hun
other observances which appear to us to wear a dred shekels; three hundred shields of beaten
higher character (1 Kings ii. 13, 22; 2 Sam. xvi. gold, of three pounds of gold each ; a great throne
22). A numerous harem, indeed, was among the of ivory, overlaid with the best gold ; drinking*
most highly estimated of the royal luxuries (2 Sam. vessels of gold : silver was accounted nothing of
v. 13; 1 Kings xi. 1 ; xx. 3). It was under the in Solomon's days.' A navy is also spoken of,
supervision and control of eunuchs, and ]>assed which was at sea with the navy of Hiram, king of
from one monarch to another as a jart of the Tyre *. this navy came once in every three years,
crown property (2 Sam. xii. 8Y The law (Deut. bringing gold and silver, ivory, apes, and pea
xvii. 17), foreseeing evils sucn as that by which cocks. ' So king Solomon exceeded all the kings
Solomon, in his later years, was turned away from of the earth for riches.'
his fidelity to God, had strictly forbidden many According to Oriental custom, much ceremony
wives; but Eastern passions and usages were too and outward show of respect were observed. Those
strong for a mere written prohibition, and a cor who were intended to be received with special
rupted religion became a pander to royal lust, honour were placed on the king's right hand
interpreting the divine command as sanctioning (1 Kings ii. 19). The most profound homage
eighteen as the minimum of wives and concubines. was paid to the monarch, which was required not
In the original distribution of the land no share, merely by common usage, but by the voice of
of course, was reserved for a merely possible religious wisdom (Prov. xxiv. 21) a requirement
monarch; yet the kings were not without several which was not unnatural in regard to an office
sources of income. In the earlier periods of the that was accounted of divine origin, and to have
monarchy the simple manners which prevailed a sort of vice-divine authority. Those who pre
would render copious revenues unnecessary; and sented themselves before the royal presence fell
a throne which was the result of a spintaneous with their face towards the ground till their fore
demand on the part of the people, would easily head touched it (1 Sam. xxv. 23; 2 Sam. ix.
find support in free-will offerings, especially in 6 ; xix. 18), thus worshipping or doing obeisance
a part of the world where the great are never to the monarch, a ceremony from which even the
approached without a present. There seems also royal sjiouse was not exempted (1 Kings i. 16).
reason to conclude that the amount of the con A kiss was among the established tokens of rever
tributions made by the people for the sustenance ence (I Sam. x. 1 ; Ps. ii. 12), as were also hyjier-
of the monarch depended, in a measure, on the bolical wishes of good (Dan. ii. 4 ; iii. 9). Serious
degree of popularity which, in any particular offences against the king were punished with death
case, he enjoyed, or the degree of service which (1 Kings xxi. 10).
he obviously rendered to the state (1 Sam. x. 27 ; Deriving their ix>wer originally from the wishe*
xvi. 20; 2 Sam. viii. 11; 1 Kings x. 11, 25, sq.). of the people, and being one of the same race, the
That presents of small value and humble nature Hebrew kings were naturally less despotic than
were not despised or thought unfit for tlie accept other Oriental sovereigns, mingled more with their
ance of royalty, may be learnt from that which subjects, and were by no means difficult of access
Jesse sent to Saul (1 Sam. xvi. 20), * an ass, with (2 Sam. xix. 8 ; 1 Kings xx. 39 ; Jer. xxxviii. 7 ;
208 KINGS, BOOKS OF. KINGS, BOOKS OF.
I Kings iii. 16; 2 Kings vi. 26; viii. 3). After recorded till the conquest of Nebuchadnezzar and
death the monarch* were interred M the royal the commencement of the Babylonish captivity.
cemetery in Jerusalem : * So David slept with his In the article Iskael, the period comprised ha*
fathers, and was buried in the city of David ' l>een exhibited under the name and reign of the
(I Kings it. 10; xi. 43; xiv. 31). But had kings who are mentioned in these l>ooks, and
kings were excluded 4 from the sepulchres of the there also, and in the article Judah, the chro
kings of Israel 1 (2 Chron. xxviii. 27) In nology of the books has been sufficiently con
1 Kings iv. will he found an enumeration of the sidered.
high officers of state under the reign of Solomon There are some peculiarities in this succinct
(see also 1 Kings x. 5; xii. 18; xviii. 3 ; 2 Kings history worthy of attention. It is very brief, but
viii. 16 ; x. 22 ; xviii. IS; xix. 2; 1 Chron. xxvii. very suggestive. It is not a biography of the
25; Isa. xxii, 15; Jer. Hi. 25). The misdeeds sovereigns, nor a mere record of political occur
of the Jewish crown, and the boldness with which rences, nor yet an ecclesiastical register. King,
they were reproved, may be seen exemplified in church, and state are all comprised in their
Jer. xxii. : ' Thus saith the Lord, Execute judg sacred relations. It is a theocratic history, a
ment and righteousness, and do no wrong; do no retrospective survey of the kingdoms as existing
violence to tlie stranger, the fatherless, nor the under a theocratic government. The character
widow; neither shed innocent blood. Itut if ye of the sovereign is tested by hts fidelity to the
will not hear these words, this house shall become religious obligations of his office, and this decision
a desolation,' &c. Reference on the subject here in reference to his conduct is generally added to
treated of may he made to Schickard, Jus Re- the notice of his accession. The new king's
yium Ilebreeor. Tubing. 1621; Carpzov, Appar. religious character is generally portrayed by its
*Crit. p. 52; Michaelis, Mo*. Recht, i. 298; similarity or opposition to the way of David, of his
Olhon. Lex. Rabbin, p. 575.J. 11. B. father, or of Jeroboam, son of Nebat, 1 who made
KINGS, BOOKS OF. The two books of Israel to sin.' Ecclesiastical affairs are noticed
Kings formed anciently but one book in the with a similar purpose, and in contrast with past
Jewish Scriptures. The present division, follow or prevalent apostacy, especially as manifested in
ing the Septuagint and Latin versions, has been the popular superstitions, whose shrines were on
common in the Hebrew Bibles since the Venetian the * high places.' Political or national incidents
editions of Bomberg. That the book was origin are introduced in general for the sake of illus
ally an unbroken treatise is affirmed by Origen trating the influence of religion on civic pros
and Jerome, Melito of Sardis, and Josephus, perity ; of showing how the theocracy maintained
(Origen, apud Euseh. Pracp. Evong. vi. 25, a vigilant and vengeful guardianship over its
&a<n\(lu)v Tpmj, TfTaprr), tv kvt Ouanfj.t\fX rights and privilegesadherence to its principles
Aa/3i5; Hieronym. Prolog. Gal.; Joseph. Cont. securing peace and plenty, disobedience to them
Apion. i. 8). Great stress cannot always be laid bringing along with it sudden and severe retribu
nn the Jewish forms of the sacred Imoks, as they tion. The books of Kings are a verification of
were arranged so as to correspond with the letters the Mosaic warnings, and the author of them has
of the Hebrew alphaliet. The old Jewish name kept tliis steadily in view. He has given a brief
was borrowed, as usual, from the commencing history of his jteople, arranged under the various
words of the book, 1H "]^Dm, Grecized as in the political chiefs in such a manner as to show that
above quotation from Eusebius. The Septuagint the government was essentially theocratic, that its
and Vulgate nmv number them as the third and spirit, as developed in the Mosaic writings, was
fourth books of Kings, reckoning the twoltooks of never extinct, however modified or inactive it
Samuel the first and second. Their present title, might sometimes appear.
Thus the books of Kings appear in a religious
D*3^D, Ba<ri\(twvy Regwn, in trie opinion of costume, quite different from the form they would
Htivemick, has rcsject more to the formal than have assumed either as a political or ecclesias
essential character of the comjKJsition ( Einlcihmg, tical narrative. In the one case legislative enact
6 168); yet under such forms of government as ments, royal edicts, popular movements, would
those of Judah and Israel the royal )>erson and have occupied a prominent place; in the other,
name are intimately associated with all national sacerdotal arrangements. Levities! service, music
acts and movements, legal decisions, warlike and pageantry, would have filled the leading
preparations, domestic legislation, anil foreign sections of the treatise. In either view the points
policy. The reign of an Oriental prince is iden adduced would have hail a restricted reference to
tified witli the history of his nation during lite the palace or the temple, the sovereign or the
period of his sovereignty. Mine especially in the pontiff, the court or the priesthood, the throne or
theocratic constitution of the Jewish realm the the altar, the tribute or tithes, the nation on its
character of the monarch was an important ele farms, or the tribes in the courts of the sacred
ment of national history, and, of necessity, it had edifice. But the theocracy conjoined both the
considerable influence on the fate and fortunes of political and religious elements, and the inspired
the people. annalist unites them as essential to his desigu.
The books of Kings contain the brief annals of The agency of divinity is constantly recognised,
a long period, from the accession of Solomon till the hand of Jehovah is continually acknowledged.
the dissolution of the commonwealth. The first The chief organ of theocratic influence enjoys
chapters describe the reign of Solomon over the peculiar prominence. We refer to the incessant
united kingdom, and the revolt under Kehoboam. agency of the prophets, their great power and
The history of the rival states is next narrated in peculiar modes of action as detailed by the com
parallel sections till the jwriod of Israel's down poser of the books of Kings. They interfered
fall on the invasion of Shalmanczer. Then the with the succession, and their instrumentality
remaining years of the principality of Judah are was apparent in the schism. They roused the
KINGS, BOOKS OF. KINGS, BOOKS OF. 209
people, and they braved the sovereign. The an unknown prophet is also rehearsed. Huldah,
balance of power was in their hands; the regal the prophetess, was an imjwrtant personage under
dignity seemed to be sometimes at their disposal. the government of Josiah (2 Kings xxii. 14).
In times of emergency they dispensed with usual Care is also taken to report the fulfilment of strik
modes of procedure, and assumed an authority ing prophecies, in the usual phrase, * according to
with which no subject in aii ordinary state can the word of the Lord' (1 Kings xii. 15; xv. 29 ;
safely be intrusted, executing the law with a sum xvi. 12 ; 2 Kings xxiii. 15-18 ; ix. 36 ; xxiv. 2).
mary promptness which rendered opposition im So, too, the Old Syriac version prefixes, * tlere
possible, or at least unavailing. They felt their follows the book of the kings who flourished among
divine commission, and that they were the cus the ancient people ; and in this is also exhibited
todiers of the rights of Jehovah. At the same time the history of the prophets who flourished during
they protected, the interests of the nation, and, their times.'
could we divest the term of its association with 5. Theocratic influence is recognised both in
unprincipled turbulence and sedition, we would, the deposition and succession of kings (1 Kings
like Winer, style them the demagogues of Israel xiii. 33 ; xv. 4, 5, 29, 30 ; 2 Kings xi. 17, &c.\
(Winer, Realwbrt. art. Prophet). The divine Compare on the whole of this view Havernick,
prerogative was to them a vested right, guarded Einleit. 168; 3a\m, Introduct. 46; Gesenius,
with a sacred jealousy from royal usurpation or UeberJes. vol. i. p. 934. It is thus apparent that
popular invasion ; and the interests of the people the object of the author of the Books of Kings was,
were as religiously protected against encroach to describe the history of the kingdoms, especially
ments, too easily made under a form of govern in connection with the theocratic element T' is
ment which had not the safeguard of popular design accounts for what De Wette (Einleit.
representation or aristocratic privilege. The $ 185) characteristically terms der steife prophe-
priesthood was in many instances, though there tische pragmatismus, and for the frequent myths
are some illustrious exceptions, merely the crea which this writer finds in these books.
ture of the crown, and therefore it became the The authorship and age of this historical treatise
prophetenthum to assert its dignity and stand may admit of several suppositions. Whatever
forth in the majestic insignia of an embassy from were the original sources, the books are evidently
heaven. the composition of one writer. The style is
The truth of these sentiments, as to the method, generally uniform throughout. The same forms
design, and composition of the books of Kings, is of expression are used to denote the same
confirmed by ample evidence. thing, e. g. the male sex (I Kings xiv. 10, &c);
1. Large space is occupied with the building the death of a king (1 Kings xi. 43, &c); modes
of the templethe palace of the Divine Protector of allusion to the law (1 Kings xi. 13); fidelity
Ins throne in it being above the mercy-seat and to Jehovah (1 Kings viii. 63, &c. ; De Wette,
between the cherubim (ch. v.-viii.). Care is Einleit. $ 184, a; Havernick, Einleit. J 171).
taken to record the miraculous phenomenon of Similar idioms are ever recurring, so as to produce
the descent of the Schekinah (ch. viii. 10). The a uniformity of style (Monotonie der Darstelhtng,
prayer of Solomon at the dedication of the house Havernick, Lc). The sources whence this historic
is full of theocratic views and aspirations. information lias been derived have l>een variously
2. Reference is often made to the Mosaic Law named. That annals contemporary with the
with its provisions ; and allusions to the earlier events which they describe were written in the
history of the people frequently occur (1 Kings early period of the Jewish state, may be at once
ii. 3; iii. 14; vi. II, 12; viii. 58, &c. ; 2 Kings admitted. Eichliom supposes that the sources of
x. 31 ; xiv. 6; xvii. 13, 15, 37; xviii. 4-6 ; xxi. 1 Kings * were private historical works {Einleit.
1-8). Allusions to the Mosaic code are found 482). De Wette, from the legends related in
more frequently toward the end of the second them, cannot believe them to be official docu
hook, when the kingdom was drawing near its ments. Bertholdt, Havernick, and Movers hold
termination, as if to account for its decay and that the books are extracts fmm the public annals
approaching fate. (comp. Havernick, { 169). The inspired historio
3. Phrases expressive of Divine interference grapher refers his readers to these sources of evi
are frequently introduced (1 Kings xi. 31 ; xii. dence in such frequent phrases as "UVl ' the
15; xiii. 1, 2, 9; and xx. 13, &c). rest of the acts.' Such a reference is made espe
4. Prophetic interposition is a very prominent cially to the sources, when other royal acts than
theme of record. It fills the vivid foreground of those narrated in the tiooks of Kings are glanced
the historical picture. Nathan was occupied in at. These sources are styled the Irak of the
the succession of Solomon (1 Kings i. 45) ; Ahijah Chronicles of the kings of Judah, or Israel. Si
was concerned in the revolt (xi. 29-40). She- milar phraseology is used in Esther x. 2; vi. 1,
maiah disbanded tlie troojw which Rehoboam had to denote the official annals of the Persian empire.
mustered (xii. 21). Ahijah predicted the ruin Public documents are spoken of in the same way
of Jeroboam, whose elevation he had promoted (Neh. xii. 23). There is little reason to suppose
fxiv. 7). Jehu, the prophet, doomed the house of that the book referred to in this last passage is
Baasha (xvi. 1). The reign of Ahaband Ahaziah that styled Chronicles in our copy of the Scrip
is marked hy the bold, rapid, mysterious move tures (Movers, Chronik, 5234). So we infer that
ments of Elijah. Under Ahab occurs the predic the 1 Book of the Chronicles of the Kings,' so often
tion of Micaiah (xxii. 8). The actions and oracles alluded to, was an authentic document, public
of Elisha form the marvellous topics of narration and official. Once indeed mention is made of a
under several reigns. The agency of Isaiah is work entitled * The Book of the Acts of Solo
also recognised (2 Kings xix. 20; xx. 16). Be mon.'
sides 1 Kings xiii. presents another instance of That the prophets themselves were employed
prophetic operation ; and in xx. 35, the oracle of in recording contemporaneous events, is evident
VOX. XL, v
210 KINGS, BOOKS OF. KINNAMON.
from 2 Chmn. xx. 34 ; 1 Chron. xxix. 29. Iti times, while his own prophecy contains the de
the course of the narrative we meet with many sired information. Another objection, that Jere
instances of description, having the freshness and miah could not have lived longer than Evil-
form of nature, and which are apparently direct merodach, is noticed and refuted by Haremick
quotations from some journal, written by one who (Ueber Daniel, p. 14). The age of the Jewish
testified what he had seen (I Kings xx. 10; tradition as to tlie authorship of the book* of
2 Kings xii. 15; xiv. 8). Thus the credibility Kings, may be inferred from the fact that they
of tlie history contained in these hooks rests upun are (dared among the D'feC2V
a sure foundation. What neologists style their In reference to apparent contradictions or
mythical character or colouring furnishes to anachronisms, it must itc borne in mind that the
every believer in the reality Or the theocratic text of these Uxtks is not in a very pure state,
government established by Moses, continued evi and that in nothing do copyists blunder more
dence that theJews were God's peculiar people than iu the transcription of numerals. [Chro
that Jehovah was their sovereign (Hiivemick, nicles.] As to points of real or alleged contra
} 170; Hengatenberg, Bcitr. ii. 169). diction, see Davidson's Sacred llermeneutics%
As to what has been termed the auti-Israelitish p. 516. It has l>een sometimes thought that the
spirit of the work (Bertholdt, EinleU. p. 919), we books of Samuel were the production of the
do not perceive it. Truth required that the king same redactor who composed the hooks of Kings.
dom of Israel should be described in its real Both compositions form a history almost conti
character. Idol-worship was connected with its nuous, though 2 Sam. xvi.-xxiv. is evidently an
foundation; moschnlatry was a state provision; appendix. That there sltould l>e many points of
fidelity obliged the annalist to state that all iti similarity in two works of history on kindred
kings patronized tlte institutions of Bethel and themes, and having a similar purpose in view,
Dan, while eight, at least, of the Jewish sove surpiUes no one. The close philological airinity
reigns adhered to the true religion, and that tlie on which Stiihelin insists so much (see Tholuck's
majority of its kings perished in insurrection, Literar. Anzeig, 1838, p. 526). may thus be
while those of Judah, in general, were exempted easily accounted for; yet there are also points of
from seditious tumult.? and assassination. dissimilarity. Tlte language of 'Samuel* ha*
Now, the compiler from tlie.se old documents few marks of later usage; the style has more
be who shaped them into the form they have traces of an early age attout iu The hooks of
in our present books of Kings must have lived Samuel liave not the compactness and symmetry
in a late age. The Second Book of Kings con of the books of Kings. Tlie greater portion of
cludes with an account of the liberation of them seems to !>e an original work, rather than a
Jehoiachin, king of Judah, from prison in Ba* compilation.
tylonan event which, according to Jahii, The age of the hooks of Kings
happened in the twenty-sixth, or according to mediate between the early woik of
Prideaux, in the twenty-eighth year after tlie de the later treat ise of Chronicles.
struction of Jerusalem. Jahn and Hiivemick The ' Introductions' referred to in the course of
place the com|tosition of 1 Kings' in the reign this article may be consulted. Modem commen
of Evil-merodach ; and De Wette, towards the tators upon ' Kings' are scarce, and there are not
end of the Captivity. Instances of later phra mauv old ones : Seb. Leonhardi 'Ts-o/u-^iaro,
seology occurring in the Ixxiks of Kings are in Lbb. Reg. Erf. 1606, Lips. 1610-14; Seb.
given by De Wette (j 115. 6). Jewish tradition Schmidii Annot. in Libb. Reg. Strasb. 1687 ; and
makes Jeremiah tlie author (Fiaba^bathra, fol. tlie various authors in the Critici Sacri.J. E.
15. 1). Calmet ascril*es the authorship to Ezra.
The former opinion, adopted by Giotius, and KINNAMON (P0Ji?), translated ' cinnamon,'
lately revindicated by Havemick, certainly ap occurs in three places of Scripture; first, about
pears the mote probable. There is considerable 1000 years before the Christian era, in Exod.
linguistic affinity ttetween the books of Kings xxx. 23, where it is enumerated as otic of the
and the prophecy of Jeremiah. ingredients employed iu tlie preparation of the
Kings. Jeremiah, holy anointing oil: 'Take thou also unto tbee
2 K. xvii. 13 . . vii. 13. powerful spices, myrrh, and of sweet cinnamon
1 K. x. 8 ... xxii. S. {kinnamon besem) lialf as much (i. e. 250
2 K. xxiv.-xxv. . Hi. shekels), together with sweet calamus and cassia,'
1 K. xi. A ; viii. 25; xxxiii. 17 ; xiii. 13; It is next mentioned in Prov. vii. 17,' I have per
ix. 5. xvii. 25. fumed my bed with myrrh, aloes (ahaJim). and
2 K. xxi. 12 . . xix. 3. cinnamon.'1 And again in Cant. iv. 14, 'Spike
nard and satVron ; calamus and cinnamon, with
In the absence of certain evidence this opinion all trees of frankincense; myrrh and aloes [aha-
may be deemed the most likely, and is a more Urn), with all the chief spices. While in Rev.
simple theory than that of Movers, who supposes xxiii. 13, among tlie merchandise of P
that Jeremiah compiled a more ancient production have ' cinnamon, and odours, and
a book of Kingsthe source of our present trea frankincense."
tise. It explains the close similarity of the l>ooks In the earliest notice, it is called kinnamon
of Kings and Jeremiah in spirit, style, and ten besem, or 1 sweet cinnamon.' Dr. Vincent is in
dency, more easilyand more satisfactorily than the clined to consider khennah besem anil khmno'
supposition of De Wette, or any other conjecture mon besem as derived from the same root.
of like nature. Objections against this opinion, Many writers have doubted whether the kin-
from the hasty way in which Jeremiah has de nammx of the Hebrews is the same article that
scribed his own times, admit of an easy solution. we now call cinnamon. Celsius quotes R. Beu
Contemporaries were familiar with his life and Melech {ad Cant. iii. 14) and Saadias ('Exod.
KINNAMON. KINNAMON, an
Xtx.) as considering it to be the Lign Aloe, or in the Greek name Kiwdfiaifiov, does not point to
Agallochum. Others have doubted whether oar the Chinese origin of the production so named 1*
cinnamon was at all known to the ancients. But But the Cingalese cacyn-nama (dulce lignum)
the same thing has l>een said of almost every and the Malayan haimanis are more probable
other drug which is noticed by them. If we were derivations.
to put faith in all these doubts, we should be left Cinnamon of the best quality is imported in
without anjs substances possessed of sufficiently the present day from Ceylon, and also from the
remarkable properties to have l>een articles of Malabar coast, in consequence of the cinnamon
ancient commerce. The word Kivvafxtofiov occurs plant (Cinnamomwn Zeylanicum) having been
in many of the Greek authors, as Herodotus, Hip introduced there from Ceylon. An inferior kind
pocrates, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Galen, &c. is also exported from the peninsula of India, the
The tii-st of these,.writing 400 years l>efore the produce of other species of cinnamomum, accord
Christian era, describes Arabia as the last inhabited ing to Dr. Wight. From these countries the cin
country towards the south, and as the only region namon and cassia of the ancients must most
of the earth which produces frankincense, myrrh, likely have been obtained, though both are also
cinnamon, cassia, and ledanum. Of cinnamon he produced in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo,
says, ' which we, as instructed by the Phoenicians, in China, and in Cochinchina. Cinnamon is im
call Kivvduvuov.'' He states, moreover, that the ported in bales and cheststhe bundles weighing
Arabians were unacquainted with the particular about 1 lb. each. The pieces consist of com
spot in which it was produced, but that some pound quills, are about three feet long, slender,
asserted it grew in the region where Bacchus was and inclose within them several smaller quills.
educated. From all this we can only infer that it These are thin, smooth, of a brownish colour, of a
was the production of a distant country, probably warm, sweetish, and agreeable taste, and fragrant
India, and that it was obtained by the route of the odour; but several kinds are known in modern
Red Sea. Theophrastus (ix. 5) gives a fuller but markets, as they were in ancient times.
still fabulous account of its production, and it is
not*until the time of Dioscorides, Galen, and the
Periplus of the Erythraean sea, that we get more
definite information. Galen says that cassia and
cinnamon are so much alike that it is not an
easy matter to distinguish the one from the other.
This is a difficulty that still continues to be ex
perienced. Dioscorides (i. 12) says that cas
sia grows in Arabia, and that there are several
kinds of it; and of cinnamon he states also
(i. 13) that there are several species, named
from the different places where it is procured.
But the best sort is that which is like the cassia
of Mosylon, and is itself called Mosyllitic, or as
Pliny says, * Portus Mosyllites quo cinnamo-
mum devehitur* (vi. 29). Mr. Cooley, however,
in his edition of Larcher's Notes to Herodotus, ad
duces from Bruce's Travels (vol. vii. p. 329), * the 671. [Lauras kinnomomum.]
bastard kind of cinnamon, called by the Italians
canella, which, notwithstanding what Bellonius In Ceylon cinnamon is carefully cultivated,
says, and before him Pliny, grows plentifully the best cinnamon gardens being on the south
among ihe incense and myrrh at Cape Guardafui, western coast, where the soil is light and sandy,
the Mosylon promontorium and promontorium and the atmosphere moist from the prevalent
aromaticum, and here only the distinction obtains southern winds. The plants begin to yield cin
of mountain cassia and that whicli grows on the namon when about six or seven years old, after
plain.* Notwithstanding this, it would require which the shoots may be cut every three or four
the testimony of a careful and well-qualified bota years. The best kinds of cinnamon are ohtained
nist to prove that the cinnamon plant grows in from twigs and shoots; less than half, or more
Africa as well as in Ceylon. Several kinds are than two or three inches in diameter, are not
described by Dioscorides, and no fewer than ten peeled. 1 The i>eelingis effected by making two
kinds in Ihe Periplus of Arrian (vid. Vincent, opposite, or when the branch is thick, three or
Periplus, ii. p. 711), and among these the four longitudinal incisions, and then elevating the
"2nKr}portpd\ from the Greek OK\rip6s, * hard,' bark by introducing the peeling knife beneath it.
which he translates * xylocassia,' or 'wood cin In twenty-four hours the epidermis and greenish
namon,' and states to be * a term which occurs pulpy matter are carefully scraped off. In a
frequently, and perhaps distinguishes the cassia few hours the smaller quills are introduced into
lignea (wood cinnamon) from the cassia fistula the larger ones, and in this way congeries of quills
(cannella, or pipe cinnamon).' It is curious that are formed, often measuring forty inches in length.
the Persians and Arabians denominate cintiamon, The lark is then dried in the sun, and afterwards
for which they give akimona as the Greek name, made into bundles, with pieces of split bamboo
dar-sccnij evidently derived from the Hindoo twigs' (Percival s Account of Ceylon). Besides
Jar-cheenec, or Chinese wood, as if it had, like cinnamon, an oil of cinnamon is obtained in
the cinnamon of the Greeks, been originally only Ceylon, by macerating the coarser pieces of the
the small branches and twigs, and not the serrated Iwrk, a fter being reduced t o a coarse powder, i n sea-
bark, as in modern cinnamon and cassia. It water, for two days, when Itoth are submitted to
has been asked ' whether the foreign element (kip) distillation. A fatty substuuee is also obtained by
aia KINNAMON. KIPPOD.
bruising and boiling the riper fruit, when an the various sources, independently of the different
oily body floats on the surface, which on cooling Sualities, it is evident, as in the case of cinnamon,
concretes into a dirty whitish, rather hard, fatty tat the ancients might have been, as no doubt
matter. Some camphor may l>e procured from they were, acquainted with several varieties of
the roots. Respecting the former, it yields a cassia. These, we have no doubt, are yielded by
striking confirmation of the minute knowledge more than one species. Mr. Marshall, from in
which the ancients had of some products of formation obtained while he was sta(jf-surgeon in
India. Thun, as we have elsewhere mentioned Ceylon, maintained that cassia, or at least a part
{Essay on Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, p. of it, was the coarser bark of the true cinnamon.
105), Theophrastus (ix. 7) along with cinnamon Dr. Wight lias ascertained that more than one
and cassia, describes two kinds of comacum, one a species yields the cassia of Malabar, often called,
fruit, and the other employed for mixing with the cinnamon. The Chinese cassia is supposed to be
most precious ointments. Bodaeus a StapeI produced by the cinnamomum aromaticum of
(p. 1009) says, * Quale fuerit hoc comacum, quod Nees von Esenbeck, the cinnamomum cassia of
unguentis addebatur, me ignorare fateor.* These Blume, which Dr. Christison ascertained is culti
seem to me to l>e substances of which we have vated in our hot-houses, and confounded with the
only in recent times acquired any correct know* true cinnamon. It was first imported, we believe,
ledge, namely, the fruit of the cinnamon plant, by the Messrs. Loddiges from China. Besides
and the fatty oil extracted from it, of which there cassia bark, there is also a cassia oil, and cassia
are specimens in the (King's) College Museum of buds, supposed to be produced hy the same tree.
Materia Medica (Essay, p. 106). There can he no reasonable doubt, as cinnamon
and cassia were known to the Greeks, that they
must have been known to the Hebrews also, as
the commerce with India can be proved to have
been much more ancient than is generally sup
posed [Kiddah]. J. F. R.
KIPPOD n'lBp). This name occurs "but
three times in Scripture (Isa. xiv. 23 ; xxxiv. 11;
and Zeph. ii. 11, and has been variously inter
pretedowl, osprey, tortoise, porcupine, otter,
and in the Arabic, bustard. Bochart, Shaw,
Lowth, and other great authorities, have supported
the opinion that it refers to the porcupine. The
main stress of their argument seems to depend
upon the component ]>arts of the original word,
of which the first syllable is said to be derived
from kanay * spine ; ' in confirmation of
which Bochart, with his wonted learning, cites
the Chaldee, Hebrew, Arabic, and Ethiopian
names of the porcupine and hedgehog, which
apparently confirm his opinion ; but although
derivations, when they are supijorted by appareiit
372. [Kinnamomura cassia.] identity of meaning in other kindred languages,
may satisfy the judgment of mere philologists,
Cassia bark, as we have seen, was distinguished something more will be demanded by naturalists,
with difficulty from cinnamon hy the ancients. who, looking for more positive indications than
In the present day it is often sold for cinnamon ; apparent synonyma and inferential derivation,
indeed, unless a purchaser specify true cinna have recourse mainly to the context for the real
mon, he will probably be supplied with nothing conditions, which must determine the meaning of
but cassia. It is made up into similar bundles with disnuted terms. Now, in Isa. xiv. 23, * I will
cinnamon, has the same general appearance, smell, make it a possession for the kippod (bittern), and
and taste; but its substance is thicker and coarser, pools of water,' &c, the words are plain and
its colour darker, its flavour much less sweet and natural. Marshes and pools are not the habi
fine than that of Ceylon cinnamon, while it is more tation of hedgehogs, for they shun water. In Isa.
pungent, and is followed by a hitter taste; it is xxxiv. 11, it is said, 'The cormorant (Sterna
also less closely quilled, and breaks shorter than caspia) and the kippod (bittern) shall possess it,
genuine cinnamon. Dr. Pereira, whose descrip the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it/ &c ;
tion we have adopted, has ascertained that cassia that is, in the ruins of Idumara. Here, again, the
is imported into the Loudon market from Itomlmy version is plain, and a hedgehog most surely would
(the produce of the Malabar coast), and also from be out of place. Zeph. ii. 14, ' Both the cor
the Mauritius, Calcutta, Hatavia, Singapore, t he morant (Sterna caspia) and the kippod (bittern)
Philippine Islands, and Canton. Mr. Heeves shall lodge in the up|>er lintels of it; and their
(Trans. Med. Hot. Soc. 1828, p. 26) says, ' Vast voice shall sing in the windows,1 &c. Surely here
quantities both of cassia seeds (buds) and cassia kippod cannot mean the hedgehog, a nocturnal,
lignea are annually brought to Canton from the grovelling, worm-eating animal, entirely or nearly-
province of Kwaugse, whose priucijial city mute, and incapable of climbing up walls; one
(Kweihin, literally * cassia forest') derives its name that does not haunt ruins, but earthy banks in
from the forests of cassia around it. The Chinese wooded regions, and that is absolutely solitary in
themselves use a much thicker lurk, unfit for the its habits. We thus see that the arguments respect
Kuropeau market.' The Malabar cassia lignea ing kippod, supplied by kephud, or kephodfor
is thicker and coarser that that of China. From we rind these various readingsare all mere specur
KIR. KIR-MOAB. 919
lations, producing at best only negative results. xxxii. 37; Josh. xiii. 19). But during the
Those drawn from indications of manners, such Assyrian exile, the Moabites again took posses
as the several texts contain, are, on the contrary, sion of this and other towns (Jer. xlviii. 1-23;
positive, and leave no doubt that tike animal Ezek. xxv. 9). Eusebius places it about half
meant is not a hedgehog, nor even a mammal, an hour west of the ruins of Medeba. Burckhardt
but a bird. Hence, though we admit the assumed found other ruins, called El Teym, which he
root of the denomination, still it must bear an conjectures to have been KiriaMatm, the last
interpretation which is applicable to one of the syllable of the name being retained. This is
feathered tribes, probably to certain wading species, somewhat doubtful, as the KcyiaSa (KapidBa) of
which have, chiefly on the neck, long pointed Eusebius is placed ten miles west of Medeba,
feathers, more or less sjieckled. The Arabian whereas El Teym is but two miles. There was
bustard, Otis koubara, might be selected, if it another place of this name in the tribe of Naph-
were not that bustards keep always in dry tali (1 Chron. vi. 76).
deserts and uplands, and that they never roost, 2. KIRJATH-ARBA, the ancient name of
their feet not admitting of perching, but rest Hebron, but. still in use in the time of Nehemiah
on the ground. We think the term most ap (vi. 26) [Hebron].
plicable to the lieron tribes, whose beaks are 3. KIRJATH-BAAL (city of Baal). This
formidable spikes that often kill hawks; a fact city is more usually called Kirjath-jba him.
well known to Eastern hunters. Of these, Nycti- 4. KIRJATH-HUZOTH (city of streets), a
corax Europ&tts, or common night heron, witli its town in Moab (Num. xxii. 39).
pencil of white feathers in the crest, is a species, 5. KIRJATH-JEARIM (Dnj^ njlft city
not uncommon in the marshes of Western Asia ; offorests ; Sept. KaptaBiapln), one of the towns
and of several species of bittern, Ardea (botaurus) of the Gibeonites (Josh. ix. 17). It was to
stellaris has pointed long feathers on the neck this place that the ark was brought from Befh-
and breast, freckled with black, and a strong shemesh, after it had been removed from the
pointed bill. After the breeding-season it mi land of the Philistines, and where it remained
grates and passes the winter in the south, fre till removed to Jerusalem by David (1 Sam.
quenting the marshes and rivers of Asia and vii.; 1 Chron. xiii.). This was one of the
Kurojw, where it then roosts high above ground, ancient sites which were again inhabited after
uttering a curious note before and alter its even the exile (Ezra ii. 25; Neh. vii. 29). Euse
ing flight, very distinct from the booming sound bius and Jerome speak of it as being in their
produced by it in the breeding-season, and while day a village nine or ten miles from Diospolis
it remains in the marshes. Though not buildiug, (Lydda), on the road to Jerusalem. Dr. Robin
like the stork, on the tops of houses, it resorts, son thinks it possible that the ancient Kirjath-
like the heron, to ruined structures, and we have jearim may be recognised in the present Knryet-
been informed that it has been seen on the sum el-Enab. The first part of the name (Kirjath,
mit of Tauk Kesra at Ctesiphon.C. H. S. Knryet, signifying city) is the same in both, and
KIR (Tp ; Sept. Kvpws), a people and is most prol>ably ancient, being found in Arabic
country subject to the Assyrian empire, to which proper names only in Syria and Palestine, and
the conquered Damascenes were transplanted not very frequently even there. The only change
(2 Kings xvi. 9; Isa. xxii. 6; Amos i. 5), and has been, that the ancient ' city of forests' has,
whither also the Aramaeans in the east of Syria in modern times, become the 4 city of grajws.* The
once wandered (Amos ix. 7). This is supposed site is also about three hours, or nine Roman
by Major Kennel to be the same country which miles from Lydda, on the mad to Jerusalem, and
still hears the name of .Kurdistan or Aonrdistan not very remote from Gil>eon, from which Kirjath-
(Geog. of Herodot. 391). 'there are, howaver, jearim could not well have been distant. So close
objections to this view, which do not apply so a corres])ondence of name and position seems to
strongly to the notion of Rosenmiiller and others, warrant the conclusion of Dr. Robinson in favour
that it was a tract on the river Cyrus, or rather of Kuryet-el*Enab. This place is that which
Kuros (Kvpos and Kts^oi), in Zend Koro, which ecclesiastical tradition has identified with the
rises in the mountains between the Euxine and Anathoth of Jeremiah, which Dr. Robinson refers
Caspian Seas, and nuts into the latter after being to Anata [Anathoth]. It is now a poor vil
joined by the Araxes. Gurjlstan, or Grusia lage, its principal buildings being an old convent
(Grusiana), commonly called Georgia, seems of the Miuontes, and a Latin church. The
also to have derived its name from this river Kur, latter is now deserted, but not in ruins, and is
which flows through it. said to be one of the largest and most solidly
KIR-HARESH; Kir-Hareseth ; Kir- constructed churches in Palestine (Robinson, ii.
Hbuf.m. [Kir-Moab.] 109; 334-337).
KIRJATH. This word means town or city, 6. KIRJATH-SANNAH (city of palms;
and is much used in the formation of names of Josh. xv. 49), otherwise Kirjath-sepher (city
places, like our own town. The following are the of the book)t a city of the tribe of Judah, called
principal places distinguished by this term : also Dkbir, which see (Josh. xv. 15, 16; Judg.
1. KIRJATHAIM (DJfl*|ft double town; i. 11, 12).
Sept. KtpiaOaiu), one of the most ancient towns KIR-MOAB QNiD-l*,?( < the wall, strong
in the country east of the Jordan, as it was pos hold, or citadel of Moab;' Sept. to tuxos ttjj
sessed by the gigantic Emim (Gen. xiv. 5), who Ma-a/SrnSuy ; Isa. xv. I); called also Kih-hare-
were expelled by the Moabites ; Dent. ii. 9, 10), skth and Kir-heres (nD"l!"HVp and Dim*p,
who in their turn were dispossessed by the Amo- brick-fortress ; Isa. xvi. 7, 11 ; Jer. xlviii. 31), a
rites, from whom it was taken by the Israelites. fortified city in the territory of Moab. Joram king
Kirjahaim was then assigned to Reuben (Num. of Israel took the city, and destroyed it, except the
KISH. KISHON.
walls; but it appars from the passages here cited other, and are called Ras el Kishon, or the bead
that it must have been rebuilt before the time of of the Kishon. These alone, without the leaser
Isaiah. Iu his prophecy (xv. 1), tlie Chaldee contributions near the sea, discharge water enough
paraphrast has put 2Nlb~K2"0 kerraka Moab, to form a river half as large as the Isis. During
'castle of Moab;' ami the former of these words, the rainy season all the waters which fall upon
pronounced in Arabic karak, kervk, or krak, is the eastern side of Carmel, or upon the rising
the name it bears in 2 Mace. xii. 17, X&paita'. in grounds to the southward, empty themselves into
Steph. Byzant. it is called XapdKn<*$a, in Abulfeda it in a number of torrents, at which time it over
(Tab. St/r. p, S9). and in the historians of the flows its banks, acquires a wonderful rapidity, and
Crusades. Abulfeda describes Karak as a small carries all before it. It was doubtless in such a
town, with a castle on a high hill, and remarks season that the host of Sisera was swept away, in
th.it it is so strong that one must deny himself attempting to ford it. But such inundations are
even the wish to take it by force. In the time of only occasional, and of short duration, as is indeed
the Crusades, and when in possession of the Franks, imolied in the destruction in its waters of the fu
it was invested by Saladin ; but after lying before gitives, who doubtless exj>ected to pass it safely.
it a mouth he was compelled to raise the siege The course of the stream, as estimated from the
(Bohaeddim, Vita Saladin. p. 55). The first jierson sources thus indicated, is not more thau seven
who visited the place in modern times was Seet- miles. It runs very briskly till within half a
xen, who says, * Near to Karak the wide plain league of the sea ; but when not augmented by
terminates which extends from Rahhah, and is rains, it never falls into the sea in a full stream,
broken only by low and detached hills, and the but insensibly percolates through a bank of sand,
country now becomes mountainous. Karak, for which the north winds have thrown up at its mouth.
merly a city and bishop's see, lies on the top of It was in this state that Shaw himself found it in
the hill near the end of a deep valley, and is sur the month of April, 1722, when it was crossed by
rounded on all sides with lofty mountains. The him.
hill is very steep, and in many places the sides Notwithstanding Shaw's contradiction, the as
are quite perjiendicnlar. The walls round the sertion that the Kishon derives its source from
town are for the most \ nt destroyed, and Karak Mount Tabor has been repeated by modem tra
can at present boast of little more than being a vellers as confidently as by their ancient prede
small country town. The castle, which is unin cessors. Buckingham's statement, being made
habited, and in a state of great decay, was formerly with reference so the view from Mount Tabor itself,
one of the strongest in these countries. The inha deserves attention. He says that near the foot of
bitants of the town consist of Mohammedans and the mountain on the south-west are 1 the springs ,.f
Greek Christians. The present bishop of Karak the Ain-es-Sherrar, which send a perceptible stream
resides at Jerusalem. From this place one enjoys, through the centre of the plain of Esdiaelon, and
by looking down the Wady Karak, a Hue view of form the brook Kishon of antiquity.* Further on,
part of the Dead Sea, and even Jerusalem may be the same traveller, on reaching the hills which
distinctly seen in clear weather. Hie hill on which divide the plain of Ksdraelon from that of Acre,
Karak lies is composed of limestone and brittle saw the pass through which the river makes its way
marl, with many l>eiU of blue, black, and grey from the one plain to the other (Travels in PaUst.
flints. In the neighbouring rocks there are a num i. 168, 177). We have had opportunities of seeing
ber of curious grottoes ; in those which are under much of streams similarly constituted; and it
ground wheat is sometimes preserved for a period does not seem to us diflicult to reconcile the seem
of ten years' (Zach's Monatiicke Correspond. ingly conflicting statements with reference to the
xviii. 431). A fuller account of the place is given Kishon. On further inquiry, and moie extensive
by Burckhardt (Travels in Syria, pp. 379-3S7), comparison of observations made at diflerent times
by whom it was next visited ; and another descrip of the year, it will probably be found that the
tion is furnished by 1 1 by and Mangles (Travels, remoter source of the river is really in Mount
pp. 361-370). From their account it would Mem Tabor ; but that the supply from this source is cut
that the caverns noticed by Section were probably off in early summer, when it ceases to be main
the sepulchres of the ancient town. We also learn tained by rains or contributory torrents; whereas
that the Christiana of Karak (which they and the copious supply from the nearer springs at Ras
Burckhardt call Kerek), are nearly as numerous el Ki&hon, with other springs lower down, keep it
as the Turks, and boast of being stronger and up from that point, as a perennial stream, even
braver. They were, however, on good terms with during the drought of summer. Thus during
the Turks, and appeared to tnjoy equal freedom one part of the year the source of the river
with them. may appear to be in Mount TaL>or, while
KISH, son of Ner, ami father of King Saul during another part the source of the diminished
(1 Sam. ix. 1). stream is at Has el Kishon. In this view of the
KISHON Sept. Krw), a riverwhich, case we should expect that travellers crossing the
plain in or shortly after the season of rain, would
after traversing the plain of Acre, enters the have encountered the temporary stream from
bay of the same name at its soutIk- east corner. Mount Tal>or before the point where it meets the
It is celebrated in Scripture for the overthrow of perennial streams from Camiel. The fact is,
the host of Sisera in its overflowing stream (Judg. however, that the route lias been little travelled in
IV. 13; v. 21). It has lieen usual to trace the that season; but the required evidence is by no
source of this river to Mount Tabor ; but Dr. Shaw means want ing. Mariti ( ii. 1 12) mentions the case
affirms that in travelling along the south-eastern of the English dmgoman who was drowned, and
brow of Mount Carmel, lie had an opportunity of his horse with him, in the attempt to cross such a
seeing the sources of the river Kishon, three or four stream in February, 1761. During the battle of
of which lie within less than a furlong of each Mount Tabor, between the French and Arabs,
KISHUIM. KISS. 210
April 16, 1799, many of the latter were drowned kati appears to be applied to the species which it
in their attempt to cross a stream, coming from called Cucumis chate by botanists, and 'queen of
Deburieh, which then inundated the plain (Burck- cucumbers ' by Hasselquist, who describes it as the
hardt, Syria, p. 339). Monro, who crossed the most highly esteemed of all those cultivated in
river early in April (in its lower or perennial part), Xgypt [Abattachim]. In India the name kissa
in order to ascend Mount Carmel, describes it as
traversing the plain of Esdraelon : which he could
not have done if he had not seen a stream flowing
in that direction uniting with the river below
Mount Carmel. The river, where he crossed it,
in a boat, was then thirty yards wide. Afterwards,
in crossing an arm of it, in the plain from Solam to
Nazareth, he incidentally furnishes ground for his
former view by stating that he crossed 'a consi
derable brook, and afterwards some others, which
flow into a small lake on the northern side of the
plain, and eventually contribute to swell the
Kishon ' (Ramble, i. 55, 281). Dr. Robinson
ays that this account corresponds with channels
that he observed (BibL Researches, iii. 230).
Prokesch also, in April, 1829, when travelling
directly from Ramleh to Nazareth, entered the
plain of Esdraelon at or near Lejjun, where he
came upon the Kishon, flowing in a deep bed
through marshy ground ; and after wandering
about for some time to find his way through the
morass, he was at last set right by an Arab, who
pointed out the proper ford (Reise ins H. Land,
p. The
129). Scriptural account of the overthrow of
Sisera's host manifestly shows that the stream
crossed the plain, and must have been of consider
able size. Trie above arguments, to show that it did
o, and still does so, notwithstanding Dr. Shaw's
account, were, in substance, given several years
ago in the Pictorial History of Palestine (Introd.
p. exci.) ; and the writer has had the satisfaction
of seeing his view since confirmed by Dr. Robin
son, who adds that * not improbably, in ancient 373. [Cucumis ntivus.]
times, when the country was jjerhaps mure wooded,
there may have been permanent streams through is applied by the Mohammedans to the Cuctfr
out the whole plain.' mis utiUssimus, or the common kukree of the
The transaction of the prophet Elijah, who, after natives ; while ill Persia and Syria the same name
bis sacrifice on Carmel, commanded the priests of would probably lie applied only to the common
Baal to be slain at the river Kishon (1 Kings cucumber, or Cucumis sativusy as the two preced
xviii. 40), requires no explanation, seeing that it ing species are not likely to be much known in
took place at theperennial lower stream. This either country. All travellers in the East notice
also explains, what lias sometimes been asked, the extensive cultivation and consumption of cu
whence, in tliat time of drought, the water was cumbers and other herls of the same tribe, espe
obtained with which the prophet inundated his cially where there is any moisture of soil, or the
altar and sacrifice. possibility of irrigation. Thus even in the driest
parts, the neighbourhood of a well is often occu
KISHUIM (D*KB*p) translated cucumbers pied by a field of cucurbitaceous plants, generally
in our Autli. Vers., and the correctness of this with a man or boy set to guard it from plunder,
rendering has been almost universally admitted. perched up on a temporary scaffolding, with a
It first occurs in Num. xi. 5, in the verse already slight protection from the sun, where he may
quoted in Anattach im, where the Israelites, when himself be safe from the attacks of the more
in the desert, express their longings for the melons ]>owerful wild animals. That such plants appear
and the kishmm or cucumbers of Egypt. Reduced to have been similarly cultivated among the He
from the plural form, the word kisha is so similar brews is evident from Isa. i. 8, *The daughter of
to the Arabic fl.* kissat that there can be very Zion is left like a cottage in a vineyard, like a
lodge in a gardeu of cucumbers as well as from
little doubt of their both meaning the same thing. Baruch vi. 70, ' As a scarecrow in a garden of
Celsius gives /.'-;. kati, and kusaia, as ditlerent cucumbers keej>eth nothing, bo are their gods of
pronunciations of the same word in different Ori wood' [Abattachim].J. F. R.
ental languages. It does not follow that these KISS. Originally the act of kissing had a
names always indicate exactly the same species ; symbolical cliaracler, and, though this imjtort may
since in the different countries they would i>robably now be lost sight of, yet it must be recognised
be applied to the kinds of cucumber most com- the moment we attempt to understand or explain
mou, or perhaps to those which were most esteemed its signification. Acts speak no less, sometimes
in particular localities. Thus in Egypt the name far more forcibly, than words. In the early period
216 KISS. KISSOS.
of society, when the foundation wu laid of most much of what they wrote, did not permit more
even of our Western customs, action constituted a than three kinds of kisses, the kiss of reverence,
large portion of what we may term human lan- of reception, and of dismissal (Breschith Rabba
or the means of intercommunication be- on Gen. xxix. 11).
man and man ; because then words were The peculiar tendency of the Christian religion
less numerous, books unknown, the entire ma to encourage honour towards all men, as men, to
chinery of speaking, being in its rudimental and foster and develop the softer affections, and, in the
elementary state, less developed and called into trying condition of the early church, to make its
play ; to say nothing of that peculiarity of the members intimately known one to another, and
Oriental character (if, indeed, it be not a cha unite them in the closest bonds, led to the observ
racteristic of all nations in primitive ages) which ance of kissing as an accompaniment of that social
inclined men to general taciturnity, with occa worship which took its origin in the very cradle
sional outbreaks of fervid, abrupt, or copious of our religion. Hence the exhortation* Salute
eloquence. In this language of action, a kisft, each other with a holy kiss* (Rom. xvi. 16; sea
inasmuch as it was a bringing into contact of also 1 Cor. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xiii. 12; 1 Then. v.
parts of the body of two persons, was naturally 26; in 1 Pet. v. 14, it is termed 'a kiss of
the expression and the symbol of affection, re charity'). The observance was continued in later
gard, respect, ami reverence; and if any deeper days, and has not yet wholly disappeared, though
source of its origin were sought for, it would, the peculiar circumstances have vanished which
doubtless, be found in the fondling and caresses gave propriety and emphasis to such an expres
with which the mother expresses her tenderness sion of brotherly love and Christian friendship.
for her babe. That the custom is of very early On the subject of this article consult Pfanner,
date appears from Gen. xxix. 13, where we De Osculis Christianor. Veter. ; M. Kempius,
read* When Laban heard the tidings of Jacoh, De Osculis, Francof.l6S0; Jac. Herrenschmidius,
his sister's son, he ran to meet him, and embraced Osculoffia, Vileb. 1630; P. Muller, De Oscuio
him and kissed him, and brought him to his Sancto, 1674 ; Boherg, De Osculis Hebr.J. R. B.
house the practice was even then established KISSOS (Gr. KMTcds), * ivy/ is mentioned only
and recognised as a matter of course. In Gen. once, and that in the Apocrypha (2 Mace. vi. 7)(
xxvii. 26, 27, a kiss is a sign of affection between where the Temple is described as bemg desecrated
a parent and child. It was also, as with some by the Gentiles, and the Jews forced to depart
modem nations, a token of friendship and regard from the laws of their fathers: * And when the
bestowed when friends or relations met or sepa feast of Bacchus was kept, the Jews were com
rated (Tobit vii. 6; x. 12; Luke vii. 45; xv. pelled to go in procession to Bacchus, carrying
20; Acts xx. 37; Matt. xxvi. 48; 2 Sam. xx.
9). The church of Ephesus wept sore at Paul's
departure, and fell on his neck and kissed him.
When Orpah quitted Naomi and Ruth (Ruth i.
14), after the three had lifted up their voice and
wept, she ' kissed her mother-in-law, but Ruth
clave unto her.1 It was usual to kiss the mouth
(Gen. xxxiii. 4; Exod. iv. 27 ; xviii. 7 ; I Sam. xx.
41 ; Prov. xxiv. 26) or the beard, which was then
taken hold of by the hand (2 Sam. xx. 9). Ki3s-
ingofthe fret was an expression of lowly and tender
regard (Luke vii. 38). Kissing of the baud of
another appears to be a modern practice : the pas
sage of Job xxxi. 27, ' Or my mouth hath kissed
my hand,' is not in point, and refers to idolatrous
usages, namely, the adoration of the heavenly
bodies. It was the custom to throw kisses towards
the images of the gods, and towards the sun and
moon (1 Kings xix. IS; Hosea xiii. 2; Minuc.
Felix, ii. 5; Tac. Hist. iii. 24. 3; Lucian, De
Salt. c. 17 ; Plin. Hist. Nat. xxviii. 5). The kiss
ing of princes was a token of homage (Ps. ii. 12;
1 Sam. x. 1 ; Xenoph. C'yrop. vii. o. 32). Xenophou
says {Agent, v. 4) that it was a national cus
tom with the Persians to kiss whomsoever they
honoured ; and a curious passage to this effect may
be found in the Cyroptrdia (i. 4. 27j. Kissing the
feet of princes was a token of subjection and
obedience; which was sometimes carried so far
that the print of the foot received the kiss, so as to
give the impression that the very dust had become
sacred by the royal tread, or that the subject was
not worthy to salute even the prince's foot, but
was content to kiss the earth itself near or on 374. [Ifalem bellx.j
which lie trod (Isa. xlix. 23 ; Micah vii. 17 ; Ps. ivy.' The term ki<T(t6s or kittos seems to have
Ixxii. 9; Dion Cass. lix. 27; Seneca, De Bene/. been applied by the Greeks in a general sense, an
ii. 12). The Rabbins, in the meddlesome, scru to have included many plants, and among them,
pulous, and falsely delicate spirit which animated some climbers, as the convolvulus, besides the
KOHATH. KOPHER. 317
ivy, which was especially dedicated to quod cyprinum (Kitxptvov, Dioscor. i. 65) vocatur
Bacchus, and which was distinguished by the Optimum habetur e Canope, in ripis Nili natum :
name of * Hedera poetica, Dionysia aut Bac- secundum Ascalone Judaeeo: tertium Cypro in
chica, quod ex ea poetarum corona? consuerentur.' sula, odoris suavitate praecipuum.' Sir T. Browne
It is well known that in the Dionysia, or festivals and others have inferred that the Kxnrpos of the
in honour of Dionysus, and in the processions Greeks was the kopher of the Hebrews. Mariti
called Btcurotf with which they were celebrated, remarks, that 1 the shrub known in the Hebrew
women also took part, in the disguise of Baccha?, language by the name of kopher is common in
Naiades, Nympha?, Sec, adorned with garlands of the island of Cyprus, and thence had its Latin
ivy, &c. : thus Ovid (Fa*ti, iii. 766): name :' also, that * the Botrus Cypri has been
Cum hedera cincta est? hedera est gratissima supposed to be a kind of rare and exquisite
Baccho grapes, transplanted from Cyprus to Engaddi ; but
Bacchus is generally thought to have been the Botrus is known to the ua&ves of Cyprus as
educated in India, and the Indian Baghos has an odoriferous shrub called henna, or alkanna.''
been supposed to be the original of the name. The So R. Ben Melek {ad Cant. i. 14), as quoted
fact of lUghes being a compound of two words and translated by Celsius (i. 223) :' Botrus
signifying tiger and master or lord, would appear Copher id ipsum est, quod Arabes vocant Al-
to confirm the identity, since Bacchus is usually Hinna.' Upon this Celsius remarks :' Haec in
repiesented as drawn in his chariot by a tiger Talmude ssepius memoratur, quod in Judaea cres-
and a lion, and tigers, &c, are described as follow- ceret, et Juda?orum legibus subjecta esset.' If
ing him in his Indian journey. As the ivy, how we refer to the works of the Arabs, we find both
ever, is not a plant of India, it might be objected in Serapion and Avicenna, reference from their
to its Wing characteristic of an Indian god. But JImiia to trie description by Dioscorides and Galen,
in the mountains which bound Iudia to the north, of Kupros or Cypros. This identity is now uni
both the ivy and the vine may be found, and the versally acknowledged : the Kupros, therefore,
Greeks were acquainted with the fact that Mount must have been Lawsonia inermis, as the Hinna
Mero is the only part of India where ivy was pro of the Arabs is well known to be. If we exa
duced. Indeed, Alexander and his companions mine the works of Oriental travellers and natu
are said to have crowned themselves with ivy in ralists, we shall find that this plant is universally
honour of Bacchus. The ivy, Hedera Helix, esteemed in Eastern countries, and appears to
being a native of most parts of Europe, is too well have been so from the earliest times, both on
known to require special notice.J. F. R. account of the fragrance of its flowers, and the
KITE. [Gi.edu.] colouring properties of its leaves.
KNEADING-TROUGHS. [Bread.]
KOHATH (nnjj, assembly; Sept. hW0), son
of Levi, and father of Amram, Izhar, Hebron,
ami Uzziel (Gen. xlvi. 11). The descendants of
Kohatli formed one of the three great divisions of
the Levitical tribe. This division contained the
priestly family which was descended from Aaron,
the son of Amram. In the service of the taber
nacle, as settled in the wilderness, the Kohathites
had the distinguished charge of bearing the ark and
the sacred vessels (Exod. vi. 16; Num. iv. 4-6).
k< M'll KR, or Copher p$2), occurs twice
in the Song of Solomon, and is in both places
translated camphire in the Authorized Version.
Thus (i. 14), * My beloved is unto me as a
cluster at camphire (kopher) in trie vineyards of
En-gedi and in iv. 13, 4 Thy plants are an
orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits,
camphire (kopher), with spikenard/ It has been
supposed to indicate a bunch of grapes (Botrus
kopher), also camphor. The word camphire is
the old mode of spelling camphor, but this sut>-
tance does not appear to have been known to
ancient commerce ; at least we cannot adduce any
proof that it was so. The word Kopher is cer
tainly very like Kafoor, the Eastern name for 37i. [I-awsonia inermis,]
camphor, but it also closely resembles the Greek
Kvwpos, or Kupnts, usually written Cypros. In Thus Rauwolff, when at Tripoli (Travels,
deed, as has been observed, it is the same word, iv.), ' found there another tree, not unlike unto
with the Greek pronunciation and termination. our privet, by the Arabians called Alcana, or
The Kinrpos of the Greeks is, no doubt, the Law- Henna, and by the Grecians, in their vulgar
tonia inermis of botanists, and is described by tongue, Schenna, which they have from Egypt,
Dioscorides (i. 125) and by Pliny (xii. 24): where, but above all in Cayre, they grow in
' Cypros in Agypto est arltor ziziphi (olea, abundance. The Turks and Moors nurse these
Dioscor.) foliis, semine coriandri, flore candido, up with great care and diligence, because of their
Coquitur lioc in oleo, premiturque postea, telling flowers. They also, as I am in
KORAH. KORAH.
formed, keep their leaves all winter, which leaves more from other tribes, making up the number of
they powder and mix with the juice of citrons, 250, men of name, rank, and influence, all who
and stain therewith against great holidays the may be regarded as representing the families of
hair and nails of their children of a red which they were the heads. The private object
colour, which colour may perhajis be seen with of Korah was apparently his own aggrandize
us on the manes and tails of Turkish horses.'' ment, but his ostensible object was the general
So Belon (ii. 74), when leaving Cairo for Jeru good of the people ; and it is perhaps from want
salem, says :1 Nous trouvasmes un petit arbris- of atteution to this distinction that die transaction
seau nomme Henne ou Alcanna, qu'ils taillent et has not been well understood. The design seems
ctilti vent diligemment, et font d'iceluy des beaux to have been made acceptable to a large body of
petits bois taillis. II est de grand revenu en the nation, on the ground that the first-bom of
Egypte, car ils deseichent ses feuilles pour mettre Israel had been deprived of their sacerdotal birth
en poudre, a faire de la teinture pour teindre en right in favour of the Levites, while the Levites
jaune ; les femmes de tous les pays de Turquie themselves announced that the priesthood had
out coustume de teindre les mains, les pieds, et been conferred by Moses (as they considered") on
partie des cheveux en couleur jaune ou rouge ; et his own brother's family, in preference to those
les hommes se teignent les ongles en rouge avec la who had equal claims ; and it is easy to con
susdicte poudre' (Observ. p. 301). This custom ceive that the Reubenites may have considered
of dyeing the nails and the palms of the hands the opportunity a favourable one for the recovery
and soles of the feet, of an iron-rust colour, with of their birthrightthe double portion and civil
henna, exists throughout the East, from the pre-eminencewhich had been forfeited by them
Mediterranean to the Ganges, as well as in and given to Joseph. These are the explanations
Northern Africa. In some parts the practice is of Aben-Ezra, and seem as reasonable as any
nt confined to women and children, but is also which have been offered.
followed by men, especially in Persia. In The leading conspirators having organized
dyeing the beard, the hair is turned to red by their plans, repaired in a body to Moses and
this application, which is then changed to black by Aaron, boldly charged them with their usurpa
a preparation of indigo. In dyeing the hair of tions, and required them to lay down their ill-
children, and the tails and manes of horses and gotten power. Moses no sooner heard this than
asses, the process is allowed to stop at the red he fell on his face, confounded at the enormity of
colour which the henna produces. In reference so outrageous a revolt against a system framed so
to this universal practice of the East, Dr. Harris carefully for the benefit of the nation. He left
observes that * the expression in Deut. xxi. 12, the matter in the Lord's hands, and desired them
" pare her nails," may perhaps rather mean " adorn to come on the morrow, provided with censers for
her nails,'" and imply the antiquity of this prac incense, that the Lord himself, by some manifest
tice. This is a universal custom in Egypt, and token, might make known his will in this great
not to conform to it would be considered indecent. matter. As this order was particularly addressed
It seems to have been practised by the ancient to the rebellious Levites, the Reubenites left the
Egyptians, for the nails of the mummies are place, and when afterwards called back by Moses,
most commonly of a reddish hue.' Seeing, then, returned a very insolent refusal, charging him
that the henna is so universally admired in the with having brought them out of the land of Egypt
East, both on account of the fragrance of its under false pretences, k to kill them in the wil
flowers and the dye yielded by its leaves, and as derness.'
there is no doubt that it is the Kinrpos of the Greeks, The next day Korah and his company appeared
and as this word is so similar to the kopher of the before the tabernacle, attended by a multitude
Hebrews, there is every probability of this last of people out of the general body of the tribes.
being the henna of the Arabs, Latcsonia alba of Then the Shekinah, or symbol of the divine pre
botanists.J. F. R. sence, which abode lietween the cherubim, ad
vanced to the entrance of the sacred fabric, and
KORAH (prp, ice; Sept. Kopl), a Levite, a voice therefrom commanded Moses and Aaron to
son of Izhar, the brother of Amram, the father stand apart, lest they should share in the destructiou
of Moses and Aaron, who were therefore cousins which awaited the whole congregation. On hear
to Korah (Exod. vi. 21). From this near relation ing these awful words the brothers fell on their
ship we may, with tolerable certainty, conjecture, faces, and, by strong intercession, inoved the Lord
that the source of the discontent which led to the to confine his wrath to the leaders in the rel>ellion,
steps afterwards taken by this unhappy man, lay and spare their unhappy dupes. The latter were
in his jealousy that the high honours and privi- then ordered to separate themselves from their
letie^ of the priesthood, to which he, who re leaders and from the tents in which they dwelt.
mained a simple Levite, might, apart from the The terrible menace involved in this direction
divine api>ointment, seem to have had as good a had its weight, and the command was obeyed ;
claim, should have been exclusively appropriated and after Moses had appealed to what was to
to the family of Aaron. When to this was added happen as a proof of the authority by which he
the civil authority of Moses, 1 he whole power over acted, the earth opened, and received and closed
the nation would seem to him to have been en over the tents of Korah, Datliau, and Abiram.
grossed by his cousins, the sons of Amram. Un The Reubenite conspirators were in their tents, and
der the influence of these feelings he organized a perished in them ; and at the same instant Korah
conspiracy, for the purpose of redressing what and his 250, who were offering incense at the door
appeared to him the evil and injustice of this of the tabernacle, were destroyed by a fire which
arrangement. Dathan, Abiram, and On, the chief ' came out from the Lord that is, most probably,
persons who joined him, were of the tribe of in this case, from out of the cloud in which hia
Reuben; but he was also supported by many presence dwelt. The censers which they had used
KUSSEMETH. KUSSEMETH. 319
were afterwards made into plates, to form an outer and barley, and beans, and lentiles, and millet,
covering to the altar, and thus became a standing and kussemeth, and put them in a vessel, and
monument of this awful transaction (Num. xvi.). make bread thereof.'
On, although named in the first instance along
with Dathan and Abiram, does not further appear
either in the rebellion or its punishment. It is
hence supposed that he repented, in time : and
Abendana and other Rabbinical writers allege
that his wife prevailed upon him to abandon the
cause.
It might be supposed from the Scripture narra
tive that the entire families of the conspirators
perished in the destruction of their tents. Doubt
less all who were in the tents perished ; but as the
descendants of Korah afterwards became eminent
in the Levitical service, it is clear that his sons
were spared. They were probably living in sepa
rate tents, or were among those who sundered them
selves from the conspirators at the command of
Moses. There is no reason to suppose that the
sons of Korah were children when their father
jterished. The Korahites were appointed by
David to the ollice of guarding the doors of the
temple, and of singing praises. They, in fact,
occupied a distinguished place in the choral
service of the temple, and several of the Psalms
(xlii. xliv. xlix. lxxxiv. lxxxv. lxxxvii. lxxxviii.)
are inscribed to them. Heman,the master of song
under David, was of this family, and his genea
logy is traced through Korah up to Levi (1 Chron.
vi. 31-38.)
KOTZ. [Thorn.]
KRINON. [law.] 378. [Tiiticum spelts.]
KUSSEMETH (DDM) occurs in three Though it is very unlikely that kttssemeth can
places of Scripture. In the Authorized Version mean rye, it is not easy to say what cultivated grain
it is translated rye in Exod. ix. 32 ; Isa. xxviii. it denotes. The principal kinds of grain, it is to
25, and Jitches in Ezek. iv. 9; but its true mean be observed, are mentioned in the same passages
ing still remains uncertain. It was one of the cul with the kusscmeth. Celsius has, as usual, with
tivated grains both of Egypt and of Syria, and one great labour and learning, collected together the
of those employed as an article of diet. It was different translations which have tteen given of
also sown along with wheat, or, at least, its crop this difficult word. In the Arabic translation of
was in the same state of forwardness ; for we learn Exod. ix. 32, it is renderedjttlban : ' cicercula, non
from Exod. ix. 32, that in the seventh plague the circula, ut perperam legitur in versione Latino.'
hail-storm Bmote the barley which was in the ear, By other Arabian writers it is considered to mean
and the flax which was boiled; but that the peas, and also beans. Many translate it vicia, or
wheat and the kttssemeth were not smitten, for vetches, as in the Authorized Version of Exod. ix.
they were not grown up. Resecting the wheat 32 ; for according to Maimonides {ad 7V. Shahb.
and the barley, we know that they are often xx. 3), carschinin is a kind of legume, which in
sown and come to maturity in different months. the Arabic is called kirsana, but in the sacred
Thus Forskal says, * Hordeum cum mense language kussetneth. Both julhan and kirsana
Februario maturatur, triticum*ad tinem Mart it mean species of pulse, but it is not easy to ascer
persistit' {Flora sEgypt., p. 43). The events tain the specific Kinds. The majority, however,
above referred to probably took place in February instead of a legume, consider kttssemeth to indi
(vid. Pict. Bible)* That kttssemeth was culti cate one of the cereal grains, as the rye (secale),
vated in Palestine we learn from Isa. xxviii, 25, or the oat (avena), neither of which is it likely to
where it is mentioned along with ketzah (nigella) have been. These have probably been selected
and cumin, wheat and barley; and sown, ac because commentators usually adduce such grains
cording to some translators, * on the extreme as they themselves are acquainted with, or have
border of the fields/ as a kind of fence for otlier heard of as commonly cultivated. Celsius, how
kinds of corn. This is quite an Oriental practice, ever, informs us that in the Syriac and Chaldee
and may be seen in the case of flax and other versions kussetneth is translated kunta ; far in
grains in India, at the present day. The rye is the Latin Vulgate; far adoreumy Guisio, Tract.
a grain of cold climates, and is not cultivated Peak, viii. 5, and Tract. ChUaim, i. 1 ; fcei in
even in the south of Europe. Korte declares the Septuagint, Isa. xxviii. Aquila, Symmachus,
{Travels, p. 16*8) that no rye grows in Egypt; and others render it spelta. So Ben Melech,
and Shaw states (p. 351) that rye is little known on Exod. ix., and Ezek iel iv., says ' kyssemeth,
in Barbary and Egypt (Rosenmuller, p. 76). vulgo spelta^ and the Septuagint has 6\vpa.
That the kusscmeth was employed for making Upon which Celsius remarks: 'all thesethat is,
bread by the Hebrews we know from Ezek. iv. kunta, far, ador, spelta, and 6\vpaarc
9, where the prophet is directed to ( take wheat, one and the same thing.' This he proves satis
220 LAANAH. LAANAH.
factorily by quotations from the ancient authors it is applied to public and private calamities ;
(I. c. ii. 100). Dr. Harris states that the word and tn Amos v. 7, itissaid of unrighteous judge*,
kussemeth seems to be derived from casam, * to * Ye who turn judgment to wormwood so in
have hairs ;' and that hence a bearded grain verse 12, but here the word laanah is translated
must be intended; which confirms the probability hemlock. That laanah was a plant of an extreme
of spelt being the true meaning. degree of bitterness, is evident from the various
Dioscorides has stated (ii. Ill), that there are passages in which it occurs; and it has hence, as
two kinds of Zfut, one simple, and the other Celsius observes, been adopted to indicate both
called dicoccos. Sprengel concludes that this is, the sins and the punishments of men. Some
without doubt, the Triticum Spelta of botanists ; translators, as the Septuagint, substitute the pro
that Xheolyra was a variety which Host has called per terms which they conceive the plant to
Triticum Zea; and also that the-simple kind is denote as avayta), o&vrri, tut/ho, and x0^- So
the Triticum monococcon. That these grains were the Arab translator uses words signifying do-
cultivated in Egypt and Syria, and that they lores, aducria, calamitates, amaritudo. The
were esteemed as food in those countries, may Hebrew word laanah is supposed by Lexico
also be satisfactorily proved. Thus Herodotus graphers to have Iteen originally derived from
states that the Egyptians employ olyra, which the same root M die Arabic ^ftl loan, 1 he was ac
others call zea, as an article of diet. Pliny (Hist.
Nat. xviii. 8) mentions it as found both in Egypt cursed;' from u hfefa cumes the Arabic laana,
and in Syria : * .Agypto autem oc Syria-, Cili-
cieeque et Asise, ac Grxciae peculiares, zea, olyra, signifying ' execration ' or 4 malediction ;' and as
tiphe.' So in more modern times : 1 In ^Egypto the Hebrews accounted bitter plants as jiemicious
zeam abunde nasci refert Dapperus descriptione and poisonous, so they typified what was dis
Asia; p. 130. Et Monachos circa Jordanem, agreeable or calamitous by a bitter plant. Thus,
pane 6\vpirr] vesci, scribit Johannes Phocas de as Celsius remarks, Talmudical writers, in speak
Locis Syr. et Palsostiua p. 34 ' (Celt. /. c. 100). ing of the bleuings and maledictions of Moses,
That it was highly esteemed by the ancients is say, 4 Ilia mel, has absinthium eraut.' The
evident from Dioscorides describing it as more Chaldee, and other Oriental translations, as the
nourishing than liarley, and grateful in taste. Syriac and Arabic, in Prov. v. 4; Lam. iii. 19,
Pliny also (xviii. 11) says: *Ex zea pulcrius, with the Ilabhins, translate laanah by words
quam ex tritico tit granum ;' and Salinasio : ' quod signifying wormwood. This is adopted in the
lautior panis ex zea quam ex tritico fieret.* The Vulgate, as well as in the English translation.
goodness of this grain is also implied from the In Revelations viii. 11, we liave the Greek word
name of semen having been especially applied to tytvQos employed ; * And the name of the star
it (C. Bauhin, Pinox, p. 22). is called wormwood, and the third part of tlie
Triticum Spelta, or Spelt, is in many respects waters became wormwood (AiftK&w), and many
so closely allied to the common wheats as to men died of the waters, because they were bitter.'
have been thought by some old authors to have Some other plants have beeu adduced, as the
been the original stock of the cultivated kinds; colocynth and the oleander, but without anything
but for this there is no foundation, as the kind culti to support tin-in ; while different kinds of arte*
vated for ages in Europe does not differ from speci misia, and of wormwood, are proverbial for their
mens collected in a wild state. These were found by bitterness, and often used in a figurative sense
a French botanist, Michaux, in Persia, on a moun by ancient authors :
tain four days' joumey to the north of Hamadan. * Parce, precor, lacerare tuum, nec amara paternis
It is cultivated in many parts of Germany, in Admiscere velis, ceu melli absinthia, verbis.'
Switzerland, in the south of France, and in Italy. Paulin. Ep. ad Ausonium.
It is commonly sown in spring, and collected in Celsius has no doubt thkt a species of artemisia,
July and August. Though some circumstances or wormwood, is intended : ' Hanc plantam ama-
seem to point to this species as the kussemeth of ram in Judaea et Arabia copiose nasceutem, et
Scripture, the subject is still susceptible of further interpretum aucforitate egregie sutlultam, ijwam
investigation, ami can only be finally determined esse Ebrseorum HjyS, pro indubitato liabemus.'
by first ascertaining the modem agriculture of That sjiecies of Artemisia are common in Syria
eastern countries, and comparing it with the and Palestine is well known, as all travellers
ancient accounts of the agriculture of Syria and mention their abundance in particular situations ;
EgyptJ. F. R. but as many of them resemble each other very
closely in properties, it is more difficult to deter
mine what particular species is meant. It is pro
bable, indeed, that the name is used in a generic
LAANAH (HJJ^), translated v>ormwooa\ rather than a specific sense. The species found in
Syria have already been mentioned under Ab
occurs in several passages of Scripture, in most sinthium. The species most celebrated in
of which it is employed in a figurative sense. Arabian works on Materia Medica is tliat called
Thus, in Deut. xxix. 18, 1 Lest there be among
you a root that beareth gall and tpormwood,' is ijJ* sheehy which is conspicuous for its bitter
applied to such Israelites as should worship fo ness, and for being fatal to worms ; hence it has
reign gods. Prov. v. 4, * But her end is bitter as been commonly employed as an anthelmintic even
wormwood.1 Jer. ix. 15, ' Behold I will feed to our own times. This seems to be the same species
them, even this people, with wormwood, and give which was found by RauwoltT in Palestine, and
i gall to drink/ So in Jer. xsciii. 13, and in which he says the Arabs call scheha. It is his
i. iii. 15 and 19, 1 Remember mine affliction 1 Absinthium Santouicum, scheha Arabvim, unde
L my misery, the wormwood and gall/ where semen lumbricorum colligitux;' t"
LABAN. LABOUR. 221
Santonicum Judaictun of Caspar Bauhin, in his than which none can be more certain ; for labour
Pinax, now Artemisia Judaica ; though it is pro is often used as synonymous with endurance,
bable two or three species yield the Setnoni San- trial, and grief (Gen. xxxv. 16); so Virgil
ionicutn, or wormwood of commerce, which, (Mn. i. 597) :
instead of seed, consists of the tops of the plants, * O sola inlandoa Trojse miserata labores.'
ind in which the peduncles, calyx flowers, and These not unnatural convictions and feelings
young seeds are intermixed. Artemisia Mari- were in the primitive state of society corroborated
tima and Judaica are two of the plants which by peculiar, and to some extent local, influences.
yield it.J. F. R. Under an eastern sky hard labour is an almost
LABAN, son of Bethuel, and grandson of intolerable as well as crushing burden, to which,
Nahor, brother of Rebekah, and father of Jucob's when required, hardly any but slaves will submit.
two wives, Leah and Rachel. And the high-spirited, free, and unrestrained child
LABOUR is that steady and constant effort of of the desert, as well as the more tranquil, gentle,
the bodily frame which man undertakes for his but not less free shepherd of the plains, may well,
own benefit, and, in {particular, in order to procure in the primeval ages, have regarded with aversion
the means of subsistence. This is the primary and stigmatised with opprobrium the hard, and
imjjort of the term lalwur, whence are derived comparatively constant, toils of the tillers of the
its applications to the exertions and produc ground.
tions of the mind, and even to the affections, the However, what is even a penalty in one stage of
passions, and their consequences. In Gen. iiL human development and in one ]*art of the world,
lW, l.il-.ur is set forth as a put of the primeval may, in the progress of Divine Providence, be con
curse, 1 In the sweat of thy face thou shalt eat verted into a real and lasting blessinga blessing
bread ;' and doubtless there is a view of labour never to be forfeited unless by folly and sin.
which exhibits it in reality as a heavy, sometimes Certainly the rewards of labour may accumu
a crushing burden. But labour is by no means late so plenteously around human beings under
exclusively an evil, nor is its prosecution a dis certain conditions, that they may come to have
honour. These impressions, false though they their minds more frequently struck, and so more
are, have wrought a vast and complicated amount deeply impressed, by the advantages than by the
of harm to man, especially to the industrious evils and inconveniences of labour. Constituted
classes, causing these classes, that is, the great as the frame of man is, labour is beneficial, if not
majority of our fellow-creatures, to be regarded, necessary, to the unfolding of his physical {towers,
and consequently to Ite treated, even in Christian and when well apportioned to the variable degrees
lands, as a pariah caste, as hereditary ' hewers of growing strength, powerfully conduces, with
of wood and drawers of water,' doomed by internal impulses, to carry the body to its state of
Providence, if not primarily by the Creator highest vigour and beauty, imparting meanwhile
himself, to a low and degrading yoke, and ut a sense of deep and pure animal enjoyment, and
terly incapable of entertaining lofty sentiments, making food as grateful as it is nutritious, the
or rising to a higher position; to be restrained final immediate result of which is found in sound
therefore in every manifestation of impatience, slumbers and healthful feelings : ' the sleep of a
lest they should temporarily gain the upper hand, labouring man is sweet* (Eccl. v. 12). A tine
and lay waste the fair fields of civilization ; and passage, which confirms these views, and serves to
to be kept under for the safety of society, if not show that Scripture in process of time regarded
for their own safety, by social burdens and the labour otherwise than as a curse, may be found in
depressing influences of disregard and contempt. Ps. ciii. 23, 21, sq., in which both 1al>our and its
A better feeling, however, regarding labour and fruits are placed among the proofs of the divine
labourers, is beginning to prevail : these notions, wisdom and bounty.
which breathe the very spirit of slavery whence Labour, however, like every other divine ap
they are borrowed, are in word disowned, while pointment, may l>e perverted by misuse into an
tliey are gradually losing their hold on the heart, evil. Excessive labour is a curse. Labour apart
and their influence on the life. Individuals from certain conditions, whose observance is
rising from time to time from the lowest levels essential to our physical well-l>eing, entails last
of social life to take, occupy, and adorn its loftiest ing miseries. Labour which is both severe, long,
posts, have irresistibly shown that there is no de broken only by brief intervals, whether of riot or
pression in society which the favours of God may of sin, is an infliction as hard as it is unjust an
not reach. Especially has a wider and more evil which no man has a right to impose on him
humane spirit begun to prevail since men have self, and which still less can society be justified
learnt more accurately to know, and more power in compelling or leading any one to endure.
fully to feel, the genius and spirit of the Gospel, If, however, excessive labour is a crushing load,
whose originator was a carpenter's sou, and whose the absence of labour is a not less intolerable bur
heralds were Galilean fishermen. Reason and den. Of all conditions in society, theirs is per
experience, too, in this as in all cases, have come haps the most pitiable who, possessing some degree
to confirm divinely revealed truth, tending for of mental culture, and being of refined and per
cibly to show that labour, if under certain cir haps morbid sensibilities, suffer under the irre
cumstances it has a curse to inflict, lias also many mediable calamity of having nothing to do; no
priceless blessings to bestow. regular pursuit, that is, no need of the labour of
The origin of the view of labour which the either head or hands for the sustenance of the
passage in Genesis (iii. 19) presents, may be found, body or the upholding of their social state ; who
as has been intimated, in certain unquestionable rise in the moniing not knowing to what to apply
facts which have not yet passed out of the sphere their flagging capabilities, and retire to rest at
of reality. That labour involves pain and effort night wearied and jaded, but not solaced bv the
to man appears from an index of his feelings, consciousness of having gained or done some good.
LABOUR. LAMECH.
These two extremestoo much labour, and too progress of various kinds of hand labour among
little or no labourare among the greatest of the the people of Israel, see Handicraft.J. R. B.
social ills under which English society is at pre lachish oral ; Sept. Adxu). a city in the
sent suffering. They are ills which have grown
rapidly, which arc growing, and which show no south of Judah, in the plain between Adoraim
signs of immediate diminution. They are under and Azekah (Josh. x. 3, 5, 31 ; xv. 39.) It was
mining the foundations of religion, which is in rebuilt and fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi.
self-defence required to raise its mighty voice 9), and seems after that time to have been re
against them. A successful effort towards the garded as one of the strongest fortresses of the
equalization of labour would l>e a signal blessing kingdom of Judah, having for a time braved the
not less to the ricli than to the poor; anil is called assaults of the Assyrian army under Sennacherib
for as much by the divine spirit of Christianity as (2 Kings xviii. 17 ; xix. 8; 2 Chron. xxxii. 9).
it is by considerations drawn from the interests of Kusebius and Jerome place it seven Roman
individuals and the welfare of society. miles from Eleutheropolis towards the south.
If enough had not already been said to establish There has not been any more recent notice of
this position, we could refer to the institution at the place, and no modem vestige of the name
a very early stage of the world's history of the or site has been discovered.
Sabbath, by which one-seventh of man's brief life LAISH. [Dan.]
was rescued from labour, and appropriated to rest LAKES. [Palestine.]
of body and to that improvement of the mind LAMECH C?1D^ ; Sept. Ad>x). >" of
which tends to strengthen, invigorate, and sustain
the entire man. To the same effect was the divine Methusael, and father of Jabal, Jubal, Tubal-
appointment of those numerous holidays under cain, and Naamah (Gen. iv. 18,24, &c). He
the Mosaic dispensation; and we are by no is recorded to have taken two wives, Adah and
means sure but that the genius of the Gospel was, Zillah; and there apj>ears no reason why the fact
in this jiarticular at least, better understood and should have been mentioned, unless to point him
more fully honoured in those days and under out as the author of the evil practice of jjolygamy.
those forms of Christian faith which saved for the The manner in which the sons of Lantech distin
refreshment and recreation of the laliourer many guished themselves as (he inventors of useful arts,
days during the course of the year, than it is now, is mentioned under their several names. The
when we appear to have solved the unhappy most remarkable circumstance in connection with
problem which asks, What is the extreme of toil Lantech is the poetical address which he is very
that the human frame can bear, without regard to abruptly introduced as making to his wives. This
vigorous sensations or length of days? is not only remarkable in itself, but is the first and
In regard to the different species of labour in most ancient piece of poetry in the Hebrew Scrip
which human beings have been engaged, the tures; and, indeed, the only example of Antedi
Hebrews, like other primitive nations, appear to luvian poetry extant :
have been herdsmen before they were agricul 1 Adah and Zillah, hear my voice !
turists (Gen. iv. 2, 12, 17, 22); and the practice Wives of Lantech, receive my speech!
of keeping flocks and herds continued in high If 1 slew a man to my wounding,
esteem and constant observance as a regular And a young manto my hurt:
employment and a social condition (Judg. i. 16; If Cain was avenged seven times,
iv. II; Jer. 85; Luke ii. 8). The culture of Thru Lantechseventy times seven/
the soil came in course of time, introducing the This exhibits the parallelism and other charac
discovery and exercise of the practical arts of teristics of Hebrew poetry, the development of
life, winch eventually led to those refinements, which belongs to another article [Poetry]. It
both as to processes and to applications, which has all the appearance of an extract from an old
precede, if they do not create the fine arts (Gen. poem, which we may SUpimse to have been handed
iv.; xxv'. 12; xxxiii. 19). Agriculture, indeed, down by tradition to the time of Moses. It is
became the chief employment of the Hebrew very difficult to discover to what it refers, and the
race after their settlement in Canaan, lay at the l>est explanation can be nothing more than a con
very bitsis of the constitution, both civil and re jecture. The Jewish tradition, or rather fiction,
ligious, which Moses gave them, was held in is given by most commentators, and is too absurd
great honour, and was carried on by the high as to Ik* worth relating. The speech, so far as we
as well as the humble in position (Judg. vi. 11 ; can make it out, would seem to i>e, as Bishop
1 Sam. xi. 5; I Kings xi\. 19). No small care Lowth explains {Prelect, iv. 91), an apology for
was bestowed on the culture of the vine, which grew committing homicide, in his own defence, ujKin
luxuriously on the hills of Palestine (Is. v. 2, 5 ; some man who had violently assaulted him,
Matt. xxi. 33; Num. xiii. 24). The vintage was and, as it would seem, struck and wounded him :
a season of jubilee (Judg. ix. 27; Jer. xxv. 30; and he opposes a homicide of this nature to t he
Is. xvi. 10). The hills of Palestine were also wilful and inexcusable fratricide of Cain. Under
adorned with well cultured olive-gardens, which this view Lantech would appear to have intended
produced fruit useful for food,for anointing, and for to comfort his wives by the assurance that he was
medicine (Is. xvii. 6 ; xxiv. 13 ; Deut. xxiv. 20 ; really exposed to no danger from this act, and that
Kzek. xxvii. 17 ; 1 Kings iv. 25 : Hob. xiv. 6, 7). any attempt upon his life on the part of the
Attention was also given to the culture of the fig- friends ofthedeceased would not fail to bringdown
tree (2 Kings xxi. 7; 1 Chron. xxvii. 28), as upon them the severest vengeance (corap. Dathe
well as of the date-palm (Lev. xxiii. 40; Judg. and liosenmuller, in he. ; see also Turner's Notes
i. 16; iv. 5 ; xx. 33; Deut. xxxiv. 3), and also on Genesis, p. 209). Another view, adopted by
of balsam (Gen. xliii. 11; Kzek. xxvii. 17; Shuckford in his Connection, supposes that the
xxxvii. 25; Jer. viii. 22). For the rise and descendants of Cain had lived for a long time in
LAMECH. LAMENTATIONS. M3
fear of vengeance for the death of Abel from the that the passage in 2 Chronicles refers to the
family of Adam ; and that Lamech, in order to existing book of Lamentations, and that the
persuade his wives of the groundlessness ofsuch author considered the death of Josiah as its prin-
fears, used the argument in the text, i.e. if any cipal subject. This daring writer uses so little
one who miglit slay Cain, the murderer of his ceremony with the author of the book of Chro
brother, was threatened with sevenfold vengeance, nicles on other occasions, that his own opinion
surely they must expect a far sorer punishment is not to be inferred from this admission; and
who should presume to kill any of us on the same we are not surprised to Hnd from what follows,
account.' This explanation, however, is less that he feels at liberty to take a different view
satisfactory than the other ; for although both from the one which he believes the writer of Chro
may be equally conjectural, this requires us to nicles to have entertained.
assume a greater number of circumstances. The received opinion, namely, that in accord
2. L AMECH, son of Methuselah, and father ance with the argument prefixed to the book in the
of Noah (Gen. v. 28-31). Septuagint, is now all but universally acquiesced
LAMENTATIONS. This book is called by in. It is adopted by nearly all commentators,
the Hebrews HO^, * /iow, from the first word of who, as they proceed through the book, find that
they cannot follow out the details on any other
the book ; but sometimes they call it m^i?, supposition. Indeed, but for the reference sug
rears, or 1 lamentation,' in allusion to the gested by the passage in Chronicles, no one would
mournful character of the work, of which one have been likely to imagine that such expressions
would conceive, says Bishop Lowth, * that every as are found in chap. i. 1, 2, 3, 7, could point to
letter was written with a tear, every word the any other circumstances than those which attended
sound of a broken heart.' From this, or rather anil followed the destruction of Jerusalem by the
from the translation of it. jn the Septuagint Babylonians. Besides, the prophet throughout
(Qprivoi), comes our title of Lamentations. speaks of the city and teuiple of Jerusalem as
The ascription of the Lamentations in the title ruined, profaned, and desolated : which certainly
is of no authority in itself, but its correctness has was not the case in the time of Josiah, or at his
never been doubted. The style and manner of death. We may, under this view, regard the two
the book are those of Jeremiah, and the circum first chapters as occupied chiefly with the circum
stances alluded to, those by which he is known to stances of the siege, and those immediately fol
have been surrounded. This reference of the lowing that event. In the third the prophet
Lamentations to Jeremiah occurs in the intro deplores the calamities and persecutions to which
ductory verse which is found in the Septuagint : he had himself been exposed : the fourth refers to
Kal jyeVero fi*rA rb aiXMa^-tOTia'^Vvat Thv*l(rpaf)\t the ruin and desolation of the city, and the un
icol 'Upovcra\))n ipv}fiw$i)yait iKaBtatv 'Upefitas happy lot of Zedekiah ; and the fifth and last
tiKc'ia'u, Kal (Qp4]vri<Ti rhv Bprivov rovrov 4ir\ seems to be a sort of prayer in the name, or on
'Upov(raX-f)fi, Kal eiirc. ' And it came to pass, behalf of, the Jews in their dispersion and cap
after Israel had been carried away captive, and tivity. As Jeremiah himself was eventually
Jerusalem was become desolate, that Jeremiah compelled to withdraw into Egypt much against
sat weeping, and lamented with this lamentatioti his will (Jer. xliii. 6), it has been suggested that
o\er Jerusalem, and said.' This has been copied the last chapter was possibly written there. Pa-
into the Arabic and Vulgate versions; but as it reau refers chap. i. to Jer, xxxvii. 5, sqq. ; chap,
does not exist in the Hebrew, Chaldee, or Syriac, iii. to Jer. xxxviii. 2, sqq.; chap, iv. to Jer.
it was regarded by Jerome as spurious, and is xxxix. 1, sqq., and 2 Kings xxv. 1, sqq.; chap,
not admitted into his version. ii. to the destruction of the city and temple;
It is disputed whether or not this verse existed chap. v. is admitted to be the latest, and to refer
in ttie Hebrew copies from which the translation to the time after that event. Ewald says that
of the .Seventy was made. We are certainly not the situation is the same throughout, and only
bound by its authority if disposed to question the the time different. In chaps, i. and ii. we find
conclusion which it' supports. But it at least sorrow without consolation; in chap. iii. conso
shows the opinion which prevailed as to the lation for the poet himself; in chap. iv. the
author, and the occasion of the book, at the time lamentation is renewed with greater violence;
the translation was made. That opinion, as but soon the whole people, as if urzed by their
regards the author, has been admitted without own spontaneous impulse, fall to weening and
dispute; but there has been less unanimity re hoping' (Die Poetischen BucherJ. De Wette
specting the subject-matter of the Lamentations. describes the Lamentations somewhat curtly, as
Funeral lamentations, composed by Jeremiah * five songs relating to the destruction of the cily
upon the death of king Josiah, are mentioned in of Jerusalem and its temple (chaps, i. ii. iv. v.),
2 Chron. xxxv. 25, and are there said to have and to the unhappy lot of the poet himself (iii.).
been perpetuated by an ordinance in Israel. The historical relation of the whole cannot lie
That the Lamentations thus mentioned are those doubted; but yet there seems a gradual ascent in
which we now possess, has been the opinion of describing the condition of the city ' (Einleit.
many scholars of great eminence. Josephus $ 273).
clearly takes this view (Antig, x. 5. 1), as do Dr. Blayney, regarding both the date and
Jerome (Comment, in Zech. iii. 11), Theodoret, occasion of the Lamentations as established by
and others of the fathers ; and in more modern the internal evidence, adds, 4 Nor can we admire
times. Archbishop Usher (De LXX. Interpret.), too much the flow of that full and graceful pa
Michaelis (Note on Lowth s Sac. Poet. Hebr. thetic eloquence, in which the author injurs out
Prselect. xxii.), who afterwards changed his opi the effusions of a patriotic heart, and piously
nion, Dalhe (Proph. Major, ed. 1), and others. weeps over the ruins of his venerable country*
De Wette (Einleit. 273) is clearly of opinion (Jeremiah, p. 376). 4 Never/ says an unques
224 LAMP. LAMP.
tionable judge of these matters, * was there a which they had just quitted. They were in this
more rich and elegant variety of beautiful images instance doubtless of gold, although metal is
and adjuncts, arranged together within so small scarcely the best substance for a lamp. The
a compass, nor more happily chosen and applied golden candlestick may also suggest, that lamps
(Lowtn, De Sacra Poesi Hebr. Prelect xxii. . in ordinary use were placed on stands, and where
Jarchi, and some other Jewish commentators, more than one was required, on stands with two
fancy that the book, which, after being pub or more branches. The modern Orientals, who
licly read by Baruch, was cut to pieces by king are satisfied with very little light in their rooms,
Jehoiachin, and cast into the fire (Jer. xxxvi. 4, 5), tise stands of brass or wood, on which to raise the
was comjiosed of chaps, i. ii. iv. of the Lamenta lamps to a sufficient height above the floor on
tions, to which chap. v. was afterwards added. which they sit. Such stands are shaped not un
Kut this notion does not require confutation, as like a tall candlestick, spreading out at the top.
there is not a shadow of probability in its favour. Sometimes the lamps are placed on brackets
In the ancient copies this book is supposed to against the wall, made for the purpose, and often
have occupied the place which is now assigned upon stools. Doubtless the same contrivances
to it, after Jeremiah. Indeed, from the manner were employed by the Hebrews.
in which Josephus reckons up the books of the From the fact that lamps were carried in the
Old Testament {Contra Apion. i. 8), it has been pitchers of Gideon's soldiers, from which, at the
supposed that Jeremiah and it originally formed end of the march, they were taken out, and home
but one hook (Prideaux, Connection* i. 332). in the hand (Judg. v ii. 16, 20), we may with
In the Bible now used hy the Jews, however, the certainty infer that they were not, like many of
book of Lamentations stands in the Hagiographa, t lie classical lamps, entirely open at top, but so
and among the five Megilloth, or books of Ruth, shaped that the oil could not easily be spilled.
Esther, Ecclesiastes, and Solomon's Song. They
believe that it was not written by the gift of
prophecy, hut by the spirit of God (between
which they make a distinction), and give this
as a reason for not placing it among the prophets.
It is n*al in their synagogues on the ninth of
the month Ab, which is a fast for the destruction
of the lioly city.
LAMP (T(fc, whence, perhaja, Gr. Aauwor,
the ft being introduced in place of the Hebrew
Q, Lat. lampas* and our /amp). Lamps are very
often mentioned in Scripture; but there is
nothing to give any notion of their form. Al
most the only fact we can gather is, that vegetable
oils were burnt in them, and especially, if not
exclusively, olive-oil. This, of the finest qua
lity, was the oil used in the seven lamps of the
Tabernacle (Exod. xxvii. 20). It is somewhat
remarkable, that while the golden candlestick,
or rather candelabrum, is so minutely described,
not a word is said of the shape, or even the ma 378. [Classical Lamps.]
terial, of the lamps (Exod. xxv. 37). This was, This was remarkably the case in the Egyptian
perhaps, because they were to be of the common specimens, and is not rare in the classical. Gi
deon'* lamp* must also have had handles ; but
that the Hebrew lamj* were always furnished
with handles we are not hound to infer: in ligypt
we find lamp lioth with and without handles.
Although the lamp-oils of the Hebrews were
exclusively vegetable, it is probable that animal
fat was used, as it is at present by the Western
Asiatics, by ting placed in a kind of lamp* and
burnt by means of a wick inserted in it. This
we have often witnessed in districts where oil-
yielding plants are not common.
Cotton wirksare now tised throughout Asia;
but the Hebrews, like the Egyptians, probably
employed the outer and coarser tibre of tiax
(Pliny, Hist. Kat. xix. 1); and perhaps linen
yam. if the Rabbins are correct in alleging that
the linen dresses of the priests were unravelled
when old, to furnish wicks for the sacred lamps
[Candlestick].
It seems that the Hebrews, like the modern
177. [Egyptian Lampa.j Orientals, were accustomed to burn lamps over
night in their chambers ; and this practice may
forms, already familiarly known to the Hebrews, appear to give point to the expression of 1 outer-
and the same probably which were used in Egypt, darkness/ which repeatedly occurs in the New
LAMPS. LAMPS.
Testament (Matt. viii. 12; xxii. 13) : the force is red and green, are attached to other cords (Lane's
greater, however, when the contrast implied in the Mod. Egypt, i. 201). A modem lantern much used
term outer is viewed with reference to the effect on these occasions, with lamps hung about it and
produced by sudden expulsion into the darkness suspended from it, is represented in the preceding
of night from a chamber highly illuminated fur cut (No. 379). The lamps used separately on such
an entertainment. This custom of burning lamps occasions are represented in the following cut (Np.
at night, with the effect produced by their going 380). Figs. I, 3, and 5, show very distinctly the
out or being extinguished, supplies various figures
to the sacred writers (2 Sam. xxi. 17 ; Prov. xiii.
9; xx. 20). And, on the other hand, the keeping
up of a lamp's light is used as a symbol of en
during and unbroken succession (1 Kings xi. 36;
xv. 4; Ps. cxxxii. 17).
It appears from Matt xxv. 1, that the Jews used
lamps and torches in their marriage-ceremonies,
or rather when the bridegroom came to conduct
home the bride by night. This is still the custom
in those ]>arts of the East where, on account of
the heat of the day, the bridal procession takes
place in the night-time. The connection of lamps
and torches with marriage-ceremonies often appears S80.
also in the classical poets (Homer, Iliad, vi.
492; Eurip. Phccniss. 346; Medea, 1027; Virg. shape of these lamps, with the conical receptacle
Eclog. viii. 29); and indeed Hymen, the god of of wood which serves to protect the flame from
marriage, was hgured as bearing a torch. The same the wind. Lamps of this kind are sometimes
connection, it may be observed, is still>preserved in hung over doors. The shape in tig. 3 is also that
Western Asia, even where it is no longer usual to of a much-used in-door lamp. It is a mall
bring home the bride by night. During two,or three, vessel of glass, having a small tube at the bottom,
or more nights preceding the wedding, the street in which is stuck a wick formed of cotton twisted
or quarter in which the bridegroom lives is illu round a piece of straw : some water is poured in
minated with chandeliers and lanterns, or with lan first, and then the oil. Lamps very nearly of
terns and small lamps suspended from cords drawn this shape appear on the Egyptian monuments,
across from the bridegroom's and several other and they seem also to be of glass (Wilkinson's
Ancient Egyptian*, iii. 101 ; v. 376). If the
Egyptians had lamps of glass, there is no reason
why the Jews also might not have had them, espe
cially as this material is more proper for lamps in
tended to be hung up, and therefore to cast their
light down from aliove. The Jews certainly used
lamps in other festivals besides those of marriage.
The Roman satirist (Persius, Sat. v. 179) ex
pressly describes them as making illuminations at
their festivals by lamps hung up and arranged in
an orderly manner; and the Scriptural intimations,
so far as they go, agree with this description. If this
custom had not been so general in the ancient and
modem East, it might have l>een supposed that the
Jews adopted it from the Egyptians, who, accord
ing to Herodotus (ii. 62), had a * Feast of Lamps/
which was celebrated at Sais, and, indeed,
throughout the country at a certain season of the
year. The description which the historian gives
of the lamp? employed on this occasion, strictly
applies to those in modern use already described,
and the concurrence of Iwth these sources of illus-
tration strengthens the probable analogy of Jewish
usage. He speaks of them as 4 small vases filled
with salt and olive-oil, in which the wick floated,
and burnt during the whole night.1 It does not
indeed appear of what materials these vases were
made ; but we may reasonably suppose them to
have been of glass.
The later Jews had even something like this
feast among themselves. A 1 Feast of Lamps' was
held every year on the twenty-fifth of the month
Chisleu. It was founded by Judas Macca-
hs&us in celebration of the restoration of the
370. temple worship (Joseph. Antiq. xii. 7. 7), and
has ever since been observed by the lighting up
bouses on each side to the houses opposite ; and se of lumps or candles on that day in all the coun
veral small silk flags, each of two colours, generally tries oi their dispersion (Mainnon. Mosh. Eathar
vol. xi.
2'26 LANTERN LAODICEA.
naA, fol. 8). Other Orientals have at this day ft guard, and is shaped like those in common use
similar feast, of which the * Feast of Lanterns* among ourselves. A similar lantern is at this
among the Chinese is, perhaps, the best known day used in Persia, and perhaps does not ma
(Davis's Chinese, p. 138). terially differ from those mentioned in Scripture.
LANGUAGE. [Tongues, Convusiom of.] More common at present in Western Asia is a
LANTERN (tpav6s). This word occurs only large folding lantern of waxed cloth strained over
in John xviii. 3, where the party of men which rings of wire, with a top and bottom of tinned
went out of Jerusalem to apprehend Jesus in the copper (No. 381, figs. 2, 3). It is usually about
garden of Gethsemane is descrilied as lifting pro two feet long by nine inches in diameter, and is
vided * with lanterns and torches.* In the article carried by servants lefore their masters, who often
Lamp it has been shown that the Jewish lantern, pay visits to their friends at or after supper-time.
or, if we may so call it, lamp-frame, was similar In many Eastern towns the municipal law for
to that now in use among the Orientals. Another bids any one to l>e in the streets alter nightfall
of the same kind is represented in the annexed without a lantern.
engraving (No. 381, fig. 1). LAODICEA (AtwSocfia). There were four
places of this name, which it may be well to dis
tinguish, in order to prevent them from being con
founded with one another. The first was in the
western part of Hhrygia, on the borders of Lydia ;
the second, in the eastern part of the same country,
denominated Laodicea Combusta ; the third, on
the coast of Syria, called Laodicea ad Mare, and
serving as the port of Alepjm ; and the fourth, in
the same country, called Laodicea ad Li banurn,
from its proximity to that mountain. The third
of these, that on the coast of Syria, was destroyed
by the great earthquake of Aleppo in August,
1S22, and at the time of that event was supposed
by many to be the Laodicea of Scripture, al
though in fact nut less than four hundred miles
from it. But the first named, lying on the confines
of Phrygia and Lydia, about forty miles east of
Ephesus, is the only Laodicea mentioned in
Scripture, and is that one of the * seven churches
in Asia' to which St. John was commissioned to
deliver the awful warning contained in Rev. iii.
14-19. The fulfilment of this warning is to be
sought, as we take it, in the history of the Chris
tian church which existed in that city, and not
in the stone and mortar of the city itself ; for it is
not the city, but 'the church of the Laodiceans,*
which is denounced. It is true that the city is
utterly ruined; but this is the case wiih innu
Ax the streets of Eastern towns are not lighted merable other towns in Asia Minor. It is the
at night, and never were so, lanterns are used to precise reference to the seven churches as such,
an extent not known among us. Such, doubtless, without any other reference to the cities than as
was also formerly the case; and it is therefore giving Itiem a name, which imparts a marked dis
tinction to the Apocalyptic prophecies. But this
has been little beetled by writers on the subject,
who somewhat unaccountably seek, in the actual
and material condition of these cities, the accom
plishment of spiritual warnings and denunciations.
At the present day, would an authorized denun
ciation of ' (lie church in London," as in danger
of being cast fortli for its lukewarmness, be un
derstood to imply that London itself was destined
to become a heap of ruins, with its bridges broken
down, and its palaces and temples overthrown ?
Laodicea was the capital of Greater Phrygia,
and a very considerable city at the time it was
named in Scripture (Strabo, p. 578); but the
frequency of earthquakes, to which this district
has always l>een liable, demolished, some ages
after, great part of the city, destroyed many of
the inhabitants, and eventually obliged the re
mainder to abandon the spot altogether. Smith,
in his Journey to the Seven Churches (1 67 1 ), was
remarkable that (he only trace of a lantern which the first to describe the site of Laodicea. He was
the Egyptian monuments oiler, is that contained followed by Chandler and Pococke ; and the lo
in the present engraving (No. 3S2). In this case cality has, within the present century, l>een visited
it seems to be bovne by the night-watch, or civic by Mr. Hartley, Mr. Arundell, and Col. Leake.
LAPWING. LAPWING. 227
Laodic&i is now a deserted place, called by the uncommon preservation, three theatres, one of
Turks Eski-hissar COId Castle), a Turkish word which is 450 feet in diameter, and the ruins of
equivalent to Pale6-kastro, which the Gieeks so several other buildings (Antiq. of Ionia, pt. ii.
frequently apply to ancient sites. From its ruins, p. 32 ; Chandler s Asia Minor* c. 67). Col. Leake
Laodicea seems to have been situated upon six or says: 'There are lew ancient sites more likely
seven hills, taking up a large extent of ground. than Laodicea to preserve many curious remains
To the north and north-east runs the river Lycus, of antiquity beneath the surface of the soil; its
about a mile and a half distant; but nearer ir opulence, and the earthquakes to which it was
is watered by two small streams, the Asojms and subject, rendering it probable that valuable works
Caprus, the one tn the west, and the other to the of art were often there buried beneath the ruins
south-east, both passing into the Lycus, which of the public and private edifices (Cicero, Epist.
last flows into the Marauder (Smith, p. 85). ad Amic. ii. 17; lii. 5; v. 20; Tacit. Annat.
Laodicea preserves great remains of its import* xiv. 27). And a similar remark, though in a
ance as the residence of the Roman governors of lewr degree, perhaps, will apply tn the other
Asia under the emperors; namely, a stadium, in cities of the vale of the Mxander, as well as to
883. (Laodicea.]
some of those situated to the north of Mount I <><; for Hesychius explains ctto^ in jflvsehylus
Tmolus ; for Strabo (pp. 579, 628, 630) informs by the Greek appellations of * moor-cock1 and
ns that Philadelphia, Sardis, and Magnesia of * mountain-cock ' (see Bochart, in voce Duki-
Sipylus, were, not less than Laodicea and the phath)\ and in modern languages similar mis
cities of the Maeauder as far as Apameia at the takes respecting this bird are abundant. The
sources of that river, subject to the same dreadful Septiiagiut and Vulgate agree with the Arabian
calamity' (Geography of Asia Minor, p. 233). interpreters in translating (he Hebrew HE^D'H by
tworp, and upupa ; and as the Syrian name it
LAPWING, in our version, is used for ktkuphah) and t he Egyptian ktikuphah, both
n*y$W dukiphath, a word which, occurring apparently of the same origin as duAiphath> the
only in Lev. xi. 19, and Deut. xiv. 18, affords propriety of substituting hoopoe for lapwing in
no internal or collateral evidence to establish our version appears sufficiently established.
the propriety of the translation. It has been The hoopoe is not uncommon in Palestine at
surmised to mean * double-crest which is suf this day, and was from remote ages a bird of
ficiently correct when applied to the hoopoe ; mystery. The summit of (lie augural rod is said
but less so when applied to the lapwing, or the to have lieen carved in the form of an hoopoe's
cock of the woods, Tetmo Urogalltu ; for which head ; and one of the kind is still used by Indian
bird Booliart produces a more tlirect etymology; gosseins, and even Aimenian bishop, attention
and he might have appealed to the fact, that (he being no doubt drawn to the bird by its pecu
Attagan visits Syria in winter, exclusive of at liarly urranged black and white bars upon a de
least two si>ecies of Pterocles, or sand-grouse, licate vinous fawn-colour, and further embellished
which probably remain all the year. B"t these with a beautiful f;in-shaped crest of the same
nun.', were anciently, as well as in modern colour, tipped with white and black. Its appel
limes, so often confounded, that the Greek writers lations in all languages appear to be either imita
even used ti e terni Gallinacea to denote the boo- tions of the bird's voice, or indications of its filthy
o2
LATINISMS. LATINISMS.
habits ; which, however, modern ornithologists Plutarch, Diouysius of Halicaruassus, and Athe*
deny, or do not notice. In Egypt these birds are nauis, as may 1* seen in Wetstein, in loc. Kvvvot%
census (Matt, xvii. 25 . : Ktrrvptov, < enturio ( .Mark
xv. 39), &c. : A*-)fuV, fano, legion' (Malt. xxvi.
53). Polybiua (b.c. 150) has also adopted the
Roman military terms (vi. 17) 1616. HwtKov-
\a.Twp, speculator, ' a spy,* from specular* 4 to
look aUmt ;' or, as Wahl and Scbleusner think,
from 5;if u/um, the weajxtn carried by the specu-
lator. The word describes the emperor's life
guards, who, among other duties, punished the con
demned ; hence 4 an executioner ' (Mark vi. 27),
margin, ' one of his guard ;* (comp. Tacitus, Ilist.
i. 25 ; Joseph. De Belt Jud. i. 33. 7 ; Seneca,
De Ird, i. 16). McUcAAof, from macellum, 1 a mar
ket-place for flesh' (1 Cor. x. 25). As Corinth
was now a Roman colony, it is only consistent to
384. [Hoopoe.] find that the inhabitants had adopted this name
for their public market, and that Paul, writing to
numerous ; forming, probably, two species, the one them, should employ it. Mi\tov (Matt. v. 41).
permanently resident about human habitations, This word is also used by Polybius (xxxiv. 11.8)
the other migratory, and the same that visits and Strain) (v. p. 332). Secondly, Latin senses
Europe. The latter wades in the mud when the of Greek words : as Kapvos (Rom. xv. 2S). * fruit/
Nile has subsided, and seeks fur worms and in where it seems to be used in the sense of emolu-
sects ; and the former is known to rear its young mentum, * gain upon money lent,' &c. : twatvos,
so much immersed in the shards and fragments of * praise,' in the juridical sense of elogium, a tes
beetles, &c. as to cause a disagreeable smell timonial either of honour or reproach (1 Cor. v.
about its nest, which is always in holes or in 5). Thirdly, those forms of sjieech which are pro
hollow trees. Though an unclean bird in the perly called Latinisms: as f$ovk6p.vos t. l\.\>
Hebrew law, the common migratory hoopoe is rh Uavbv ".uvTat, ' willing to content the people*
eaten in Egypt, and sometimes also in Italy; (Mark xv. 15), which corresponds to the pbnue
but the stationary sjwcies is considered inedible. satisfacere alicui: \apuv rb U<wbv irapa, 1 to take
It is unnecessary to give further description of a security of,' satis accipere ab (Acts xvii. 9) : 5&s
bird so well known as the hoopoe, which, though ipyaaiav, ' give diligence," da operam (Luke xii.
not common, is nevertheless an annual visitant 58); the plirase rcniittere ad aHum judicem is
of England, arriving soon after the cuckoo. retained in Luke xxiii. 15 : ah Jtyt, * see thou to
C. H. S. that,' fw videris (Matt, xxvii. 4)(Aricler, llerme-
LATINISMS. This word, which properly neut. Jiiblica, Vienna?, 1813, p. 99; Michaelis*
signifies idioms or phraseology peculiar to the Introduction to the Sew Testament, by Marsh,
Latin tongue, is extended by Biblical critics so as
to include also the Latin words occurring in the Cambridge, 1793, vol. i. part i. p. 163,
The importance of the Latinisms in the Greek
Greek Testament. It is but reasonable to expect Testament consists in this, that, as we have partly
the existence of Latinisms in the language of shown (and the proof might be much extended),
every country subdued by the Romans. The in they are to l>e found in the best Greek writers of the
troduction of their civil and military officers, of same era. Their occurrence, therefore, in the New
settlers, and merchants, would naturally \m fol Testament adds one thread more to that compli
lowed by an infusion of Roman terms, Hcc, into cation of probabilities with which the Christian
the language of their new subjects. There would history is attended. Had the Greek Testament
be many new tilings made known to tome of them, been free from thein, the objection, though recon
for which they could find no corresponding word dite, would have been strong. At the same lime
in their own tongues. The circumstance that the the subject is intricate, and admits of much dis
proceedings in courts of law were, in every |>artof cussion. Dr. Marsh disputes some of the instances
the Roman empire, conducted in the Latin lan adduced by Michaelis (ut supra, p. 431, eqq.j.
guage, would necessarily cause the introduction Dresigius even contemls tli.it there are no Latin
of many Roman words into the dejiartment of isms in the New Testament (De tsttittismts,
law, as might be amply illustrated from the pre Leipsig, 17*26; and see his Vindicitt Dtsserta-
sent state of the juridical language in every coun tionis de Latitiismts\ Even Aricler allows that
try once subject to the Romans, and among others, some instances adduced by him may have a.
our own. Valerius Maximus (it. 2. indeed, purely Greek origin. Truth, as usual, lies in the
records the tenacity of the ancient Romans for middle, and there are, no doubt, many irre
their language in their intercourse with the Greeks, fragable instances of Latinisms, which will amply
and their strenuous emleavours to propagate it repay the attention of the student (see Georgii
through all their dominions. The Latinisms in Hierocrit, de Latinismis Novi Test. Wlttsjbsjrg,
the New Testament are of three kinds, consisting 1733; Kypke, Obsert. Sacr. ii. 219, Wrutis.
(1) of Latin words in Greek letters; (2) of Latin 1 "5.1 ; Pritii Iutroductio in Led. Aov, Test,,
senses of Greek words ; and ('!) of those forms of p. 207. sqq. Leips. 1722. Winer refers also to
speech which are more properly called Latinisms. Wernsdorf, De Christo Latine loquente, p. 19;
The following may suffice as examples of each .(aim's Archie, ii. iv.; Olearius, De Stylo Nov,
of these : First, Latin words in Greek characters : Test. p. 368. sqq.; Jnchofer, Sacr* LatinitatiM
aavapiovy 1 farthing," from the Latin assarius Ilistoria, Prag. 1742; seeliibl. Real- WorteHmch^
(Matt. x. 29^. This word is used likewise by ait. Homer, Homisches, &c.\ J. F. D.
LAVEIL LAW.
LAVER C*3 and T? ; Sept. KovrpSv), a architect :but it signifies also a whole body of
basin to contain the water used by the priests in legislation ; as flE^D mm (1 Kings ii. 3 ;
their ablutions during their sacred ministrations. 2 Kings xxiii. 25; Ezra iii. 2), the law given
There was one of brass (fabricated out of by Moses, which, in reference to its divine origin,
the metal mirmrs which the women brought is called RUtt mm, the law of Jehovah (Pi.
from Egypt, Rxod. xxxviii. 8). It had a *foot' xix. S; ww. i. 31; Isa. v. 21; xxx. 9). In
or base, which, from the manner in which * the the latter sense it is called, by way of eminence,
Iaver and its foot' are mentioned, must have mini"!, the law (Dent. i. 5 ; iv. 8, 44^ xvii.
been a conspicuous feature, and was perhaps se 18, 19; xxvii. 3, 8). If not the substance of
parable from the basin itself for the purpose of legislation, but rather the external written code
removal. We are not informed of the size or in which it is contained is meant, the following
shape of this laver; but it appears to have been terms are crop]oveil : ittJ'D mm ISO (2 Kings
large. It stood between the altar of burnt- xiv. 6 ; Isa. nil 91 ; xxiii. 6); mm 1SD
offerings and the door of the tabernacle (Exod. or D'H^N mm TDD (Josh. xxiv. 26).
xxx. 18-21 ; xl. 30-32). The water of this laver In a wider sense the word v6fios, 1 law/ is em
seems to have served the double purpose of ployed in order to express any guiding or direct
washing the parts of the sacrifices, and the hands ing power, originating from the nature of any
and feet of the priests. But in the temple of Solo thing existing. The apostolic use of the word
mon, when the number of both priests and victims has been well expressed by Claudius Guilliaud
had greatly increased, ten lavers were used for in his work, In Omnes PauU Epistolas Col-
the sacrifices, and the molten sea for the personal latio, p. 21. Law is a certain power restraining
ablutions of the priests (2 Chron. iv. 6). These from some, and impelling to other things oi
lavers are more minutely described than that of actions. Whatever has such a power, and exer
the talwmacle. So far as can be made out from cises any sway over man, may be called law, in
the description, they consisted of a square base a metaphorical sense. Thus the A]stle (Rorrt.
or stand mounted upon rollers or wheels, and vii. 23) calls the right impulses and the sanctified
adorned with figures of palm-trees, cherubim, will of the mind, v6/xos tov vo6s, the law of the
lions, and oxen. The stand doubtless formed a mind; and the perverse desire to sin which is
hallow fiasin for receiving the water which fell inherent in our members, v6p.os iv ro7s ficKcvi,
from the laver itself, and which appears to have the law in the members. In the same manner
been drawn from it by means of cocks (1 Kings he calls that power of faith which certainly
vii. 27*39). The form of the lavers is not men governs the whole man, since the actions of every
tioned ; but it is stated that each of them con man are swayed by his convictions, v6p.os xftr-
tained forty baths, or. according to the usual Tfcoj, the law of faith. So, the power and
computation, about 300 English gallons. From value ascribed to ceremonies, or rather to all
the manner in which the bases of the lavers are outward acts, he designates v6fios tuv ivroXwv,
described, it is evident that they were regarded the law ofprecepts. *
as admirable works of art ; but it is difficult to Similar expressions are, vo'fios tt}s apaprias,
folluw out the details which are given. This is the law nf sin (Rom. vii. 23); i '..>? tov irvtv-
evinced by the great discrepancy in the different fiarot, the law of the Spirit (viii. 2) ; v6fios
figures, drawn from the descriptions which are SiKaioa^mjSy the law of righteousness (\x. 31);
given by Lamy, Calmet. and Villalpandus. v6fio$ tov &vo~0os, the authority of the husband
In the second temple there appears to have over his wife (vii. 2) \ v6p.os iKtvQcpias (James
been only one laver. Of its size or shape we i. 25; ii. 12), the holy impulse created by the
have no information, but it was probably like sense of spiritual liberty.
those of Solomon's temple. If, however, the wordyrf/ios alone is used, it is al
LAW (rnjH ; Gr. v6pMs) means a rule of con most invariably equivalent to & I'/idos Mwaws : and
duct enforced by an authority superior to that of the oi iv Ttp v6fxtp are the subjects of the Mosaical
moral beings to whom it is given. The word law theocracy, viz., the Jews, who practise the avd-
is sometimes also employed in order to express yvdio-ts tov v6p.ov, the reading of the law (Acts
not only the moral connection between free agents xiii. 15), are ZijAwrod tov v6p.ov (xxi. 20), rijpuv
of an inferior and others of a superior power, but (xv. 5, 24), or tyvX&aa-fiv, votuv (Rom. ii. 14),
also in order to express the nexus caxtsalis, the xpdo-o-ftv (ii. 25), tov v6p.ov (Acts xxi. 24),
connection between cause and effect in inanimate zealots for the observance awl performance of
nature. However, the expression law of nature, the law, although they debate often irepl farr)-
lex naturce, is improper and figurative. The p.&Tcijv tov v6p.ov avrwv, about mere legal quib
term law implies, in its strict sense, spontaneity, bles ; so that, as mere hearers, they cannot, expect
or the jxjwer of deciding between right and wrong, the blessings promised to the doers of the law.
and of choosing betweeu good and evil, as well Decern wpn mro nny, fxaprvpt*, s^ai-
on the part of the lawgiver, as on the part of those ttifxara, ivroKal, Kpiftarra, Kptacts, irpoo-rdyjAaTa,
who have to regulate their conduct according to are the various precepts contained in the law,
bis dictates. It frequently signifies not merely mm, v6pLos.
an individual rule of conduct, as FlViyn nun. The law is especially embodied in the last
four books of the Pentateuch. In Exodus, Le
the law of burnt offering ; rvAvn mm (Lev. viticus, and Numbers, there is perceptible some
xu. 2), the law concerning the conduct of arrangement of the various precepts, although
women alter childbirth; JTIVDH miH, the they are not brought into a system. In Deuter
law concerning the conduct of |n*rsons afllicted onomy the law or legislation contained in the
with leprosy (Lev. xiv. 2); JV3H mm, the three preceding books is repeated with slight
description of a building to be erected by an modifications. The whole legislation has for its
7S0 LAW. LAW.
manifest object, to found a tin God, and the invisible King of the nation (comp.
We here use the word iiikuarchy without mean Josephus, Contra Apionem, ii. 16).
ing to express that the Mosaical legislation was II. The nation is the peculiar property of
like some later hierarchies falsely so-called, in Jehovah, its King; and it is therefore bound to
which it was attempted to carry into effect avoid all uncleanness, as well moral as phy
selfish and wicked plant, by passing them off sical defilement, which must result from inter
as being of divine appointment. In the Mosaical mixture with foreign nations who are not sub
hierarchy tlie aim U manifest, viz. 1o make that jects of tlte theocracy. A confederacy with these
which is really holy (rb Up&v) prevail ; while in nations is accordingly forbidden (Exod. xxiii. 32,
the false hierarchies of later times the profauest and xxxiv. 12).
selfishness has Invn rendered practicable by giv III. The whole territory of the state was to 1* so
ing to its manifestations an appearance of holi distributed that each family should have a freehold,
ness calculated to deceive the multitude. which was intended to remain ]>ermanently the in
In the Mosaical legislation the pri.-nis certainly heritance of this family, and which^even if sold,was
exercise a considerable authority as external to return at stated }>eriods to its original owners.
ministers of holiness; but we find nothing to be Since the whole population consisted of families
compared with the side of indulgences in the of freeholders, there were, strictly speaking, neither
Romish church. There occur, certainly, instances citizens, nor a profane or lay-nobility, nor lords
of gross misdemeanour 0*1 the part of the priests, temporal. We do not overlook the fact that there
as, for instance, in the case of the sons of Kli ; were persons called heads, elders, princes, dukes,
but proceedings originating in the covetousness or leaders among the Israelites; that is, persons
of the priests were never authorised or sanctioned who by their intelligence, character, wealth, and
by the law. In the Mosaical legislation almost otler circumstances, were leading men among
the whole amount of taxation was paid in the them, and from whom even the seventy judges
form of tithe, which was employed in maintaining were chosen, who assisted Moses in administering
the priests and Levites as the hierarchical office justice to the nation. But we have no proof
bearers of government, in sup|x>rting tlte poor, that tliere was a nobility enjoying similar pre
and in providing those tilings which were used in rogatives like those which are connected with
sacrifices and sacrificial feasts. birth in several countries of Europe, sometimes in
The taxation by tithe, exclusive of almost all spite of mental and moral distjuali Heat ions. Wr
other taxes, is certainly the most lenient and most do not find that, according to the Mosaical con
considerate which has ever anywhere been adopted stitution, there were hereditary peers temporal.
or proposed. It precludes the pOMlbflUff of at Kven the inhabitants of towns weie freeholders,
tempting to extort from the jteople contributions and their exercise of trades seems to have been
beyond their jxiwer, ami it render* tle taxation of combined with, or snUmliuate to, agricultural
each individual proportionate to his possessions; pursuits. The only nobility was that of the tribe
and even this exceedingly mild taxation was of Levi, and all the lords were lords sjnritual,
apparently left to the conscience of each person. the descendants of Aaron. The priests and
This we infer from there never occurring in the Levites were ministers of public worship, that
Bible the slightest vestige either of persons having is, ministers of Jehovah the Kin,' ; and as such,
been sued or goods distrained for tithes, and only ministers of state, by whose instrumentality the
an indication of curses resting upon the neglect legislative as well as the judicial power was
of paying them. Tithes were the law of the land, exercised. The jmor were mercifully considered,
and nevertheless they were not recovered by law, but beggars are never mentioned. Hence it
during the period of the Tabernacle and of the ap]>ears that as, on the one hand, (hire was no lay
first Temple. It is only during the period of the nobility, so, on the other, there was no mendicity.
second Tempi*, when a gener.il demoralization Such is a rapid sketch of the Mosaical consti
had taken place, that tithes were farmed and sold, tution, which, however, was certainly consider
and levied by violent proceedings, in which re ably modified after its original perfection had
fractory persons were slain for resisting the levy. been sacrificed to the popular clamour for a
But no recommendation or example of such pro visible king. *
ceedings occurs in the Itible. This seems to indi Owing to the reliellious spirit of the Israelites,
cate that the propriety of paying these lenient and the salutary injunctions of their law were so fre
beneficial taxes was generally felt; so much so, quently transgressed, that it could not procure
tliat there were few, or perhaps no defaulters, anil for them that degree of prosperity which it was
that it was considered inexpedient on the part of calculated to produce among a nation of faithfu.
the recipients to harass the needy. observers; hut it is evident that the Mosaical
Besides the tithes there was a small poll-tax, legislation, if truly observed, was more titled to
amounting to half a shekel for each adult mate. promote universal happiness and tranquillity
This tax was paid for the maintenance of the thin any other constitution, either ancient or
sanctuary. In addition to this, the first-fruits and modern. It has been deemed a defect that there
the first-Itorn of men and cattle augmented the were no laws against infanticide; but it may well
revenue. The first-born of men and of unclean l>e observed, as a proof of national prosperity, that
beasts were to l>o redeemed by money. To this there are no historical traces of this crime; and
may be atMed some fines paid in the shajie of sin- it would certainly have lietn preposterous to give
offerings, and also the rows and free-will offerings. laws against a crime which did not occur, especi
The Mosaical legislation is the further develop ally as the general Jaw against murder, 'Thou
ment of the covenant l>ctween Jehovah and Abra shalt not kill,' was applicable to this sjiecies also.
ham. It -is a politico-religious institution given The words of Josephus (Cottfra Apionem, ii. 24\
to a nation of freeholders. The fundamental Kal yvvai\v atr^iirty (xirr* afifiXovv rb trwapfp.
laws of this constitution are, I. Jehovah alone is
LAW. LAW. 291
for cftj i/'ux^*' o^ff*'*C0l'ffa K(d yeyos iKarrova,a1 ment by stoning the criminal to death. This
can only mean that the crime was against the was in fact the most usual mode of execution.
spirit of the Mosaical law. An express verbal Other modes of execution, also, such as burning,
prohibition of this kind is not extant. There were always public, and conducted with the co
occur also no laws and regulations about wills operation of the people. Like every human
and testamentary dispositions, although there are proceeding, this was liable to abuse, but not
sufficient historical facts to prove that the next of to so much abuse as our present mode of con
kin was considered the lawful heir, that primo ducting lawsuits, which, on account of their cost
geniture was deemed of the highest importance, liness, often afford but little protection to persons
and tliat if there were no male descendants, fe in narrow circumstances.
males inherited the freehold property. We learn In the Old Testament we do not hear of a
from the Epistle of Paul to the Hebrews (ix. 16, learned profession of the law,. Lawyers {vouikoI)
17), that the Jews disposed of property by wills; are mentioned only after the decline of the Mo
but it Beems that in the times of Moses, and for saical institutions had considerably advanced.
some period after him, all Israelites died intes As, however, certain laws concerning contagion
tate. However, the word BtadrjK^ as used in and purification were administered by the priests,
Matthew, Mark, Acts, Romans, Corinthians, these might be called lawyers. They, however,
Galatians, Kphesians, and repeatedly in the did not derive their maintenance from the ad
Hebrews, implies rather a disposition, arrange ministration of these laws, but were supported
ment, agreement between parties, than a will in by glebe-lands, tithes, and portions of the sacri
the legal acceptation of the term. ficial offerings. It is, indeed, very remarkable,
There are no laws concerning guardians, and that in a nation so entirely governed by law,
none against luxurious living. The inefficiency there were no lawyers forming a distinct profes
of sumptuary laws is now generally recognised, sion, and that the vqjxikoI of a later age were not
although renowned legislators in uncient times, so much remarkable for enforcing the spirit of the
and in the middle ages, displayed on this subject law, as rather for ingeniously evading its injunc
their wisdom falsely so called. Neither are there tions, by leading the attention of the people from
any laws against suicide. Hence we infer that its spirit to a most minute literal fulfilment of its
suicide was rare, as we may well supjxrae in a letter. The Jews divide the whole Mosaical law
nation of small freeholders, and that the ineffi into 613 precepts, of which 248 are affirmative
ciency of such laws was understood. and 365 negative. The number of the affirma
The Mosaical legislation recognises the human tive precepts corresponds to the 2(8 members
dignity of women and of slaves, and particularly of which, according to Rabbinical anatomy, tiie
enjoins not to slander the deaf nor mislead the whole human l>ody consists. The number of the
blind. negative precepts corresponds to the 365 days
The laws of Moses against crimes are severe, of the solar year; or, according to the Rabbinical
but not cruel. The agony of the death of cri work Brandspiegel (which has been published in
minals was never artificially protracted, as in Jewish German at Cracow and iu other places),
some instances was usual in various countries the negative precepts agree in number with the
of Europe, even in the present century ; nor was 365 veins which, they say, are found in the hu
torture employed in order to compel criminals to man body. Hence their logic concludes that if
confess their crimes, as was done in the kingdom on each day eacli member of the human body
of Hanover as late as 1817, under the reign of keeps one affirmative precept and abstains from
George III., and where the law <>f torture is per one thing forbidden, the whole law, and not the
haps not yet abolished. Forty was the maximum decalogue alone, is kept. The whole law is some
number of stripes to be inflicted. This maxi times called by Jewish writers Theriof, which
mum was adopted for the reason expressly stated, word is formed from the Hebrew letters that
that the ap]>earance of the person punished should are employed to express the number 613; viz.
not become horrible, or, as J. I). Michaelis ren 400=n + 200=1+lO = > + 3=J. Hence 613
ders it, burnt, which expresses the appearance of = Jvnfl tkeriog. Women are subject to the
a person unmercifully beaten ; while, iu this negative precepts or prohibitions only, and not to
Christian country, in the present year, a guilty tlte affirmative precepts or injunctions. This
soldier was sentenced to suffer 120 stripes. exception arises partly from their nature, and
Moses expressly enjoined not to reap the corners partly from their being subject to the authority
of fields, in consideration of the poor, of persons of husbands. According to some Rabbinical
of broken fortunes, and even of the beasts of statements women are subject to 100 precepts
the field. only, of which 64 are negative and 36 affirmative.
Punishments were inflicted, in order specially The number 613 corresponds also to the num
to express the sacred indignation of the Divine ber of letters in the decalogue. Others are in
Lawgiver against wilful transgression of his clined to find that there are 620 precepts accord
commandments, and not for any purposes of hu ing to the numerical value of the word "1113 =
man vengeance, or for the sake of frightening crown; viz., 4U0 = n+200 = 1+20 =0 ; and
other criminals. others, again, observe that the numerical value
In lawsuits very much was left to the discre of the letters mill, fane, amounis only to 611.
tion of the judges, whose position greatly re The first in order of these laws is found iu
sembled that of a permament jury, who had not Gen. i. 27, OK) V"13, be fruitful and multiply.
merely to decide whether a person was guilty, The transgressor of this law is, according to Rabbi
but who frequently had also to award the amount Kliezer, as wicked as a murderer. He who is
of punishment to be inflicted. still unmarried at twenty years of age is a
In some instances the people at large were gressor ; and the law is binding upon every i
appealed to, in order to inflict summary punish- according to Schamai, until he has two sons ; or
LAW. LAW.
according to Hillel, one son and one daughter Jews, concerning the projter place where God
(compare Juris IIebra>orum leges, ductu Rabbi ought to be worshipped ; when he states as the
Levi Uarzelonitse, aurtore J. Henrico Hottinger). reason for not entering into this debate, that God
The Jews assert that, besides the written law, is a Spirit and that his true worshippers must wor
3nD3S? mm, vSfios tyypwpos, which may l>e ship him in spirit and in truth; when he pro
translated into other languages, and which is mises a Comforter, the Spirit of truth, who would
contained in the Pentateuch, there was com lead his tnte disciples into all truth ; and when
municated to Moses on Mount Sinai an oral he indicates that this would be the period up to
which the law would remain in force, namely,
law, ^JDt? min, v6fios &ypa<pos, which until all tilings are fulfilleddivines usually say
was WlhwqiMllitlf wrilteu down, together with that this future cessation of the law under the
many Rabbinical observations, and is contained authority of the Spirit could never apply to the
in the twelve folio volumes which now consti moral, but only to the ceremonial and the civil
tute the Talmud, and which the Jews assert can law. In a similar manner the abolition of the
not Ije, or at least ought not to be, translated law, most clearly set firth in the epistles of Paul
[Talmud]. to the Romans and the Galatians, where the
The present article is, of course, closely inter apostle teaches that Christians are as free from the
woven witli the contents of a number of others authority of the law as the widow is free from the
which in (his Cyclofwed ia have preceded, or which authority of her deceased husband, and as the
follow it in alphabetical order, such as Adultery, adult is free from the authority of the schoolmaster
Blood-revenge, Decalogue, Deuteronomy, Divorce, who ruled his infancy, is said to apply only to
Exodus, Gosj>el, Leviticus, Marriage, Moses, the ceremonial and civil, but not to the moral
Murder, Pentateuch, Retaliation, Roblwry, Sab law ; while the latter alone is held to be referred
bath, Slavery, Theft, &c. &c. It is, indeed, both to when the Apostle, in apparent, contradiction tv
unnecessary and impracticable to exhaust in this the general tenor of his epistles, says that ' we
place all that might with propriety be brought establish the law by faith' (Rom. Hi. 31).
under the head of Law. We therefore make no Against this convenient mode of overcoming
such attempt, but refer our readers to the cognate the difficulty the following observations may be
articles for further information. The chief ]>oint adduced : 1. Neither Christ nor the Apostles
here to be considered, is the authority ascribed in ever distinguish between the moral, the ceremonial,
the Bible itself to law in general, and to Biblical and the civil law, when they speak of its esta
law in particular. The misconceptions on this blishment or its abolition.
subject prevalent in the religions world are the II. They even clearly indicate that the moral
more surprising, since many distinguished eccle law is by no means excepted when they sjwak of
siastical teachers of various perioils, and among the abolition of the law in general. Thus, for
these St. Augustineof the fourth ami fifth, and the instance, St. Paul, after having stated that the law
Reformers of the sixteenth century, have stated is not incumbent upon the righteous, guards us
the Biblical doctrine respecting the law with par against misunderstanding him, as if this referred
ticular clearness. to the ceremonial law alone ; for he specifies
The great importance- ascribed by the Reformers various transgressors to whom the law is given,
to the right understanding of the law is thus tersely and who are restrained by the same. The trans
expressed by Philip Melauctbou : 1 Ha?c demum gressors mentioned by St. Paul are not those of
Christiana cognitio est, scire quod lex |>oscat, the ceremonial, hut of the moral law. 'But we
unde faeiendaB legis vim, nnde peccati gratiam know that the law is good, if a man use it law
jietas, quonodo labascentem animam adversus fully ; knowing this, that the law is not made for
d&monem, camem, et mundum erigas, quomodo a righteous man, but for the lawless and disobe
addictam conscientiam consoleris.' *This alone is dient, for the ungodly and for sinners, for un
Christian knowledge, to be acquainted with the holy and profane, for murderers of fathers and
demands of the law, to know whence to obtain murderers of mothers, for man-slayers, for whore
the power requisite for fulfilling the law, and mongers, for them that defile themselves with
whence to obtain pardon for sins committed ; to mankind, for men-stealers, for liars, for perjured
know how to raise up the drooping soul against persons, and if there l>e any other thing that is
the devil, the flesh, and the world, and how to contrary to sound doctrine ' (1 Tim. i. 8-10). If
comfort the afflicted conscience.' it had been the intention of the Apostle to incul
Christ and the Apostles express themselves cate that the righteous or the Christian believers
respecting the authority of the law so variously, were exempt from the observance of the ceremonial
that in order to reconcile their apparent con law, the examples taken from the transgressors of
tradictious, the divines of various Christian de the moral taw would not have illustrated, but
nominations have usually felt themselves com obscured the subject. Whoever mentions mur
pelled to distinguish between different portion! of derers, whoremongers, men-stealers, liars, and
the law, some of which, they assert, were abo perjurers, undoubtedly refers to the moral rather
lished by Christ, while they maintain that than to the ceremonial law. And whoever says
others were established by him. For instance, that the law against the crimes alluded to has
when Christ says, in the sermon on the mount, been abolished, cannot be supposed to speak of the
that he was not come to destroy the law and the ceremonial law only. And \\ lien Christ, in his first
prophets, but to fulfil them, it has usually been public sermon, declares that not a tittle of the
asserted that he meant this merely in reference law shall perish until all tilings are fulfilled, be
to the moral law, but that he nevertheless abo cannot be supposed to mean that two-thirds of the
lished the ceremonial and civil law of the Jews. law, viz., the civil and the ceremonial, perished
And again, when he declines to enter into the eighteen centuries ago.
debate pending between the Samaritans and the The foregoing observations are intended to in-
LAW. LAW. 3*
duce the reader not hastily to reject our position, as others who admit without dispute what their ^
that the prevalent doctrine concerning the law is teacher and their grammar state, until they have
not the doctrine of Christ, nor that of St. Paul. penetrated so far into the genius of the language
Nor is it that of St. Augustine, nor of Luther, to be acquired as to investigate for themselves the
Melancthon, ami other teachers of the church, applicability of the rules communicated. On
who felt no interest in ]>aring truth down to the other hand, students of a language who never
meet the preconceived notions of congregations, learn to recognise the spirit of that language per
but who endeavoured in their respective ages to vading the works and discourses of eloquent men
receive revealed truth faithfully as it was given, as an authority above the rides of grammar and
and to communicate it in an unadulterated of grammarians, remain always inferior to those
manner, in words as clear as the abstract nature who have raised themselves to the recognition of
of the subject will allow. . that higher authority which may enable them
In order to reconcile the apparent contradic to surpass their instructors who formerly exercised
tions between the various dicta of the New a nomothetical authority over them. The same
Testament concerning the authority of the law, is the case in any other branch of knowledge or
we must not commence, as is usually done, science, viz., beginners are necessarily under the
namely, by distinguishing the matt Kit of the law or under the nomothetical power of elemen
law, but the fork or manner in which it is tary books and teachers until they are emancipated
binding or obligatory. He who said that not a by seizing the spirit of the science or art ; after
jot or a tittle of the law should perish until all which the external authority of books and teachers
things were fulfilled, certainly could not mean can be for them didactical only, and subordinate
that more than two-thirds of the law were abo to that spirit the life of which can never be fully q
lished, but intended forcibly to express the idea embodied in words.
that, in a certain sense, by his instrumentality, So it was also with the human race at large: it
the whole law, without any exception, had ob was necessary that the law of Moses should exer
tained an increased authority. On the other cise nomothetical authority by * Cursed is he
hand, wlten the Apostle says, Aoyity/xeda olv who does not continue in the words of this law.'
triffrft hiKaiovcBat &v6panrov, x^pls tpyuv vouov, And so it is now with a great portion c
Therefore we conclude that a man is justified religionists, who still require frightful <
by faith without the deeds of the law (Rom. iii. opposite benedictions somewhat similar
28), he cannot mean anything 'else but that, in formerly pronounced on the mountains V
a certain sense, the whole law, without any ex Gerizim, in order to keep them in the right di
ception, is not binding upon the faithful. We, rection. But the assertion of this nomothetical
therefore, conceive that in order to reconcile the authority was not the ultimate aim of Christ.
apparent, but merely apparent, contradictions of His most intimate disciple, whom he especially
tiie New Testament, we must distinguish not so loved, states strikingly, "Ort o v6uos tita Wluccas
much the various materials, ritual, civil, and iB6&v ' 7j x^pts fed if aA-fidfia tiih 'iTjerou Xptcrou
moral, of which the law is composed, as the iytveroy For the law was given by Mosest but
various manners in which its modus obliyandi grace and truth came by Jesus Christ.
may exist. In reference to this text, the Reformers declared
The authority which other beings may exercise it to be improper to call Christ a new lawgiver.
upon us is two-fold : it is either nomothetical or This was an objection whicli drew forth against
didactical. The nomothetical authority, which them the anathema pronounced in the sixth ses
a book, or the living voice of another moral sion of the Council of Trent : ' Si quis dixerit
being may exercise upon us, is either such that it Christum Jesum a Deo hominibus datum fuisse
precludes the exercise of our own judgment, like ut redemtorem, cui tidant ; uon etiam utlegisla-
that which Pythagoras is said to have exercised torem cui obediant ; anathema sit* ( If any man
upon his disciples, who were in the habit of sliould assert, that God granted Christ Jesus to
settling all their disputes, as by a final reason mankind only as a Redeemer in whom they should
from which there was no appeal, by aMs t<pa, he trust, and not also as a lawgiver whom they
has said so ; or the authority is such as to excite should obey, let him be accursed' (Cone. Trid.
the faculties of the listener, so that he perceives Sess. iv. Can. 21).
the necessity of the truth communicated. In this It is, however, a fact, that Christ did not give
last case the authority exercised is not nomothe- new laws, but only new motives for keeping the
tical, but didactical. The college-tutor wlio moral precepts more or less clearly known to Jews
meets the question, how minus multiplied by and Gentiles, by making it a prominent doctrine,
minus can give plus, by * Upon my honour, gen that love is due to God and to men in general,
tlemen, it is so,' endeavours to exercise a nomo- even to our enemies, and that intentions are of
thetial authority ; while he who endeavours to greater moral importance than outward acts.
illustrate the internal necessity of this, to the un The characteristic of the doctrine of Christ
initiated, startling fact, endeavours to exercise a does not consist in new laws given, but rather in
didactical authority. the forgiveness offered for past transgressions, and
Beginners in any science, either mental or in the guidance of the Holy Spirit promised to
moral, are obliged for some time to submit to his true disciples. The authority of this Holy
nomothetical authority. If, as sometimes happens, Spirit is described in the Gospel of John, and in
we meet with adult pupils who, instead of taking the Epistle to the Romans, as superior to the letter
for granted our grammatical statements, constant! y of the law. Whosoever is fillet! with this Spirit
endeavour to cavil at the wording of those gram is not under the law, although he fulfils the holy
matical rules which we give them, before they are aim and intention of the law. The true disciple
enabled to judge for themselves, we invariably find of Christ, if asked, Why did you not kill such
that such pupils do not make the same progress or a iwrsoii? i
LAW. LAW.
I written, 'Thou shalt do no murder.* Christian* ' a schoolmaster' (i. c, an educational guide) ' to
feel that they are filled with a spirit which pre Christ ' (Gal. iii. 24), but the whole Old Testa
vents them from desiring the commission of ment (wtura ypa^fit) is said to be useful for
. crimes. But if they grieve that Spirit by for teaching TTphs SiHatTKaXtav'u for convincing, for
saking his guidance, they sink again under the directing, for educating (/>os iraiZflav) in right
power of the written law, because they cease to eousness, so tliat the man of God may be fully
belong to the Blxatot ots vSpos oir Kftrcu, whose perfect, throughlv furnished unto all good works
actions are not extorted by any external authority, (2 Tim. iii. 16, 17).
It was the didactic authority of the Mosaical
but
tied who
mindfollow
as athev6fj.os
holy4\v8(pta$.
impulses ofand
theirthus
sancti-
are legislation to which Michaelis referred in the de
.enabled to act more in harmony with the supreme dication of his celebrated Mosaisches Reoht to
scope of the law, viz., holiness unto the Lord, than Rahenius, who had formerly requested him to in
any subjection to external precepts ever could struct him in select points of Mosaic jurispru
, produce. This is beautifully illustrated by St. dence. * Others will not find my remarks un
Augustine ; Augustinus, libro deSpiritu et Litem; worthy of their attention: but you, SiT, will re
'Per legem cognitio peccati, per fidem impetratio gard them with the eye ofan actual legislator, on
gratiffi contra peccatum, per gratiam sauatio whom his country (Sweden) has devolved the
animeea vitio peccati, per anima? sanitatem libertas honourable duty of examining the archives of the
arhitrii, per liberum arbitrium justitisB dilectio, state and collecting statutes and decisions; in
perjustitiae dilectionem legis operatio. Ac per order, thence, and from the laws already known,
hoc sicut lex non evacuatur, sed firmatur per which had become Imrdensome by their multitude,
fidem, quia tides imiiefrat gratiam, qua lex im- to prepare a new digest of national law, not
pleatur; ita liberum arbitrium non evacuatur merely for the instruction of students, but fur
per gratiam, sed statuitur, quia gratia sanat volun- the use of the courts,' &c. Of course neither
tatem qua jnstitia libere diligatur. Omnia Usee Michaelis nor Rabenius meant to change the
(quae veluti cateuatim connexui) habent voces suas Swedish monarchy into a Mosaical theocracy, by
in Scripturis Sanctis. Lex dicit, non concupisces. giving to the Pentateuch nomothetical force, as
Fides dicit (Ps. xl.), " Sana animam meant, quia the Anabaptists in Germany and other fanatics
peccavi/* Gratia ait (Joannis 5), " Ecce sanus fac- partly endeavoured to effect.
his es, jam noli peccare, netibi deterins contingat." Luther, who diligently translated and ex
Sanitas dicit (Ps. xxix.), u Domine Deus mens, pounded the Pentateuch, and particularly the
exclamavt ad te, sanasti me." Liberum arbitrium ten commandments, and who placed the deca
dicit (Ps. cxviii.), ''Narraveruiit mihi injusti de- logue in his catechisms as one of the five articles
lectationes suas, sed non ut lex tua Domine." chiefly to 1 inculcated in popular instruction,
Haec Augustinus. Non destruit legem Paulus, was undoubtedly convinced of its didactic autho
qui prsedicat factum, quod lex promiserat ; rity, and he expressed himself against the nomo
eumque nunciat in quern ceu scopum, summa thetical authority of the law in his book Vntericht
legis spectal>at. Nam Rom. x. finis est et per- trie tick die Christen in Mosen schiekm soilcn
fectio legis Christus, ad justitiam omni credenti, (Opera, ed. Hal. torn. iii.). 4 The law belongs to f
et Christus ait, " Non veni solvere legem, sed the Jews, and binds us no more. From the text
adimplece." Compare In omnes Patdi Epistolas it is clear that the ten commandments also do
Cotlatio, per Claudium Guilliaudum. Paris, not belong to us, because he has not led us out
1550, p. 20. It is very surprising that the clear of Egypt, but the Jews only. Moses we will take
perception of tbe true source of the law, which to be our teacher, but not as our lawgiver, unless
was fulfilled even by its abrogation, could liave he agrees with the New Testament and the natural
been so effectually obscured as is done by the law.' Many even more startling passages of the
doctrine current in the religious world concerning great Reformer's writings are transcribed in tbe
tbe abolition of its civil and ceremonial, and the present writer's work, De Legi* Mosaic<r Abroga-
establishment of its moral precepts. The whole tione, scrip* it C. H. F. Bialloblotsky, Gbttingae,
aim and scope of the Mosaical legislation have been 1824. Compare besides Jobann David Michaelis,
established as much as the aim of temporary po Mosaisches Recht, translated by Alexander Smith,
lice regulations, enacted in order to meet the under the title, Commentaries on the Laws of
emergencies of a commonwealth during a period Moses, by the late John David Michaelis, London,
of rebellion, is established and fulfilled by him 1814; Josephus, Contra Apionemy ii. 16, sq. ;
who restores perfect peace and public tranquillity, Mosaicarum et Romanarum legum collatioy re
although tbe natural consequence of this peace is, ferred usually to the fifth cetitiuy ; Jos. Priestley,
that those regulations cease to be in force. On Comparison of the Law of Moses with those of
the other hand, although the Christian, who is the Hindoos^ etc. ; Hugo Grotius, De Jure Belli
under the guidance of a spirit leading him into et Pacts; J. H. Hottinger, Juris Uebreeorum
all truth, cannot he led by this spirit to the com leges eclxi-, ad Judaorum mentem explicate^
mission of any crime contrary to the moral pre Tiguri, 1655 , Selden, De Jure naturali et
cepts of Moses, it cannot be said, that by not com gentium juxta Hebrtrorum disriplinam, libri vii.,
mitting murder and adultery, he obeys the Mo Argentorati, 1665; John Spencer, Dissertatio de
saical law, any more than that he obeys the in Theocratia Judaica ; Christoph. Blechscbmidii
junctions of the Code Napoleon, in these particular Dissert, de Theocratia in Populo Sancto insti-
instances. However, the didactic authority of the tuta ; Salomon - Deylingii Exercitatio de Israeli
whole Mosaical law is for the Christian much Jehova Dominio ; Thomas Goodwin, Dissert, de
greater than that of any other legislation. This Theocratia Israelitarum ; Hen. Hnlsii Dissert,
didactic or teaching authority is expressed even de Jehova Deo Rvge ac Duce militari in priseo
in the words of the New Testament. The law Israels ; Dissert, de Schechinahy &c. ; Job. Conr.
is not merely called watSaywyhs tU Xpurriy, Dannhaveri PolUica Biblica ; Hermanui Con-
LAWYER. LEAD. 235
ringii Exercit. de Politia sice de Republlca the most stupendous. ' If it can be incontro
Hebreeorum ; Christ. Bened. Michaelis, Dissert. vertible' shown that Christ performed one such
Phihi. de Antiquitatibus CEcorwmice Patri- miraculous act as this,* says Tholuck (in his
archalis ; Wilhelmi Schickardi Jus Regium Commentar xum Evang. Johannis), * much will
Hebreeorum cum animadversionibus et notis thereby be gained to the cause of Christianity.
Jo. Bened. Carpzovii ; R. Isaaoi Abarbanells One point so peculiar in its character, if irrefra-
Dissert, do Statu ct Jure Regio; Dissert, de gably established, may serve to develope a belief
Judicum et Regurn differentia, in Blasii Ugolini in the entire evangelical record.' The sceptical J^,
Thesaurus Antiguitatum Sacrarum, vol. xxiv. ; Spinoza was fully conscious of this, as is related
I). Hornsyli De principiis Legum Mosaicarum, by Bayle (Diet., art. * Spinoza') : * On m'a assure,
Hafnifc, 1792; Staudlini Commentationes II. qu'il disait a ses amis, que s'il eut pu se per
de Legum Mosaicarum, Gottinga>, 179C ; Par* suader la resurrection de Lazare, il auroit brise
mann, De fontibus et ceconomia Legum Mosa en pieces tout son systeme, il auroit embrassu
icarum, Francofurti, 1789; T. G. Erdmann, sans repugnance la foi ordinaire des Chretiens.'
Leges Mosis prarstantiores esse legibus Lycurgi It is not surprising, therefore, that the enemies
et Solonts, VitebergiB, 1788 j Hartmann, Verbin- of Christianity have used their utmost exertions
dung des Alter* und Neuen Te&tamentes ; Hee- to destroy the credibility of the narrative. The
ren, Idem, it. 430, sq. Beilage iv. ; Pastoret, earlier cavils of Woolston and his followers were,
IJistoire de la Legislation, Paris, 1817, vols. iii. however, satisfactorily answered by Lardner and
et iv. ; J, Salvador, Histoire des Institutions de others ; and the more recent efforts of the German
Mo se et du Peuple Hebrew, Paris, 1828, 3 vols. ; neologists have been ably and successfully refuted
Welter, Die Letzten Gri/nde von Recht, p. 279, by Oertelius, Langius, and Reinhard ; and by
q. ; StiUidlin, Geschichte tier Sitten/ehre Jesu, Huhner, in a work entitled Miraculorum ab
i. 111, sq. ; Ilolberg, Geschichte der Sittenlehre Evangelistis narratorum interpretat. gramma-
Jesu, ii. 331, sq. ; De Wette, Sittenlehre, ii. 21, tico-historica, Wittenb. 1807 ; as well as by
sq. On the abolition of the law see several dis others of still more recent date, whose answers,
sertations and programmata of the elder Witsch, with the objections to which they apply, may be
published in Wittenberg, and De Legis Mosaicee seen in Kuhinel. See also Flatt, in Mag. fur
Abrogations, scripsit C. H. F. Bialloblotzky, Dogm. und Moral, xiv. 91 ; Schott, Opusc. i.
Gotti'iiRie, 124.C. H. F. B. 259; and Ewald's Lazarus fur Gcbildcte Chris-
LAWYER (voyuttSs). This word, in its ge tusverehrer, Bed. 1790.
neral sense, denotes one skilled in the law, as in
Tit. iii. 13. When, therefore, one is called a LEAD (rn^V; Sept. M(*Ai05oj), a well-
lawyer, this is understood with reference to the known metal, the first Scriptural notice of which
laws of the land in which lie lived, or to which occurs in the triumphal song in which Moses
lie belonged. Hence among the Jews a lawyer celebrates the overthrow of Pharaoh, whose host
was one versed in the laws of Moses, which he is there said to have * sunk like lead"1 in the waters
taught in the schools and synagogues (Matt, of the Red Sea (Exod. xv. 10).
xxviii. 35 ; Luke x. 25). Tbe same person who Before the use of quicksilver was known, lead
i< called * a lawyer' in these texts, is in the pa- was used for the purjx)se of purifying silver, and
i al 1el jassage (Mark xii. 28) called a scribe separating it from other mineral substances (Plin.
(ypafiixartvs) ; whence it has been inferred that Hist. Nat. xxxii. 31). To this Jeremiah alludes
'in* functions of the lawyers and the scribes were where he figuratively describes the corrupt condi
identical. The individual may have been both a tion of tbe people : 1 In their fire the lead is con
lawyer and a scribe ; but it does not thence follow sumed (in the crucible) ; the smelting is in vain,
tiittt all lawyers were scribes. Some suppose, for the evil is not separated' (Jer. vi. 29). Ezekiel
Uiwerer, that the * scribes' were the public ex (xxii. 18-22) refers to the same fact, and for the
pounders of the law, while the ' lawyers 1 were the same purpose, but amplifies it with greater mi
private expounders and teachers of it. But this nuteness of detail. Compare also Mai. iii. 2, 3.
u a mere conjecture ; and nothing more is really Job (xix. 23, 24) expresses a wish that his
l iiown than that the * lawyers ' were expounders words were engraven 'with an iron pen and lead.1
of the law. whether publicly or privately, or both. These words are commonly supposed 1o refer to
LAZARUS (Adfapos, an abridged form of the engraving on a leaden tablet ; and it is unde
Hebrew name Kleazer), an inhabitant of Bethany, niable that such tablets were anciently used as a
brother of Mary and Martha, who was honoured writing material (Pausan. ix. 31 ; Plin. Hist. Nat*
with the friendship of Jesus, by whom be was xiii. 11). But our authorized translators, by ren
raised from the dead after he had been four days dering * an iron pen and lead in the rock for ever,'
in tbe tomb. This great miracle is minutely seem to have entertained the same view with
described in John xi. The credit which Christ Rosenmuller, who supposes that molten lead was
obtained among the people by this illustrious act, to be poured into letters sculptured on stone with
of which the life and presence of Lazarus afforded an iron chisel, in order to raise the inscription.
a standing evidence, induced the Sanhedrim, The translator of Rosenmuller (in Bib. Cabinet,
in plotting against Jesus, to contemplate the xxvii. 64) thinks that the poetical force of the
destruction of La/am* also (John xii. 10). jiassage has been overlooked by interpreters :
Whether they accomplished this object or not, we 4 Job seems not to have drawn his image from
are not informed : but the probability seems to any thing he had actually seen executed ; he
be that when they had satiated their malice on Omj wishes to express in the strongest possible
Christ, they left Lazarus unmolested. language the durability due to bis words ; and
The raising of Lazarus from the dead was a accordingly he says, " May tbe pen l>e iron, and
work of Christ beyond measure great, and of all the ink of lead, with which they are written on
the miracles lie had hitherto wrought undoubtedly an everlasting rock," i. e. Let them not be written
230 LEAH. LEAVKN.
with ordinary perishable materials.* This expla (comp. Col. iv. 6 ; Eph. iv. 29) uses 1 salt* as
nation seems to be suggested by that of theSeptu- preservative from corruption, on tlte same prin
ugint, which has 'E* ypa<f>ut/> (TtSripu xcd fioKi^JStfj, ciple which leads him to employ that which u
% iv werpats iyyKwp^vou, i. e. ' that they were unfermented (6V/ios) as an emblem of purity
sculptured by an iron pen and lead, or hewn aud uncorruptedness.
into rocks.' * The usual leaven in the East is dough kept
Although the Hebrew weights were usually of till it becomes suur, and which is kept from one
stone, and are indeed called. * stones/ a leaden day to another for the purpose of preserving lea
weight denominated "pfct anach, which is the ven in readiness. Thus, if there should be no
Arabic word for lead, occurs in Amos vii. 7, 8. leaven in all the country for any length of time,
In Acts xxvii. 28, a plummet for taking sound- as much as might be required could easily be
ings at sea is mentioned, and this was of course roduced in twenty-four hours. Sour dough,
of lead. owever, is not exclusively used for leaven in the
The ancient uses of lead in the East seem to East, the lees of trine being in some parts em
have been very few, nor are they now numerous. ployed as yeast' (Pictorial Bible, vol. i. p. 161).
One may travel far in Western Asia without dis In the Hebrew we find two distinct words,
covering any trace of this metal in any of the both translated leaven in the common version of
numerous useful applications which it is made to the Bible. This is unfortunate, for there is the
serve in European countries. same distinction between INK' seor, and ]*Dn
We are not aware that any trace of lead has khametz, in the Hebrew, as l>etween leaven aud
been yet found within the limits of Palestine. ferment in the English. The Greek (vfirj ap-
But ancient lead-mines, in some of which the j)ears to comprehend both senses, vis. fermentation
ore has been exhausted by working, have been dis in general, whether of a mass or a liquid. Che
covered by Mr. Burton in the mountains between mically speaking, the ' ferment' or * yeast* is the
the Red Sea and the Nile; aud lead is also said same substance in both cases; but 1 leaven' is
to exist at a place called ShefT, near Mount Sinai. more correctly applied to solids, ' ferment' both
LKAH, one of the two daughters of Laban to liquids aud solids.
who became the wives of Jacob [Jacob]. "INS?* seor. This word occurs only five times
LEAVEN AND FERMENT. The organic in the Scriptures, in four of which it is rendered
chemists detine the process of fermentation, and ' leaven,' and in the tifth 4 leavened bread." It
the substance which excites it, as follows | seems to have denoted originally the remnant of
* Fermentation is nothing else but the putrefac dough left on the preceding baking, which had
tion of a sulntance containing no nitrogen. fermented and turned acid. Hence (according
Ferment, or yeast, is a substance in a state of to the Lexicon of Dr. Avenarius, 1588) the
putrefaction, the atoms of which are in a con German saner, English sour. Its distinctive
tinual motion' (Turner's Chemistry, by Liebig). meaning therefore is,fermented or leavened mass.
This definition is in strict accordance with the It might, in this way, apply to the murk or lees
views of the ancients, and gives point and force of wine.
to many passages of Sacred Writ (Ps. Ixxix. 21 ; )*On khametz; Greek, {vuy. This word ought
Matt, xvi.6, 11, 12; Mark viii. 15; Lukexii.l; not to be rendered * leaven,' but ferment. It U
xiii. 21 ; 1 Cor. v. 5-8 ; Gal. v. 9). Leaven, and a more general term than the former, and is ap
fermented or even some readily fcrmentible sub plied, even in our translation, to both liquids aud
stances (as honey), were prohibited in many of solids. It would be an obvious impropriety
the typical institutions both of the Jews aud to speak of * leavened wine;* but }*OTl, in
Gentiles. The Latin writers use corruptus, as Num. vi. 3, is applied to wine as an adjective.
signifying fermented; Tacitus applies the word It should there be translated *fermented wine,'
to the fermentation of wine. Plutarch (Rom, not 4 vinegar of wine.' In fact, as * vin aigre*
Queest. cix. 6) assigns as the reason why the signifies * soured wine,' the translation is equiva
priest of Jupiter was not allowed to touch leaven, lent to saying, * sour-wine-wine !' Professor Lee
* that it comes out of corruption, and corrupts that defines it, comprehensively, as 1 anything fer
with which it is mingled.' See also Aul. Gellius, mented* CasteII, and the best and oldest lexico
viii. 15. All fermented substances were prohibited graphers support him, applies it both to fermented
in the Paschal Feast of the Jews (Exod. xii. 8, 19, mass and fermented wine, * vinum fermentatum.*
20) ; alao during the succeeding seven days, In this last sense it seems to correspond to the
usually called * The Feast of Unleavened Bread,1 Greek 6(os, a sort of acid wine in very common
though bread is not in the original. God forbade use amongst the ancients, called by the Latins
eitherferment or honey to be offered to Him in his posca, vinum cuipatum (Adam's Horn. Antiq.
temple (i.e. in the symbolical rites), while they p. 393 ; Jalm, Bib. Antiq. 1 44). This species of
were permitted in oilerings designed to be con wine (and in hot countries pure wine speedily
sumed as food (Num. xv. 20, 21). On Lev. ii. jtasses into the acetous state) [Drink, Stkono]
11, Dr. Andrew Willet observes, * They have a is sjtoken of by the Talmudists, who inform us
spiritual signification, became fermentum cor- that it was given to persons about to be executed,
mptionem signat, as St. Paul applyeth (1 Cor. v. mingled with drugs, in order to stupify them
8). The honey is also forbidden because it had (Prov. xxxi. C; Bab. Tr. Sanhedrin, fol. 43. 1.
fermentandi vim, a leavening force' (Junius, c. 6). This serves to explain Matt, xxvii. 34.
Jiexapla, 1631). On the same principle of A sour, fermented drink, used by the Tartars
iymbolism, God prescribes that salt shall always (.Koumiss), appears to have derived its name
constitute a part of the oblations to Him (Lev. li. from the Hebrew khametz. |TDn is formed
31). Salt prevents corruption or decay, and pre from HVD, to ipring o press out, suck, &c. ;
serves flesh. Hence it is used as a symbol of whence also HVO, un*.<tvencd (not bread, for in
incorrupt ion and perpetuity. Thus St Paul several passages * bread' aud 1 cake/ are also es>
LEOPARD. 237
pressed). In Exoil. xiii. 7, both sror and kha- tional body amounting to one-tenth of the infantry.
mets occur together, and are evidently distinct : As all the divisions of the Roman army are no
' unleavened things {matzah) shall be consumed ticed in Scripture, we may add that each legion
during* the seven days, and there shall not be was divided into ten cohorts or regiments, each
seen with thee fermented things, and there shall cohort into three maniples or bands, and each
not le seen with thee leavened mass in all thy maniple into three centuries or companies of
borders.* F. K. L. 100 each. This smaller division into centuries
LEBANON. [Libanuh.] or hundreds, from the form in which it is exhi
LKKH.KUS, a surname of the apostle Jtide bited as a constituent of the larger divisions,
[JudeJ. clearly shows that 6000 had become at least the
LEECH. [Alukah.] formal number of a legion.
LEEK. [Chatzir.] The word legion came to be used to express a
LEES. [Shemahim.] great number or multitude. Thus, the unclean
LEGION (Aryc&r), a division uf the Roman spirit (Mark v. 7), when asked his name, an
army. It always comprised a large body uf men ; swers, * My name is Legion, for tee are many.'
Many illustrations of this use of the word might
1 cited from the Rabbinical writers *. who even
apply it to inanimate objects, as when they speak
of ' a legion of olives,' &c.
LENTIL. [Adashim.]
LEOPARD HBJ IHmr or namer; Cant. iv.
8 ; Isa. xi. 6 ; Jer. v. 6 ; xiii. 23 ; Hos. xiii. 7 ;
Hab. i. 8; Dan. vii. G ; Rev. xiii. 2; Ecclus.
xxviii. 23). Though zoologists differ in opinion
respecting the identity of the leopard and the
panther, and dispute, supposing them to be dis
tinct, how these names should be respectively
applied, and by what marks the animals should
he distinguished, nevertheless there can be no
doubt that the nimr of the Bible is that grea
spotted feline which anciently infested the Syrian
mountains, and even now occurs in the wooded
ranges of Libanus ; for the Arabs still use
3B8. [Malta.]
Melita was the ancient name of Malta, and taken up by the learned Bryant, and more lately
also of a small island in the Adriatic, now called by Dr. Falconer, in his clever Dissertation on
Meleda, and eacli of these has found wann advo St. Paul s f 'oyage, 1817. These writers do not,
cates for its identification with the Melita of however, seem to be aware of the very solid answers
Scripture. The received and lung-established to tins notion, and the arguments in support of the
opinion is undoubtedly in favour of Malta : and received conclusions, winch were produced at the
those who uphold the claims of Meleda are to lie time. There was nothing to answer but this olio
regarded as dissenting from the general conclu objection; for if that could be obviated, the his
sion. This dissent proceeds chiefly upon the torical and other probabilities in favour of Malta
ground that the ship of St. Paul was 'driven remained in their former force, although they
about in (the sea of) Adria,' when wrecked on could have no countervailing weight if the limit
Melita. The conclusions deducible from this ation of the name Adria to the gulf of Venice
strong position are vigorously stated by P. Abate could \te established. The course taken was,
D. Iguazio Giorgi, in his Inspezione Anticritiche, therefore, to show from ancient writers that the
published at Venice in 1730, and which then at name Adria was notf in its ancient acceptatitin,
tracted considerable attention. There is a curious limited to the present Adriatic Sea, but compre
account of the controversy to which this gave rise hended the seas of Greece and Sicily, and ex
in Ciantar'sedit. ofAbt1m*Ml#aJte Illustrata, i.G09, tended even to Africa. This seems to have been
sqq. The view thus advocated was in this country established beyond dispute, and every one ac
y2
834 MELITA. MELITA.
quainted with the mass of evidence brought to showed us no small kindness.' Tin's is far from
bear on this point, must regard the only strong implying that they were savages or uncivilised
argument in favour of Meleda as having been en men: it merely intimates that they were not of
tirely overthrown. Those who have any curiosity Greek or Roman origin. This description applies*
or doubt in the matter may find this evidence to the ancient inhabitants of Malta most accu
copiously produced in Ciautar's edition of Abela's rately ; and as it could not apply to the inhabitants
work, and also in Wetstein. Abela, after dis of Melida, who were Greeks, this is another argu
posing of this part of his subject, very properly ment to show that not Melida hut Malta is the
calls attention to the ample memorials of St. Melita of Scripture.
Pauls visit which exist in Malta, and the utter The island of Malta lies in the Mediterranean,
absence of any such in Meleda :; Finalmente about sixty miles south from Cape Possaro in
in Meleda non vi fu ma vestigio, o memoria di Sicily. It is sixty miles in circumference, twenty
S. Paolo, non che Tern pio ad onor di lui edifi- in length, and twelve in breadth. Near it, on the
cato ; ma sibbeue nclla nostra isola vene sono west, is a smaller island, called Gozo, about
molte memorie : tan non v' e luogo, in cni non thirty miles in circumference. Malta has no
si celebri il glorioso nome dell* Appostolo (Malta mountains or high hills, and makes no figure from
Illitstrata, i. 608). He goes on to enumerate the sea. It is naturally a barren rock, but lias
particulars, which we will spare the reader, al been maile in parts abundantly fertile by the
though the present writer's personal acquaintance industry and toil of man. The island was first
with the island would enable him greatly to colonized by the Phoenicians, from whom it was
extend Abela's list of the Pauline associations taken by the Greek colonists in Sicily, about
which it contains. There is, perhap*, no piece ii.c. 736 ; but the Carthaginians began to dis
of land of the same extent in the world which pute its possession about b.c. 528, and eventually
is made to contain reference so diversified and so became entire masters of it. From their hands it
numerous to any one person, as the island of passed into those of the Romans, b.c. 242, who
Malta to St. Paul, who is, in fact, the tutelary treated the inhabitants well, making Melita a
saint of the island. These appropriations of municipium, and allowing the people to he go
Pauline memorials may in detail be open to dis verned by their own laws. The government was
pute, or may possibly all be erroneous; but they administered by a propraetor, who depended upon
serve in the ma&s to indicate a current of opinion the praetor of Sicily; and this office appears to
which may be traced back to a remote source in have been held by Publius when Paul was on
ancient times. the island (Acts xxviii. 7). On the division
The name of St. Paul's Bay has been given to of the Roman empire, Melita belonged to the
the place where the shipwreck is supposed to have western portionJ but having, in a.d. 553, been
taken place. This, the sacred historian says, was recovered from the Vandals by Itelisarius, it was
at 'a certain creek with ashore/ i. e. a seemingly afterwards attached to the empire of the Kast.
practicable shore, on which they purposed, if DO** About the end of the ninth century the island was
sible, to strand the vessel, as their only apparent taken from the Greeks by the Arabs, who marie
chance to escape being broken on the rocks. In it a dependency upon Sicily, which was also in
attempting this the ship seems to have struck and their possession. The Arabs have left the impress
gone to pieces on the n>cky headland at the en of their aspect, language, and many of their cus-
trance of the creek. This agrees very well with toms, upon the present inhabitants, whose dialect
St. Paul's Bay, more ao than with any other creek is to this day perfectly intelligible to the Ara
of the island. This bay is a deep inlet on the bians, and to the Moors of Africa. Malta was
north side of the island, being the last indentation taken from the Arabs by the Normans in a.d.
of the coast but one from the western extremity 1090, and afterwards underwent other changes till
of the island. It is about two miles deep, by a.d. 1530, when Charles V.. who had annexed it
one mile broad. The hart>our which it forms is to his empire, transferred it to the Knights of St.
very unsafe at some distance from the shore, al John of Jerusalem, whom the Turks had recently
though there is good anchorage in the middle for dispossessed of Rhodes. Under the knights it
light vessels. The most dangerous part is the became a flourishing state, and was the scene of
western headland at the entrance of the bay, par their greatest glory and most signal exploits.
ticularly as there is close to it a small island The institution having become uusuited to modem
(Salamone), and a still smaller islet (Salamo- times the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, com
netta), the currents and shoals around which are monly called Knights of Malta, gradually fell
particularly dangerous in stormy weather. It is into decay, and the island was surrendered to the
usually supposed that the vessel struck at this French under Buonaparte when on his way to
point. From this place the ancient capital of Egypt in 179S. From them it was retaken by
Malta (now Citta Vecchia, Old City) is dis the English with the concurrence and assistance of
tinctly seen at the distance of about five miles; the natives ; and it was to have been restored to
and on looking towards the lwiy from the top of the the Knights of Malta by the stipulations of the
church on the summit of the hill whereon the city treaty of Amiens; but as no sufficient security
stands, it occurred to the present writer that the for the independence of the Order (com|>osed
people of the town might easily from this spot mostly of Frenchmen) could be obtained, the
have perceived in the morning that a wreck had English retained it in their hands; which neces
taken place ; and tin's is a circumstance which sary infraction of the treaty was the ostensible
throws a fresh light on some of the circumstances ground of the war which only ended with the battle
of the deeply interesting transactions which en of Waterloo. The island is still in the hands of
sued. the English, who have lately remodelled the go
The sacred historian calls the inhabitants fidp- vernment to meet the wishes of the numerous in
Baput, * barbarians : 1 1 the barbarous people habitants. It has lately become the actual seat
MEMPHIS. MEMPHIS. 325
of an Anglican bishopric, which however takes its fourteen miles above ancient Memphis, the lofty
title from Gibraltar out of deference to the exist mounds once raised there are no longer risible.
ing Catholic bishopric of Maltaa deference not The accumulated deposit of the river has elevated
paid to the Oriental churches in recently esta the bank about Kafr-el-Iyat to a level with the
blishing the Anglican bishopric of Jerusalem. summit of these mounds ; and a large canal runs,
F. Wandalin, Dissert, de Melita PaiUi, Havn. during the inundation, close to the villages of
1707; P. Carlo, Orujine delta Fede in Malta, Saggara and Metrahenny, which occupy part of
Milan, 1759; Ciantar, Critica de Critici Mo- the old city, without endangering their security.
demi sab (Jontrovcrsa Naufragio di San Paolo, And it is the opinion of Wilkinson, that consider-
Venez. 1763; Boisgelin, History ofMalta, 1804; ing the great height of several mounds still exist
and the works cited in tiie course uf this article. ing at Memphis, the city could not have been
MKLON. [Ahbatachim.] overwhelmed at any period by tbe rising Nile,
MEMPHIS, a very ancient city, the capital of though much damage might have been done tosome
Lower Egypt, standing at the apex of the Delta, of the portions of it which may have stood on less
ruins of which are still found not Jar from its elevated ground (Herod, ii. 99 ; Wilkinson, Anc
successor and modern representative, Cairo. Its Egypt, i. 91). The site of Memphis was first ac
Egyptian name, in the hieroglyphics, is Mcno- curately fixed by Pococke, at the village of Metra
fri ; in Coptic, Memtt, Manfi. Membe, Pauoufi or henny. According to the reports of the French,
Mefi, being probably corrupted from Man-uofri, the heaps which mark the site of the ancient
'the abode,' or, us Plutarch terms it, uppos ayaBuv buildings have three leagues of circumference;
"fsid. et Osir. c. 20), ' the haven of good men.1 It but this is less than its extent in early limes,
was called also Pthah-ei, the abode of Pthah since Diodoms gives it 150 stadia, or six leagues
(Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt, iii. 27Kj. In Hebrew and a quarter. Memphis declined after the
the city bears the name of ?|D (Hos. ix. 0), or foundation of Alexandria, and its materials were
5)3 (Isa. xix. 13). These several names are obvi carried olT to build Cairo (Kenrick, Egypt of
ously variations of one, of which Meph seems to Herodotus, p. 129 j Hennell, ii. 115; ChampolJ.
contain the essential sounds. Whether we may Egyple et les Ph. i. 336).
hence derive supjKirt to tiie statement that the The kingdom of which Memphis was the capi
{dace was founded by Menes, the first human tal, was most probably the Egypt of the patriarchs,
ting of Egypt, or whether we have here a very in which Abraham, Jacob, and the Israelites re
early instance of the custom which prevailed so sided. Psammetichus, in becoming sole monarch
extensively among the Greeks and Romans, of of all Egypt, raised Memphis to the diguity of tl*e
inventing founders for cities, having names cor* one metropolis of the entire land (arx j&gypti
respondent with the names of the places they were regum, Plin. Hist. Nat. v. 9), after winch Mem
said to have built, it is impossible, with the ma phis grew in the degree in which Thebes declined.
terials we jwssess, to determine with any fair ap It became distinguished for a multitude of splen
proach to certainty. Menes, however, is univer did edifices, among which may be mentioned a
sally reputed to have founded not only Memphis large and magnificent temple to Vulcan, who was
bin Thebes; the addition of the latter may seem called by the Egyptians Phthah, the demiurgos.
to invalidate his claim to the former, making us or creative power (Wilkinson, i. 96; Herod, ii.
suspect that here, too, we have a case of that cus 136, 154; Strain, xvii. p. 807; Plin. Hist. Nat.
tom of referring to some one distinguished name viii.7l; Diod. Sic. i. 57, 67). Under the dominion
great events winch happened, in truth, atdifferent of the Persians, as well as of the Ptolemies, Mem
anil far distant eras. If, as is probable, Thebes phis retained its pre-eminence as the capital, tliough
a? well as Memphis was, at any early period, even in the time of the former it began to part
the seat of a distinct dynasty, the cradle and the with its splendour; and when the latter bestowed
throne of a line of independent sovereigns, they their favour on Alexandria, it suffered a material
could scarcely have had one founder. change for the worse, from which the place never
The statement, however, is, that having diverted recovered. In the days of Strabo many of its
the course of tbe Nile, winch had Washed the foot fine buildings lay in ruins, though the city was
of the sandy mountains of the Libyan chain, still large and populous. The final blow was
Mene* obliged it to run in the centre of the val- given to the prosjierity of Memphis in the time of
1* y. and built the city Memphis in the bed of the Abdollatif, by the erection of the Arabian city of
a icient channel. This change was effected by Cairo.
c instructing a dyke about a hundred stadia above That the arts were carried to a great degree of
the site of the projected city, whose lofty mounds excellence at Memphis is proved by the most
and strong embankments turned the water to the abundant, evidence. Its manufactures of glass
hast and confined the river to its new bed. The were famed for the superior quality of their work
Jyke was carefully kept in repair by succeeding manship, with which Rome continued to be sup
kings, and even as late as the Persian invasion, plied long after Egypt became a province of the
a guard was always maintained there to overlook empire. The environs of Memphis presented cul
the necessary repairs; for, as Herodotus asserts, tivated groves of the acacia tree, of whose wood
if the river were to break through the dyke, the were made the planks and masts of Itoats, the
whole of Memphis would be in danger of being handles of offensive weapons of war, and various
overwhelmed with water, especially at the period articles of furniture (Wilkinson, iii. 92, 168).
of the inundation. Subsequently, however, when Memphis was also distinguished as bring the
the increased deposit of the alluvial soil had place where Apis was kept, and where his worship
raised the circumjacent plains, the precautions received special honour. Under the form of this
became unnecessary ; and though the spot where sacred bull was Osiris worshipped. Psammeti
the diversion of the Nile was made may still be chus erected here in his honour a grand court
traced, owing to tbe great bend it takes about ornamented with figures in lieu of columns, twelve
336 MENAHEM. MENE.
cubits in height, forming a peristyle around it, in thout inspiration, but which would be
which tire god was kept when exhibited in public. ' the wise men of Babylon' {New . Ina*
The festival held in his lionour lasted seven days, lysis of Chronology, vol. i. p. 505, Lond. 1811)
and brought a large concourse of people to Mem This theory has the recommendation, that it in
phis. The priest* then led the sacred bull in solemn volves as little as possible of miraculous agency.
Iiruccssion, every one coming forward from their Josephus makes Daniel discourse to Belshazzar a*
louses to welcome bun as he passed } and Pliny if the inscription had \teeu in Greek. The pass
affirms that children who smelt his breath were age is certainly curious : 'EWjAqu 5t ra yeypap.-
thought to be thereby gifted with the jx>wer of fifya raSe. MANH. rovro 5* foifrts 'EAAu5i
predicting future events (Wilkinson, ii. ;J51 ). y\unrr) a-rj^airoir &v apiOfxor Sxnctp ttjs a}s cou
j. r. a rocovrov xpwov Hal rys apxvs JjjeMjnflMP 6 Qtos,
MENAHEM (Dnjn, consoler; Sept. Ma- Kai irtpHraeiUty (trl ffoi 0paxvy xp&vov. 0EKEA.
wfjfi), sixteenth king of Israel, who began to <rrifxaiyft rovro trraBfi6tf. (rrfjtras obv aw Xryei
reign B.C. 11% and reigned ten years. Menahem top xpovov rrjs paffiActas & Of6s. ^5tj Hara*p*pofxVTjy
apj>ears to have been one of the generals of king oijKoi. 4>APE2. icai rovro KXdcfj-a 5i}A (carcl
Zachariah. When he heard 1 lie news of the 'EWa&a yAwrrav. KAaaei roiyapovr <rov t7jk fkuri-
murder of that prince, and the usurpation of Afiav, Kal MrjBots avr^v koI Tlfpoats BtavtfuZ 4 He
Shallurn, lie was at Tirzali, but immediately (Daniel) explained the writing thus : MANH.
marched to Samaria, where Shallum had shut ** this,*' said he,** in the Greek language, may mean
himself up, and slew him in that city. He then a number; thus God hath numbered so long a
usurped the throne in his turn; and forthwith time for thy life ami for thy government, and
marched to Tiphsah, which refused to acknow that there remains a short time for thee." EKEA.
ledge his rule. Having taken this place after a This signifies weight; hence he says, " God having
siege, he treated the inhabitants with a degree of weighed in a lialance the time of thy kingdom,
savage barbarity, which, as Josephus remark* finds it already going down." *APE2. This
(Antiq. ix. 11. 1), would not have l>een pardon* also, according to the Greek language^ denote*
able even to foreigners. He adhered to tlie sin of a fragment ; hence "he will break in pieces
Jeroboam, like the other kings of Israel. In his thy kingdom, and divide it among the Medes
time the Assyrians, under their king Pul, made and Persians " ' (Antiq. x. II. 3). There is
'heir first appearance on the burden of Palestine; some doubt whether the readitig (Atycr be ge
and Menahem was only able to save himself from nuine, but Josephus evidently represent* the
this great invading power at the heavy price of whole passage as addressed by Daniel to the
1000 talents of silver, which he railed by a tax of king, and makes him speak as if the inscription
50 shekels from every man of substance in Israel. hail been in Greek. Still Josephus, for some
This was proliably the only choice left to him ; cause or other, represents Daniel as speaking
and he is not therefore to be blamed, as lie bad doubtfully (' may mean*) in the former part of the
not that resource in the treasures of I he temple of passage, and scarcely less so in the latter. It has
which the kings of Judah availed themselves in been supposed by some, that * the wise men' were
similar emergencies, Menahem died in B.C. not so much at fault to read the inscription, as to
701, leaving the throne to bis son Pekahiah (2 explain its meaning, which, it is said, they might
Kings xv. 14-22. sufficiently understand to see its boding import to
the monarch, and be unwilling to consider fur
MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN therlike the disciples in regard to the predictions
of our Lord's death (Luke ix. 45), where it is said,
(PPT&i, JO!}* K#p, ; Sept MoH Q<k1\, *this saying was hid from them, they perceired h
4>dp*si Vulg. Mane, Thecal, Pharcs),lhe inscrip not, and they feared to ask him of that saying.1
tion supematurally written * upon the plaster of And certainly it is said throughout our narrative
the wall' in Helshazxar's palace at Babylon (Dan. that * tire wise men could not read the writing,
v. 5 25) ; which 1 the astrologers, the Chaldteans, nor make known the interpretation of it,' phrase*
and the soothsayers* could neither read nor interpret, which would seem to mean one and the same
but which Daniel lirst read, and then interpreted. thing; since, if they mean different things, the order
Yet the words, as they are found in Daniel, are pure of ideas would be that they could not interpret
Chaldee, and if they appeared in the Chaldee nor even read it, and Wintle accordingly trans
character, could have been read, at least, by any lates, 1 could not read so as to interpret it ' (/-
person present on the occasion who understood the proved Version of Daniel, Lond. 1S07). At all
alphabet of his own language. To account for events the meaning of the inscription by itself
their inability to decipher this inscription, it has would be extremely enigmatical aid obscure.
been supposed that it consisted of those Chaldee To determine the application, and to give the full
words written in another character. Dr. Hale* sense, of an isolated device winch amounted to no
thinks that it may have been written in (lie pri more than 1 he or it. is numbered, lie or it is num
mitive Hebrew character, from which the Sama bered, he or it is weighed, they are divided 1 (and
ritan was formed, and that, in order to show on there is even a riddle or paranomasia on the last
this occasion that the writer of the inscription was wind DID ; comp. Susannah, ver. 54, 55 uud 56,
the offended God of Israel, whose authority was 50, Greek, and Jer. i. 11, 12, Hebrew; which may
being at that moment peculiarly despised (ver. % either mean Mhey divide,' or 'the Persians/ accord
3, 4). he adopted his own sacred character, in ing as it is pronounced), must surely have required
which he had originally written the decalogue, in a suj>eriiatural endowment on the part of Daniel
which Moses could transcribe it into the law, and a conclusion which is confirmed by the exact coin
whose autograph copy was found in Josiah's days, cidence of the event with the prediction, which
and was most probably brought to Babylon in the he propounded with so much fortitude (ver.
care of Daniel, who could therefore understand the 30, 31).- F. D.
MENI. MKRAB. 327
MKNI QyO ; it U doubtful whether the Sept. been the royal steward under Saul, he invited htm
renders it by rvxn- or by Zaifiivtov) is mentioned to Jerusalem, assigned him a place at his own
in Is. lxv. 11, together with Gad, as receiving uu table, and bestowed upon him lands, which were
offering of mixed wine. As derived from managed for him by Ziba, and which enabled
* to distribute/ * to number,' the wonl is either him to support an establishment suited to his
taken, by those namely who cunsider Gad in that rank. He lived in this manner till the revolt of
passage to mean troop, to signify a multittuley a Absalom, and then David, in his flight, having
number ; or, by those who suppose the whole verse noticed the absence of Mephiliosheth, inquired for
to refer to idolatrous worship, to be the name of a him of Ziba. and being informed that he had re
god, and to mean destiny. To this sense the BMt mained behind in the hope of being restored to his
clause of the next verse appears to allude : 1 But father's throne, instantly and very hastily revoked
I destine you to the sword.' The signilication of the grant of land, and bestowed it on Ziba (2 Sam.
destiny is very naturally evolved from the primi xvi. 1-4). Afterwards, on his return to Jeru
tive notion of distributing, apportioning: as in salem, he was met with sincere congratulations
by Mephibosheth, who explained that being lame
the Greek fiotpa, and in the Arabic U^e manan, he had been unable to follow the king on foot, and
fate, from the same root as Meni. Pocnck has, that Ziba had puriwsely prevented his beast from
moreover, pointed out the resemblance between being made ready to carry him : and he declared
Meni and Man.it, an idol of the ancient Arabs, that so far from haviug joined in heart, or even
which is mentioned in the Quran, Sur. liii. 20 appearance, the enemies of the king, he had re
(Spectm. p. 94). The fact of Meni being a Baby mained as a mourner, and, as his appearance de
lonian god renders it probable that some planet clared, had not changed his clothes, or trimmed
was worshipped under this name: but there is bis beard, or even dressed his feet, from the day
much diversity of opinion as tu the particular that the king departed to that on which he re
planet to which the designation of destiny turned. David could not but have been sensible
would be most applicable. Miinter considers it that he had acted wrong, and ought to have Iteen
to be Venus, as the lesser star of good fortune ; touched by the devotcdness of his friend's son, and
Kwald takes it to be Saturn, the chief dispenser angry at the imposition of Ziba ; but to cover one
of evil influences; and Movers has returned to an fault by another, or from indifference, or from
old opinion, that Meni is the moon, which was reluctance to offend Zilta, who had adhered to htm
also supposed to be an arbitress of fortune : the when go many old friends forsook him, he an
lest arguments for which last view are collected swered coarsely, * Why speakest thou any more
by Vitringa (ad /be). It also deserves notice that of thy matters? 1 have said, thou and Zjbtdh ide
there are some, among whom is Hitzig, who con the laud/ The answer of Mephibosheth was
sider Gad and Meni to be names for one and the worthy of the son of the generous Jonathan :
same god, and who chiefly differ as to whether t Yea, let him take all; forasmuch as my lord
the sun or the moon is the god intended.J. N. the king is come again in peace unto his own
house' (2 Sam. xix. 24-30). Undoubtedly David
MEPHIBOSHETH (T\^1 ^p, extermina does not shine in this part of his conduct to Me
tion of idols ; Sept. yicn<pif$o<rdc ; also in 1 Chrou. phibosheth ; but some of the German writers, in
. ix.40, Mekib-Baal), son ofJonathan and -11 ] L~r their eagerness to impugn the character and mo
Saul (2 Sam. iv. 4). He was only five years of tives of 'the man after God's own lieart,' have
'age when his father and grandfather were slain in handled the matter much more severely than a
Mount Gil boa: and on the news of this cata- due consideration of the difficult circumstances
itruphe, the woman who had charge of the child, in which the king was placed will be fouud to
apprehending that David would exterminate the justify.
whole house of Saul, lied away wilh him ; but in We hear no more of Mephibosheth, except that
htr hasty flight she stumbled with the child, and David was careful that he should not be included
lamed him for life (n.c. 1055). Under this ca in the savage vengeance which the Gi<|eoiiite
lamity, which was very inca|iacitatiug in. times were sutiered to execute ujxm the house of Saul
when agility and strength were of prime import for the great wrong they had sustained during his
ance, Mephibosheth was unable to take any pari reign (2 Sam. xxi. 7). Another Mephiltosheth,
in the stirring political events of his early life. a son of Saul by his concubine Rizpah, wa, how
According to our notions, he should have Iteen the ever, among those who sufl'ered on that occasion
heir of the house of Saul ; but in those times a (ver. 8,9).
younger sou of an actual king was considered to
have ut least as good a claim as the son of an heir MKRAB (TJIJ, increase ; Sept. Mep6&), eldest
up[tarenr who had never reigned, and even a daughter of king Saul, who was promised in
iiftter claim if the latter were a minor. This marriage to David; but when the time fixed
with his lameness, prevented Mephibosheth from fur their union approached, she was, to the sur
ever appearing as the opponent or rival of his prise of all Israel, Inatowed in marriage upon an
uncle Isbltosheth on the one hand, or of David on unknown jtersonage named Adriel (1 Sam. xiv.
fix' other (2 Sam. ix). He thus grew up in quiet 49: xviii. 17-19). By him she had six suns, who
ubscurity in the house of Machir, one of the great were among those of the house of Saul that were
men of die country beyond the Jordan (2 Sam. given up to theGibeotiites, who put them to death
ix. 4; xrii. 27); and his very existence was un in expiation for the wrongs they had sustained
known to David till that monarch, when firmly from their grandfather. By an error of some
settled in his kingdom, inquired wliether any of copyist, the name of Michalthe younger sister,
the family of Jonathan survived, to whom lie who was afterwards given to Davidhas found
might show kindness for his father's sake. Hear its way into the text which records this transac
ing then of Mephibosheth from Ziba, who had tion (2 Sam. xxi. 8), in place of that of Merab,
838 MERARL MERODAGH.
which renders the account unintelligible. The MERI-BAAL, or MERIB-BAAL (^-"^ ;
context, however, sufficiently indicates the proper Sept. M#piaa\), a name given to Mephibosheth,
correction. son of Jonathan, in 1 Chrpn. viii. 31 ; ix. 40
MERARI (HfcOD, bitter; Sept. Mepopf), [Mephibosheth]. Of the two the latter seems
youngest son of Levi, bom in Canaan (Geo. xlvi. the more correct form. It means 1 contender
11; Exod. vi. 16; Num. iii. 17; 1 Chron. vi. against Baal.' Some think that the difference
I He is only known from his name having been has arisen from some corruption of the text ; but,
given to one of the three great divisions of the from the analogy of Ishbosheth, whose original
Levitical tribe. name was Esh-baal, it seems more like a de
signed alteration, arising probably from the re
MKRCURY [Hbruks]. luctance of t he Israelites to pronounce the name
MEKCY-SEAT (JTJB3 ; Sept. ihatrrfipiov ; of Baal [Ishbosheth].
Vulg. propitiatorium ; Luth. gnadenstuhl). The 1. MERIBAH (Hanp, quarrel, strife), one
Hebrew name literally denotes a cover, and, in of the names given by Moses to the fountain in
fact, describes the lid of the ark with cherubim, the desert of Sin, on the western gulf of the Red
over which appeared * the glory of God ' (Exod. Sea, which issued from the rock which he smote
xxvi. 17, sq. ; xxx. 8; xxxi. 7, ami elsewhere). by the divine command (Exod. xvit. 1-17). He
[Ark.] Compare 1 Chron. xxviii. II, wlieie the railed the place, indeed, Massa (temptation) and
holy of Indies is called ihe JTlDDn 1VD, * house Meriliah, and the reason is assigned 1 because of
of the mercy-seat.' The idea involved in these the chiding ot" the children ofJsrael, and because
translations seems to be founded u|>on the meta they did there tempt the Lord.1 [Wandering.]
phorical application of the word 1QD copher 2. MERIBAH. Another fountain produced
(perhaps the origin of the very word cover which in the same manner, and under similar circum
translates it), thus making * to cover sin ' mean stances, in the desert of Zin (VVady Arabah), near
to forgive or expiate it. Whether tins be the Kadesh ; and to which the name was given with
literal application of the word to the mateiial a similar reference to the previous misconduct of
covering of the atk, or a latent reference to this the Israelites (Num. xx. 13,24; Deut. xxxiii. 8).
symbolical meaning of the term might have been In the last text, which is the only one where the
doubled, had not the New Testament (Heb. ix. 5) two places are mentioned together, the former is
followed the example of the Septuagint in as called Massah only, to prevent the coufusion of
signing it the latter MOMwhich, therefore, all the two Meribahs, * Whom thou didst prove at
translators have felt l>ound to follow. The Ma-saii, and witli whom thou didst strive at the
word used in the Septnagint and New Testament waters of Meribah.' Indeed this latter Meribah
to translate the tern, which in Hebrew means is almost always indicated by the addition of
simply * a cover," is iXmrriipiovt the ' expiatory ' or ' waters," t. e. 1 waters of Meriliah ' (113v10 ^D), as
' propitiatory.' in allusion to that application of the if further to distinguish it from the other (Pa.
Hebrew word which we have noted: which appli lxxxi. 8; cvi. 32); and still mure distinctly
cation is in this instance justilied and explaiued * waters of Meribah in Kadesh' (Num. xxvii.
by reference to the custom of the high-priest once 14; Deut. xxxii. 51; Ezek. xlvii. 19), Only
a-year entering the most holy place, and sprinkling once is this place called simply Menhah (Ps.
the lid of the ark with the blood ot'an expiatory xcv. 8). It is strange, that with all this carefulness
victim, whereby 4 he made atonement for the sins of distinction in Scripture, the two places should
of the people/ As this was the most solemn and rarely have been properly discriminated* The
significant act of the Hebrew ritual, it is natural distance of place from the former Meribah, the
that a reference to it should he involved in the distance of time, and the dilTereuce of the jieople
name which the covering of the ark acquired. By in a new generation, are circumstances which,
a comparison of the texts in which the word occurs, when the ]>ositive conditions of the two wells were
it will U' seen that there would, in fact, have been so equal, explain why Moses might give the same
little occasion to name (he cover of tiie ark sepa- name to two places. The necessity for a diver
rately from the ark itself, but for this imjNirtant sified nomenclature was not at all felt in those
ceremonial. From this it will be seen that ancient times : hence the number of places which
* mercy-seat" is not a good or correct translation in Scripture are found bearing the same names;
of the idea involved in the metaphorical sense of which, however, are not perhaps greater, nor in
the original Hebrew, and still lenoftbe Greek deed so great as the repetitions of the same names
Ikaar^piov. il carries the idea a stage further which occur at this day in our own and other
from the original. The lid of the ark was no European countries.
doubt the * seat of mercy," but it was mercy con
ferred through the act of expiation, and therefore MERODACH (TP? ! Sept. Vat. MaipuZaX)
a name bringing the sense nearer lo the idea of occurs in Jer. 1. 2, in such connection with idoU
expiation or of propitiation would be more exact. as to leave no doubt that it is the name of a
The term * mereie-seat ' occurs in Barker's Bible, Babylonian god. In conformity with the gene
but is explained there by * or covering, or pro- ral character of Babylonian idolatry Merodach is
pitiatorie;' am! the notion which led the English supposed to be the name of a planet ; and, as the
translators to call it * mercie-scate," is expressed in Tsabian and Arabic names for Mars are Nerig
the note* There God appeared mercifully unto and Mirrich, * arrow' (the latter of which Gesenius
them: and this was a Bgure of Christ.1 In the thinks may he for Mirdich, which is very nearly
same Bible a figure of the covering of the ark is the same as Merodach), there is some presurnp*
given separately, and the explanatory description tion that it may be Mars. As for etymologies of
is, 1 The propitiatorie, or mercie-seatc, which is the word, Gesenius lias suggested that it is the
the covering of the arke of the testimonies Persian mardak, the diminutive of mardf 'man,*
MEROM. MESHA.
used as a term of endearment; or, rather, that It manner; and Pseudo-Jonathan expressly men
is from the Persian and Indo-Germanic mord, or tions horehound and lettuces. Forskal informs
mort (which means death, and is so far in har us that the Jews at Sana and in Egypt eat the
mony with the conception of Mars, as the lesser lettuce with the paschal lamb. Lady Calcott
star of evil omen), and the affix och, which is inquires whether mint was originally one of the
found in many Assyrian names, as Nisroch, &c. bitter herbs with which the Israelites ate the
The bloody rites with which Mars was worshipped paschal, as our use of it with roast lamb, parti
by the ancient Arabs are descrilx?d in Norberg's cularly about Easter time, inclined her to sup
Onomast. Codicis Nasar. p. 107.J. N. pose it was. Alten Ezra, as quoted by Rosen-
MEROM. 4 The waters of Merom,' of Josh, mi'iller, states that the Egyptians used bitter herbs
ix. 5, are doubtless the lake Samechonitis, now in every meal : so in India some of the bitter Cu~
called Huleh, the upper or highest lake of the ciirbitacece, as kurella, are constantly employed
Jordan [Palestine]. as food [Pakyoth]. It is curious that the two
sets of plants which appear lo have the greatest
MEKORIM (D'Ttt?) occurs in two places in number of i>ohits in their favour, are the endive or
Scripture* ami is in both translated bitter herbs succory, and one of the fragrant and usually also
in our Authorized Version, as well as in several bitter labiate plants; because we find that the
others. In Exod. xii. 8, Moses commanded the term marooa is in the East applied even in the
Jews to eat the lamb of the Passover ' with unlea present day ltoth to the bitter wormwood and the
vened bread, and with bitter herbs (merorim) fragrant Qcymutn. Moreover the Chaldee trans
they shall eat it.1 So at the institution of the lator, Jonathan, expressly mentions lettuce and
second Passover, in the wilderness of Sinai horehound) or marrubium, which is also one of the
(Num. ix. 1 1), ' The fourteenth day of the second Labiate. It is important to observe that the
month at even they shall keep it, and eat it with Artemisia, and some of these fragrant labiatse,
unleavened bread and bitter herbs.* The word are found in many parts of Arabia and Syria;
merorim, which is here translated 1 bitter herbs,' is that is, in warm, dry. barren regions. The endive
universally acknowledged to signify bitter, and is also found in similar situations, but requires,
the word herbs has been supplied to complete upon t he whole, a greater degree of moisture.
the sense. By the Sept. it has been translated Ti ns it is evident that the Israelites would he
ivl iriKf>'i5(0v, and by St. Jerome, 1 cum lactucis able to obtain suitable plants during their long
agrestibus." Several interpreters, however, render wanderings in the Desert, though it is difficult
it simply amara ; which Celsius adopts, and con for us to select any one out of the several which
siders that merorim has reference to the e/i- might have been employed by them.J. F. R.
frafina which was eaten with the paschal lamb, MEROZ (T1TD; Sept. Mij^O* a Place in
and that it signifies: * cum amaritudinibus, vel
rebus amaris.' In the Arabic a word similar to the northern part of Palestine, the inhabitants
the Hebrew has also reference to bitterness, and, of which are severely reprehended in Judg. v. 23,
like the Greek word iriKpSs, came to be applied for not having taken the field with Barak against
to a bitter plant. Thus the Arabic murr, 'bitter,' Sisera. It would seem as if they had had an
pi. murar, signifies a species of bitter tree or plant ; opportunity of rendering some (articular and im
us does mam, a fragrant herb which has always portant service to the public cause which they
some degree of bitterness. Murooa is in India neglected. The site is not known : Eusebius and
applied both to the bitter Artemisia, or wormwood, Jerome (Onomast. s. v. *Merus') fix it twelve
and to the fragrant Ocynum pilosum, a secies of Roman miles from Sebastc, on the road to
Basil ; in Arabia, to the bitter Centaury, accord Dothaim ; but this position would place it south
ing to ForskaJ. It is extremely probable that a of the field of baltle, and therefore scarcely agrees
bitter herb of some kind is intended, but whether with the history.
a particular species or any bitter herb, it is diffi MESECH; MESHECH [Nations, DiS-
cult to say. The Jews, as we learn from the PEliHION OF],
Mishna (Tract. Peaachim, cap. ii. 6, as quoted by 1. MESHA (*V0i Sept. Ma<r<rri), a place
Bocliart, Hieroz. i. 1. ii. c. 50), used five kinds of mentioned in describing that part of Arabia in
hitter herbs, thus given by Dr. Harris : 1 1. Cha- habited by the descendants of Joktan (Gen. x.
zareth, taken for lettuce; 2. Ulsin, supposed to 30). [See Nations, Dispersion of.]
Ih? endive, or succory ; 3. Tamca, probably tansy ;
A. Charubbinim, which Bochart thought might 2. MESHA (yWD, deliverances Sept. Matrd),
be the nettle, but Scheuchzer shows to \*e the a king of Moab, who possessed an immense
camomile; 5. Meror, the sow-thistle, or dent-de- number of flocks and herds, and appears to have
lion, or wild lettuce.1 All these translations be- derived his chief wealth from them. In the time
Iray their European origin. To interpret them of Aliab, he l>eing then under tribute, ( rendered
with any thing like accuracy, it is requisite in the unto the king of Israel 100,000 lambs and
first place to have a complete Flora of the coun 100,000 rams, with the wool (2 Kings iii. 4>
tries, from Egypt to Syria, with the Arabic names These numbers may seem exaggerated if under
of the useful plants, accompanied by a notice of stood as the amount of yearly tribute. It is,
their properties. Science is as yet far from having therefore, more probable that the greedy and im
any thing of the kind. We have seen that the placable Ahab had at some one time levied this
succory or endive was early selected as being the enormous impost upon the Moabites ; and it is
bitter herb especially intended; and Dr. Gethles likely that it was in the apprehension of a recur
justly remarks, that * the Jews of Alexandria, who rence ofsuch ruinous exactions, that they seized the
translated the Pentateuch, could not be ignorant opportimity for revolt, which the death of Ahab
what herbs were eaten with the paschal lamb in seemed to offer (2 Kings i. 1 ; iii. 5). The short
their days.' Jerome understood it in the same reign of Ahaziah afforded no opportunity for
330 MESSIAH. MESSIAH.
reducing tliem to obedience; but after bis deatb his divine commission, was to cast his own gar
his hrother and successor, Jehoram, made prepa ment upon Elisha (1 Kings xix. 19) : upon which
rations for war; and induced Jebusbapbat to he arose and ministered unto him (ver. 21).
join him in this expedition. Tlie result, with the For kings and priests the precept and practice
part taken by Elisha the prophet, has been re are unquestionable. It is in this extended, figura
lated under other heads [Eusiia; Jehoram; tive, sense of the expression that we are to under
Jehosiiaphat]. King Mesha was at length stand the passages in Ps. cv. 15 and Isa. xlv. 1,
driven to shut himself up, with the remnant of wherein the Israelites and Cyrus are called the
his force, in Areopulis, his capital. He was there Lord's anointedthey being expressly raised up
besieged so closely, thut, having been foiled in for the accomplishment of the divine purposes.
an attempt to break tnrough the camp of the But the name Messiah is, par excellence, ap
Edomites (who were present as vassals of Judahl plied to the Redeemer of man in the Old Testa
he was reduced to extremities, and in the mad ment (Dan. ix. 10; Ps. ii. 2). The words of
ness of his despair, sought to propitiate his angry Hannah, the mother of Samuel, at the close of
gods by offering up his own son, the heir of Ins her divine song, are very remarkable (1 Sam.
crown, as a sacrifice, upon the wall of the city. ii. 10): * The adversaries of the Lord shall be
On beholding this fearful sight, the besiegers with broken in pieces; out of heaven shall He thunder
drew in horror, lest some port inn of the monstrous upon them: the Lord shall judge the ends of
crime might attach to their own souls. By this the earth; and he shall give strength unto his
withdrawal they, however, afforded the king the king, and exalt the horn of his Messiah.' The
relief he desiretl, and this was, no doubt, attri Hebrews as yet had no king; hence the passage
buted by him to the efficacy of his offering, and may l>e taken as a striking prophecy of the pro
to the satisfaction of his gods therewith. The mised deliverer. In various parts of the New
invaders, however, ravaged the coonlry as they Testament is this epithet applied to Jesus. St.
withdrew, mid returned with much sp.jil to their Peter (Acts x. 36, 38) informs Cornelius the
own land [Moabitks]. centurion that God had anointed Jesus of Naza
MESOPOTAMIA. [Aram.] reth to be the Christ, and our Lord himself
acknowledges to the woman of Samaria that he
MESSIAH (ITtrp ; gept Xpurr6s). In both is the expected Messiah (John iv. 25). This
languages this word signifies the same tiling, viz. term, however, as applied to Jesus, is less a name
anointed. Hence Sept. 6 Uptbs 6 xpl<TT^s H>r than the expression of his office; thus Lacrantius
IWISH jnlsn, the high priest (Lev. iv. 3, 5, 16). says, 4 Christus non proprium uomen est, sed
In order to have an accurate idea of the Scrip nuncupatio porestatts et regni' (InstituU iv. 7).
tural application of the term, we must consider Thus the Jews had in type, under the Mosaic
the custom of anointing which obtained amongst dispensation, what we have in substance under
the Jews. That which was specifically set ap.u t the Christian system. The prophets, priests, and
for God's service was anointed, whether persons kings of the former economy were types of Him
or things [Anointing]. Thus we read that who sustains these offices as the head of Ins mys
Jacob poured oil upon the pillar (Gen. xxviii. tical body, the Church [Mediator]. As the
IB, 22). The taliernacle also and its utensils priests and kings of old were set a[>art for their
were anointed (Lev. viii. lU), being thereby a\t- offices and dignities by a certain form prescribed
propriated to God service. in the law of Moses, so was the blessed Saviour
But this ceremony had, moreover, relation to by a l>etter anointing (of which the former was
persons. Thus priests, as Aaron and his sons, but a shadow), even by the Holy Ghost. Thus
were anointed, that they might minister unto God the apostle tells us that God anointed Jesns of
(Exod. xl. 13. 15). We are informed by Jewish Nazareth with the Holy Ghost, and with power
writers (see Maimon. //. Melach ; Al>aruanel, on (Acts x. 38). He was anointed :
Exod. xxx. 33) that the high-priest was anointed, First, at his conception: the angel tells Mary,
but not the inferior priests ; the high-priesthood * The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, anil the
not devolving, as a matter of course, on the eldest power of the Highest shall overshadow thee :
son, the person who succeeded his father must therefore that holy thing which shall he born of
needs he thus consecrated to God (Buxtorf, Lex. thee shall Ik? called the Son of God' (Luke i. 35).
Rabbin, s. v. 0T9> Second, at his baptism at the river Jordan
Kings were anointed. Hence it is that a (Matt. iii. 13; Mark i. 9, 10, H, 12). St. Luke,
king is designated the Lord's anointed (Heb. moreover, records (Luke iv. 17, 21) that our
Lord being at Nazareth, he had given unto him
njrp rVtSTDTlN ; Sept 6 Kpttftti T0" Kupfov). the book of the prophet Isaiah ; and on reading
Saul and David were, according to the divine from ch. lxi. L 1 The Spirit of the Lord is upon
appointment, anointed by Samuel (1 Sam. \. 1 ; me,' &c, he said to his hearers, 1 This day is this
xv. 1; xvi. 3, 13). Zadok anointed Solomon, Scripture fulfilled in your ears.'
that there might be no dispute who should suc Ou this subject Chrysostom (Homil. i. in
ceed David (1 Kings i. 39). Epist. ad Romanos, p. 6) says, 'He, the Saviour,
We cannot speak with confidence as to whether is called Christ, because, as to the flesh, he was
the prophets were actually anointed with the anointed : and wherewith was he anointed? With
material oil. We have neither an express law nothing truly but the Spirit.' Commenting ou
nor practice to this effect on record. True it is Ps. xlv. the same father observes, 1 Christ was
that Elijah is commanded to anoint Elisha to be anointed when the Spirit descended upon him iu
prophet in his room (I Kings xix. 16); but no the form of a dove.' Theophylact, on Matt, i.,
more may be meant by this expression than that writes, 1 The Lord is called Christ as king, be
he should constitute him his successor in the cause He rules over sin, and as priest f>ecause
prophetic office ; for all that he did, in executing He offered himself a sacrifice for ub. He was
MESSIAH. MESSIAH. 331
anointed by the proper oil, even by the Holy for a long while after the prophecy was uttered,
Spirit* Such are the views taken of this subject especially in the reigns of David and Solomon,
by many other most celebrated fathers of the the tribe of Judah was in a most prosperous state.
Church. Bift as the Jews will not acknowledge The next proof that the Messiah has long since
die right of either Jesus, or his apostles, to apply come, we adduce from Dan. ix. 25, 26, 27. It
ihe prophetic |>assages which point to the Messiah is evident that the true Messiah is here spoken of.
a) himself, it now remains for us to show He is twice designated by the very name. And if
First, That the promised Messiah has already we consider what the work is which he is here said
come. to accomplish, we shall have a full confirmation
Second, That Jesus of Nazareth is unquestion of this. Who hut He could finish and takeaway
ably he. transgression, make reconciliation for iniquity,
To prove our first assertion, we shall confine bring in everlasting righteousness, seal up the
our remarks to three prophecies. The first occurs vision aud prophecy, confirm the covenants with
in Gen. xlix. 8, 10, where Jacob is giving his many, aud cause to cease the sacrifice and obla
sons Ms parting benediction, &c. When he comes tion ? Indeed there is a saying extant in the
to Judah he says : * The sceptre shall not de Talmud, as the tradition of former times, * In
part from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between Daniel is delivered to us the end of the Messiah,'
his feet, until Shiloh come; and unto him shall t. e. the term wherein he ought to come, as it is
tiie garnering of the people be.' It is evident explained by Jnrchi. Grotius (De Veritat. v.)
that by Judah is here meant, not the person but sneaks of a Jew, R. Berachia, who lived fifty years
the tribe; for Judah diod in Egypt, without any before our Lord, and who declared that the time
pre-eminence. By sceptre and lawgiver are ob fixed by Daniel could not go beyond fifty years !
viously intended the legislative and ruling power, If then it be the true Messiah who is described in
which did, in the course of time, commence in the altove prophecy, it remains for us to see how
David, ami which, for centuries afterwards, was the time predicted for Ids coming has long since
continued in his descendants. Whatever variety transpired. This is expressly said to be seventy
the form of governmentwhether monarchical weeks from the going forth of the commandment
or aristocraticalmight have assumed, the law to restore and build Jerusalem. That by seventy
and polity tccrc still the same. This prediction weeks are to be understood seventy sevens of
all the ancient Jews referred to the Messiah. Ben years, a day being put for a year, and a week for
Uzziel renders it, * Until the time when the king seven years, making up 490 years, is allowed by
Messiah shall come.' The Targum of Onkclos Kimchi, Jarchi, Rabbi Saadias, and other learned
speaks to the same effect, and that of Jerusalem Jews, as well as by many Christian commenta
paraphrases it thus: 'Kings shall not cease from tors. It is clear that these seventy weeks cannot
the house of Judah, nor doctors that teach the consist of weeks of days, for all put together make
law fr<>m his children, until that the king Messiah but one year, four months, and odd daysa
do come, whose the kingdom is; and all nations space of time too short to crowd so many various
of tlie earth shall be subject unto him.* Now, events into as are here specified ; nor can any
that the sceptre has departed from Judah, and, such time l>e assigned between the two captivities,
consequently, that the Messiah lias come, we argue wherein like events did happen (see Prideaux,
from the acknowledgments of some most learned Connect, lib. v., ]rt 1). This period of time
Jews themselves. Kimchi thus comments on then must have long since elapsed, whether we
Hosea; 'These are the days of our captivity, date its commencement from the first decree of
witerein we have neither king nor prince in Israel ; Cyrus (Ezra i. 1, 2), the second of Darius
Iriit we are in the power of the Gentiles, and Hystaspes (ch. vi. 15), or that of Artaxerxes
under their kings and princes.' Again, Ahar- (ch. viii. 11). See Grotius De Veritat. v.;
banel, commenting on Isa. c. liii., says that it is Josephus, De Hell.Jud. vii. 12, 13.
a great part of their misery in their captivity, that We can only barely allude to one remarkable
they have neither kingdom nor rule, nor a sceptre prediction more, which fixes the time of the
of judgment! The precise time when all autho Messiah's advent, viz., Hag. ii. 7-9: 'I will
rity de[iarted from Judah is disputed. Some date shake all nations, and the desire of all nations
its departure from the time when Herod, an Idu- shall come : and I will fill this house with glory,
m<ean, set aside the Maccabees and Sanhedrim. saith the Lord of Hosts. The silver is mine, and
Whereupon the Jews are- said to have shaved the gold is mine, saith the Lord of Hosts. The
their heads, put on sackcloth, and cried, 'Woe glory of thin latter house shall l>e greater than of
to us, because the sceptre is departed from Judah, the former, saith the I>ord of Hosts.' The glory
and a lawgiver from beneath his feet !' Others here spoken of must be in reference to the Mes
think that it was when Vesjxisian and Titus de siah, or on some other account. It could not
stroyed Jerusalem and the Temple, that the Jews have been said that the second Temple exceeded
lust the last vestige of authority. If, therefore, in glory the former one ; for in many particulars,
the sceptre has departed from Judahand who according to the acknowledgment of the Jews
can question it who looks at the broken-up, scat themselves, it was far inferior both as a building
tered, and lost state of that tribe forages?the (Ezra iii. 3, 12), and in respect of the symbols
conclusion is clearly irresistible, that the Messiah and tokens of God's special favour being wanting
must have long since come I To avoid the force (see Kimchi and R. Salomon on Hag. i. 8).
of this conclusion the Jews now say, that the The promised glory, therefore, must refer to the
B3t? shebet, which we render sceptret may 1 coming and presence of him who was promised
to the world before there was any nation of the
translated rod, and metaphorically signifies, in Jews ; aud who is aptly called toe * Desire of all
the above jiassage, affliction. That the word nations* This view is amply confirmed by the
cannot bear this meaning here) is evident, because prophet Malachi (ch. iii. 1). Since then tht
METALS.
very Temple into which the Saviour was to enter, parent contingencies, brought such things to
has for ages been destroyed. He musty if the pals W. D.
integrity of' this prophecy be preserved, have come. METALS. The principal metals are in this
That there was, at the time of our Lord's birth, work considered separately under their several
a great expectation of the Messiah, both amongst names; and a few general observation alone
Jews and Gentiles, may be seen from three cele are necessary in this place.
brated historians, as well as from the sacred The mountuins of Palestine contained metals,
Scriptures. Tacitus (Hist. c. 13) says: ' Plu- nor were the Hebrews ignorant of the fact (Deut.
ribus persuasio inerat, antiquis sacerdotuni Ute viif. 9) ; but they do not appear to have understood
ris coutineri, eo ipso tempore fi>re ut valesceret the art of mining. They therefore obtained from
Orient, profectique Judrca rerum potirentur.' others the superior as well as (lie inferior metals,
Again, Suetonius (in Vcspas. 4) says : ' Percrc- and worked them up. They received also metal
bruerat Oriente toto vetus et constans opinio, utensils ready made, or metal in plates (Jer. x. 9),
esse in fat is ut eo tempore Judafi profecti rerum from ueighlxturing and distant countries of Asia
potirentur.1 Josephus not being able to rind any and Kurope. The metals named in the Old Tes
calculation by which hi protract the general ex tament are bra barzely iron (steel, Jer. xv. 12) ;
pectation of the Messiah, applies it in the follow J1CTU nechusheth, copper, or copper ore ; CjDD
ing words to Vesjtaaian (De Bell. Jud. vii. 31) : cesepk, silver; 3HT zahab, gold ; JTHDy ophcreth,
* That which chiefly excited the Jews to war was
an ambiguous prophecy, which was also found lead ; and 7*J3 bedil, tin. The trade in these
in the sacred books, that at that time some one metals was chiefly in the hands of the Phccnicians
within their country should arise, that should (Kiek. xxvii. 7), who obtained them from their
obtain the empire of the whole world.' We are, colonies, princij>ally those in Spain (Jer. at. 9 ;
moreover, informed again by Suetonius (Octav. Kzek. xxvii. 12). Some also came from Arabia
94), that, upon the conception of Augustus, it was (Kzek. xxvii. 19), and some apparently from the
generally thought that Nature was then in labour countries of the Caucasus (Kzek. xxvii. 13). A
to bring forth a king that should rule the Romans ! composition of several metals is expressed by
Some suppose that the words of Virgil {Eclog. iv.), the Hebrew word SecTl cJtasmil (which sec).
point at our Saviour; but they were intended In general the ancients had a variety of metallic
by him to apply to the son of Pollio. We may compositions, and that which the word chasmil
just add, that as there was a general expectation describes appears to have l>ecn very valuable.
of the Messiah at this time, so there were many Whether it was ihe same us that precious com
impostors who drew after them many followers pound known among the ancients as Corinthian
(Joseph. Antiq, w. 2. 6 ; De Hell. Jud. lvii. brass is uncertain, but it is likely that in later
31). See also a full account of the false times the Jews jxissessed splendid vessels of the
Christs who appeared by John A Lent Schediasm, costly com]x)und known by that name. Indeed
c. 2; Maimou. Ep. ad Judaos Marsilienscs ; this is distinctly affirmed by Josephus ( Fita, 13).
Christ prophesies of such persons (Matt, xxiv, The vast quantity of silver and gold used in
24, 29). the temple in the lime of Solomon, and which
The limits of this article will admit of our was otherwise possessed by the Jews during the
only touching upon the proofs that Jesus of flourishing time of the nation, is very remarkable,
Nazareth, and none other, is the very Messiah who under whatever interpretation we regard such texts
was to come. W hat was predicted of the Mes as 1 Chrou. xxii. 14 ; xxix. 4, &c. In like manner,
siah was fulfilled in Jesus. Was the Messiah to t>e we find among other ancient Asiatic nations, and
of the seed of the woman (Gen. iii. 15), and tins also among the Romans, extraordinary wealth in
woman a virgin? (Isa. vii. 14). So we are told gold and silver vessels and ornaments ofjewellery.
(Gal. iv.4; Matt. i. 18, and 22, 23) that J esus was As all die accounts, received from sources so va
made of a woman, and bom of a virgin. Was it rious, cannot lie founded on exaggeration, we may
predicted that he (Messiah) should be of the tribe rest assured that the precious metals were in those
of Judah, of the family of Jesse, and of the house ancient times obtained abundantly from mines
ofDavid* (Mic. v. 2; Gen. xlix. 10; Isa, xi. gold from Africa, India, and perhaps even then
10; Jer. xxiii. 5). This was fulfilled in Jesus from Northern Asia ; and silver principally from
(Luke i. 27,69; Matt. i. 1) [Genealogy]. Spain.
% If die Messiah was to be a prophet like unto The following nre the metallic manufactures
Most**, so was Jesus also (Isa. xviii. ; John vi, 14). named in the Old Testament:Of iron, axes
If the Messiah was to appear in the second Temple, (Deut. xix. 5-2 ; 2 Kings vi. 5) ; saws (2 Sam.
so did Jesus (Hag. ii. 7, 9 ; John xviii. 20). xii. 31); stone-cuttera* tools (Deut. xxvii. 5):
3. Was Messiah to work miracles? (Isa. xxxv. sauce-pans (Ezek. iv. 3) ; bolts, chains, knives,
5, 6 ; rump. Matt. xi. 4, 5). &c, but especially weapons of war (1 Sam. xvii.
4. If the Messiah was to sutler and die (Isa. liii.), 7 ; 1 Mace. vi. 35). Bedsteads were even some
we find that Jesus died in the same manner, at times made of iron (Deut. iii. II) ; ' chariots of
the very time, and under the identical circum iron/ t. 04 war-chariots, are noticed elsewhere
stances, which were predicted of him. The very [Chariots]. Of copper we find vessels of all
man who betrayed him, the price for which he was kinds (Lev. vi. 28 ; Num. xvi. 39; 2 Chron. iv.
sold, the indignities lie was to receive in his last 16; Ezek. viii. 27) ; and also weaj>ons of war,
moments, the parting of his garments, and his last principally helmets, cuirasses, shields, sjitam
words, &c, were all foretold of the Messiah, and (1 Sam. xvii. 5 ; vi. 38; 2 Sam. xxi. 16); also
accomplished in Jesus! chains (Judg. xvi. 21) ; and even mirrors (Exod.
5. Was the Messiah to rise from the dead? So xxxviii. 8) [Copper]. Gold and silver furnished
did Jesus ! How stupendous and adorable is the articles of ornament, also vessels, such as cups,
Providence of God, who, through so many ap- goblets, &c. The holy vessels of the temple wen
METIIUSAEL. MICAH. 333
mostly of (fold (Ezra v. 14). Idolaters hud idols METHUSELAH (I&fhnfe man of the dust ;
and other sacred objects of silver (Exod. xx. 20; Sept. Wladova&Ka), son of Enoch, and remarkable
In, ii. 20; Acts xvii. 29; xix. 21). Lead is as being the oldest of those antediluvian patriarchs
mentioned as being used fur weights, and for whose great ages are recorded (Gen. v. 21, *22).
plumlt-liiies in measuring (Amos vii. 7 ; Zech. At the age of 1S7 years he l>egat Lamech (the
v. 8). Some of the tools of woikers in metal are father of Noah); after which he lived 782 years,
also mentioned : D>3 paam, anvil ( Isa. xli. 7); making altogether 909 years [Longevity].
mpD makkabah (Isa, xliv. 12) ; t^tSB pattish,
hammer (Isa. xli. 7); DW mal kachim, MEZUZOTH (rmp). This word is found
pincers; and flDD mappuavhy Itellows (Jer. vi. in Exod. 17, 22; Deut. vi. 9; and in other
29); HpYD JHOfrrepA, crucible (Prov. xvii. 3) ; places, in all of which it signifies 1 door-posts.'
IftZ cur, melting- furnace (Ezek. xxii. 18). It has no other meaning in Scripture. In the
There are also allusions to various operations texts now referred to, the word occurs in the in
connected with the preparation of metals. 1. The junction, * Thou shalt never forget the laws of
smelting of metal was not only f.r the purjwse of the Lord thy God; but shalt write them on the
rendering it fluid, but in order to separate and posts of thy house, and on thy gates.' This,
purify the richer metal when mixed with Laser contrary to most Christian interpreters, the Jews
minerals, as silver from lead, &e. (Isa. i. 25; understand in the literal sense; and in this
corn)). Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxvii. 47 ; Ezek. xxii. sense it might have l>een followed in the Eastt
18-'20), The dross separated by this process is where it is at this day not unusual for the
called D*VD si^im, although this word also ap Moslems to inscribe on or over tlie gates, and on
plies to metal not yet purified from its dross. For other \:i\U of buildings, j>assages froui their sacred
the actual or chemical separation other materials book, tlie Koran. If therefore the Jews, before their
were mixed in the smelting, such as alkaline salts, dis|>ersion, interpreted this precept literally, they
"A3 bor (Isa. i. 25) ; and lead (Jer. vi. 2:) ; comp. probably applied it in the same manner. But
Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxiii. 31). 2. The canting of when they came into western countries, where
images (Exod. xxv. 1*2; xxvi. 37; Isa. xl. 19); such was not the custom, and where ofttimes it
which are always of gold, silver, or copper. The might have proved inconvenient thus to point out
casting of iron is not mentioned, and was perhaps their houses as those belonging to Jews, they
unknown to the ancients (Hausmaun, in Com- adopted the custom of writing the precepts on
mentatt. Snc. Goett. iv. 53, sqi*. ; Miiller, Archiiot scrolls of parchment, which they enclosed in a cose
p. 371). 3. The hammering of metal, and making and attached to the doors of their houses and
it into broad sheets (Num. xvi. 3ft J Isa. xliv. 1*2; chambers. To the scrolls thus enclosed the name
Jer. x.). 4. Soldering ami welting parts of metal of mezuzoth is, not very properly, given.
together (Isa. xli 7). 5. Smoothing and polish The mezuzah (singular) then is a piece of
ing metals (1 Kings vii. 45). <i. Overlaying parchment, prepared for the purpose according to
with plates of gold and silver and copper (Exod. the rules laid down by the rabbins, on
xxv. 11-21; 1 Kings vi. 20; 8 Chron. iii. 5; which, with ink prepared with the same
comp. Isa. xl. 19). The execution of these dif cure, are written the words containing the
ferent metallurgic operations apMrtft to have precept, namely. Dent. vi. 4-9; xi. 13-
formed three distinct brandies of handicraft be- 30. The parchment is then rolled up,
bre the Exile; for we read of the blacksmith, by with (he ends of the lines inward; the
Hebrew word S1C Shaddai,' Almighty/
the name of the 4 worker in iron' (^T"G ^'IH, is then inscribed on tlie outside, and
Isa. xliv. 12); the brass-founder (I Kings vii. the roll is put into a cane, or a cylin e
11); and the gold and silversmith (Judg. xvii. drical tube of lead, in which a hole is
1; Mai. iii. 2). cut that the word ^fm.iy appear. This
The invention of the metallurgic arts is in tubo is fastened to tlie dooi-post by a nail
Scripture ascril>ed toTulil-eain ((Jen. iv. '22). In at endi end. The fixing of it is accnm-
Liter times the manufacture of useful utensils and panied by the prayer, ' Blessed art thou,
implements in metals seems to have hem carried O Lord our God, King of Ihe Universe,
rm to a considerable extent among the Israelites, who host commanded us to fix the Me
if we may judge from the frequent allusions to zuzah !' The injunction in tlie law being
them hv the }>oet* and prophets. Hut it does not in tlie plural numtier. 1 upon the posts
appear that, in the finer and more elaborate of thy house and of thy gates,' it is con
biauches of this great art, they made much, if cluded that Mezuzoth ought to be fixed
;iny progress, during the flourishing times of their on all the door* of dwelling-houses,
< Mimnonwealth ; and it will he remembered that whether pah'cei. bed-rooms, kitchens, or
Solomon was obliged to obtain assistance from ihe cellars, on the doors of bams or storehouses, or
Phcimicians in executing the metal work of the on the gates of cities or towns. The Mezuzah is
temple (1 Kings vii. 13). generally placed on the right side of the entrance,
Tlie Hebrew workers in iron, and especially and those who are deemed the most devout
such as made arms, were frequently carried away Israelites often touch and kiss it as they pass.
by the different, conquerors of the Israelites (1 Sam. The synagogue being a house of prayer, and not
xiii. 19; 2 Kings xxiv. 14, 15; Jer. xxiv. 1; of residence, requires no Mezuzoth. Talm. Bab.
xxix. 2); which is one circumstance among others tit Sabbat. 10; Buxtorf, Synag. Jud. pp. 482-
to show the high estimation in which this branch 487 ; Leo Modena, Rites and Customs, pt. i.
of handicraft was anciently held. ch. ii. $ iii. ; Allen's Modern Judaism, pp. 327-
METHUSAEL {b^TMf, man of God ; 329.
Sept MadovadKa), son of Mehnjael, of the race of MICAH (H^p ; Sept M(Xofay), one of the
Cain (Gen. iv. 18). twelve Minor Prophets, who, according to the iu-
334 MICAH. MICAH.
scriptionof the lx>ok, prophesied during the reigns which was impending when the prophecy was
of Jotham, Aha/, and Hezekiah (u.c. 759-699), delivered, and which was fulfilled in the taking
and was consequently coutemjxirary with Isaiah. of Samaria by Shalmuneser, in the sixth year uf
It is however doubtful wheiher any accurate sepa Hezekiah (2 Kings xvii.), and then that of the?
ration of tlie particular prophecies of Micali can kingdom of Judah, with the destruction of Jeru
he ascertained. He was a native of Moresheth of salem (iii. 12; vii. 13). 2. The Babylonian
Gath (i. 14. 15), s i called to distinguish it from captivity (iv. 10, 11 ; vii. 7, 8, 13). These pre
another town of the same name, in the tril>c of dictions were delivered 150 years Iwforethe event,
.Tudah (Josh. xv. 44; 2 Chron. xiv. 9, 10). when the Chaldaeais. by whom they were accom
Micah is to he distinguished from a former pro plished, were scarcely known asa ]>eopIe. S. The
phet of the same name, called also Micamh, men return from the exile, with its liappy effects, and
tioned in 1 Kings xxii. 8 (u.c. 897). The allu the tranquillity enjoyed by the Jews under the
sions to idolatry (vii. 13) and to Hahylon ('it. 10) Persian and Grecian monarchies, which referred
have induced Berthold to refer the prophecy of to events from 200 to 500 years distant (iv. 18;
Micah to ihe time of the captivity; but De vii. II; xiv. 12). 4. The heroic deeds of the
Wette truly observes that this sup|x>sition is un Maecaliees, and their victories over tlie Syrians or
necessary, as idolatry existed under Hezekiah Syro-Macedunians, called Assyrians in Micah v.,
(2 Kings xxiii.), and Babylon equally belonged as well as Zechariah x. 11 (iv. 13). 5. The esta
to the kingdom of Assyria. Hartmann's attempt blishment of tiie myal residence in Sion (iv. R).
to regard thejtassage respecting Hahylon as an in 6. The birth and reign of the Messiah (v. 2).
terpolation (see Micah new ubersttzt) J)e Wette The three last prophecies, observes this leameil
regards as even still more venturesome ; itor had writer, are more oliscure than the others, by rea
tin* writer the slightest authoiity for supposing son of ihe remote distance, in point of time, of
that some only of the prophecies are Micah &, and their accomplishment, from the period of their
that the work was compiled during the exile. !>eing delivered.
In fact, the period of Micali s predictions is fully There is no pmphery in Micah so interesting to
attested by Jeremiah ( xxvi. IS, 10), where it is the Christian as that in which the native place of
stated that Mi'-ah the Morasthite foretold the de the Messiah is announced. ' Itut thou, Bethlehem
struction of Jerusalem in tlie reign of Hezekiah. Kphralah, [though] thou lie little among ihe thou
It is a Battel of dispute whether tlie passage sands of Judah, [yet J out of thee shall he come
in eh. iv. 13 is lK>rrowed from Isaiah, ii. 2, 4, or forth unto me, [that is] to In* ruler in Israel' (Kng.
whether the passage in Micah is the original, Authorized Version). It is thus tianslated by
if, indeed, Imth may not be derived from a com the Sept : Kal av Bi;0Aft oIkos tov 'E^paCa,
mon and more ancient source. Ilengstenherg b\iyo<rrhs e? tov tlvat iv \t\idffiv "lov5a' in <rov
{Christofogy) strongly maintains the originality fxot
of this jxissage in Micali. De Wctie {Einlcitung) iv rtpi(\*6o-*Tat
tl<Tpaf}\ : Tj-yovpcvos
'And thou,tov f/Vai *ir &pxoyra
Bethlehem, house of
observes that we have the best reason for regarding Kphtatah, although thou he least among the thou
ihe lost years of Aha* as the period of Micah's sands of Judah, out of thee shall come unto me
prophetic glory. one that nhall be a ruler of Israel." The citation
The contents of Micah*s prophecy may be of this )' i",r_re by the Kvungelist differs t>oth from
briefly summed up. It consists of two parts, the the Hebrew and the Sept uagint : Kal trit BtjBKu t
first of which terminates with chapter v. He y?) 'Iot/oa, ovSauiL-s tAax^rij tl iv toij riytpAfftv
commences with a majestic exordium (i. 2-1), in 'IouSa- 4k (Tov yap i^tKivatrat -qyovfLtvos, bans
which is introduced a sublime ttteophauy, tlie votfiavu rbv AaoV pov tov 'Irpo^A :* And thou,
Lord descending from hi* dueling-place to judge Bethlehem, [in] tlie land of Judah, art not the
the nations of the earth, who are approaching to least among the princes of Judah: for out of thee
receive judgment. There is then a sudden trans hall come a governor, that shall rule [(Jr. feed]
ition to tlie judgment of Israel, whose captivity toy people Israel ' (Matt. ii. (J). The difference,
is predicted (chaps. L and liA That of .ludah however, is hut veibul. Some supjiose that the
follows, when the complete destruction of Jeru negative (ouSoftwT) originally lietotigcd to tlie
salem is foretold, with the expatriation of the Hebrew, and others to the (ireek, while many
Jews to Babylon, their future return, the glories read the Hebrew interrogatively, ' art thou little,*
of Sion, and the celebrity of its temple (iv. 1, 8, 9, &c. 1 Eichhom snppoi**3 that the Greek trans*
12), with tlie chastisement prepared for the op
pressors of (he Jews(ver. 13). After this, glorious lator of St Matthew's Gospel interchanged ^6^,
wars are seen in perspective, attended with thousands, with rulers.
great slaughter (ch. v.); after many calamities
a rnler is seen to arise from Bethlehem. An in Of more importance is the application of the
vasion of the Assyrians is predicted, to oppose prophecy. It is evident that the Jews in the time
which there will l>e no want of able leaders (v. of Jesus interpreted this ]Hissage of tlie birth-place
'i-3). A new monarchy is lieheld, attended with of the Messiah (Matt. ii. 5; John vii. 11, 42).
wars and destruction. The later Rabbinical writers, however, such as
The second part, from this to the end, consists Kimchi, Ahen Ezra, Abarbanel, &c, have main
of an elegant dialogue or contestation between tained that it had only an indirect reference to
the Lord arid his people, in which the corruption the birth-place of the Messiah, who was to l>e a
of their morals is reproved, and their chastise descendant of David, a Bethlehemite, but not of
ment threatened ; but they are consoled by the necessity himself bom in Bethlehem. Others,
promise of a return from their captivity. however, as David Cranx (B. Zemach Davitl),
Jahn ( Introd.) points out the following pre expressly mention Bethlehem as the birth-place
dictions as contained in the prophet Micah. of the Messiah. The interpretation which con
I. The destruction of the kingdom of Israel, sidered this prophecy as intimating only that tlie
MICAH. MICHAEL.
Messiah was to be a descendant of David, was other graven ; and the rest of the money served to
that current among the Jews in the time of cover the other expenses of the semi-idolatrous
Theodoret, Chrysostom, Theophylact, and Euthy- establishment which was formed in the house of
mius Zigal>enus, from whom we learn that it was Micah, uf which a wandering Levite became die
maintained to have been fulfilled in Zerubbabel, priest, at a yearly stipend j till the Danite army,
the leader of the Jews on their return from Ba on their journey to settle northward in Laish, took
bylon, of which, and not of Bethlehem, lie was a away both the establishment and the priest, which
native. Tins interpretation was held among they afterwards maintained in their new settle
Christians by the celebrated Theodore of Mop- ment (Judg. xvii. 18) |^Dam ; Jonathan 2J.
snestia (as we learn from his condemnation by The establishments of this kind, of which there
the council at Rome under Po|ie Vigilius), and are other instancesas that of Gideon at Ophrali
afterwards by Grotius (Comment.)^ who, however, were, although most mistakenly, formed in
regarded Zeruhhabel as a type of Christ, and honour of Jehovah, whom they thus sought to
considered Christ's birth-place at Bethlehem as serve by means of a local worship, in imitation of
an outward representation of his descent from the that at Shiloh. This was in direct contravention
family of David. * Natus ex Bethlehemo Zoro- of the law, which allowed but one place of sacri
babel recte dicitnr, quod ex Davidis familia esset, fice and ceremonial service; and was something
qua? orta Bethlehem!.* Many of the moderns of the same kind, although different in extent and
have been attached to this interpretation of the degree, us the service of the golden calves, which
prophecy, referring it to the general idea of the Jeroboam set up, and his successors maintained,
Messiah rather than to Zerubbabel, while some in Dan and Bethel. The previous existence of
among them have, after the example of some Micah's establishment in the former city no doubt
Jews, ventured to assert that the account of the pointed it out to Jeroboam as a suitable place for
birth of Christ at Bethlehem was not to be de one of his golden calves.
pended on. Some have asserted after Jerome MICAIAH (iT3^P, tr/io as Jehovah t Sept.
{Comm. in Mic), that the citation in Matt, ii. 6
is that of the Sanhedrim only, not of the Evan Mixa(ou), a prophet of the time of Ahab. He
gelist (Hengstenberg's Christology). Jaim (Ap was absent from the mob of false prophets who
pend. Hermeneut.) observes that it is evident that incited the kings of Israel and Judah to march
the Jews in the time of Christ expected the Mes against the Syrians in Ramoth-gilead ; for Ahab,
siah's birth to tike place at Bethlehem ; and having !>een offended by his sincerity and bold
although he admits that the prophecy may be ness, had not called for htm on this occasion.
understood tropically m the sense applied to it by But he was sent for at the special desire of Jeho-
Grotius, he contends that the context will not shaphat ; and as he declared against the enterprise,
admit of its applicability either to Hezekiah or which the other prophets encouraged, Ahab com
any other monarch than the Messiah ; nor is it manded him to lie imprisoned, and allowed only
possible to apply the prophecy fully and literally * bread and water of aflliction' till he returned
to any but Him who was not only of the house from the wars iu peace. To which the prophet
and lineage of David, but was actually bom at ominously answered, * If thou return at all iu
Bethlehem, according to the direct testimony of peace, then the Lord hath not spoken by me'
both St. Matthew's and St. Luke's Gospels. (1 Kings xxii. 8-28). The event corresponded
The style of Micah is sublime and vehement, with this intimation [Ahab] ; but we have no
in which respects he exceeds Amos and Hosea. further information concerning the prophet.
De Wette observes that he has more roundness, 2. MICAIAH. One of the princes whom
fulness, and clearness in his style and rhythm Jehoehaphal sent to ' teach iu the cities of Judah 1
than the latter prophet. He abounds in rapid (2 Chron. xviii. 7).
transitions and elegant tropes, and piquant plays 3. MICIIAIAH, son of Gemariah, who, after
njwu words. He is successful in the use of having beard Baruch read the terrible predictions
the dialogue, and his prophecies are penetrated of Jeremiah in his fathers hall, went, apparently
by the purest spirit of morality and piety (see with good intentions, to report to the king's officers
especially ch. vi. 6-8; and vii. 1-10.) what he had heard (Jer. xttxvi. 11-13).
Micali is the third of the minor prophets accord
ing to the arrangement of the Septuagint, the sixth MICHAEL (^<?n?, who as Godf Sept.
according to the Hebrew, and the lifth according Mix^A), the name given to one of the chief
to the date of his prophecies. an-els, who, in Dan. x. 13-21, is described as
See, besides the works on the minor prophecies having special charge of the Israelites as a nation ;
collectively in De VVette's Jntrod,, Pococke's and in Jude 9, as disputing with Satan about the
Commentary on Micah ; Groseschopf's Micah body of Moses, in which dispute, instead of bring
Uebersetzt ; and Jahn's and Eichhorn's Intro ing against the arch-enemy any railing accusation,
ductions.vv. w. he only said, 'The Lord rebuke thee, O Satan!'
2. MICAH. An Ephraimite, apparently con Again, in Rev. xii. 7-9, Michael and his angels
temporary with the elders who outlived Joshua. are represented as wurring with Satan and his
He secretly appropriated 1 100 shekels of silver angels in the upper regions (tV t< ovpavy), from
which his mother had saved ; but being alarmed which the latter are cast down upon the earth.
at her imprecations on the author of her loss, he This is all the reference to Michael which we find
confessed the matter to her, and restored the in the Bible.
money. She then forgave him, and returned him On the authority of the first of these texts the
the silver, to be applied to the use for which it Jews have made Michael not only one of the
hail been accumulated. Two hundred shekels of 1 seven ' archangels, but the chief of them ; and
the amount were given to the founder, as the cost or on the authority of all three the Christian church
material of two teraphim, the one molten and the has been disposed to concur in this impression.
MICHAL. M1DIANITES.
The Jews regard the archangels as being such, been hoped. On that great day when the ark
not simply as a class by themselves, but as was brought to Jerusalem, Michal viewed the
respectively the chiefs of the several classes into procession from a window, and the royal notions
which they suppose the angels to be divided ; she had imbibed were so shocked at the sight of
and of these classes Michael is the head of the the king not only taking part in, but leading,
first, and therefore chief of all the archangels the holy transports of his people, that she met him
(Sepher Othioth, fol. 16). on his return home with a keen sarcasm on his
The |>assages in Daniel and Revelations must undignified and unkingly behaviour. This ill-
be taken as symbolical, and in that view oiler timed sneer, and the unsympathising state of
little difficulty. The allusion in Jude 9 is more feeling which it manifested, drew from David a
difficult to understand, unless, with Vitringa, severe but not unmerited retort ; and the Great
Lardner, Macknight, and others, we regard it also King, in whose honour David incurred this con
as symbolical ; in which case the disptite referred tumely, seems to have punished the wrong done
to is that indicated in Zech. iii. 1 ; and 1 the body to him, for we are told that * therefore Michal,
of Moses ' as a symbolical phrase for the Mosaical the daughter of Saul, had no child to the day of
law and institutions [JudbJ. A comparison of her death 1 (2 Sam vi. 16-23). It was thus, per
Jude 9 with Zech. iii. 1 gives much force and haps, as Abarbanel remarks, ordered by Pro
probability to this conjecture, vidence that the race of Saul and David should
not be mixed, and that no one deriving any ap
MICHAL (V?*?, who as Godt Sept. MeA- parent right from Saul should succeed to the
Xf\)j youngest daughter of king Saul (1 Sain. xiv. throne.
49). She became attached to David, and made no MICH MAS, or Michmash (DMD, tTMD,
secret of tier love j so that Saul, after he had dis
appointed David of the elder daughter [Mbrab], E7??P ; Sept. Ma^ucis), a town of Benjamin
deemed it prudent to bestow Michal iu marriage (Ezra ii. 27; Neb. xi. 31; comp. vii. 31), east
upon him (I Sam. xviii. 20-28). Saul had hoped of Beth-aven (1 Sam. xiii. 5), and south from
to make her the instrument of his designs against Migron, on the road to Jerusalem (Isa. x. 28).
David, but was foiled in his attempt through the The words of 1 Sam. xiii. 2, xiv. 4, and Isa. x. 29,
devoted attachment of the wife to her husband. Of show that at Michmas was a pass where the pro
this a most memorable instance is given in 1 Sam. gress of a military body might be impeded or
xix. 11-17. When David escaped the javelin opposed. It was. pcihaps for this reason that
of Saul he retired to his own house, upon which Jonathan Maccahams fixed his abode at Mich
the king set a guard over-night, with the inten mas (1 Mace. ix. 73); and it is from the
tion to slay him in (lie morning.' This being dis chivalrous exploit of another hero of the same
covered by Michal, she assisted hiin to make name, the son of Saul, that the place is chiefly
his escape by a window, and afterwards amused celebrated {1 Sam. xiii, xiv., 4-16). Kusebius
the intended assassins under various pretences, in describes Michmas as a large village nine R.
order to retard the pursuit. ' She took an image miles from Jerusalem, on the road to Ramali
(teraph), and laid it in the bed, and put a pillow (Onomast. s. v. Ma^io). Travellers have usually
of goats' hair for a bolster, and covered it with a identified it with Hir or El-Bireh ; hut Dr.
cloth.* This she pretended was David, sick in Robinsou {Researches, ii. 117) recognises it in
bed ; and it was not until Saul had commanded a place still bearing the name of Mukhmas, at
him to be hrought forth even in that state, that the a distance and position which corresjKmd well
deception was discovered. Michal then pretended with these intimations. This is a village situated
to her father that David had threatened her with upon a slope to the north of a valley called Wady
death if she did not assist his escaj>e. Saul pro- es-Suwetnit It is small, and almost desolate,
bably did not believe this ; but lie took advantage but s marks of having been once a place
of it by cancelling the marriage, and bestowing of strength and importance. Tliere are many
her upon a person named Phalli (2 Sam. xxv. 44). foundations of hewn stones, and some columns
David, however, as the divorce had been without lie among them. The valley es-Suweinit, sleep
his consent, felt that the law (Deut. xxiv. 1) and precipitous, is probably the * passage of Mich
against a husband taking Itack a divorced wife mash 1 mentioned in Scripture. In it, says Dr.
could not apply in this case ; lie therefore formally Robinson, 'just at the left of where we crossed,
reclaimed her of Ish-bosheth, who employed no less are two hills of a conical, or rather spherical,
a personage than Aimer to take her from Phalti, form, having steep rocky sides, with small wadys
and conduct her with all honour to David. It running up between each so as almost to isolate
was under cover of this mission that Abner them. One of them is on the side towards Jeba.
sounded the elders of Israel respecting their ac (G i beafa ), and the other towards M ukhmas.
ceptance of David for king, and conferred with These would seem to be the two rocks men
David himself on the same subject at Hebron tioned in connection with Jonathan's adventure
(2 Sam. iii. 12-21). As this demand was not (1 Sam. xiv. 4, 5). They are not, indeed, so
made by David until Abner had contrived to "sharp"' as the language of Scripture would seem
intimate his design, it lias been supposed by some to imply ; but they are the only rucks of the
that it was contrived between them solely to kind in ttiis vicinity. The northern one is con
afford Abner an ostensible errand in going to nected towards the west with an eminence still
Hebron ; but it is more pleasant to suppose that, more distinctly isolated.'
although the matter happened to be so timed as to MIDIAN. fourth son of Abraham by Ketoxah,
give a colour to this suspicion, the demand really and progenitor of the Midianites (Gen. xxv. 2).
arose from David's revived affection for his first
wife and earliest love. MIDIANITES (D*jnt? ; Sept. MoWrtu,
The re-union was less happy than might have MaSiijyalot), a tribe of people descended from
MIDIANITES. MIGRON. 337
Abraham's son Midian. His descendants must pear, if it be understood that they were still in a
have settled in Arabia, and engaged in trade at great degree a nomade people, extending their
an early period, if we identify them with those wanderings far beyond any limits to which we
who in the time of Jacob appear, along with the might confine their territorial possessions. These
Ishmaelites, as merchants travelling from Gilead Midianites, like the other tribes and nations who
to Egypt, and who, having in their way bought had a common origin with them, were highly
Joseph from his brethren, sold him in the latter hostile to the Israelites. In conjunction with the
country (Gen.xxxvii. 28, 36). It is, however, very Moabites, they designedly enticed them to idol
difficult to conceive that the descendants of a sun atry as they approached Canaan (Num. xxxi. 2,
of Abraham, born so many years after Isaac, had 5; xxv. 6, 14-18); on which account Moses at
become a trilie of people at the time when the tacked them with a strong force, killed all their
descendants of Isaac himself were so few. One lighting men, including their five princes or emirs,
is therefore much inclined to supiwse tli.it these and made the women and children captives
Midianites were different and distinct from those (Num. xxxi.). The account of the spoil con
descended from Abraham's son; and there ap firms the view which we have taken of the semi-
pears the more ground for this when at a later nomade position of the Midianitesnamely,
period we find two tribes of Midianites, different 675.000 sheep, 72,000 beeves, 61,000 asses,
in locality and character, and different in their 32,000 ]>ersoi>s. This was only the 'prey,' or
feelings towards the Israelites. If tins distinction live stock ; but besides this there was a great
be admitted, then it would Ik; necessary to seek quantity of 4 barbaric pearl and gold,* in the
the earlier Midianites in those dwelling alwut sha|>e of 'jewels of gold, chains, and bracelets,
the eastern arm of the Red Sea, among whom. rings, ear-rings, and tablets.'
Moses found refuge when 'lie Med from Egypt,' Some time after the Israelites obtained pos
and whose priest or sheikh was Jethro, who be session of Canaan, the Midianites had become so
came the father-in-law of the future lawgiver numerous! and ]>owerful, that, for seven successive
(Kxod. iii. 1 ; xviii. 5; Num. x. 29). These, years, they made inroads into the Hebrew territory
if not of Hebrew, would appear to have been of III the time of harvest, carrying ofl' the fruits and
Cushite origin, and descended from Midian the cattle, and desolating the land. At length Gi
son of Cush. It is certain that some Cushite tribes deon was raised up as the deliverer of his country,
did settle in and on the outskirts of Arabia, and his triumph was so complete that, the Israel
which was therefore called Cush, in common ites were never more molested by them (Judg.
with other districts occupied by Cushite tribes ; vi. 1-7; vii. ; vhi.). Their mode of invasion in
and, under this view, it is observable that the wife a veal horde for this pui-pose, and at the time of
of Moses is called a Cushite (Num. xii. 1), and in-gathering, corroborates the view we have taken
that, in Hab. iii. 7, the Midianites are named of the essentially nomade character of these Mi
with the Cushites; for these are undoubtedly the dianites; and, in the account of the .spoil, we have
Midianites who trembled for fear when they heard an indication of 1 camels,' which were alone ne
that the Israelites had }>assed through the Red cessary in addition to the former list to stamp
Sea, We do not again meet with these Midian their character (Judg. viii. 26 ; comp. Isa. lx. 6).
ites in the Jewish history, but they appear to have Here also there is the same display of peisonal
remained for a long time settled in the same ornament which was noticed on the former oc
quarter, where indeed is the seat of the only casion:'Gulden ear-rings, ornaments, collars,
Midianites known to Oriental authors. The purple raiment that was on the kings of Midian,
Arabian geographers of the middle age (Edrisi, and chains that were about their camels' necks/
Ibn el Wardi, and Almlfeda) speak of the ruins To this victory there are subsequent allusions in
of an ancient town called Madian on the eastern the sacred writings (Ps. Ixxxiii. 10, 12; Isa. ix.
side of the Red Sea, where was still to be seen 4 ; x. 6) ; but the Midianites do not again appear
the well at which Moses watered the Hocks of in sacred or profane history.
Shoaib, or Jethro. This was doubtless the same MIGDOL (?Vl}P ; Sept. MtfrycwAoy, Mcryow-
as Modiana, a town in the same district, men
tioned by Ptolemy (Geo*/, v. 19); and Niebuhr AtJv), a place between which and the lied Sea the
conjectures that the site is now occupied by Israelites were commanded to encamp cm leaving
Moilah. a small town or village on the Red Sea, Egypt (Exod. xiv. 2; Num. xxxiii. 7) [Exo
on the Hadj road from Egypt {De&vript. Arab. dus]. The name, which means a tower, apjjears
p. ^77); but, as Rosenmiiller remarks (Btbl. to indicate a fortified place. In Jer. xliv. I;
Geog. iii. 224), this place is too far south to be xlvi. 14, it occurs as a city of Egypt, and it
identified with the Midian of Jethro. would seem to have been the last town on the
The other Midianites, undoubtedly descended Egyptian frontier, in the direction of the Red Sea :
from Abraham and Keturali, occupied the coun hence * fromMigdol to Syene,' in Ezek. xxix. 10 ;
try east and south-east of the Moabites, who were xxx. 6.
seated on the east of the Dead Sea; or rather, MIGRON (P3P; Sept. Mo-yW), a (own
perhajw, we should say that, as they apjiear to which, from the historical indications, must have
Lave been a semi-nomade people, they pastured been south or south-west of Ai, and north of Mich-
their flocks in the unsettled country beyond the mas (Isa. x. 28). From Michmas nortiiward a
Moabites, with whom, as a kindred, although narrow valley extends out of and at right angles
more settled tribe, they seem to have been on with that which has been identified as the pass of
the most friendly terms, and on whose borders Michmas [MichhasJ. The town of Migron seems
were situated those 1 cities and goodly castles to have been upon aim to have commanded the pass
which they possessed 1 (Num. xxxi. 10;. It will, through this valley, but its precise situation baa
in fact, much contribute to the better understand not been determined. Saul was stationed at the
ing of the passages in which the Midianites ap- further side of Gibeab, ' under a pomegranate-tree
VOL. II.
.138 MILK. MILK.
which is by Migron ' (1 Sam. xiv. 2), when Jo milk when curdled. Milk, and the preparations
nathan performed his great exploit at Michmas; from if, butter and cheese, are often mentioned in
and this is to he explained on the supposition that Scripture. Milk, in its fresh state, appears to
Migron was on the border, towards Michmas, of have l>een used very largely among the Hebrews,
the district to which Gibeah gave its name. as is usual among people who have much cattle,
MILCOM. [Moloch.] and yet make but sparing use of their flesh for
MILE (ufAier). This word is only mentioned food. The proportion which fresh milk held
in Matt. v. 41, where Christ says. ' If any one in the dietary of the Hebrews, must not, however,
compel thee to go witli him one mile, go with him be measured by the comparative frequency with
two. The mile was originally (as its derivation which the word occurs; because, in the greater
from mille, 'a thousand,' implies) a Roman mea number of examples, it is employed figuratively,
sure of 1000 geometrical paces (passus) of 5 to denote great abundance, and in many instances
feet each, and was therefore equal to 501)0 Unman it is used as a general term for all or any of the
feet. Taking the Uoman foot at 110190 English preparations from it.
inches, the Uoman mile would be 1 6 1 S English In its figurative use, the word occurs some
yards, or 142 yards less than the English statute times simply as the sign of abundance (Gen.
mile. By another calculation, in which the foot xlix. 12; Ezek. xxv. 4: Joel iii. 18, Sc.); but
is taken at 11*62 inches, the mile would lie little more frequently in combination with honey
more than 1614 yards. The number of Roman ' milk and honey' Iteing a phrase which occurs
miles in adegreeofa large circleofthe earth is very about twenty times in Scripture. Thus a rich and
little more than 75. The most common Latin term fertile soil is described as a * land flowing with
for the mile is mille passuum, or only the initials milk and honey :' which, although usually said of
M.P. ; sometimes the word passuum is omitted. Palestine, is also applied to other fruitful coun
The Roman mile contained 8 Greek stadia (see tries, as Egypt (Num. xvi. 13). This figure is
Smith's Diet, of Greek and Horn. Antiq., art. by no means peculiar to the Hebrews, but is
' Milliare '). The Greek sta-Je hence bore the frequently met with in classical writers, A
same relation to the Roman mile which the Eng beautiful example occurs in Euripides (Barch.
lish furlong does to the English mile: and it is 142). Hence its use to denote the food of children.
indeed usual with the earlier writers on Biblical Milk is also constantly employed as a symbol of
geography to translate the Greek 'stade' into the the elementary parts or rudiments of doctrine (1
English * furlong,' in stating the measurements of Cor. iii. 2; Heb. v. 12, 13); and from its purity
Eusebius and Jerome. As the measurements of and simplicity, it is also made to symbolize tbe
these writers are often cited in the present work, unadulterated word of God (1 Pet. ii. 2; comp.
it is necessary to remember that their mile is Isa. lv. 1).
always the Roman mile. In reading of milk in Scripture, the milk of
MILETUS (MlKrrros), a city and seaport of cows naturally presents itself to the mind of the
Ionia in Asia Minor, at>out thirty-six miles south European reader; but in Western Asia, and es
of Ephesus. St, Paul touched at this port on his pecially among the pastoral and semi-pastoral
voyage from Greece to Syria, and delivered to the people, not only cows, but goats, slieej), and camels,
elders of Ephesus, who had come to meet him are made to give their milk for the sustenance of
there, a remarkable and affecting address (Acts man. That this was also the case among the
xx. 15-38). Miletus was a place of considerable Hebrews, may be clearly inferred even from the
note, and the ancient capital of Ionia and Caria. slight intimations which the Scriptures afford.
It was the birth-place of several men of renown Thus we read of ' butter of kine, and milk of
Thales, Timotheus, Anaximander, Anaximeues, sheep' (Deut. xxxii. 14); and in Prov. xxvii. 27,
Democritus (Pomp. Mela, i. 17; Diog. Laert. Vit. the emphatic intimation, 'Thou shalt have goats'
rhilosoph. pp. 15, 88, 89, 650). Ptolemy (Cieog. milk for food,' seems to imply that this was con
v. 2) places Miletus in Caria by the sea, and it sidered the liest for use in the simple state.
is stated to have had four havens, one of which 'Thirty milch camels' were among the cattle
was cajjable of holding a fleet. It was noted which Jacob presented to his brother Esau (Gen.
for a famous temple of Apollo, the oracle of which xxxii. 15), implying the use of camels' milk.
is known to have been consulted so late as the The word for curdled milk (nXDTl) is always
fourth century (Apollodorus, De Orig. Dear. iii. translated ' butter ' in the Authorised Version.
130). There was, however, a Christian church in It seems to mean both butter and curdled milk,
the place ; and in the fifth, seventh, and eighth but most generally the latter ; and the context
centuries we read of bishops of Miletus, who were will, in most cases, suggest the distinction, which
present at several councils (Magdeburg, Hist. has been neglected by our translators. It was
Eccles. ii. 192; iv. 86; v. 3 ; vii. 254; viii. 4). this curdled milk, highly esteemed as a re
The city fell to decay after its conquest by the freshment in the East, that Abraham set before
Saracens, and is now in ruins, not far from the the angels (Gen. xviii. 8), and which Jael gave
spot where the Meander falls into the sea. The to Sisera, instead of the water which he asked
site bears, among the Turks, the name of Melas. (Judg. v. 25). In this state milk acquires a
Some take the Miletus where Paul left Trophi- slightly inebriating power, if kept long enough.
mus sick (2 Tim. iv. 20) to have been in Crete, Isaiah vii. 22, where it is rendered ' butter," is the
and therefore different from the above ; but there only text in which the word is coupled with
seems no need for this conclusion. ' honey,' and there it is a sign of scarcity, not of
MILK. The Hebrew word for milk, 3711 plenty, as when honey is coupled with fresh milk.
It means that there being no fruit or grain, the
ehalab, is from the same root as 3JCI cheleb, remnant would have to live on milk and honey ;
' fatness,' and is properly restricted to new milk, and, perhaps, that milk itself would be so scaroe,
there being a distinct term, chemah, for that it would be needful to use it widi economy ;
MILK. MILK. 339
and hence to curdle it, as fresh milk cannot be ancient heathen, when they had gathered in all
preserved for chary use. Although, however, this their fruits, to take a kid, and boil it in the
word properly denotes curdled milk, it seems also dam's milk, and then in a magical way to go
to be sometimes used for milk in general (Deut. about and besprinkle with it all their trees, and
BOOL 14 ; Job xx. 19; Isa. vii. 19). fields, and gardens, and orchards, thinking that
The must striking Scriptural allusion to milk by this means they should make them fructify,
is that which forbids a kid to he seethed in its and bring forth more abundantly the following
mother's milk, and its importance is attested by year.1 Some such rite as this is supposed to be
its being thrice repeated (Exod. xxiii. 19; xxxiv. the one interdicted by the prohibition. This
26; Deut. xiv. 21). There is, perhaps, no pre opinion is supported t>y Spencer (De Lcgibut
cept of Scripture which has been more variously Hebr. ii. 9, sec. 2), and lias been advocated by
interpreted than this, and we may state the most Le Clerc, Dathe, and other ahle writers. It is
remarkable views respecting it ; 1. That it also corroborated by the addition in the Samaritan
prohibits the eating of the foetus of the goat as copy, and in some degree by the Targum. The
a delicacy : hut there is not the least evidence that former lias * For he who dotli this is like a man
the Jews were ever attached to this disgusting who sacririceth an abomination, and it is a tres
luxury. 2. That it prevents the kid to be killed pass against the God of Jacob :' and the latter,
till it is eight days old, when, it is said, it might * O my people, house of Israel, it is not lawful
subsist without the milk of its mother. 3. This for you to boil or eat flesh and milk mixed
ground is admitted by those who deduce a further together, lest my wrath be enkindled, and I boil
reason from the fact, that a kid was not, until the your products, corn and straw, together-' 8.
eighth day, fit for sacrifice. But there apj>ears Michaelis, however, advances a quite new opinion
no good reason why a kid should be described as of his own. He takes it for granted that tab*
* in its mother's milk,' in those days, more than rendered * seethe,' may signify to roast as well as
)ii any other days of the period during which it is
suckled. 4. Others, therefore, maintain that the eat to boil, which is hardly disputable; that the kid's
ing of a sucking kid is altogether and absolutely mother is not here limited to the real mother, but
prohibited. But a goat suckles its kid for three applies to any goat that has kidded ; that here
montlis, and it is not likely that the Jews were denotes not milk but butter; and that the precept
so long forbidden the use of it for food. No is not restricted to kids, but extends not only to
food is forbidden but as unclean, and a kid lambs (which is generally granted), but to all
ceased to Ire unclean on the eighth day, when it other not forbidden animals. Having erected
was fit for sacrifice; and what was fit for sacri props, Michaelis builds upon them the con
fice could not I* unfit for food. 5. That the jecture, that the motive of the precept was to en
tirohibition was meant to prevent the dam and dear to the Israelites the land of Canaan, which
;id from being slain at the same time. But this abounded in oil, and to make them forget their
is forbidden with reference to the goat and other Egyptian butter. Moses, therefore, to prevent
animals in express terms, and there seems no their having any longing desire to return to that
reason why it should t>e repeated in this remarkable country, enjoins them to use oil in cooking their
form with reference to the goat only. 6. Others victuals, as well as in seasoning their sacrifices
understand it literally, as a precept designed to (Mosaisches Recht, pt. iv. p. 210). This is in
encourage humane feelings. But, as Michaelis genious, but it is Open to objection. The postu
asks, how came the Israelites to hit upon the lates cannot readily be granted; and if granted,
strange whim of boiling a kid in milk, and just the conclusion deduced from them is scarcely
in the milk of its own mother I 7. Still, under just, seeing 1 hat, us Geddes remarks, 'there was
standing the text literally, it is possible that this no need nor temptation for the Israelites to return
was not a common act of cookery, but an idola to Egypt on account of its butter, when they
trous or magical rite. Maimonides, in his More possessed a country that flowed with milk and
Ntvochim, urges tins opinion. He says, * Flesh honey* (Critical lienuirks, p. 237).
eaten witii milk, or in milk, appears to me to have Buttrk la not often mentioned in Scripture, and
t>een prohibited, not only ttecause it affords gross even less frequently than our version would sug
nourishment, but because it savoured of idolatry, gest; for, as already intimated, the word IIND/I
some of the idolaters probably doing it in their chemah* must sometimes be understood of curdled
worship, or at their festivals; and 1 am the more milk. Indeed, it may be doubted whether it de
inclined to this opinion from observing that the notes butter in any place besides Deut. xxxii.
law, in noticing this practice, does so twice, im 14, * butter of kine,' and Pror. xxx. 33, * the
mediately after having spoken of the three great churning of milk bringeth forth butter,1 as all
animal feasts (Exod. xxiii. 17, 19; xxxiv. 23, the other texts will apply better to curdled milk
26). u Three times in the year all thy males than to butter. Butter was, however, doubtless,
shall appear before the Lord God Thou much in use among the Hebrews, and we may be
shalt not seethe a kid in its mother's milk.** As if sure that it was prepared in the same manner as
it liad been said, u When ye appear before me in at this day among the Arabs and Syrians. The
your feasts, ye shall not ciHik your food after the milk is put into a large copper iian over a slow
manner of the idolaters, who are accustomed to fire, and a little leben or sour milk (the same as
this practice." This reason appears to me of great the curdled milk mentioned above), or a portion
weight, although I have not yet been able to find of the dried entrails of a lamb, is thrown into it.
it in the Zabian books.' This is confirmed by The milk then separates, and is put into a goat-
an extract which Cudworth {Discour$es concern- skin bag, which is tied to one of the tent poles,
ing the True Notion of the Lord's Supper, and constantly moved backwards and forwards
g: from an ancient Karaite commentary for two hours. The buttery substance then coagu
p. 30) gives
on the Pentateuch. * It was a custom of the lates, the water is pressed out, and the butter put
340 MILL. MILLENNIUM.
into another skin. In two days the butter is again stone had a concavity in its under surface fitting
placed over the fire, with the addition of a quan to, or receiving, the convexity of the lower slone.
tity of burgoul (wheat boiled withleavcn.anddried There was a hole in the top, through which the
in the sun), and allowed to boil for some time, corn was introduced by handful* at a time.
during which it is carefully skimmed. It is The up{>er itone had an upright stick fixed in it
then found that the burgoul has precipitated all as a handle, by which it was made to turn upon
the foreign substances, and that the butter remains the lower stone, and by this action the com was
quite clear at the top. This is the process used ground, and came out at the edges. As there
by the Bedouins, and it is also the one employed were neither public mills nor liakers, except the
by the settled ]>eople of Syria and Arabia. The king's (Gen. xl. 2; Hos. vii. each family
chief difference is, that in making butter and possessed a mill; and as it was in daily use, it
cheese the townspeople employ the milk of cows was made an infringement of the law for a jw-rson
and buffaloes, whereas the Bedouins, who do not to take another's mill or milt-stone in pledge
keep these animals, use that of sheep and goats. (Deut. xxiv. 6). On the second day, in warm
The butter is generally white, of the colour and climates, bread becomes dry and insipid; hence
consistence of lard, and is not. much relished by the necessity of baking every day, and hence also
English travellers. It is eaten with bread in the daily grinding at the mills early in the
large quantities by those who can afford it, not morning. The operation occasions considerable
spread out thinly over the surface, as with us, noise, and its simultaneous performance in a
but taken in mass with the separate morsels of great number of houses or tents forms one of the
bread. sounds as indicative of an active population in
Cheese has been noticed under its proper head. the East, as the sound of wheel carriages is in the
cities of the West. This sound is alluded to in
MILL (rb$; Sept. (xi\rf). The mill for Scripture (Jer. xxv. 10; Rev. xviii. 22, 23).
grinding corn hail not wholly superseded the The mill whs, a* now, commonly turned by two
mortar for pounding it in the time of Moses. persons, usually women, and these, the work
The mortar and the mill are named together being lalw>rinus, the lowest maid-servants in the
in Num. xi. 8. But tine meal, that is, meal house. They sat opposite each other. One took
ground or pounded fine, is mentioned so early as hold of the mill-handle, and impelled it halfway
the time of Abraham (Gen. xviii. 6) : hence round . the other then seized it, and completed
mills and mortars must have been previously the revolution (Exod. xi. 5 ; Job xxxi. 10, II;
known. The mill common among the Hebrews Iso. xlvii. 2; Matt. xxiv. 41). As the labour
differed little from that which is ;n use to this was severe and menial, enemies taken in war
day throughout Western Asia and Northern were often condemned to perform it (Judg. xvi.
21 j Lam. v. IS), (John, Biblisches Archttol.
ix. 139. ) It will be seen that this millstone tines
not materially differ from the Highland quern;
and is, indeed, an obvious resource in those
remote quarters, where a population is too thin
or too scattered to afford remunerative employ
ment to a millet by trade. In the East this trade
is still unknown, the hand-mill being in. general
and exclusive use among the corn-consuming,
and the mortar among the rice-consuming, nations.
[Un BAU.l
MILLENNIUM. This word is not found in
Scripluie; but as it refers to ideas supposed to
he fiuuii!ed in Scripture, a slight notice of it is
required. The word denotes the term ofa thousand
years, and, in a theological sense, that thousand
y*ais mentioned in Hev. xx. V, 3, 1,6; during
which Satan is there described as l>eing hound,
Christ as reigning triumphant, and the saints as
living and reigning with him. The doctrine in-
\ ul veil In this view is usually called Milleunari.it>-
ism. but in ecclesiastical history more usually
( /ii/Mum.frora the Greek word \i\nn, *a thousand. 1
A- ilie world was made in six days, and as. ac-
enrding to Hs. xc. 4, *a thousand years are as one
day ' in the sight of God, so it was thought tie
world would continue in the condition in which
400, it Itad hitherto i. for n'OOO years; and as the
Sabbath is a day of rest, so will the seventh
Africa. It consisted oT two circular stones two period of a thousand years consist of this mil
feet in diameter, and hall' a foot tliick. The lower lennial kingdom, as the close of the whole earthly
is called the ' nether millstone,' JVHnn state.
Job xli. 16 (21), and the upper the 'rider,' The Jews supposed that the Messiah at his
(Judg. ix. 53 ; 2 Sam. xi. 21). The former coming would reign as king upon the earth, and
was usually fixed to the floor, and had a slight would reside at Jerusalem, the ancient royal
elevation in the centre, or in other words, was city. The period of his reign they thought
lightly convex in the upper surface. The upper would be very long, and it was therefore put
MILLENNIUM. MILLENNIUM. 341
down as a thousand years, which was at first place where he was crucified, his murderers will
understood only as a round number. This period recognise him whom they pierced, and all the
was couceived by the Jews as a sort of gulden tribes shall mourn, tribe by tribe, the men apart,
age to the earth, and every one formed such a' and tlie women ajrt (Apol. i. 52. p. 74 ; Dial,
picture of it as agreed with his own disposition, c. Tryph. xxxi. p. 128 \ xJL p. 137). But before thi
and with the views -concerning the highest felicity advent takes place Klias will come (Dial. e.
whicli were dictated by the degree of intellectual Tryph. xlix. p. 145), agreeably to the prophecy in
and moral culture to which he had attained. Mai. iv. 5 ; also the man of apostacy and iniquity,
With many these views were very low, being con wlio will utter blasphemies against the Most High,
fined to sensual delights, while others entertained and commit outrages against the Christians, must
l*etter and more pure conceptions of that happy precede the re appearance of the Son of Man.
time (W'etstein, Comment, in Rev. xxli. 2 ; This will soon happen, for already the adversary
Knapp, Christ. Theolog.^ translated by Leonard is at the door (Dial. c. Tr. xxxii. p. 129). The
Wood*, Jun. D.D., } 154). immediate object of this return of Christ is the
This notion was taken up by many of the erection of the Millennial kingdom (Dial. li. 1 47).
Jndaizing Christians : Jesus had not yet appeared Christ, Justin says, will come again, in order to
as an earthly king, and these persons were un make a new heaven and new earth, to reign as
willing to abandon an expectation which seemed king over Salem, and to shine in Jerusalem as an
to them so important. They therefore allowed unchangeable light. The fallen city will I*
themselves to hope for a second advent of Christ restored, changed, and beautified ; all the saints,
to establish an earthly kingdom, and to tiiis they that is, believing Christians, will rise from the
transferred most if not all nf that which in their dead, and be assembled in Jerusalem and the
unconverted state they had expected of the first. Holy Land, in order to take possession of it,
The apostles generally seem to have entertained there to receive the eternal and unchangeable
this notion till after the ascension of Christ and blessings promised to them, and to rejoice in
the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, whereby they communion with Christ. Justin dwells with
were instructed in the higher verities and myste deep emotion on this hope. It was in his esteem
ries of the Gosjiel : but in.it they then abandoned a sacred fire, at which he kindled afresh his
it, and expected no other coming of Christ than Christian faith and practice. That this ho| < (in
that at the judgment of the world, appears clear its pure millenriarian character and extent) might
from 1 Cor. xv. and other (tassages. The fact possibly l>e vain, never entered his thoughts. He
tliat these Jewish notions had taken tleep root in believed that it was supported by Scripture. He
the minds of many Christians, even in the aposto expressly appealed to the New Testament Apoca
lical age, is however manifest from 1 Tliess. iv. 13, lypse, and from such ]>assages in the Old Testa
sq. v., and 2 Thess. ii. ment as Isa. Ixv. 22 (in connection with Gen. ii.
From this explanation, Ensebius must be un 17, and v. 5, and Ps. xc. 4), he deduced the mil
derstood with some limitation, when he alleges lennial period (Dial, lxxxi. 17S sq.). How could
that the doctrine * took its rise from Papias (a he doubt it? As to tlie siwcilic mode in which
disciple of St. John), a man of slender judg he conceived that hope, he held the mean between
ment ; but the antiquity of the man prevailed the gross materialism with which the Ebionites
with many to be uf that opinion, jiarticularly (Jerome, Comment, in Jes. Ixv. 20; lxvi. 20; sjpt
witli Ireusns' (Hist. Eccles. iii. 39). This seems Zech. xiv. 9), Papias (Adv. Uteres, v. 33 ; Kuseb.
to mean, not that Papias was the first lo entertain Hist. Eccles. iii. 39), Irenanis (Adv. Hetres. v.
the opinion, but the first to advance and advo 53), and Lactantius (Inslit. Divin. vii. 14) ex
cate it in writing. It, however, occurs in the plained it; and the spiritualizing in which Bar
Epistle of liarnabos (ch. xv.), which, whatever nabas (Epist. c. 15) and Tertullian (Adv. Marc.
view be formed of its genuineness, is evidence iii. 24) indulged. He certainly expected physical
for the opinions of the age in which it was enjoyments, and believed that Christ, would eat
written. In the second century the opinion seems and drink with the memt>ers of his kingdom
to have 1 n all but universally received in the (Dial. c. Tr. li. 147). But he denied the con
orthodox churches, and is as plainly produced in tinuance of the sexual functions, l>cing assured
the writings of Justin Martyr, Irenama, and Ter- from Luke xx. 34, that those who rose again
tulliau, as afterwards in those of Cyprian and would 1 neither marry nor be given in marriage,
fjactontius. but I*' as the angels* (Dial. li. p. 157); and de
Perhaps the most satisfactory view of the picted the state of the elect under the jiersoiial reign
opinions on this subject which many sincere, of Christ as one of blissful uuchangeableness, re
pious, and even well-instructed early Christians pose, and exemption from pain. Thus he says, ' At
deemed tlwmselves warranted in entertaining, is Ins glorious advent Christ will in every way con
that which Semisch has collected out of the found those who have hated him and unrighteously
writings of Justin Martyr. After the la|e of ap>statixed from him ; but his own people he will
the appointed time, which the prophet Daniel bring to enjoy revise, and fulfil all their expecta
had foretold, Justin expected the visible return of tions' {Dial. exxi. p. 214). And in another
Christ to earth. The prophets, he affirms, fore passage, * Whoever is faithful to the doctrine of
told two advents (irapovviai). One had al Jesus, him will Christ raise from the dead at his
ready taken place, lit that Christ appeared as second advent, and make him immortal, un
a sufferer, in a mean and despised form, dis changeable, and free from all sorrow ' (Dial. lxix.
honoured, anil at lost crucified. It will lie p. 168). At the close of the thousand years of
otherwise at his second appearing. Christ will the personal reign, to enjoy which the saints only
then visit the earth in splendour and glory, on the were to lie raised, Justin expected that the general
clouds of heaven, and surrounded by the angelic and final resurrection of all the dead would take
hosts, as the judge of mankind. In the very place ; but this being the term of tlie millennial
342 MILLENNIUM. MILLENNIUM.
period we need not proceed with him further it was afterwards reproduced fn England by rise
(Semisch, Justin Martyr, his Life, Writings, Fifth Monarchy men. who were disposed to carrr
and Opinions, translated by J. E. Rvland, Edinb. their notions to the like extremities of infatuation.
1843, ii. 370-376). The writings of the learned Joseph Mede, in the
Tliis millennial doctrine may lte regarded as seventeenth century, contributed much to revive
generally prevalent in tlie second century. Origen, the ancient doctrine as a speculative opiniou .
in the third century, was the first who wrote in and individual writers have, from tlrat time to
opposition to it, and who gave u different and this, sent forth their speculations, advocating sub
allegorical interpretation of the texts of Scripture stantially the same views. More especially, within
on which the Chiliasts rested their opinion. The the last ten or fifteen years, the subject has ac
anti-materialism of the Alexandrian school neces quired anew a considerable nVgree of prominence,
sarily led to tliis opposition. Clement does not and has given rise in England to an animateil
once allude to it, and Origen Btrenuously opposed controversy, which is at this day dividing the
it. And this opjositioti was effectual ; for Ori- ranks of biblical scholars and theologians.
geiii pupil, Dionysius (*.n. 223-248), bishop of Dionysius, the ancient opponent of the mil
Alexandria, may be regarded as having com lennial doctrine, perceiving that his antagonists
pletely put down in the Eastern church, by per derived their chief arguments and illustrations,
sonal argument and hy his work srcpl ^irayycXiwK, from the Apocalypse, took upon bim to deny that
the doctrine which his master had attacked. that book was written by St. John.
(Knapp, Christ. Theoluq. 6 154, 2; Gieseler, The modern opponents of the opinion seldom
Eccles. Hist., ch. iii. } 61, 62, 64> take this ground ; hut allege that the Apocalypse
The blow thus given was followed up in the (xx. 1-8) does not speak of Christ as reigning
Latin churches by Augustine, Jerome, and others. visibly and bodily upon the earth, but of hi*
Dionysius had heen answered by Apollonaicus, spiritual dominion, resulting from the spread of
and the answer so far satisfied the Latin churches, Christianity, when it shall at length be univer
that it was still the prevailing opinion in them sally diffused throughout the eartha kingdom
when Jerome wrote. This great man opposed which shall last a thousand years, here used as n
the Chiliasts with characteristic energy. * If/ round number to denote many centuries, or a 1- :
says he, 1 we understand the revelation lite period. A modified expectation and hoj>e, founded
rally, we must Judaiie; if spiritually, as it is substantially on this latter view, sometimes ex
written, we shall seem to contradict many of hibits itself in high-toned feeling and Bowing lan
the ancients, fiarticularly the Latin, Tertullian, guage, which might be taken for downright chili-
Victorious, Lactantins, and the Greeks, espe asm, and which has, indeed, caused many ancient
cially Irenxus, bishop of Lyons, against whom writers to 1* set down as millennarians, who cer
Dionysius, bishop of the church of Alexandria, tainly would have refused the designation. On
wrote a curious piece deriding the fable of a the other hand, the progress of this doctrine is
tlwusand years, the terrestrial Jerusalem adorned not to he estimated by the number of thus*?
with gold and precious stones, rebuilding the who adopt the name as a distinctive title.
temple, bloody sacrifices, sahluitical sect, circum Believers in the doctrine, and advocates of it.
cision, marriages, lyiugs-in, nursing of children, have hem, and are still, found among all denih-
dainty feasts, and servitude of the nations : ami, m rnutions; and the number of the gifted ami
again, ufler this, wars, armies, triumphs, and holy men by whom it has been entertained, and
slaughters of conquered enemies, oimI the death to whom it has been a well-spring of hope and
of the sinner a hundred years old. Him Apol- comfort, entitles it to the respectful consi
louorius answered in two volumes, whom not only deration even of those who deem it erroneous
men of his own sect, but most of our oirn people as a speculative opinion. When solwrly en
likeicise, follow in this point. So it is no hard tertained, there is nothing in it contrary to.
matter to foresee what a multitude of persons I Christian grace; and it may safely he placed
am like to displease' (Hiuron. In Es. h. IS; In among the notions on which Christians may al
Proem., pp. 477, 478). lowably differ. Neander, in his account of tliis
The outward prosperity which the church at doctrine (Ktrchengesch., b. i., abth. 3, sec. 1090),
tained uuder Constanfiue and his successors suggests the important caution, that we should
seems to have done quite as much as the argu not allow ourselves, through disgust at the extra
ments uf these fathers, in putting down a doc vagant visions of enthusiastaabout the millennium,
trine which had been cherished as a source of to decide against that which we are really justified
consolation to a suffering and martyr church ; in hoping and expecting as to the future exten
and during the invasions of the northern nations, sion of the kingdom of Christ. As the Old Tes-
and the deluge of disasters which flowed in upon lament contains an intimation of the things in the
the empire, speculation was overborne, and the New, so Christianity contuins an intimation of a
minds of Christians were absorbed by the com higher order of things hereafter, which it will be the
motion of the times, and the evils endured by means of introducing ; but faith must necessarily
them or impending over them. In the age of come before sight. The divine revelations enable
darkness which succeeded, scarcely a vestige of us to see a little now and thrn of this higher order,
millenuarian doctrine is to lie traced ; but in the but not enough to form a complete picture. As
ferment produced in men's minds by the Re prophecy is always obscure until its fulk'lmenr,
formation, it was turned up in Germany by so must be the last predictions of Christ re
Muncer and Ins followers, who wished to esta specting the destiny of nis church, until the en*
blish the earthly kingdom of Christ by fire anil trance of tliis higher order.
sword. Hence Luther and Melancthon set them The doctrine is entertained with saades of
selves against the doctrine with great zeal and difference so numerous, that it is difficult to define
earnestness (vide -4w^j6. Confess.^ art. 18). But its characteristics beyond the great leading point
MILLO. MINCHA. 343
that Christ shall again come in person to live (Chald.), and in the New, qkxkovos, \tirovpy6s,
and reign with his saints a thousand years upon and ihrrjprrns. 1. mCD, ' Moses and his mi
the earth. The formal tenets of the millennarians, nister Joshua' (Exod. xxiv. 13); Sept. irapto-
as a sect, do not materially differ from the no ttjkws ainy ; Aquila and Symm. 6 \ftrovpy6s
tions already defined from Justin Martyr. In the avrov; comp. Exod. xxxiii. 11 (Sept. Qtpaicwv
most recent account of these tenets (Rupp's His *lrj<rovs) j Num. xi. 28 ; Josh. i. 1 (Sept. farovpybs
tory of the Religious Denominations of the Mcui'<ri) ; Alex, \trovpy6s). This Hebrew word
United States, 1844), in which lite articles are is clearly distinguished from 12$, which is the
written by members of the bodies described, an more comprehensive term for servant (I Kings
expectation of the restoration of antediluvian x. 5), 1 Solomon's servants and ministers,' where
longevity during the millennial period, is deduced the Sept. reads waifoev for the former, and Ax-
from Isa. Ixv. 20, 'The child sliall die a hundred rovpyHy for the latter. It is applied to Elisha as
years old/ coupled with ver. 23, 4 As the days minister to Elijah, 2 Kings vi. 15 (Sept. Xttrovp-
of a tree, are the days of my people / 1 which,' y6s); comp. 2 Kings iii. U; 1 Kings xix. 21.
says the writer, ' according to the best testimony, Persons thus designated sometimes succeeded to
is from 800 to 1000 years in Palestine/ as if the the office of their principal, as did Joshua and
ages of trees did not vary with the species, and Elislui. The word is applied to the angels,
as if trees of the same species were not of tle Ps. ciii. 21 (\tirovpyol) ; comp. Ps. civ. 4; Heb.
same age in Palestine as in other countries. Tlie i. 7 ; and see Stuart's Comment, in loc. Both
same writer is certainly in error, in alleging that the Hebrew and Sent, words are applied to the
millennarianism was the doctrine of the Reformers Jews in their capacity as a sacred nation, * Men
and their successors, till Whitby 'introduced into shall call you t he ministers of our God' (Isa. lxi.
the Protestant church a system of spiritualizing 6); to the priests (Jer. xxxiii. 21 ; Ezek. xliv. 1 1 ;
the prophecies to such an exteut, as to leave little xlv. 4 ; Joel i. 9). The Greek word is continued
to be auticij>ated in relation to the personal reign in the same sense in Luke i. 23, and applied to
of David's greater son on the throne of his fathei Christian teachers, Acts xiii. 2; Rom. xv. 16;
David, as king of Zion.' and to Christ, Heb. viii. 2; to tlie collectors of
On a topic so fruitful of controversy, it is im the Roman tribute, in consequence of the divine
possible to enumerate all the writers upon it. authority of ]>Iilical government, * they are Gifd's
The following are among .hose which have fallen ministers' (Ktirovpyol). It was applied by the
under our notice:Tibbechou, Hist. Chiliasmi, Athenians to thoBe who administered the public
1667; Mede, Works, p. 603, sqq. ; Whitby, oftices (KuTovpyiat) at ttieir own excise (Boeckh,
Treat, on the True Millenium; Dauhez, Perpet. Staatshaufih. der Athcncr. i. 480 ; ii. 62 ; Potter's
Comment, on Revel., 1720; Gill, Serm. on the Gr.Ant.x. 85. 2. *n!?B (Chald.), Ezravii. 24,
Glory of the Church, 1752 ; Corrodi, Krit.
Gesch. d. Chiliasmus, 1781-1783 ; Gregoire, * ministers* of religion, ktirovpyois (comp. [r6ot
Hist, des Sectes Relig., ii. 333, sqq. ; Bogue, ver. 19), though he uses the word DTnB*b in the
Disc, on the Millenium. ; Noel (Gerard), En same sense, cli. viii. 17. 3. The word hioKovos,
quiry into the Prospects of the Christian * minister,* is applied to Christian teachers, 1 Cor.
Church; Anderson, Apolog. for Millen. Doct., iii. 5; 2 Cor. iii. G ; vi. 4; xi. 23; 1 Thess. iii.
Glasg. 1830 ; Irving, Led. on the Revelat., 2; to false teachers, 2 Cor. xi. 15; to Christ,
1631; Greswell, Exposition of the Parables, Rom. xv. 8, 16; Gal. ii. 17; to heathen magis
1834-5; Pigou, The Millennium, 1837 ; Millen- trates, Rom. xiii. 4; in alt which passages it has
iarism Unscriptural, 1838; Jefferson, The Millen the sense of a minister, assistant, or servant in
nium, 1840; Bush, The Millenium, Sn\em {N.S.), general, as in Matt. xx. 26 ; but it means a par
1842. Several American writers on the subject, ticular sort of minister, 'adeacon/ in Philip, i. I ;
little known in this country, are enumerated in 1 Tim. iii. 8, 12. The term iidxovoi denotes
Rupp's Relig. Denominations, p. 519. among the Greeks a higher class of servants than
MILLET. [Dochan.] the SovKot {Atheu. x. 192; H. comp. Xen.
Buttm, Lexic. i. 220; comp. Matt. xxii. 13, and
MILLO (pnfo ; Sept. fapa). This word de- Sept for mC?D, Esth. i. 10 ; ii. 2 ; vi. 3> 4. innf-
notes ' fulness,' and is applied to a mound or ram ptrTjs is applied to Christian ministers, Luke i. 2 ;
part, probably as being tilled up with stones or Acts xxvi. 16 ; 2 Cor. iv. 1. Josephus calls Moses
earth. Hence it is the name given to {nrt)pi-n)v &eov, Antiq. iii. 1. A. Kings are
1. Part i 1 the citadel of Jerusalem, probably so called in Wisd. vi. 4. The word denotes, in
the ram|iart (2 Sam. v. 9 ; 1 Kings ix. 15, 24 ; Luke iv. 20, the attendant in a synagogue who
xi. 27 ; I Chron. xi. 8 ; 2 Chron. xxxii. 5). In handed tlie volume to the reader, and returned it
the last of these texts, where David is said to have to its place. In Acts xiii. 5 it is applied to
restored or fortified Millo 1 of (not * in ") the city 'Johu whose surname was Mark/ in Ins capa
of David, tlie Sept. has to avd\riuua rrjs ircJAwir, city as an attendant or assistant on Barnabas
the fortification of the city of David.1 and Saul. It primarily signifies an under-
2. The fortress in Shechem. 1 All the men of rower on board a galley, of the class wiio used
Shechm, and all thai dwelt in the house of Millo tlie longest oars, and consequently performed the
that js, in the castle or citadel (Judg. ix. 6, 20). severest duty, as distinguished from the Bpavlryjs,
MINISTER, one who acts as the less (from the rower upon tlie ttpptJt Ijench of the three,
minus or minor') or inferior agent, in obedience and from the ot vavrat, sailors, or tlie iirifiarat,
oc subservience to anotlier, or who serves, officiates, marines (Dem. 1209. 11. 11; comp. also 1208.
Sec, as distinguished from the master, magister 20: 1214.23; 1216. 13 ; Pol. i. 25.3): lnce
(from magis), or superior. The words so trans in general a hand, agent, minister, attendant, &c.
lated in the Old Testament are nX"0 and n^S J. F. D,
MINCHA, tlie Hebrew name of the bloodies*
344 MINNITH. MIRACLES.
offerings (meal, cakes, &c.) presented in the would not show the same regard as he ordinarily
Temple [Offerings]. does to his own glory and the good of his crea*
M1NNI. [AllMRNIA.] lures. On the condition, then, here supposed,
MINNITH (JV3D), a town in the country of favour there is a strong and decided presumption in
the Ammonites (Judg. xi. 33), celebrated for the contradict of miraculous operations ; and it would
excellence of its wheat, which was exported to the fection of God,our best views of the immutable per
markets of Tyre (Kzek. xxvii. 17). It still existed place. to suppose that they will not take
in ttie age of Ensebius, four R. miles from Hesh-
bon, on the road to Philadelphia ( Onomast. in knowledge of facts,that
It is admitted no man, apart from the
Maavt$). The Sept. seem to have found difficulty ing, have arrived atcould ever, by mere reason
in this name. In Jtidg. xi. 33 they substitute the conjuncture supposeda confident belief, that the
would certainly occur.
name of the Anion, and in Kzek. xxvii. 17 they But to us, who Know that mankind are so de
render it by uvpov, * myrrh.* praved and wretched, and that the efforts of
MINT. [IIkduosmon.] human wisdom to obtain relief have been in vain,
MIRACLES. God sees (it to carry on his the importance of a sj>ecial divine interposition
common oj>erations on established and uniform is very apparent. And being informed what the
principles. These principles, whether relating to plan is, which a merciful God has adopted for
the physical or moral world, are called Out laws our recovery to holiness and happiness, and being
of nature. And by the laws of nature the most satisfied that this plan, so perfectly suited to the
enlightened philosophers and divines have under end in view, could never have been discovered
stood the uniform plan according to which, or by man, and never executed, except by a divine
the uniform manner in whichs God exercises his disjiensatioti involving miracles, we conclude,
vower throughout the created universe. Or it that the introduction of a new and miraculous
may le said, the laws of nature are the uniform dispensation was in the highest degree an honour
method in which the jiowers or active principle*, to God and a blessing to the world. It is clear
which God has imparted to created things, called that man could not have been saved without if. The
second or secondary causes, ojievate and produce divine government proceeding according to the
their effects. Or, according to the language of original law of justice, would have left no hope
some, the laws of nature are the uniform manner for transgressors. If man is to he saved, there
in which events come to pass, or, in which action must be a departure from the original laws of a
and the results of action among created beings moral government. There must be a new dis
take place. It is evident that various powers and sipation, and that new dispensation must be
probities Iwlong to the things which are made, made known to man; because, without knowing
and are inherent in them, and that nothing in it, man could not enjoy its benefits. The work
the creation, whether material or spiritual, would of saving a lost world cannot be accomplished
\te what it is without those powers and properties, while the world remains wholly ignorant of the
lint we know that the existence of things, with grace which saves. Hut the requisite knowledge
their several power* and pmjierties, was, at first, can never be reached by any of our natural
owing to the operation of divine power, and that faculties, and never communicated to us by any
their continued existence is owing to the same thing in creation. It must come from God, and
cause. that in an extraordinary manner. Now God is
The alxive-mentioned uniform method of di aide, if Ik' please, by a supernatural influence, to
vine o])eration is evidently conducive to the most impart the requisite knowledge directly to every
im|x>rtant ends. It manifests the immutable human being. But this mode of imparting know
wisdom and goodness of God, and, in ways too ledge would itself l>e miraculous, as it would be
many to lie here specified, promotes the welfare entirely beyond what any human mind would be
of his creatures. Without the influence of this capable of in the use of ordinary means. But it
uniformity, rational beings would have no effectual is manifest that such a mode of im)>arting know
motive to effort, and the affairs of the universe, ledge is not in fact the mode which God has
intelligent and unintelligent, would l>e in a state chosen, and that it would not he well suited to
of total confuiiou. And this general fact may the ends of divine wisdom. The method of
be considered as a sufficient reason why God, in divine ap)*>intment, as set forth in the sacred
the common course of his providence, tuts adopted volume, is that of making a revelation to a uum-
a uniform method of operation in preference to ler of individuals, who are to write and publish
any other. it for the henelit of the world. This revelation to
But if, iti conducting the affairs of his great individuals is made in such a manner as renders
empire, God sees, in any paiticular case, as good it certain to their minds, that the revelation is
a reason for a deviation fiom this uniform order, from Gfod. But how can that revelation be made
as there is generally for uniformity, that is, if available to others i It will not answer the pur-
the glory of his attributes and the good of his ]H*e for those who receive it merely to declare
creatures require it and no one can say that that God has made such a revelation to them, anil
such a rase may not occurthrn, unquestionably, authorized them to proclaim it to their fellow
the unchangeable God will cause such a devia creatures. For how shall we know that they are
tion; in other words, will work miracles: not deceivers? Or if their character is such as
miracles being effects which are produced, or to repel any suspicion of this kind, how shall we
events which take place, in a manner not con know lhat they are not themselves deceived, as
formed to the common laws of nature, and which it is no uncommon thing for a man, even a good
cannot be accounted for according to those laws. man, to be misled by enthusiastic impressions, or
In the case supposed, if God should not depart in some other way? How shall we come to feel
from his usual course, ami work miracles, he entire confidence in the truth and divine au
^1
MIRACLES. MIRACLES.
thority of what individuals say has been revealed to th i of nature, and is clearly above them,
to them from God? Have we not a right, nay, such as the bunurning of the wood upon the altar
are we not hound in duty, to ask for evidence? in the case of Elijah's controversy with the false
But what evidence will suffice? The reply is prophets, or the resurrection of Lazarus, we
obvious. The revelation, in order to he of use to cannot avoid the conviction, that the Lord of
us, as it is to those who receive it directly from heaven and earth does, by such a miracle, give
God, must not only be declared by them to us, his testimony, that Elijah is his prophet, and that
hut must have a diviue attestation. In other Jesus is the Messiah. The evidence arising from
words, those who declare it to us must show, miracles is so striking and conclusive, that there
by some incontestable proof, that it is from God. is no way for an infidel to evade it, hut to deny
Such proof is found in a miracle. If an event the existence of miracles, and to hold that all the
takes place which we know to be contrary to the events called miraculous may be accounted for
laws of nature, we at once recognise it as the according to the laws of nature.
special act of him who is the God of nature, and Hume .mays uniform experience against the
who alone can suspend its laws, and produce credibility of miracles. But the shallow sophistry
effects in another way. The evidence of a direct of Ins argument has been fully exposed by Camp
interposition of God given in this way is irresist bell, Paley, and many others. We in
ible. No man, no infidel, could witness an ob and how much he means by unifor?
vious miracle, without being struck with awe, Does he mean his own experience?
and recognising thefinger of God. What, would he has never witnessed a miracle, does it follow
become of the scepticism of a Hume ora Voltaire, that others have not ? Does he mean the uniform
should he go to the grave where a father or brother experience of the greater part of mankind? But
had t>een buried for years, and see him wake up how does he know that the experience of a smaller
to life and come fortli at the word of a divine part has not been different from that of the
messenger? What will become of his scepticism, greater part? Does he mean, then, the uniform
when lie himself, after having slept in death experience of all mankind in all ages? How
thousands of years, shall rise from the dead, and then does his argument stand? He undertakes
shall see others rise around him? In a miracle, to ptove that no man has ever witnessed or ex
God works, and shows us his hand, speaks, and perienced a miracle, and his real argument is,
us to hear his voice, as plainly as if he mat no one has ever witnessed or experienced it.
I instantly, before our astonished eyes, In other words, to prove that there has never been
1 a new sun in the expanse of heaven, or in a miracle, he asserts that there never has been a
a voice as loud as thunder should speak distinct miracle. This is the nature of his argument
and intelligible words in our ears. an instance of petitio principii, which a man
In respect to the subject before us, there is a of Hume's logical powers would never have
manifest and wide difference between a miracle resoited to, had it not been for his enmity to
and any event which is referable to the laws of religion.
nature. Let a man come to us and say, that If it is said that the ordinary experience of
such a doctrine has been made known to him by mankind in general contradicts the idea of a
special revelation. It may properly be our first miracle, it is said without due consideration.
inquiry, whether the doctrine referred to, for ex The experience or testimony of any number of
ample, the deity of Christ, or the truth of the men cannot be regarded as contradictory to the
Newtonian philosophy, is supported by other experience or testimony of other men, unless the
evidence If so, we receive it on the ground of experience or testimony of both parties relate to
that ntlier evidence, not because he tells us that it the same event, and to the same place and time
was revealed to him. But suppose that there is of its occurrence. Ten thousand Romans might
do other evidence, and that if we receive it, we have said that no such thing as the murder of
must receive it on the ground of his declaration. Julius Csesar had ever taken place within their
We look then for evidence that his declaration is observation or experience, and their testimony
true. We say to him, prove that you are a pro might have been true ; but how would their tes
phet sent from God, and that this doctrine has timony have contradicted the testimony of those
been revealed to you from above* He under- who witnessed the fatal deed of his murderers?
i to give the proof required, and he says, the There is no contradiction between two witnesses,
i river, or the Danube, which is now liquid, or two sets of witnesses, if the testimony of both
to a considerable depth, become a solid may Ik; true. Suppose two men testify before a
, before the end of January ; and thus my court of justice, that, at such a time, naming the
claim to a special revelation shall be confirmed. hour and the minute, and in such a room, naming
We reply to him,why not make it a solid mass the very part of the room, they saw a man murder
now in the midst of summer? And why nut his father by stabbing him. Now let three other
freeze up a river in the torrid zone? A man who men come forward and testify that they often saw
has had no revelation can do all that you under the lather and son together, but never witnessed
take. He may say, he will bring about a total any act of violence on the part of the ton. Here
eclipse of the sun at such a time (having found is no contradiction of testimonies; for both may
out the right time). We tell him to bring about be true. But let the three witnesses testify that
such an eclipse in the old of the moon, and we they were present at the very time and place re
will yield to his pretensions- ferred to ; that they saw the father and son to
It is clear that no event, which can be ac- gether in the room, and the part of the room men
1 for on natural principles, can prove a tioned by the two witnesses ; that the son had no
matural interposition, or contain a divine instrument iu his hand ; and that the father was
attestation to the truth of a prophet's claim. But attacked suddenly with apoplexy, and died in
when we look at an event which cannot be traced the arms of his son. Here you have contradic
346 MIRACLES. MIRACLES.
tory testimonies, and both cannot be true. The author shows, to lay out of the case such accounts
testimony of all generations antecedent to the time as the following :
of Christ, that they had never seen a man who 1. It is proper to lay out of the case such
iuid been dead and buried fur some days, raised accounts of supernatural events as are written a
to life by a word of command; and the testi long time after their alleged occurrence. On
mony of the greater part uf the Jewish nation at tiiis principle, we may at once set aside the
that time, that they had seen no such thing as the miraculous story of Pythagoras, the fables of the
resurrection of Lazarus, would not have contra lieroic ages, a great part of the accounts uf
dicted the testimony of the few who declared that Popish saints, and the miracles of Apollonius
they were present and witnessed his resurrection. Tyanreus. And this circumstance is shown to lie
The truth of the former testimonies would not of special value in regard to the history uf Ig
have disproved the truth of the last. So much natius Loyola. His life, written by a companion
for the argument of Hurne. After all, he seems of his, who was one of the order of the Jesuits,
to admit that a miracle may be credible, if it is was published about fifteen years after his deatb.
not wrought in favour of religion ; whereas it The author of this biography, so for from ascrib
would have been much nearer the truth, had he ing miracles to Ignatius, states the reasons why
said, a miracle is credible, if it it wrought in tie was not invested with any such power. About
favour of religion. sixty years after, the Jesuits, wishing to exalt the
The miraculous events recorded in the Scrip character of their founder, began to attribute to
tures, particularly those which took place in the him a catalogue of miracles, which could not
times of Moses and Christ, have all the marks then be distinctly disproved, and which those who
which are necessary to prove them to have been ruled in the church were disposed to admit upon
matters of fact, and worthy of full credit, and to the slightest evidence.
distinguish them from the feats of jugglers and 2. 1 We may lay out of the case accounts pub
im|Ktors. Tins lias been shown very satisfac lished in one country of what passed in a distant
torily by Leslie, Paley, Douglas, and many country, without any proof that such accounts
other*. These miracles took place in the most were received or known at home.* It is greatly
public manner, and in the presence of many wit in favour of Christianity that the history of
nesses; so that there was op|)ortunity to subject Christ was first published and his church 6rst
them to the most searching scrutiny. Good men planted in the place where he lived, and wrought
and bad men were able and disiwsed to examine miracles, and died. But most of the miracles of
them thoroughly, and to prove them lo have been Apollonius Tyanffius are related to have been per
imiK*stures, if they had been so. Why did not formed in India; while we have no evidence that
the scribes and pharisees and rulers, who were so tite history of those miracles was ever published,
full of zeal against the religion of Jesus, adopt or that the miracles were ever heard of, in India.
the most natural and effectual means of prevent This matter is satisfactorily treated by Douglas
ing its growing influence? Why did they not in 3.his Wre
Criterion.
bring Jesus and hii disciples to a fair trial before ought to lay out of the case transient
a proper tribunal, and prove them to be de rumours. On the first publication of any story,
ceivers t unless we are |>ersonally acquainted with the fact
A large numlter of men, of unquestionable referred to, we cannot know whether it is true or
honesty and intelligence, constantly affirmed that false. We look for its confirmation, its increas
the miracles took place before their eyes. And ing notoriety, and its ]>ermanency, and for subse
some of these origitiul witnesses wrote and pub quent accounts in diuerent forms, to give it sup
lished histories of the facts, in the places where port. In this respect the miracles recorded in
they were alleged to have occurred, and near the Scripture are presented before us in the most
time of their occurrence. In these histories it favourable light.
was openly asserted that the miracles, as de 4. We lay out of the case what may be called
scribed, were publicly known and acknowledged naked history,history found merely in a book,
to have taken place; and this no one took upon unattended with any evidence that t lie accounts
him to contradict, or to question. Moreover, given in the book were credited and acted upon
many persons who stood forth as witnesses of at the time when the events are said to have oc
these miracles j>assed their lives in labours, dan curred, and unsupported by any collateral or
gers, and sufferings, in attestation of the accounts sulisequent testimony, or by any important vi
they delivered, and solely in consequence of their sible effects. We see here what singular advan
lelief of the truth of those accounts ; and, from tage attends the history of the miracles of Christ.
the same motive, they voluntarily submitted to That history is combined with permanent Chris
new rules of conduct ; while nothing like this is tian institutions ; with the time and place, and
true respecting any other pretended miracles (see circumstances of the origin and progress of the
Paley's Evidences). Paley attaches great im Christian religion, as collected from other history ;
portance, and that very justly, to these ]>ositions; with its prevalence to the present day; with the
and he says he should l>elieve in the reality of fact of our present books having been received by
miracles in any other case, if attended with the the advocates of Christianity from the first; with
circumstances which distinguished the miracles a great variety of subsequent books referring to
of Christ. And if any one calls assent to such the transactions recorded in the four Gospels, and
evidence credulity, it is incumbent on him to containing accounts of the effects which flowed
produce examples in which the same evidence from the belief of those transactionsthose subse
has turned out to be fallacious. quent books having been written with very differ
In comparing the evidence for Christian mi ent views, ' so disagreeing as to repel the suspicion
racles with that which can be offered in favour of confederacy, and yet so agreeing as to show
at any other miracles, it is proper, as the same that they were founded in a common origin.'
MIRACLES. MIRACLKS. 347
6. We lay out of the case stories of super with supernatural knowledge, and enabled to pre
natural events upon wMch nothing depends, and dict the good which was to come upon the people
in winch no interest is involvedstories which of God. His supernatural foresight availed to
require only an indolent assent, and which pass make known the truthas really so as though he
from one to another without examination. How had been a good man. Yea, the divine testi
difiVrent are the accounts of the miracles of mony in that case was attended with one jieculiar
Christ ! Those accounts, if true, decided the advantage, namely, that Balaam was constrained
moat momentous questions ujxin which the im by divine influence to pronounce a blessing upon
mortal mind can fix. Who could be indifferent Israel against both his interest and his inclina
and careless in such a case as this ? Whoever tion. And if wicked spirits in the time of Christ
entertained the account of these miracles, whether had power to produce preternatural cfl'ects upon
Jew or Gentile, could not avoid the following the minds or bodies of men, and if those effects
reflection : 1 If these things be true, I must sur are to be ranked among real miracles (which,
render the principles in winch I have been brought however, we do not affirm), still the end of mi
up, the religion in which my fathers lived and racles is not contravened. For those very opera
died.' And who would do this? Who would tions of evil spirits were under the control of
give up his most favourite opinions, and his for divine providence, and were made in two ways
mer way of life, ami adopt new rules, and new t*> subserve the cause of Christ. First ; they fur
habits, and a new course of conduct, and en nished an occasion, as doubtless they were de
counter the severest "sufferings, upon a mere idle signed to do, for Christ to show his power over
report, or, indeed, without the most serious con evil spirits, and, by his superior miracles, to give
sideration, and the fullest conviction of the truth a new proof of his Messiahship. Secondly ; the
of the history in which he confided? evil spirits themselves were constrained to give
6. We lay aside all those events which can he their testimony, that Jesus was the Christ, the
accounted for by a heated imagination, false per Holy One of Israela very different matter from
ception, momentary insanity, or any other natural what it would have been if they had declared that
principle. Now, although we may, in some Jesus was an impostor, and had undertaken to
cases, be in doubt, whether the events which take support their declaration by supernatural works.
place can be resolved into the common powers Instead, therefore, of attempting to prove ab
of nature, no doubt can remain as to the princi solutely, as some writers have done, that evil
pal miracles of Christ. If a jwrson horn blind spirits have never had power, and never been per
is, by a word, restored to sight, or a man un mitted, in any case, to do suijernatural works,
questionably dead restored to life, or if a con we shall content ourselves with iaying, that God
version takes place, with the accompanying cir has never given them power, and never per
cumstances and the permanent consequences of mitted them to do such works in such circum-
that of Paul, we are sure that the event must be stances, and in sttch a manner, as to support error,
ascribed to a supernatural cause. or in any way to discredit divine truth. This
It appears, then, that after the various classes the case, it will not detract at all from the
of events above-mentioned have been excluded, t of the testimony which God gives by mi
the miracles recorded in Scripture remain, with racles to the truth of any supernatural revelation,
all the characteristics of supernatural events, if, in some instances, he should see fit to empower
showing the special presence and extraordinary evil spirits to do miraculous works for the same
agency of God, and containing his direct testi holy endsthus making use of the agency of
mony in favour of the doctrines to which they evil spirits, as well as of good men, to promote the
refer. Hence we see the propriety and the per cause of righteousness and truth.
fect conclusiveness of the appeal which Jesus As to the time when the miraculous dispensa
often made to his works as proof of his Messiah- tion ceased, we can only remark, that the power
ship : * The works that I do in my Father s name, of working miracles, which belonged pre-emi
they I>ear witness of me;' again, * The works nently to Christ and his apostles, and, in inferior
that I do, bear witness of me, that the Father has degrees, to many other Christians in the aposto
sent me.' These miraculous works were as really lic age, subsided gradually. After the great
a divine attestation to the Messiahship of Jesus, object of supernatural works was accomplished
as that voice which God uttered from heaven, in the establishment of the Christian religion,
' This is my beloved Son, hear ye him.' with all its sacred truths, and its divinely ap
It has been a long agitated question, whether pointed institutions, during the life of Christ and
miracles have ever been wrought, or can be con his apostles, there appears to have been no farther
sistently supposed to be wrought, by apostate occasion for miracles, and no satisfactory evidence
spirits. that they actually occurred.
It is sufficient to say here, that it would be If the inquiry is made, whether in the future
evidently inconsistent with the character of God advancement of Christ's kingdom and the con
to empower or to suffer wicked beings to work mi version of Jews and Gentiles, miraculous inter
racles in support offalsehood. Miracles, suj>- positions are to be expected, our reply is, that this
posing them not to be wrought at random, but to must be referred entirely to the sovereign wisdom
contain a divine attestation, must go to support of God. It does, indeed, seem quite evident,
the truth. Neither wicked beings nor good that the grand design and appropriate influence
beings can overwork them in txtch a manner that of miracles have been already realized in the
they shall avail to give countenance to error, confirmation of the truth and authority of the
and thus nullify the clearest and most striking Christian religion. And it has become more and
evidence which can l>e given in support of the more evident, that the Gospel may be propagated,
truth of a special divine communication. Ba and men in all circumstances converted, by the
laam was a real prophet; that is, he was endued power of divine truth, and the renewing of the
346 MIRIAM. M1TYLENE.
Holy Spirit, without any resort to miracles. Israelites, when they quitted Egypt, are described
From these and other considerations we very na as being of brass ; for ' the laver of brass, and the
turally infer, that the recurrence of a miraculous foot of it,* are made from them. In the second,
dispensation is not required in order to the com the firmament is compared to 4 a molten mirror.'
pletion of the Saviour's work; still it is not for In fact, all the mirrors used in ancient times were
us to decide this point. As Christians, we ought of metal ; and as those of the Hebrew women
to keep in remembrance that God's ways are not in the wilderness were brought out of Egypt, they
as our ways, and to cherish such a state of mind, were doubtless of lite same kind as those which
that if (rod should at any time see tit, for the glory have been found in the tombs of that country,
of his name and the salvation of men, to repeat and many of which now exist in our mucnimi
the wonderful works which he wrought in former and collections of Egyptian antiquities. These
(.lays, or to perform any other unquestionable are of mixed metals, chiefly copper, most care
miracles, we may not turn away from them in fully wrought and highly polished; and so ad
sullen unbelief, but may hail them as precious mirably did the skill of the Egyptians succeed
tokens of God's special favour, and evidences of in the composition of metals, that ihis substitute
nit gracious design to give new success to the for our modern looking-glass was susceptible of a
Gospel, and an enlargement anil prosperity never lustre which has even l>eeii partially revived at
before experienced to the kingdom of righteous the present day in some of those discovered at
ness and peace.L. W. Thebes, though buried in the earth for so many
MIRIAM (DH, bitterness; Sept. Mapia/*; centuries. The mirror itself was nearly round,
Josephus. Mapidfiyrj), sister of Moses and Aaron, and was inserted in a handle of wood, stone, or
and supposed to be the same th.it watched her metal, t lie form of which varied according to
infant brother when exposed on the Nile ; in which the taste of the owner (see Wilkinson's Ancient
case she was probably ten or twelve years old at Egyptians, iii. 38-4-3SG).
the time (Exod. ii. 4, sq.). When the Israelites MISHAEL, one of the three companions of
left Egypt, Miriam naturally became the leading Daniel, who were cast into the burning furnace
woman among them. She is called 'a prophetess* by Nebuchadnezzar, ami were miraculously de
(Exod. xv. 20). After the passage of the Red Sea, livered from it (Dan. iii. 13-30). TheChaldaean
she led the music, dance, and song, with which name was Meshech (Dan. i. 7).
the women celebrated their deliverance (Exod. xv. MISHPAT, a fountain m Kadesh [see Ka-
20-22). The arrival of Moses' wife in the camp uksh].
seems to have created in her an unseemly dread M1SHNAH. [Talmud.]
of losing her influence and position, and led her
into complaints of and dangerous reflections upon MISREPHOTII-MAIM (D n"lD"jfel? ;
Moses, in which Aaron joined. For this she was Sept. Mo(rpef) Miftfmftaifi)* a place or district
smitten with leprosy, and, although healed at the nearSidoii (Josh. xi. 8 ; xiii.6). The name means
intercession of Moses, was excluded for seven ' burnings of water,' which Kimchi understand*
days from the camp (Num. xii. ; Deut. xxiv. 9). of warm baths ; hut more probably it means
Her death took place in the first month of the burnings by or beside the watereither lime
fortieth year after the Exodus, at the encampment kilns or smelting furnaces situated near water
of Kadesh-bamea (Num. xx. 1), where her (Gesenius).
sepulchre was still to be seen in the time of MITE {ktirrov\ a small piece of money, two
Eusebius. of which made a KoBpdynjs a quadransfour of
MIRROR (nK"lO, Exod. xxxviii. 8; *$0,
Job xxxii. 8). In the first of these passages the
mirrors in the possession of the women of the
432. [Naiareth.]
mostly two stories high. The environs are planted been the spot whither the Jews led Jesus, 1 unto the
with luxuriantly-growing fig-trees, olive-trees, brow of the hill whereon the city was built, that they
and vines, and the crops of corn are scarcely might cast him down headlong1 (Luke iv. 28-30) ;
equalled throughout the length and breadth of and not the precipice, two miles from the village,
Canaan. All the spots which could l*e supposed overlooking the plain of Ksdraehn, which monk
to be in any way connected with the history of ish tradition indicates to the traveller as the
Christ are, of course, pointed out by ihe monks * Mount of Precipitation.1 He denounces this as
and local guides, but on authority too precarious the most clumsy of all the local legends of the
to deserve any credit, and with circumstances Holy Land; and indeed its intrinsic ui(suitable
too puerile lor reverence. It is enough to know ness is so manifest, that the present monks of
that tli." Lord dwelt here; that for thirty years Nazareth carr only surmount the difficulty by
he trod this spot of earth, and that his eyes were alleging that the ancient Nazareth was nearer
familiar with the objects spread around. In the than the modern to this mountain, forgetting that
south-west part of ihe town is a small Maronile this hypothesis destroys the identity and credit of
church, under a precipice of ihe lull, which here the holy places which they show in the present
breaks off in a perpendicular wall forty or fifty feet town. It appears to have been originally selected
in height. Dr. Robinson noticed several such pre as a striking object to travellers approaching from
cipices in the western hill around the village, and the plain of Ksdraelon (Robinson's Researches,
with very good reason concludes tliat one of these, iii. 183-200; enmp. Burckhardt, Syria, p. 037 ;
probably the one just indicated, may well have Richter, lVallfahrten,p. 37 ; Schubert's Marge*
NEAPOUS. NEBAIOTH. 403
land, iii. 168 ; Clarke's Travels, iv. vol. i. p. 537 ; as 'a mingled people * (Jer. xxv. 24) ; and as we
Narrative of Scottish Deputation, pp. 305, 306). find in the days both of Jacob (Gen. xxxvii. 27,
NEAPOLIS (Nto\is")( a maritime city of 28, 36) and Gideon (Judg. riiL 22, 24) the name
Macedonia, near the borders of Thrace, now of 1 Ishmaelites * used interchangeably for that of
called Napoli. Paul landed here on his first * Midianites' (the descendants of another son of
journey into Europe (Acts xvi. 11). Abraham); so it cannot be doubted that the Na-
batha?ans included a variety of Arab races who
NEBAIOTH, or Nkbajoth (ntoj), called took their common name from the progenitor of
by the Arabs ^Jf^J or ^JJ^J, the first-bom son the largest or most influential tribe, Nebaioth, the
first-born of Ishmael. While the greater number
ot Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 13; 1 Chron. i. 29), and of their countrymen followed the occupation of
the prince or shtiLh (K^}, rendered by Jerome shepherds, others applied themselves to commerce,
Oi'-Kapxos) of one of the twelve Ishmaelitish tribes, winch we find them prosecuting so early as the
which, as well as the territory they occupied, days of Joseph (Gen. xxxvii. 27, 36). They
continued to bear his name in after times (Gen. apjiear to have originated the transit trade carried
xxv. 16; comp. ch. xvii. 20 ;. One of Esau's on by caravans across the desert towards Palestine
wives, Mahalath, otherwise called Bashemath, is and Egypt, and probably their chief motive in at
expressly designated as 4 the sister of Nebaioth' length locating themselves in Idumwa was that
(Gen. xxviii. 9; xxxvi. 3); and by a singular they might command the great commercial route
coincidence the land of Esau, or Edom, was ulti from the Red Sea northward through the con
mately possessed by the posterity of Nebaioth. tinuous valley of El-Araba and El-Ghor.
In common with the other Ishmaelites, they first The territory occupied by the Nabathaeans is
settled in the wilderness * before' (i. c. to the called by Greek wrilers Na/9aT7]rr/ (by Epipha-
east of) tlieir brethren, the other descendants of liius Na/3aTfa and NeuSaTTi'r}, and by Latin writers
Abraham ; by which we are probably to under Sabath(t\i or Saltathetta. In its widest sense
stand the great desert lying to the east and south this included the whole of Northern Arabia from
east of Palestine (Gen. xxv. 18; xxi. 21 ; xvi. the Euphrates to the Elanitic Gulf of the Red
12; and see the article Arabia). In Gen. xxv. Sea; but more strictly taken it denoted (at least
1 G. (he English Version speaks of the Ishmaelitish in later times) only a portion of tlte southern part
* towns and castle,' but the former word in the of that vast region (Josephus, Jut q. i. 12. 4;
original signifies 'a moveable village of tents' St. Jerome, QtucaL on lsa. xxv. 13: Ammianus
(the horde of the Tartars), and the latter seems to Marcellinus, xiv. 8). We first hear of the Na-
denote pens or folds for cattle and sheep. Both bathamns in history in the reign of Autigonus,
expressions thus jwint to the nomadic life of sliep- who succeeded Alexander the Great in Babylon,
Iterds, which the tiile of Netaioth seem to have and died iu the year .o. 301. He sent two ex
followed for ages afterwards, inasmuch as in the peditions against them; the first under Athemcus,
days of Isaiah the ' rams of Nebaioth ' aie men who found most of the men absent at a certain
tioned (lsa. lx. 7) as among the most precious emporium or mart, having left their families,
gilts which the Beda*vees, or * Men of the Desert' says Diodorus Siculus (xix. 95-'J8) rf nvos
would consecrate to the service of Jehovah. Arab rifVpay, i. e. upon a certain rock, or, perhajis,
wi iters mention the tribe of Sabot as successful rather ' in a certain place called Petra,' thus
cultivators in Babylonian Irak ; but the name pointing to their famous metropolis, the Selah or
is written !oJ with a tha. (D'Hertalot, Bib. J okt heel of the Hebrews [Pktha]. Taking this
stronghold by surprise, he found in it a large store
Orient, under * Natal ;* Pocock's Spec. Hist. of frankincense and myrrh, and five hundred
Arab. pp. 16, 268). talents of silver, all which he seized and car
The successful invasion of Western Asia, first ried off. But the Natatlnraus having quickly
by the Assyrians and afterwards by the Chal- rallied their forces pursued him antl destroyed a
daeam, could not but affect the condition of the gTeat part of his army. Autigonus, after certain
tribes in Northern Arabia, though we possess no deceitful negociations, sent against them another
record of the special results. The prophet Isaiah, expedition under his son Demetrius ; but having
after hU obscure oracle regarding Duinali (ch. xxi. had intelligence of his approach, they drove their
11, i 'I . introduces a 'judgment upon Arabia,' flocks into the surrounding deserts and deposited
t. c. Desert Arabia, which some supjiose to have tlieir wealth in Petra, to which, says the historian,
iteen fulfilled by Sennacherib, while others think 1 there was but a single approach, and that x(tP~
i'.- refers to the later events that are foretold by Tro'njros,' i. e. made by handan expression strik
Jeremiah (ch. xlix. 23*33) as befalling ' Kedar ingly descriptive of the passage of El Syk at Wady
and the kingdoms of Hazor ' in consequence of the Musa. Demetrius, thus tallied, had to retire with
ravages of Nebuchadnezzar. Be this as it may, ins troops. It appears from these accounts *hat
we know ttat when the latter carried the Jews the Nabathaeans were as yet essentially a }>astoral
captive to Babylon, the Edomites made them people, though they were likewise engaged in
selves masters of a great part of the south of Pales commerce, which they afterwards prosecued to a
tine I urM. ]-:*], while either then or at a later great extent, and thereby acquired great riches
period they themselves were supplanted in the and renown. It was in this way that they gra
southern part of their own territory by a people dually became more fixed iu their habits ; and
called by Greek writers Na^arawt. and by the living in towns and villages they were at length
Romans Sabatttia name clearly traceable to the united under a regular monarchical government,
Nebaioth of the Hebrews. It were an error, how constituting the kingdom of Arabia, or more
ever, to suppose that they consisted only of his strictly, Arabia Petnra, the name being derived
descendants to the exclusion of other Ishmaelites. not, as some suppose, from the rocky nature of the
The Arab* are frequently described in Scripture "ountry, but from the chief citv, Petra. Accord*
2o2
NEBAIOTH. NEBO.
ing to Ptolemy this kingdom wag bounded on the now kept in check by the Roman power, ami
east by the desert, on the west by Egypt, on the particularly by the garrisons which were every
north by Palestine and part of tlie Roman pro where established for this specific purpose. The
vince of Syria, and it extended southward to the country, too, was now rendered more accessible,
Elanitic Gulf. It was thus rather limited in ex and the passage of merchants and caravans more
tent, not materially exceeding (except on the practicable, by military ways. From Elath, or
west) the size of the territory which had been Ailah, one great road had its direction northwards
possessed by Edom. to the rich and central Petra: thence it divided
The common name of the king9 of Arabia and led on one side to Jerusalem, Gaza, and other
Petraea was either Aretas or Obodas. Even in ]>orts on the Mediterranean ; and on the other side
tiie time of Antiochus Epiphanes (about B.C. 166), to Damascus. Another road appears to have led
we read in 2 Mace. v. 8, of an Aretas, king of the directly from Ailah along the Ghor to Jerusalem.
Arabians ; and from that period downwards they Traces of these routes are still visible in many
came frequently into contact both with the Jews parts. These facts are derived not from the testi
and Romans, as may be seen in the books of the mony of historians, but from the specifications ol
Maccabees and the writings of Joseplms. When the celebrated Tabula Theodosiana, or Pentm-
Judos Maccabaeus and his brother Jonathan had fferiana, compiled in the fourth century. Ac
crossed the Jordan, they reached after a three cording to this, a line of small fortresses was
days' march the country of the Nah.it Iiieans, who drawn along the eastern frontier of Arabia Petraea,
gave them a very friendly reception (1 Mace. v. towards the desert, some of which became the sites
21, 25; Joseph. Antiq. xii. 8. 3 ; comp. xiii. 13. of towns and cities, whose names are still extant.
5. 15, and De Bell. Jud., i. 4. 4. 7). Long before But as the power of Rome fell into decay, tlie
the kingdom of Arabia was actually conquered by Arabs of the desert would seem again to have
the Romans, its sovereigns were dejieiident on the acquired the ascendancy. They plundered tlie
Roman power. An expedition was sent thither cities, but did not destroy them ; and hence tliose
by Augustus, under yElius Gallas, governor of regions are still full of uninhabited, yet stately
Egypt, and a personal friend of the geographer and often splendid ruins, of ancient wealth, and
Straho, who has left us an account of it. After taste, and greatness. Even Petra, the rich and
various obstacles, he at last readied Aeorc^ impregnable metropolis, was subjected to tlie same
or Albus Pagus, the emporium of the Nabatlueaus, fate: and now exists, in its almost inaccessible
and the port of Petra, which was probably at or loneliness, only to excite the curiosity of the
near Elath (Strabo, xvi. 4, 22, 24 ; Dion Gassius, scholar, and the wonder of the traveller, by the
liii. 27; Arrian, Periplta Maris Eryth.). Another singularity of its site, its ruins, and its fortunes.1
friend ofStrabo, the Stoic philosopher At henodorus, In the course of the fourth century this region
had sjieiit some time in Petra, and related to him came to be included under the general name of
with admiration how the inhabitants lived in ' Palestine;' and it then received the special de
entire harmony and union under excellent laws. signation of PaUeslina Terlia, or Salutaris. It
The kingdom was hereditary ; or at least the king became the diocese of a metropolitan, whose seat
was always oneof the royal family, and had a prime was at Petra, and who was afterwards placed
minister or vizier, Mtpoiros, who was styled the under tlie patriarch of Jerusalem. With the
kitty's brother. Pliny also repeatedly s|ieaks of Mohammedan conquest in the seventh century
the Nabathseans (Hist. Nat. v. 1 1 ; vi. 28 ; xii. 27) ; its commercial prosperity disappeared. Lying
and classes along with them the Ceilrei, exactly between the three rival empires of Arabia, Egypt,
as Kedar and Nebaioth are placed together in and Syria, it lost its ancient independence ; the
Isa. lx. 7. Another Arabian king of the name of course of trade was diverted into new channels ;
Aretas is the one mentioned by St. Paul (2 Cor. its great mutes were aliandoned ; and at length
ii. 32; comp. Acts vii. 24, 25; Joseph. Antir/. the entire country was quietly yielded up to the
xviii. 5. 1). We find that a former Aretas had Bedawees of the surrounding wilderness, whose
lieen invited to assume the sovereignty by the descendants still claim it as their domain.
inhabitants of Damascus (Joseph. De Bell. Jud., During the twelfth century it was partially oc
i. 4, 7; Antiq. xiii. 15. 1); and now, during the cupied by the Crusaders, who gave it tlie name
weak reign of Caligula, the same city is teifed of Arabia Tertia, or Syria Sobal. From that
hy another Aretas, and governed through an period it remained unvisited by Europeans, and
ethnnrch, as related by Paul. The kingdom of had almost disappeared from their maps, until it
Arabia Petnea maintained its nominal inde was partially explored, first by Seetzen in 1807,
pendence till about ji.d. 105, in the reign of and more fully by Burckhardt in 1812; and now
the Emperor Trajan, when it was subdued by Car- the wonders of the Wady Mflsa are familiarly
nelius Palma, governor of Syria, and annexed to known to all. (See Reland's Paltestina Illustr. ;
the vast empire of Rome. Vincent's Commerce of the Ancienti ; Hitter's
The Nabatha>ans had, as we have seen, early Gesch. d. Petr. Arabiens, in the 1 Trans, of the
applied themselves to commerce, especially as Berlin Acad.', 1824 ; Forster's Mohammedanism
carriers of the products of Arabia, India, and the Unveiled, and Geography nf Arabia ; Robinson s
far-distant East, which, as we learn from Strabo, Sketches of Jdumeea, in ' Amer. Bib. Repos.',
were transported on camels from the above-men 1833; and Bibl. Researches, vol. ii.)N. M.
tioned Leuke Kome to Petra, and thence to
Rhinocoloura (El 'Arish) and elsewhere. * Bat I. NEBO ("Q3 ; Sept. Na<), a Chaldssan idol
under the Roman dominion the trade of tliese mentioned in Isa. xlvi. 1, and supposed to have
regions appears to have widely extended itself, been the symbol ofthe planet Mercury, tlie celestial
and to have flourished in still greater prosperity ; scribe and interpreter of the gods, answering tc
probably from the circumstance that the lawless the Hermes and Anubis of the Egyptians. He
ampacity of the adjacent nomadic hordes was was likewise worshipped by the Sabians ia
NEBO. NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 400
Arabia (Norberg, Onomast. p. 95). Gesenius whom Judah was conquered, and the Jews led
iraces the name in prophet^ an interpreter into their seventy years' captivity. In the Sep-
of the Divine will. The divine worship paid to tuagint version he is called Na&uvxo^ov6aop ; by
thii idol by the Chaldtvuns and Assyrians is at Berosus (ap. Josephum), Ha&ovxt&ov6oopos ; by
tested by many compound proper names of which Abydenus(ap. Eusebium, Vrarp. Evang.), Ncu3ou-
it forms part, as A?6i<chadnezzar, A'tf6zaradan, hp6aopos\ and by Strabo, the only writer among
jViouhashhan ; Iwsides others mentioned in clas the Greeks by whom he is named (xv. 687) Nau-
sical writers,..Yci&eiiedus, A'aioriassar, Nobu- KooKo8p6aopos. This name, Nabuchodouosor, has
rianns, Nabonabus, iV'iirtjxdassar. (See Gesenius passed from the Septuagiut into the Latin Vul
and Hendersou on Isa. im. I). gate, and into the authorized English version of
2. NEBO, the name of a mountain on the con the books of Judith and Tobit. Nabu or Nebo
fines of Moab(Deut. xxxii. -49 ; xxxiv. 1), and ofa (Isa. xlvi. 1) was the name of a Cbaldaean
town near it (Num. xxxii. 3, 38; Isa. xv. 2). Since deity, supposed to be Mercury, and enters fre
the time of Seetzen and Burckhardt, Mount Nebo quently into the composition of Clialdsean proper
has been usually identified witli Mount Attarus, names, as Nabopolassar (Can. Ptol.) ; Nabuzar-
east of the Dead Sea. Dr. Robinson has weakened adau (2 Kings xxv. &. &c.) ; Samgar-nebu
this conclusion without substituting any other. and Nebushasban (Jer. xxix. 3. 13). The
He say", 1 During the whole time we were on the name Nebuchadnezzar has been commonly ex
coast of the Dead Sea, on the Jordan, and iu or plained to signify the treasure of Nebo, but,
near die plains of Jericho, we were much inter according to Lorsl>ach (Archiv. f. Morgenl.
ested in looking out among( the eastern mountains Literatur), it signifies Nebo, the prince of gods;
for Mount Nebo, so celebrated in the history of Pers. jtf>- j-J; see also Norberg's Onomas-
Ihe great Hebrew legislator, where he was |>er-
mitted !o behold with his eyes the Land of Pro (icon Cod. Nasar. p. 95, sq. and Gesenius in
mise, and then yielded op the ghost. But our Isai. iv. 344, 366.
search was in vain ; for although we passed in The only notices which we have of this monarch
sucli a direction as to see the mountains over in the canonical writings are found iu the books
against Jericho from every quarter, yet. there of Kings, Chronicles, Daniel, and Ezra, and iu the
seems to be none standing so out from the rest, allusions of the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel.
or so marked, as to be recognised as the Nebo of From 2 Kings xxiii. 29, and 2 Chron. xxxv. 20,
the Scriptures. There is no j>eak or point ]>er- we gather that in the reign of Josiah (b.c. 610),
ceptibly higher than the rest, but all is apparently Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt, having approached
one level line of summit, without |>eaks or gaps. by sea the coast of Syria, made a friendly appli
The highest point in all the eastern mountains is cation to King Josiah to be allowed a passage
Jebel el-Jil'Sd, or es-Salt, near the city of that through his territories to the dominions of tha^As
name, rising about 3000 feet above the Ghfir; syrian monarch, with whom he was then at war.
but this is much too far north to be Mount Nebo, 1 1 come not against thee this day, but against the
to which Moses ascended from the plains of Moab house wherewith I have war ; for God (Klohim)
over against Jericho. Possibly, on travelling into commanded me to make haste/ &c. (2 Chron.
these mountains, some isolated ]x>int or summit xxxv. 20, 21). The design of Pharaoh-Necho
might be found answering to the position ami was to seize upon Carchemish (Circesium or Cer-
character of Nebo. Indeed, Seetzen. Burckhardt, cusium). a strong post on the Euphrates; but
and also Irby and Mangles, have all found Josiah, who was tributary to the Babylonian mo
Mount Nebo in Jebel 'AttarOs. a high mountain narch, opjH>sed bis progress at Megiddo, where he
south of the Turka Ma"-in. This, however, as was defeated and mortally wounded [Josiah].
the latter travellers remark, is "far from op Necho marched ujton Jerusalem, when the Jews
posite Jericho," and would be almost as distant, became tributary to the king of Egypt. Upon
and as little convenient to the plains of Moab, this, Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon (2 Kings
as is Jebel es-Salt. It may perhaps be sufficient xxiv. 1; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 6, where this mo
to assume, that Moses merely went up from these narch's name is for the first time introduced),
plains to some high part of the adjacent moun invaded Judah, retook Carchemish, with the terri
tains, from which he would every where have an tory which had been wrested from him by Necho,
extensive view over the Jordan valley, and the seized ujMjn Jehoiakim, the vassal of Pharaoh-
mountainous tract ofJudah and Ephi-aim t wards Necho, and reduced him to submission (b.c.
the western sea. The Mediterranean itself could 607), This invasion took place, according to
never well be visible from any point east of the Jer. xxvi. I ; xlvi. 1, in the fourth year of Jeboia-
Jordan.' chim, but according to Daniel i. 12, in the third.
3. NEBO, a town in the tribe of Judah (Ezra In order to reconcile this apparent contradiction, it
ii. 29) ; or more fully, in order to distinguish it has Iteen generally maintained that the first year of
from the preceding, 123, 1 the other Nebo * Nebuchadnezzar fell partly in the third ami partly
(Nell. vii. 33). The name may have, as in the in the fourth year of Jehoiakim [Captivities,
preceding instance, been derived from that of the Daniei.J. Jehoiachim was at first loaded with
idol Nebo ; but more probably from 4 to be chains, in order to be led captive to Babylon, but
high.' was eventually restored by Nebuchadnezzar to bis
throne, on condition of paying an annual tribute.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR pWpU}, Kings, Nebuchadnezzar carried olV part of the ornaments
Chronicles, and Daniel; Jer. xxvii.; xxviii. ; of tlie Temple, together with several hostages of
xxxiv. 1 ; xxxix. 1 ; Ezek. xxvi. 7 ; and Ezra v. distinguished rank, among whom were the youths
12; written also ">VN"T??}33( Nebuchadrezzar, ge Daniel and his three friends Hauauiah, Azariah,
nerally iu Jeremiah, and in Ezek. xxx. 18) was the and Mishael (Dan. i.). These were educated at
name of the Chaldsean monarch of Babylon by court iu the language and sciences of the Chal
106 NEBUCHADNEZZAR. NEBUCHADNEZZAR
dseans, where they subsequently 611ed offices of dean magi, was enabled not only to interpret, bat
distinction. The sacred vessels were transferred to reveal a dream of Nebuchadnezzar's, the very
by Nebuchadnezzar to his temple at Babylon subject of which ttiat monarch had forgotten
(Isa. xxxix. ; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 6, 7); [Babylon]. [Dreams]. This was the dream of the statue
After the conquest of Judaea, Nebuchadnezzar consisting of four different metals, which Daniel
turned his attention towards the Egyptians, whom interpreted of Pair successive monarchies, the last
he drove out of Syria, taking possession of all the of which was to be the reign ofthe Messiah. Daniel
land between the Euphrates and the river (2 was elevated to be first minister of state, and Lis
Kiugs xxiv. 7) : which some suppose to mean the three friends were made governors of provinces.
Nile, but others a small river in the desert, which The history of these events (Dan. ii. 4, 8, 9) is
was reckoned the boundary between Palestine and written in the Chaldee language, together with the
Egypt (Prideaux s Connection). narrative which immediately follows (ch. in.), of
The fate of Jerusalem was now rapidly ap the golden statue erecred by Nebucliadnezzar in the
proaching its consummation. After three years plain of Dura, for refusing to worship which, Da
of fidelity, Jehniachim renounced his allegiance niels three friends were thrown into a furnace, but
to Babylon, and renewed his alliance with Necho, miraculously preserved. The fourth chapter, also
when Nebuchadnezzar sent incursions of Ammon written in Chaldee, contains the singular history
ites, Moabites and Syrians, together with Chal- of the judgment inflicted on Nebuchadnezzar as
da?ans, to harass him. At length, in the eleventh a punishment for his pride, and which is narrated
year of his reign, he was made prisoner, and in the form of a royal proclamation from the mo
slain (Jer. xxii.) [Jbhoiakiu]. He was suc narch himself, giving an account to bis people of
ceeded by his son Jehoiachin, who, after three his affliction and recovery. This affliction had
month*' reign, surrendered himsell'with Ids family l>een, by the monarch's account, predicted by
to Nebuchadnezzar, who had come in person to Daniel a year before, in the interpretation of ha
besiege Jerusalem, in the eighth year of his reign fearful dream of the tree in the midst of the earth.
(2 Kings xxiv. 10 12) [Jehoiachin]. Upon While walking in his palace, and admiring his
this occasion all the most distinguished inha magnificent works, he uttered, in the plenitude of
bitants, including the artificers, were led cap liis pride, the remarkable words recorded in ver.
tive [Captivities]. Among the captives, who 30, * Is not this great Babylon that I have built
amounted to no less than 50,000, were Ezekiel for the house of the kingdom, by the might of
(Ezek. i. 1) and Moidecai [Esther]. The my power, and for the honour of my majesty V
golden vessels of Solomon were now removed, with He had scarce uttered the words, when a voice
the royal treasures, and Mattaniah, the brother of from heaven proclaimed to him that bis kingdom
Jehoiachin, placed on the throne by Nebuchad* was departed from him; that he sliould be for
neetar, who gave him the name of Zedekiah, and seven times (generally supposed to mean years,
bound him byau oath not to enter into an alliance although some reduce the period to fourteen
with Egypt. Zedekiah, however, in the ninth months; Jahn, Introd.) driven from the habita
year of his reign, formed an alliance with Pharaoh- tions of men to dwell among the beasts of the field,
Hophra, the successor of Necho. Hophra, coming and made to eat grass as an ox, until he learned
to the assistance of Zedekiah, was driven back 1 1 hiit the Most High ruleth in the kingdom of
into Egypt by Nebuchadnezzar, who finally cap men, and giveth it to whomsoever he will.' The
tured Jerusalem in the eleventh year of Zedekiah's sentence was immediately fulfilled, and Nebu
reign (b.c. 588) [Zedekiah]. The Temple, and chadnezzar continued in this melancholy state
the whole city, with its towers and walls, were all during the predicted period, at the end of which
razed to the ground by Nebuzaradan. Nebuchad he was restored to the use of his understanding
nezzar's lieutenant, and the principal remaining (ver. 36). We have no account in Scripture of
inhabitants put to death by Nebuchadnezzar at any of the actions of this monarch's life after tlie
Riblah. Jeremiah was, however, spared, ami Ge- period of his recovery, but the first year of the
daliah appointed governor. He was shortly after reign of his successor Evil-merodach is repre
murdered by Ishmael, a member of the royal sented as having taken place in the thirty-seventh
family, who was himself soon obliged to take year of Jehoiachin, answering to b.c. 562 (2 Kings
refuge among the Ammonites. Many of the re xxv. 27).
maining Jews fled into Egypt, accompanied by We have now to consider the light which pro
Jeremiah; those who remained were soon after fane history lias thrown on the events of tiiese
expatriated by Nebuchadnezzar, who depopulated times.
the whole country. The canon of Ptolemy the mathemat ician, who
He next undertook the siege of Tyre [Tyre], flourished about the commencement of the Chris
and after its destruction proceeded to Egypt, now tian era, consists of a catalogue, arranged in
distracted by internal commotions, and devastated chronological order, of the kings of Babylon,
or made himself master of the whole country from commencing with Nabonassar, who reigned b.c.
Migdol to Syene (according to the reading of the 747, and ending with Nabonned, b.c. 556. Ac
Seventy, Ezek. xxix. 10; xxx.fi), transferring cording to this catalogue, Nalwpolassar (Naj3ou-
many of the inhabitants to the territory beyond TTo\d<rapos\ who died B.C. 623, was succeeded by
the Euphrates. Nabocolassar (NajSowoAiffopoj), b.c. 605. This
We have referred to the captivity of the Nahncolassar is therefore presumed to be the Ne
prophet Daniel, and have to turn to the book buchadnezzar of Scripture (for the canon of Pto
which bears his name for the history of this pro lemy, see Table Chronologiqtie del Riynes, &c.
phet, who, from an exile, was destined to become par 1'Abbe Halmy, Paris, 1819). Nabopolassar.
the great protector of his nation. In the second the father of Nabocolassar, is supposed to havs
year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, Daniel, lieen the first Chaldrran monarch of Uahylon, and
who was found superior in wisdom to the Chal to have disunited it from the Assyrian empire, oi
NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 407
which it had hitherto formed a part (Jahn's He the Nabuchodonosor of Judith was not one of the
brew Commonwealth). According to a fragment legitimate sovereigns who flourished before the
01 Alexander Polyhistor, reported by Syncellus Persian domination, but that both he and Ar-
iu its Chronographia, it was this sovereign who phaxad were governors of provinces, who had
destroyed the city of Nineveh, ft .c. 612, which, rebelled against the Persians, and assumed tliose
according to Eusebins {Chroti. p. 4G), he effected names, and that the pretended Nebuchadnezzar,
in conjunction with Astyages, the eldest son of or Nebtichadnezzar tiie Third, was reduced to
Cyaxares, king of the Medes (see also Tobit xiv. order upon the failure of his expedition under
15, where the latter is named Assuerus). The Holofernes. By this rather hazardous conjecture,
following extract, preserved by Josephus, from whereby he further maintains, in contradiction to
the lost Chaldaean history of Berosus, priest of the BelIarmiue(Z>e Verb. Dei), that the book of Judith
temple of Bel (b.c. 268), will lie found to throw refers to a period posterior to the exile, he endea
considerable light on the Scripture narrative : vours to prove that the history of Judith is his
' When bis father Nabuchodouosor heard that the torically true, in opposition to Jahn, who regards
governor whom he had set over Egypt and the it as a fiction [Judith].
places about Cuele-Syria and Phoenicia had revolted According to Ptolemy's canon, the reign of
from him, while he was not himself able any Nabocolasar is made to commence two years later
longer to undergo hardships, lie Committed to his than that of the Nebuchadnezzar of Scripture.
son Nabuchodouosor, who was still but a youth, Many attempts have l#en made to reconcile this
some |iarts of his army, and sent them against discrepancy, but the solution generally received
them. So when Nabuchodouosor had given him assumes that the Hist capture of Jerusalem (Dan.
battle, and fought with the rebel, lie overcame i. 1) took place during the last years of the reign
him, and reduced the country from undei his sub of Nabopolassar, iu the expedition mentioned by
jection and made it a branch of his own kingdom. Berosus (ut supra)* and that the canon of Pto
But about that time it happened that his father lemy dates the commencement of his reign from
Nabuchodouosor fell ill, and ended his lite in the the death of his father, when he Iwcame sole king
city of Babylon, when he had reigned twenty-one of Babylon (De Wette's Introd. 253, note).
years; and when he was made sensible that his Although Herodotus does not name Nebuchad
father Nahuctiodonosor was deadhaving settled nezzar, be is supposed by some to allude to the
the affairs of Egypt and the other countries, and exjied.it ion of Pharaoh-Neeho against Babylon,
also those that concerned the captive Jews, and when he observes that 4 Necho, after an engagement
the Phoenicians. Syrians and Egyptians, and hav at Magdolos in Egypt, took Kadytis, a great
ing committed the conveyance of them to Baby city of Syria.* It is conjectured that he may
lon to certain of his friendshe hastily crossed the have confounded Migdol, in Egypt, with Me-
desert, with a few companions, into Babylon. So giddo, and that Kadytis was the same witii Jeru
he took upon him the management of public af salem (El Kaddosh, * the holy city'). (Jahn's lle~
fairs, and of the kingdom which had been kept for brew Commonwealth.)
him by one ofthe chiefChaldrains, and he received We learn from a continuation of the extract
the entire dominions of his father, and appointed, from Berosus already cited, that Nebuchadnezzar
thai when the captives came, they should be placed almost rebuilt the city of Babylon with the spoils
in colonies in the most proper places of Baby of his expedition, and magnificently adorned the
lonia' (Antiq. x. 11). temple of Bel, together with other temples, and
It will be nlnerved that both Nebuchadnezzar built a splendid palace, which he beautified with
(styled by some the Great) and his father are wooded terraces, and those hanging gardens which
here equally named Nahuchodonosor, but, in were considered one of the wonders of the world
the citation of the same narrative from Berosus [Babylon]. To him are also attributed those
by Joseplma (font. Apion., i. 19), the father stupendous canals described by Herodotus, who
of Nebuchadnezzar is called Nabola>sar (Nao- himself visited Babylon almut B.O. 430, and
\c.taapos . corresponding nearly with the Nabo- whose descriptions are fully corroborated by the
polassar of Ptolemy : which has induced some statements of Phi Inst rat us, Quintus Curtius,
to suppose the name Nabuchodouosor in the Arrian, and Diodorus Siculus, by none of whom,
former citation to be an error of transcription. however, is this monarch mentioned. Josephus
We have already noticed the opinion of tliose adds, that Magasthenes, iu his fourth l>ook( refers
who consider the Nahuchndnnosor of Judith to to the same subject, ami thereby endeavours to
be the same with the Saosiluchin of Ptolemy, show that he exceeded Hercules, and conquered
who was contemporary with Mauasseh [Judith]. a gTeat part of Africa and Spain. Stratio adds,
Sime foundation has thus been afforded for con that *Sesostris, king of Egypt, and Tearcon, king
sidering Nebuchadnezzar as a general name for of Ethiopia, extended their expedition as far as
Babylonian sovereigns (Prideaux. Connect.); Europe, but that Navokodrosor, who is venerated
this, however, is considered by Whiston as a by the Chaldeans more than Hercules by the
groundless mistake (Whistoii's Juscp)nts% note Greeks marched through Spain to Greece
on eh. xi.). It is by no means improbable that and Pontus.* According to the canon of Ptolemy
the similarity of the two names may have led to (with which Jesrpbus agrees, c. Apton. i. 2U),
their being sometimes confounded. The conqueror Nebuchadnezzar reigned forty-three years, when
of Nineveh is also called by the name of Nebu- he was succeeded by llonaroudanios, the Evil-
chodonosor in Tohit xiv. 15 (in the Greek, for Merodach of Scripture*
the Latin ends with ver. 14), and is on this ac The difficulties attending the nature of the
count styled by some, Nebuchadnezzar the First, disease and recovery of Nebuchadnezzar have
a designation Hrst applied to him by Kahhi David not escaped the notice of commentators in ancient
Ganz, under the age of the world, 3285. Alber as well as modern limes. The impression made
considers (Snst. Herm. V. T, vol. ii. ch. xv.) that by them on the acute mind of Origen, that fattier
408 NEBUCHADNEZZAR.
thus expresses : ' How is it possible to suppose a Calligetur vinculoferreo et a*reof Vulg.); and the
muii metamorphosed into a beast? This sounds loss and return of reason is very clearly intimated
well j.: in the poets, who speak of the com in ver. 31, * mine understanding returned to me,
panions of Ulysses and of Diomede as transformed and I blessed the Most High.' Virgil (Eclog. 6)
into birds and wolves, fables which existed in the refers to this kind of madness in the case of the
poet's imagination oidy. But how could a prince daughters of Praetus, v. ho fancied themjelre*
like Nebuchadnezzar, reared in delicacy and oxen, and made the plains resound with their
pleasure, be able to live naked for seven years, bellowings :
exposed to the inclemency of the weather, and Impleruut falsis mugitibus agros.
having no nourishment but grass and wild fruits? And a somewhat similar kind of insanity is
How could he resist the violence of wild beasts? described by Mr. Drummond Hay (Western
Who governed the empire of Chaldrea in Ins Barbary, 1844, p. 65) as produced by the use
absence t How, at the end of seven years, was of an intoxicating herb among the Gisowys, or
lie received again by his people, resuming his Moorish fanatics. (See Heinroth, i>eeUn*tor. i.
throne as after the absence of a uight i Finally, 65; Ader, De trgrotis in Evang. p. 31, &c;
could an event so singular and so memorable have Meade, Med. Sac. ; and Muller, De Nebuckad-
csca|>ed the notice of profane historians, who relate nezz. niT,m yoj'nu .
so many other things regarding the same prince, The idea of an allegory has been revived in
much less curious, and less worthy of attention modern times, esjiecially by De Wette (Eniei-
than tliis V (ap. Hieron. in Dan.) It must, how tttng, p. 257), who considers the accounts in
ever, l>e borne in mind that Origen's {Mission for Daniel too improliable, if literally understood,
allegorizing frequently led him to overstate the although he admits that they may have been
difficulties of Scripture, and his own solution of founded on historical traditions. He considers
those which lie enumerates, viz., that the account the whole of the narrative in Daniel as referring
of Nebuchadnezzar's metamorphosis was merely to Antiochus Kpiphanes, who he asserts is also
a representation of the fall of Lucifer, is not likely signilied by Belshazzar. In reference to the sub
to meet with many supporters. Besides Origen's, ject before us his translator adds, that ' Antiochiu
there have been no less than live different opinions Kpiphanes was called with perfect propriety
in reference to this subject. Bodin (in Demonol.) Epimanes, or, the mad, which may have given
maintains lliat Nebuchadnezzar underwent an the author a hint to represent the old and ideal
actual metamorphosis of smil and body, a similar ized monarch of his nation as bereft of reason,
instance of which is given by Cluvier (Append, and reduced to ttie form and character of a beast.
ad Epitom. Hist.) on the testimony of an eye-wit Here the historical fact is idealized, and an ex
ness. Tertullian (De Pamit.) confines the trans quisite piece of sarcasm on the folly and brutality
formation to the body only, but without loss of ofAntiochus is produced* (Dan. iv. 14,22-24,29,
reason, of which kind of metamorphosis St. Au 31, 32, 34). But the truth of this inference, bow-
gustine (Uc Civ. Dei, xviii. IS) re|>orts some in ever ingenious the arguments in its favour, depends
stances said to have taken place in Italy, to which altogether on the alleged spuriousness of the book
he himself attaches little credit; but Gaspard of Daniel, whose genuineness is attested by the
Peuoer asserts that the transformation of men into citations of the New Testament writers, and by
wolves was very common in Livonia. Some the author of the 1st book of Maccabees, who was
Jewish Rabbins have asserted that the soul of Ne acquainted with the book of Daniel, even in the
buchadnezzar, by a real transmigration, changed version of the Sept. (Mace. i. 54, comp. with
places with that of an ox (Medina, Dt rectd in Dan. ii. 27; and ii. 59 with Don. iii. and vi.).
Dcttm Jid.)\ while others have sup[x>sed not a [Daniel.] De Wette can only avoid die force
real, bat an apparent or docetic change, of which of this evidence by denying the authority of the
there is a case recorded in the life of St, Ma- New Testament writers in a case of the kind. He
carius, the parents of a young woman having adds that it is a biassed assumption of Heugsten-
been persuaded that their (laughter had l>een berg to maintain that 1 Mace, was originally
transformed into a mare. The most generally written in Greek (allcin dass es Hreprirnglich
received opinion, however, is, that Nebuchad griechisch . . . schist eine parteiische Annahme)
nezzar laboured under that species of hypochon not Hebrew, as De Wettes English translator has
driacal monomania which leads the patient to it, and in the time of John Hyrcauus (b.c.
fancy himself changed into an animal or other 134 1 00), as according to him (De Wette) it
substance, the habits of which he adopts. Jerome ap|>ears from 1 Mace. xvi. 23, 21, to have been
probably leaned to this Opinion. * V\ ho does not written much later [M accabkes].
see.' he observes, ' that madmen live like brute Some have fancied that there was an allusion
beasts in the fields and woods, and in what is it to the disease of Nebuchadnezzar in the passage of
wonderful that this punishment should be in Hemsus quote*] by Josepbus (CVnt. Apion. i. 20).
flicted by God's judgment to show the power of Naf$ovxol>oi'6a,opos juic oiv fitra *ri> &\paffdou rov
God, ami to humble the pride of kings? Greek trpotipr]p.evov retxovs, tixvtaiev tis apfWo-ricu',
and Roman histories relate much more incredible fjLTr)\\d^aro rbv &iov. * Nabuchodonosor, after
things, as of men changed into Scylbv, t he Chi- he had commenced the aforesaid wall, falling
DUBra, and the Centaurs, into birds and beasts, into a sickness, died." There is another remark-
Dowers, trees, stars, and stones V (i/i Van. iv. 4). aide passage respecting him in Abydeuus (ap.
To this disease of the imagination physicians have Kusebium, Prwpar. Evang. ix. 41), where, hav
Riven the name of Lycanthropy, Zoanthropy, or ing cited the |>assage from Megasthenes already
Insania Canina [Diseases ok the Jews], in referre* I to, he adds, upon the authority of the
i)an. iv. 15 (iv. 12, according to the Latin) there .-.inn' writer, a 8]>eeeh of Nabuchodonosor, where
seems an allusion to some species of insanity in the in, having been struck by some god, he fore
expression, ' even with a band of iron and bras*' told the destruction of Babylon by a "Persian
NEB17SHASBAN. NECHO. 409
mule,' assisted by a Mede, the former boast of discovery along the coast of Africa. * They were
Assyria, after which lie instantly vanished. A ordered (says Herod., iv. 42, 3) to start from the
reference has been supposed to exist in these words Arabian Gulf, and come round through the pillars
to Nebuchadnezzar's madness and consequent dis of Hercules (the straits of Gibraltar) into the
appearance, but there is at most, as De VVette North Sea, and so return to Egypt. Sailing,
oiwerves, only a traditional connection between therefore, down the gulf, they passed into the
them. Jahu ( Hebrew Commonwealth) conceives Southern Ocean, and when autumn arrived, they
the whtle to be a tradition made up from his laid up their ships and sowed the land. Here
prophetic dreams, his insanity .... and from they remained till harvest time, when, having
Daniel's explanation of the well-known hand reaped the com, they continued their voyage.
writing in the bauqueting-hall of Belshazzar. In this manner they occupied two years, and the
Objections have been made by Sir Thomas third having brought them by the pillars of Her
Browne ami others to the proportions of Nebuchad cules to Egypt, they related what to me ap|>eard
nezzar's golden statue (Dan. iii.), said to have incredible, that they had the sun on their right
Iwen 60 cubits, or 90 feet high, and only 6 cubits hand; and by this means was the form of Africa
in breadth ; for it is evident that the statue of a tirst known.' Similar expeditions round Africa
man ten times higher than its breadth exceeds all were ]>erformed by other jieople (Herod., ut supra;
natural symmetry. Jahu (Intrvd.) supposes that Plin. Hist. Nat ii. 67 ; Arrian, Her, bid. at! tin.).
this form rnigltt have a more august appearance, The honour, however, of being the first to equip
or have been retained from a rude antiquity. an expedition for the purjiofle of circumnavigating
Some consider that the height of 90 feet included Africa belongs to Pharaoh-Nee-ho, who thereby
the pedestal. Hengstenberg supposes tint D^V ascertained the ]>eninsular form of that continent,
twenty-one centuries before the Cape of Good
may mean an obelisk, as well as a statue, in Hope was seen by Diaz, or doubled by Vasco de
which case the proportions would be symmetrical. Gama. The assertion by Herodotus, that the
Diodorus Siculus (lib. ii.) informs us that one of sun (when rising) was on the right hand of these
the images of massy gold found by Xerxes in the Egyptian navigators, though incredible to him,
Temple of Bel, measured -10 feet in height, which is satisfactory to his modern readers, who are in
would have been fairly proportioned to a breadth debted to his doubts for proof of a fact which might
of 6 feet, measured at the shoulders. Prideaftx otherwise have l>een called in question.
supposes that this may have been the identical Before entering on this voyage of discovery,
statue erected by Nebuchadnezzar, which, however, Necho had commenced re-opening the canal from
Jahn conceives was more probably only gilt, as a the Nile to the Red Sea, which had been cut
statue of gold could scarcely have been safe from many years before by Sesostris or Rameses the
robbers in the plain of Dura *. but this conjecture Great. The work, however, if we may believe
of Jabn's seems by no means necessary.WAV. Herodotus, was abandoned, an oracle warning the
NEBUSHASBAN (PJPWJ ; Sept. NojW Egyptian monarch that he was labouring for the
fff0av, Jer. xxxix. 13), a follower of Nebu. barbarian (Herod, ii. 158).
Necho also turned his attention to the Egyptian
Pers. ,.,LjL>-*j' the name of one of the Babv- conquests already made in Asia ; and, fearing
Ionian officers sent by Nebuzar-adan to take Jere lest the growing power of the Babylonians should
miah out of prison. XV, XV, endanger the territories acquired by the arms of
his victorious predecessors, he determined to check
NEBUZAR-ADAN ({TCP3? i SeP*- Na0ou- their progress, and to attack the enemy on his own
ap*dV, 1 Kings xxv. 8; Jer. xxxix. 9; xl. 1; frontier. With this view he collected a powerful
lii. 12, &c). * Nebu is the Lord,' according to army, and entering Palestine, followed the route
the Hebrew ; or, according to the Persian, 1 Nebu along the sea-coast of Judam, intending to besiege
the town of Carchemish on the Euphrates. But
is wise ' (comp. Pers. ^O). The name of the Josiah, king of Judah, offended at the passage of
captain of Nebuchadnezzar's guard, by whom the the Egyptian army through his territories, resolved
ruin of Jerusalem was completed.W.W. to impede, if unable to prevent, their march.
Necho seut messengers to induce htm to desist,
NECHO (133; Sept. Nx<$; Herodotus, assuring him that he had no hostile intentions
NcKwr). an Egyptian V ing, son and successor against Judam, ' but against the house wherewith
(according to Herodotus, ii. 15fi) of Psamme- I have war; for God commanded me to make
tichus, and contemporary of the Jewish king haste." This conciliatory message was of no avail.
Josias (b.c. 610). The wars and success of Josiah posted himself in the valley of Megiddo,
Necho, in Syria, are recorded by sacred as and prepared to oppose the Egyptians. Megiddo
well as profane writers, aftnrding an instance of was a city in the tribe of Manasseh, between forty
agreement between them which the historical, and fifty miles to the north of Jerusalem, and
and especially the Biblical student, would be within three hours of the coast. It is called by
glad to find of more frequent occurrence. Stu Herodotus Magdolus. In this valley the feeble
dious of military renown, and the furtherance of forces of the Jewish king, having attacked Necho,
commerce. Necho, on ascending the throne of were routed with great slaughter. Josiah being
Egypt, applied himself to re-organize the army, wounded in the neckwith an arrow, ordered his
and to equip a powerful fleet. In order to pro attendants to take Turn from the field. Escaping
mote his purposes, he courted the Greeks, to whose from the heavy shower of arrows with which their
troops he gave a post next to his Egyptians. He broken ranks were overwhelmed, they removed
fitted out a fleet in the Mediterranean, and another him from the chariot in which he had been
in the Red Sea. Having engaged some expert wounded, and placiug him in a 'second one that
Plurnician sailors, he sent them on a voyage of he had,' they conveyed him to Jerusalem, where
410 NECOTH. NECOTH.
he died (2 Kings xxiii. 29 sq. ; 2 Chron. xxxv. num, which is translated myrrh in the Autho
20 eq.). rized Version. Many of the same general ob
Intent upon his original project, Nechodid not servations will therefore apply to both [Loth].
stop to revenge himself upon the Jews, but con Necoth has unfortunately been rendered spicery.
tinued his march to the Euphrates. Three months This it is not likely to have meant, at least in the
had scarcely elapsed, when, returning from the present sense of the term, for such commodities
capture of Carchemish and the defeat of the Chal- were not likely to be transported into Egypt from
damus, he learned that, though Josiah had left an Gilead, though many Eastern products were, no
elder son, Jehoahaz had caused himself to be doubt, carried north by caravans into Asia Minor,
proclaimed king on the deatli of his father, with up the Euphrates, and by Palmyra into Syria. In
out soliciting Necho to sanction his taking the the present case, however, all the articles men
crown. Incensed at this, lie ordered Jehoahaz to tioned, seem to be products indigenous in Syria.
meet him 'at Riblah, in the laud of Hamath But it is necessary to attend strictly to the original
atid having deposed him, and condemned the land names, for we are apt to be misled by the English
to [iay a heavy tribute, he carried him a prisoner translation. Tims, in Gen. xxxvii. 25, we read,
to Jerusalem. On arriving there, Necho made 1 Behold, a com])auy of Ishmaelites came from
Eliakim, the eldest son, king, changing his name Gilead with their camels, bearing spicery (necoth)^
to Jehoiakim ; and taking the silver and gold and balm ( tzeri), and myrrh (lothj^ going to carry
which had been levied upon the Jewish nation, lie it down to Egypt.1 To these men Joseph was sold
returned to Egypt with the captive Jehoahaz, who by his brethren, when they were feeding their flocks
there terminated his short and unfortunate career. at Dotlian, supposed to be a few miles to the north
Herodotus says that Necho, after having routed of Seboste, or Samaria. It is curious that
the Syrians (the Jews) at Magdolus, took Ca- Jacob, when desiring a present to be taken to the
dyfis, a large city of Syria, in Palestine, which, ruler of Egypt, enumerates nearly the same ar
he adds, is very little less than Sardis (ii. 159, ticles (Gen. xliii. 11), * Carry down the man a
iii. 5). By Cadytis there is scarcely a doubt he present, a little balm (tzeri), and a little honey
meant Jerusalem ; the word is only a Greek form (debash), spices (necoth) and myrrh (loth) ; or,
of the ancient, as well as the modern, name of ' Sumite de laudatissimishujus terra; fructibus in
that city. It is, however, to be regretted that the vasis vestris,' as Bochart translates it. (See the
mural sculptures of Egypt present no commemo several words.)
ration of these triumphs on the part of Necho ; the Bochart (Hiei-ozoicon, ii. lib. iv. c. 12) en
sole record of him which they give being the name ters into a learned exposition of the meaning
of Necho, found among the hieroglyphics in the of necoth, of which Dr. Harris has given an
great hall of Kamak. His oval also occurs on abridged view in his article on spices. Bochart
vases, and some small objects of Egyptian art. shows that the true import of necoth has always
Pleased with his success, the Egyptian monarch been considered uncertain, fur it is rendered war
dedicated the dress he wore to the Deity who by the paraphrast Jonathan, in the Arabic version
was supjiosed to have given him the victory. He of Erpenius, and in Beresith Rabha (sect. 91, near
did not long enjoy the advantages he had ob the end). Others interpret it very differently. The
tained. In the fourth year after his expedition, Septuagiut renders it Ovuiaua, perfume, Aquila
being alarmed at the increasing power of the storax, the Syrian version resin, the Samaritan
Babylonians, he again marched into Syria, and balsam, one Arabic version khurnoob or carob,
advanced to the Euphrates. The Babylonians another sumugha (or gum), knurl. i a desirable
were prepared for his approach. Nebuchadnezzar thing, Rubbi Selomo a collection of several aro~
completely routed his army, recovered the town maticB. Bochart himself cousiders it to mean
of Carchemish, and, pushing his conquests through storax, and gives six reasons iu support of his
Palestine, took from Necho all the territory be opinion, but none of them apjtears of much weight.
longing to the Pharaohs, from the Euphrates to Storax, no doubt, was a natural product of Syria,
the southern extremity of Syria (2 Kings xxiv. and on indigenous product seems to he implied;
7; Jer. xlvi. 2; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 9; 2 Kings and Jerome (Gen, xliii. 11) follows Aquila in
xxiv. 8). Nebuchadnezzar deposed Jehoiachin, rendering it styrax. Rosenmiiller, in his Btbl.
who hod succeeded his father, and carried the Bot. p. 165, Eng. transl., adopts tragacanth as
warriors and treasures away to Babylon ; a short the meaning of necoth, without expressing any
time previous to which Necho died, and was suc doubt on the subject *, stating that * The Arabic
ceeded by Psommetichus II. (Wilkinson's Anc. word (l& or neka or nekat) which is
Egyptians, vol. i. 157 sq.)
According to Manetho (Euseb. Chron. Armen., analogous to the Hebrew, denotes that gum
i. 219), Necho was the sixth king in the twenty- winch is obtaitied from the tragacanth, or, as it
sixth dynasty, successor of Psommetichus, and is commonly called, by way of contraction, tra-
as there had been another of the same name, he ganth shrub, and which grows on Mount Lebanon,
was properly Necho the Second. The period of in the Isle of Candia, and also in southern Eu
his reign was. according to Manetho, six, accord rope.' We have not been able to tiud any word
ing to Herodotus sixteen, years (Consult Gese- similar to necoth, indicating the tragacanth,
nius, Isaiahj i. 596).J. R. B. which, in our own MS. Materia Medica, is given
under the Arabic name of kitad, sometimes pro
NECOTH (naC)). This word occurs twice nounced kithad ; and, indeed, it may be found
in the book of Genesis, and no doubt indicates under the same name in Aviceuna anil other
a product of Syria, for in one case we find it Arabic authors. Tragacauth is an exudation from
carried into Egypt as an article of commerce, several species of the geuus Astragalus9 and sub
and in another sent as a present into the same division tragacantha, which is produced in Cret%
country. Jt occurs in the same passages as lada- but chiefly in Northern Persia and in Koordistan.
NEHEMIAH. NEHEMIAH. 412
In the latter province, Dr. Dickson, of Tripoli, saw actively engaged for twelve years in promoting
large quantities of it collected from plants, ofwhich the public good (ch. v. 14). The principal work
he preserved specimens, and gave them to Mr. which he then accomplished was the rebuilding,
i Brant, British consul ut Erzerouin, by whom they or rather the repairing, of the city wall, which was
were sent to Dr. Liudley. Oue of these, yielding done ' in fifty and two days ' (ch. vi. 15), notwith
the best tragacanth, proved to l>e A. gummifer of standing many discouragements and difficulties,
Labtllardiere. It was found by him on Mount caused chiefly by Sanballat, a Moabile of Ho-
I Lebanon, w here he ascertai ued that tragacanth was ronaim, and Tobiah, an Ammonite, who were
collected by the shepherds. It might therefore leading men in the rival and unfriendly colony
have been conveyed by Ishmaelites from Gilead to of Samaria (ch. iv. 1-3). These men, with their
Egypt. It has in its favour, that it is a produce of allies among the Arabians, Ammonites, and Ash-
the remote parts of Syria, is described by ancient dodites (ch. iv. 7), sought to hinder the re-fortify
authors, as Theophrastus, Diocorides,&a, and has ing of Jerusalem, first by scoffing at the attempt ;
always been highly esteemed as a gum in Eastern then by threatening to attack the Workmenwhich
countries : it was, therefore, very likely to be an Nehemiah averted by ' setting a watch against
article of commerce to Egypt in ancient times. them day and night,' and arming the whole people,
In Richardson's Arabic Dictionary we finu' its so that * every one with one of his hands wrought
in the work, and with the other hand held a wea
nakat, translated as meaning the best part of pon 1 (ch. iv. 7-18) ; and finally, when scoffs and
corn (or dates) when silled or cleaned ; also n- threats had failed, by using various stratagems to
ktitjct, the choicest part of anything cleaned, but weaken Nehemiah s authority, and even to take
sometimes also the refuse.J. F. R. his life (ch. vi. 1-14). But in the midst of these
NEGINIOTH, a word which occurs in the dangers from without, our patriot encountered
titles of several Psalms [Psalms]. troubles and hiuderances from his own people,
arising out of the general distress, which was ag
NEHEMIAH (fVDnj, comforted ofJehovah; gravated by the cruel exactions and oppression of
Sept. Nju/). Three persons of this name occur their nobles and rulers (ch, v. 1-5). These popular
in Scripture ; one, the son of Azbuk (Neh. iii. 16), grievances were promptly redressed on the earnest
respecting whom no more is known than that he and solemn remonstrance of Nehemiah, who had
was ruler in Beth-zur, and took a prominent part himself set a striking example of retrenchment
in repairing the wall of Jerusalem [Bbth-zuh], and generosity in his high office (ch. v. 6- 19). It
Another is mentioned (Ezra ii. 2; Neh. vii. 7) appears also (ch. vi. 17-19) that some of the chief
among those who accompanied Zeruhbabel on the men in Jerusalem were at that time in conspiracy
first return from captivity. Nothing further is with Tobiah against Nehemiah. The wall was
known of this man, though some writers (see thus built in 4 troublous times* (Dan. ix. 25) ; and
Carpzov, Introd. ad Lib. Bib. Vet, Testamenti, its completion was most joyously celebrated by a
P. i. 340, sq.) hold him, without valid reasons, solemn dedication under Nehemiahs direction
*o l>e the same with the well-known Jewish patriot, (ch. xii. 27-43).
Nehemiau, whose genealogy is unknown, ex Having succeeded in fortifying the city, our
cept that he was the son of Hachaliah (Neh. i. I), reformer turned his attention to other measures in
and brother of Hanani (Neh. vii. 2). Some think order to secure its good government and prosperity.
he was of priestly descent, because his name ap He appointed some necessary officers (ch. vii .1-3 ;
pears at the head of a list of priests in Neh. x. 1-8 ; also ch. xii. 44-47), and excited among the people
but it is obvious, from V ... ix. 38, that he stands more interest and zeal in religion by the public
tltere as a prince, and not as a priest that he reading and exposition of the law (ch. viii. 1-12),
heads the list because he was head of the nation. by the unequalled celebration of the Feast of Ta
The Vulgate, in 3 Mace. i. 21, calls him k$acerdos bernacles (ch. vtii. 13-18), and by the olwervance
Neliemias;' (tut ibis is a false version of the Greek, of a national fast, when the sins of the jwople and
which has IkcAcwc tovs itpus Ncef*{aj, and not 6 the iniquities of their fathers were publicly and
Upeus, which the Latin would require. The Syriac most strikingly confessed (ch. ix.), and when
agrees with the Greek. Others with some proba also a solemn covenant was made by all ranks
bility irrfer, from Ins station at the Persian court and and classes 4 to walk in God's law,' by avoiding
the high commission he received, that he was, like intermarriages with the heathen, by strictly ob
Zerubbabel, of the tribe of Judah and of the house serving the Sabbath, and by contributing to the
of David (Carpzov, Introductio, &c, P. i. 339). support of the temple service (ch. x.). But the
While Nehemiah was cupbearer in the royal inhabitants of the city were as yet too few to de
palace at Shushan, in the twentieth year of Arta- fend it and to ensure its prosperity ; and hence
xerxes Longimanus, or 444 years B.C. [Arta- Nehemiah brought one out of every ten in the
xxkxks], he learned the mournful and desolate country to fake up his abode in the ancient capital,
condition of the returned colony in Judaea. which then presented so few inducements to the
This filled him with such deep and prayerful settler, that ' the people blessed all the men that
concern fur his country, that his sad countenance willingly offered themselves to dwell at Jerusalem '
revealed to the king his ' sorrow of heart which (ch. vii. 4; also ch. xi. 1-19).
induced the monarch to ascertain the cause, and In these important public proceedings, which
also to vouchsafe the remedy, by sending him, appear all to have happened in the first year of
with full powers, to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem, his government, Nehemiah enjoyed the assistance
and * to seek the welfare of the children of Israel.1 of Ezra, who is named on several occasions as
Being furnished with this high commission, and taking a prominent part in conducting atTairs
enjoying the protection of a military escort (ch. (ch. viii. 1, 9, 13; xii. 36). Ezra had gone up
ii. 9), Nehemiah readied Jerusalem in the year to Jerusalem thirteen years before according to
B.C. 44 J, and remained there till B.C. 432, being some, or thirty-three years according to otherij
41* NEHEMIAH. NEHEMIAH.
but on either reckoning, without supposing un to some chronologtsts, succeeded his father Elia
usual longevity, lie might well have lived to bcNe- shih in the year b.c. 413; and hence we may
hemiah's fellow-labourer [Kza]. These contem gather that Nehemiah's second role lasted at least
poraries are alike eminent among the benefactors ten years, namely, from b.c. 421 to 413. It is /
of the Jewish peoplealike patriotic and zealous, not unlikely that he remained at his post till
though not uniform in character, or the same in about the year B.C. 405, towards the close of the
operation. In the character of Ezra we find no reign of Darius Nothus, who is mentioned in
indication of the self-complacency which forms ch. xii. 22 [Darius]. At this time Nehemiah
a marked feature in that of Nehemiah. The would be between sixty and seventy years old, if
former, in accordance witli his priestly calling, we suppose him (as most do) to have been only
laboured chielly in promoting the interests of re between twenty and thirty when he first went to
ligion, but the latter had most to do with the Jerusalem. That he lived to be an old man is
general allairs of government; the one was in thus quite probable from tbe sacred history ;
charge of the temple, the other of the state. and tins is expressly declared by Josephus, who
Nehemiah, at the close of his successful admi {Antiq. xi. 5, b) states that he died at an ad-
nistration, * from the twentieth year even to the vanced age (tit yqpas a<tntc6fitvos). Of the place
thirty-second year of Artaxerxes the king' (eh. v. and year of his death nothing is known.
14), returned to Babylon in the year B.C. 432, Besifles the account in Josephus, there are
and resumed, as some think, his duties as royal some notices of Nehemiah in the Apocrypha.
cupbearer. The Son of Sirach (ch. xlix. 13) mentions him
He returned, however, after a while, to Jeru with great honour as the rebuilder of the city
salem,where his services became again requisite, in walls; and in 2 Mace. i. 19-36, he is said to
consequence of abuses that had crept in during his have discovered the holy fire that had been con
absence. His stay at the court of Artaxerxes was cealed by Jeremiah the prophet, at the destruction
,l*CA-.*' not very long (certainly nut above nine years); of the temple, which is clearly a mere legem).
/ 1 for after certain days he obtained leave of the In 2 Mace. ii. 13, he is said to have formed a
king and came to Jerusalem1 (ch. xiii. 6, 7). library, and collected the hooks of the kings and
The phrase 1 after certain days ' (D*D* X\h> at prophets, and of David ; and hence some think it
probable that lie was concerned in forming the
Vie end of days) is indeed quite vague, and canon of Hebrew Scriptureswhich is quite
hence many take it, as in our common bibli credible [Canon].
cal chronology, for the space of one year, while Two titles are given to Nehemiah, expressive
others, on the contrary, reckon it a period of of his office. One is nflB (ch. xii. 26), which
about twenty years, and so consider the return is translated ' governor.' It is considered a
to have happened about B.C. 410 (Prideaux, i. Persian word, meaning friend or assistant of a
520 ; Jahn, Einleitung ins A. Test. ii. 288 ; king, and of the same origin as pasha, still used
Winer, Real-wurterbuch). But the former reckon for the governor of a Turkish province. The 1
ing appears too short, for it is exceedingly impro other is NnEJHJ'in tirshatha, in ch. vi'ii. 9, which
bable that allairs could fall into such confusion might also be translated * governor,' as it comes
had Nehemiah been absent only one year; and probably from a Persian word, meaning severe 1
the latter, though it has much in its favour, is too or stern, and hence applicable to a ruler. But
long, for it makes Nehemiah return after the death in Neh. vii. 65, 70, tnis title denotes not Nehe
of the very king from whom he obtained leave to miah, but Zerubbabel, as is evident from Ezra
depart. Artaxerxes Longituanus died in b.c. 423, ii. 63-70.
having reigned forty-one years ; and hence Nehe-
niiah's return to Jerusalem cannot be dated later Tin; Book ok Nehemiah, which bears the
than b.c. 423, which allows only nine years for title JVDn3 *W, Nehemiah's Words, was an
his stay at Babylon. If, then, we date his return ciently connected with Ezra, as if it formed part of
about b.c. 421, we at once bring it within the the same work (Eichhorn, Einleitung, ii. 6*27)
reign of Artaxerxes, and allow time enough for Tliis connection is still indicated by its first went,
abuses to creep in (luring his absence, or at least *n*0, * And it came to pass/ It arose, doubtless,
for the particular abuse which is expressly named from the fact that Nehemiah is a sort of continu
(ch. xiii. 4-9) as having actually arisen (Hiiver- ation of Ezra [Ezua]. From this circumstance
nick, Einleitung ins A. Test. ii. 321). some ancient writers were led to call this hook the
After his return to the government of Judaea, 2nd book of Ezra, and even to regard tliat learned
Nehemiah enforced the separation of all the scribe as the author of it (Carpzov, Jntroductto.
mixed multitude from Israel (ch. xiii. 1-3); and t$c. p. 336). There can, however, be no reason
accordingly expelled Tobiah the Ammonite from able doubt that it proceeded from Nehemiah, for
the chaml>er which the high-priest, Eliashih, had its style and spirit, except in one portion, are
prepared for him in the temple (ch. xiii. -1-9). wholly unlike Ezra's. Here we find no Chaldee
Better arrangements were also made for the sup documents, as in Ezra, though we might expect
port of the temple service (ch. xiii. 10-14), and some from ch. ii. 7, 8, 9, and ch. vi. 5 ; and
for tbe rigid observance of the Sabbath (ch. xiii. here also the writer discovers a species of egotism
15-22). One of the last acts of his government never manifested by Ezra (Neh. v. 14-19; Eicl.-
was an effort to put an end to mixed marriages, hom, Einleitung ins A. Test. ii. 619).
which led him to * chase' away a son of Joiada The canonical character of Nehemiah"s work is
the high-priest, because he was son-in-law to Sau- established by very ancient testimony. It should
ballat the Horonite (ch. xiii. 23-2!>). The dura be noticed, however, that this book is not expressly
tion of this second administration cannot be de named by Melito of Sardis [a.d. 170] in his
termined ; only it is evident that Joiada was high- account of the sacred writings; but this creates
priest during that period. Now Joiada, according no difficulty, since he does mention Ezra, of
NEHEMIAH. NERD. 413
which Nehemiah was then considered but a part year b.c. 370 j and if we further suppose that
^Eichhom, Einleitung^ ii. 627). Jaddua had at that time entered on his office, so
The contents of the Itook have been specified that he filled it for about forty years, i. e. till
above in the biography of the author. The work n.c. 332. In supjtort of this conjecture, see espe
can scarcely l>e called a history of Nehemiah and cially Hiiveniick's Einleihtng^ ii. 320-321.
his times. It is rather a collection of notices of The exegetical help for the explanation of this
some important transactions that happened during book are chiefly, Po!i Synopsis; Jo. Clerici
the first year of his government, with a few scraps Comm. in Lib. Historicos V. T.y Amst. 1708;
from his later history. Ttie contents appear to Maurer, Comment. Crit. Grammat. in V. 7\, vol.i.
be arranged in chronological order, with the ex Lip. 1833; Strigelii Scholia in Nehem., Lips.
ception jrerhap of ch. xii 27-43, where the ac 1575; and Rambach, sinnotationcs in Librum
count of the dedication of the wall seems out of Nehcmia.B. D.
its proper place : we might expect it rather after
ch. vii. 1-4, where the completion of the wall is of NEHILOTH, a word which occurs in the title
the fifth Psalm [Psai.ms].
mentioned.
As to the date of the book, it is not likely that NEHUSHTA (NWm, brass; Sept. Ufa*}
it came from Nehemiah's hand till near the close the mother of king Jehoiachin (2 Kings xxiv. 8).
of his life. Certainly it conld not have been all NER fil a light* Sept. Nrfp), grandfather of
written Itefnre the expulsion of the priest, recorded
in ch. xiii. 23-29, which took place about the king Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 50. 51 ; xxvi. 5; 1 Chron.
year B.C. 413. viii. 33).
While the look as a whole is considered to NERD or Nahd (1*1?.) is mentioned in three
have come from Nehemiah, it consists in part of places in the Song of Solomon, and by Mark and
compilation. He doubtless wrote the greater }tart John in the New Testament, under the name of
himself, but gome portions he evidently took from vdpBos. Both are translated in the Authorized
other works. It is allowed by all that he is, in Version by the word spikenard, which indicates
the strictest sense, the author of the narrative a far-famed perfume of the East, that has often
from ch. i. to ch. vii. 5 (Hlveniick, Einleitutiff, engaged the attention of critics, but the plant
ii. 301). The account in ch. vii. 6-73 is avow- which yields it has only been ascertained in very
eilly compiled, fur he says in ver. 5. 4 1 found a recent times. Thai the nerd of Scripture was a
register,' &c. This register we actually tind also
in Ezra ii. 1-70: hence it might be thought that
our author Itorrowed this part from Ezra; but it
is more likely that they both copied from public
documents, such us 'the book of the chronicles'
(D*0*n mentioned in Neh. xii. 23. Had
Nehemiah taken 11is list from Ezra, we might
expect agreement, if not identity, in the contents ;
whereas I two registers present an amazing
numlrer of palpable discre|jancies. which can
scarcely be accounted for without supposing that
they were taken from public records that were
discordant. It is, however, Itaiely jtossiblc that
the discrepancies arose from the errors of tran
scribers.
Chapters viii.-x. were probably not written by
Nehemiah, since the narrative residing him is in
the third jierson (ch. viii. 9 ; x. 1 ), and not in the
first, as usual (ch. ii. 9-20). Htivernirk, indeed,
[Einleitunff, ii. 305-308) makes it appear, from
the contents artd style, that Ezra was the writer
of this jmrtton. The remaining chapters (xi.-xiii.)
also exhibit some marks of compilation (ch. xii.
26. 47 1 ; but there are, on the contrary, clear
proofs of Nehemiah's own authorship in ch. xii.
27-43, and in ch. xiii. 0-31 ; and hence Haver-
nick thinks he wrote the whole except ch. xii.
1-26, which he took from 1 the Itook of the chro
nicles/ mentioned in ver. 23 ( Einlcitung, ii. 315-
319).
The mention of Jaddua as a high-priest, in
ch. xii. 11, 22, has occasioned, much perplexity.
This Jaddua appears to have Iteen in office in 433. [Naraostacliys Jatamanst.]
B.c. 332, when Alexander the Great came to
Jerusalem (Joseph. Antiq. xi. 8): how then could perfume is evident from the passages in which it
he l>e named by Nehemiah 1 The common, and occurs. Cant. i. 12 : * While the king sitteth at
perhaps the readiest, escajte from this difficulty his table, my spikenard (nard) sendeth forth
is to regard the naming of Jaddua as an addition the smell thereof/ So in Cant. iv. 14 : 'Spike
by a later hand. Yet it is just credible that nard and saffron, calamus and cinnamon, with
Nehemiah wrote it, if we bear in mind that he all trees of frankincense, myrrh and aloes, with
lived to be an old man, so as possibly to see the all the chief spices/ Here we find it men
414 NERD. NERD.
lioncd along with many of the most valued aro- kinds of nard. Of the first, called ydpbot (nar*
matics which were known to the ancients, and all dos) simply, there were two varieties, the one
of which, with the exception perhaps of saffron, Syrian, the other Indian. The former is so
must have l>een obtained by foreign commerce called, not l>ecause it is produced in Syria, but
from distant countries, as Persia, the east coast of
because the mountains in which it is produced
Africa, Ceylon, the north-west and the south-east extend on one side towards Syria, aud on the
of India, and in the present instance even from other towards India. This may refer to the
the remote Himalayan mountains. Such sub Hindoo Khoosh, and to the extensive signification
stances must necessarily have been costly when of the name Syria iu ancient times, or to so many
the means of communication were defective, and Indian products finding their way in those ages
the gains of the successful merchant propor into Europe across Syria. These were brought
tionally great. That the nard or nardus was of there either by the caravan route from north-west
great value we learn from the New Testament India, or up the Persian Gulf aud Euphrates.
(Mark xiv. 3). When our Saviour sat at meat It is evident, from the jtassages quoted, that nard
in Bethany, * there came a woman having an could not have Ukeu a produce of Syria, or its
alabaster box of ointment of (ydpHov) spikenard value would not have been so great either among the
very precious; aud she brake the box, and poured Romans or the Jews. The other variety is called
it on his head.* So in John xii. 3: 'Then took Gangit is, from the Ganges, firing found on a
Mary a pound of ointment of spikenard (fivpov mountain round which it flows. It is descril>ed
vdphov), very costly, and anointed the feet of as having many spikes from one root. Hence it, no
Jesus, and wij)cd his feet with her hair; aud the doubt, came to Ik1 called yap$6ffraxvs aud from
house was filled with the udonr of the ointment.1 the word stachys being rendered by the word
On this Judas, who afterwards betrayed our spike, it has Iteen translated spikenard. The
Saviour, said (ver. 5), * Why was not this oint second kind is by Dioscorides, culled Celtic
ment sold for three hundred j>ence, and given to Nard [ydpSos kcAtoc^), and the third kind moun
the poor?" tain nard (ydp&os bpttrff). If we consult tfie
authors subsequent to Dioscorides, a* Galen,
Before proceeding to identify the plant yielding
nard. we may refer to the knowledge which the Pliny, Oriliasins, /El ins and Paulus /Kgineta,
ancients had of this ointment. Horace, at a we hall easily he aide to trace these ditlerent
period nearly contemporary, 'promise* to Virgil kinds to Ihe time of the Arabs. As the author
a whole cadus (about thirty-six quarts) of wine, of this article has already said (t. infra)) on
for a small onyx-box full of spikenard' (Rosen- consulting Avic.euna, we are referred from Har
BQller, p. 168), den to sunbitl. pronounced sumbid) and in the
Nardo vina merehere, Lilt in translation from vardum to spica, under
Nardi parvus onyx eliciet cadum. which the Roman, the mountain, flie, Indian,
aud Syrian kinds are mentioned. So in Per
The composition of this ointment is given by sian works on Materia Medica, chiefly trans
Dioscoiides, in lib. i. c. 77, irfpl yapHiyou pvpov,
lations from the Arabic, we have the different
where it is described a* being made with nut oil, kimU of sunbnl mentioned; as 1. tiunbul
aud having as ingredients malabathrum, schcenus, hindee. 2. Sunbul roomie, called also tunbul
costus, amoraum, nardus, mynha, and baha- ukletce and narde/t ukletcet evidently the above
muni ; that is. almost all the most valued per Celtic nurd, said also to be called sunbul
fumes of antiquity. ilatton, that is, the nurd which grows iu Italy.
3. Sunbul jilmilec% or mountain nard. The first,
however, is the only one witii which we are at
present concerned. The synouymes given to it in
these Persian works are, Arabic, sunbul aI feed,
or fragrant hard ; Greek, tutriUn ; Latin, nr-
doom ; and Hindee, bnlchur and jatamansce.
Sir William Jones (Asiat. lies. it. 416, 8vo.)
was the first to ascertain that the tbovi Hindee
and Sanscrit synouymes referred to the true spike
nard, ami that (he Arabs descrilied it as being
like the tail of an ermine. The next step was
of course to attempt hj get the plant which pro
duced the drug. This lie was not successful in
doing, t>ecanse lie had not access to the Hima
layan mountains, atid a wrong plant was sent
him, which is that figured aud descrilied by Dr.
Roxburgh (Asiat Ites. iv. 07, 438). The author
of this article, when in charge uf the East India
Comjiany's botanic garden at Seliaruujxne, in
30 of N. latitude, about 30 miles from the foot
of the Himalayan mountains, being favourably
situated for the purpose, made inquiries on ihe
subject. He there learnt that jatamansi, better
434. [Spikenard from a drvssjtsfs iu London.] known in India by the name balchur, was yearly
brought down in considerable quantities, as an
The nard, ydp&os, was known in very early article of commerce, to the plains of India, from
times, and is noticed by Theophrostus, and by such mountains as Shalma. Kedar Kanta, and
Hippocrates. Dioscoridcs, indeed, describes three others, at the loot of which (low the Ganges and
NERGAL. NET. 410
Jumna rivers. Having obtained some of the and it was by no means peculiar to the mythology
fresh brought down roots, he planted them, both in of the West to make it the symbol of bloodshed
the botanic garden at Seharunporeand in a nursery and war. Among the people first named, the
at Mussoorec, in the Himalaya, attached to the planet Mars was typified under the figure of a
garden. The plants produced are figured in his man holding in one hand a drawn sword, and in
Illustration* of Himalayan Botany, t. 54, and the other a human head just cut off; and his gar
a reduced figure is given in the accompanying ments were also red, which, as well as the other
wood-cut (No. 433). The plant produced was ideas attached to this idol, were no doubt founded
found to belong to the natural family of VaU- on the reddish hue which the body of the planet
rianea, and has been named nardostachys jata- presents to the eye. Among the southern Arabs
mansi by De Candolle, and formerly patrinia his temple was painted red ; and they offered to
jatamanai, by Mr. Dow, from plant* sent home him garments stained with blood, and also a war
by Dr. Wallich from Gossamtham, a mountain rior (probably a prisoner), who was cast into a pool.
of Nejail {Penny Cyclopaedia, art. Spikenard; It is related of the khalif Hakeem that in the
arid Royle, lUust. Himal. Botany, p. 242). last night of his life, as he observed the stars,
Hence there can be no doubt that the jata- and saw the planet Mars rise above the horizon,
mansi of the Hindoos is the sunbul hi/idee of he murmured l>etween his lips, ' Dost thou ascend,
the Arabs, which they cumjiare to the tail of an thou accursed shedder of blood ? then is my hour
ermine. This would almost be sufficient to iden come;' and at that moment the assassins sprang
tify the drug: the appearance to which it refers upon him from their hiding-place ' (Mohammed
may be seen even in the wood-cut (434, tig. 1), but Abu Taleb, ap. Norberg, Onomast. p. 105; Bar-
very conspicuously in the specimens of the drug Jfebrants, p. 220). Von Bohlen would rather
which the author has deposited in the Museum of derive the name from the Sanscrit Nrigal, 1 man-
Materia Medica in King's College. This is pro devourer,' sjwken of a fierce warrior, and corre
duced in consequence of the woody fibres of the sponding to Merodach (Geseniu*, Thesaur. p. 913,
leaf and its footstalk not Wing decomjwjsed in and Comment, zu Jcsa, ii. p. 344).
the colli and comparatively dry climate where
they are produced, but remain and form a pro- NERGAL-SHAREZKR OW"]**"^T' ; Pew.
taenaH to the plant from the severity of the cold. Nergal, prince ofjire; Sept. Nepi-yA.frffap). I. A
There can be as little doubt that the Aral refer military chieftain under Nebuchadnezzar (Jer.
to the descriptions of Dioscorides, and both they, xxxix. 3). 2. The chief of the magi (Rab-mag)
and the Christian physicians who assisted them in under the same king, and present in the same
making translations, had ample opportunities, from expedition (Jer. xxxix. 3, 13).
theT profession and their local situation, of becom NESER. [Eagle.]
ing well acquainted with things as well as words.
There is as little reason to doubt that the ydpSos NET. There are in Scripture several words
of Dioscorides is that of the other Greek authors, denoting different kinds of nets, and this, with the
and this will carry us into ancient times. As frequency of images derived from them, shows that
many Indian products found their way into Kgypt nets were much in use among the Hebrews for
and Palestine, and are mentioned in Scripture, fishing, hunting, and fowling. Indeed, for the two
indeed in the very passage with nard we have latter purposes, nets were formerly used to an extent
calamus, cinnamon, and aloes (ahalim), there is of which now, since the invention of fire-arms, a
no reason why spikenard from the Himalayas notion can scarcely be formed. I, D"in ch&iem,
could not as easily have been procured. The which denotes a net for either fishing or fowling.
only difficulty ap[tears to arise from the term It is derived from a word signifying 'to shut up;'
vdpSos having occasionally been used in a ge and the idea is, therefore, founded on its shutting
neral sense, and therefore there is sometimes con in the prey. It occurs in Hab. i. Ifi, 17 ; Etek.
fusion between the nurd and the sweet cane xxvi. 5, 14; xlvii. 10; Zech. xiv. 11, &c. In
[Kakkii bosem], another Indian product. Some Keelex. v ii. 26, it is applied by an apt metaphor
difference of opinion exists resecting the fra to female entanglements. 2. mtfemor or
grance of the jatamansi : it may be sufficient to machmor, which occurs only in Ps. exit. 10, Isa.
-mi** that it continues to be highly esteemed in Ii. 20, where it denotes a tiunter's net; but a
Kastern countries in the present day, where fra longer word, from the same source, mD2D mik-
grant essences are still procured from it, as the moreth, denotes the net of fishermen in the only
umjuentum nardinurn was of old.J. F. R. jKusages in which it is found (Isa. xix. 8 ; Hab.
i. lo, 16). In these coses we find, by tracing the
NERGAL (^rjJ; Sept. 'Zpy4\), an idol of words to their source, that the idea is founded
the Cuthites (2 Kings xvii. 30). The Rabbinical upon the plaiting, braiding, or interweaving of the
commentators believe that this idol was in the net-work. 3. scbaha, which designates an
form of a cock; founding their not very happy actual hunting net in Job xviii. 6; but elsewhere
conjecture apparently upon the fact that in the it U applied to net-work or lattice-work, especially
Talmud the similar word, ^ljyin tamegol, means around the capitals of columns (1 Kings vii. \ K
a cock. The more measured researches of Nor- 20, 41, 42; 2 Kinirs xxvi. 17; 2 Chron. iv. 12,
lierg, Gesenins, and other inquirers into the 1 3 ; Jer. lii. 2*2, 23) ; and also before a window or
astrolatry of the Assyrians and Chaldseans, lead balcony (2 Kings i. 2). In the New Testament no
other net than that lor fishing alone is mentioned.
to tlie conclusion that is the same as the The word which describes it (Soctiw) is usually
Zabian N, which was the name for the planet confined to fishing nets by classical writers, al
though sometimes applied to the nc's of hunters.
Mar3. This name of the planet, both among the Another word to describe a net, an<plfiK-i)tnpci>,
Zabians and Arabians, means ill-luck* mUfortunef occurs in Matt. iv. 18; Mark i. IB, which, like
NET. NETER.
eherem above, is founded on the idea of enfolding; which they fastened to a bush, or a cluster off
ox shutting in the prey. reeds, and at the other was one of considerable
We have no positive information concerning length, which, as soon as the birds weie seen feed
the nets of the Hebrews, and can only suppose ing in the area within, was pulled by the fowlers,
that they were net materially different from those causing the instantaneous collapse of the two
of the ancient Egyptians, concerning which we sides (No. 437). Sir J. . Wilkinson (Ancient
now possess very good information. Indeed, the Egyptians, iii. 45) says the nets are very similar
nets of Egypt, the fishers who used them, and the
fish caught by them, are more than once mentioned
in Scripture (Isa xix. R). The usual fishing net
among this jieople was of a long form, like the
common drag-net, with wooden floats on the upper,
and leads on the lower side. It was sometimes let
down from a boat, but those who pulled it usually
stood on the shore, and landed the fish on a
shelving bank. This mode, however, was more
S7,
to those used in Europe at the present day, but
probably larger, an ! requiring a greater number
of ]K>rsons to manage them, than our own ; which,
however, may lie ascribed to an imperfectiou in
the contrivance for closing them.
In hunting, a space of considerable size was
sometimes enclosed with nets, into which the
animals were driven by t>eater. The spots thus
enclosed were usually in the vicinity of the water
435. brooks to which ttiey were in the habit of repairing
in the morning and evening ; and having awaited
adapted to river than to lake fishing; and hence,
in all the detailed examples of fishing in the New
Testament, the net is cast from and drawn into
boats, excepting in one case where, the draft
being too great to take into the Iwat, the Ushers
dragged the net after their boats to the shore (John
xxi. 6, 8). Sometimes use was made of a smaller
net for catching lish in shallow water, furnished
with a pole on either side, to which it was attached;
and the fisherman, holding one of the poles in the time when they went to drink, the hunters
either hand, thrust it below the surface of the disposed their nets, occupied projwr positions for
water, and awaited the moment when a shoal of observing them unseen, and gradually closed in
fish passed over it. Upon them. The usages of the Egyptians, and,
It is interesting to observe that the fishermen in so far as can he ascertained, of other Oriental
the boat, excepting the master (No. 435), are almost nations, in this resfiect, correspond with the in
timations of Julius Pollux (OnomasL v. 4), who
states that two kinds of nets were employed in
this mode of hunting. One, along net, called
by the Greeks Sfrrrvf, was furnished with several
ropes, and was supported on forked poles, varying
in length to correspond with the inequalities of
the ground over which it extended. The others
were smaller nets, called 4v6ha, for stopping gaps.
These practices are obviously alluded to in such
436. passages as Job xix. 6 ; Ps. cxl. 5 ; Isa. li. 20.
NETER ("1113 ; Sept. and Symmachns, vfcpov\
naked, as are also those who have occasion to Vulg. nitrum ; English version * nitre') occurs in
wade in the water in hauling the net to the shore Prov. xxv. 20 ; Jer. ii. 22; where the substance in
(No. 436). Such seems also to have been t lie prac question is described as effervescing with vinegar,
tice among his Hebrew fishermen ; for Peter, and as l>eing used in washing; neither of which
when lie left the boat to hasten on shore to his particular* applies to what is now, by a misappro
risen Lord, 4 girt his fisher's coat unto him, for he priation of this ancient name, called * nitre," and
was naked* (John xxi. 7); although, in this case, which in modern usage means the saltpetre of
the word * naked1 most be understood with some commerce, bat they hoth apply to the natron, o
latitude [Naked]. true nitrum of the ancients. The similarity of
Nets were also used in taking birds, to an ex the names which is observable in this case is
tent of which we can scarcely form an adequate considered by Gesenius of great weight in a pro
conception. A clap net was usually employed. duction of the East, the name of which usually
Tins was of different kinds, that shown in the passed with the article itself into Greece. Both
cut (No. 438), being the most common. It con Greek and Roman writers describe natron by the
sisted of two sides or frames, over which the net words given in the Sept. and Vulgate. Jerome,
work was spread; at one end was a short net, in his note on Prov. xxv. 20, considers this to be
NETHINIM. NICODEMUS. 417
the substance intended. Natron, though found Gibeonites, on whom devolved the very laborious
in many parts of the East, has ever been one services of fetching water and collecting wood
of the distinguishing* natural productions of (Josh. ix. 3-27). The numl>er of such servants
Egypt. Strabo mentions two places in that appears to have been increased by David ; and it
country, beyond Momemphis, where it was found seems to have been then, when these servants ceased
in great abundance, and says that those districts to be wholly Gibeonities, that Nethinim came
were in consequence called the nitritic nomes into use as a projer name for the whole class (Ezra
or provinces (Geoff, xvii. p. 1139, Oxon. 1807],, viii. 2U). From that time forward, they apj>ear
to which Pliny refers by the name Nitritis (Hist. to have been no longer regarded or treated as
Nat. v. 9), und. describes the natural and ma slaves, but as the lowest order of the servants of the
nufactured nitnim of Egypt (xxxi. 10). This sanctuary; who, although in their origin foreigners
substance, according to Herodotus, was used and heathen, had doubtless embraced the Jewish
by the Egy)rfiani in the process of embalm religion. These did not all forget their relation
ing (ii. 76, 77). The principal natron lakes ship to the sanctuary during the Captivity. Some
now found in Egypt, six in numt>er. are situate of them returned to their duties under the decree
in a barren valley about thirty miles westward of Cyrus, and were placed in cities with the Le
of the Delta, where it both floats as a whitish vites (Neli. xi. 3; Ezra ii. 70; 1 Chron. ix. 27.
scum upon the water, and is found deposited at It was not to Ik* exacted that many of them
the bottom in a thick incrustation, after the water would return to this humble station in Palestine,
is evajxirated by the heat of summer. It is a hut 220 accompanied Ezra (Ezra viii. 20), and
natural mineral alkali, composed of the car 392 Zeriibbabel (ii. 5-). The voluntary de-
bonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda, derived votetlness which was thus manifested by these
from the soil of that region. Forskal says that it persons considerahly raised the station of the
Nethinim, which was thenceforth regarded rather
is known by the name ijj*Jd atntn, or ^j^laJ as honourable than degrading. Their number
natrun, that it effervesces with vinegar, and is was, however, insufficient for the service of the
used as soap in washing linen, and by the bakers temple ; whence, as Josephus tells us (De Bell.
as yeast, and in cookery to assist in lx>iling meat, Jud. ii. 17, 6), a festival, called s.v\o<popia,
&c. (Flora JEgyptiaco-Arabica, Hauniae, 1775. Xylophoria, was established, in which the jwople,
pp. 43, -46). Combined with oil it makes a harder to supply the deficiency, were obliged to bring a
and firmer soap than the vegetable alkali [Bo- certain quantity of wood to the temple for the use
kith]. The application of the name nitre to of the altar of bumt-otiering.
saltpetre seems accounted for by the fact that the NETOPHAH (HQb? ; Sept. Nfra^f), a place
knowledge of natron, the true nitre, was lo>t for not far from Bethlehem in Judaea (Ezra ii. 22 ;
many centuries in this country, till revived by the Neh. vii. 26). Hence the Gentile name Netophite
Hon. R. Boyle, who says lie * had had some of it (2 Sam. xxiii. 28, 29 ; 2 Kings xxv. 23).
brought to him from Egypt' (Memoirs for a NETTLE [Thorn].
History of Mineral Waters, Lond 1681-5, p. 86).
See an interesting paper in which this is stated, in NETZ. [Hawk.]
the Philosophical Iransactions, abridged. 1809, NEW MOON [Festivals; Moon].
vol. xiii. p. 216, &e. ; and for a full description of NEW YEAH [Yeah].
the modem merchandise, uses, &c, of the natron NIBHAZ (trQ3 ; Sept. *E\aCr, an idol of
of Egypt, see Monini's Travels, Paris, vol. i. ch. the Avites (2 Kings xvii. 31). The Jewish inter
xix. ; Andreossi's Memoire iur la VaMedes Lacs preters, knowing nothing of |bis idol, sought to
He Natron Decade Egyptienne, No. iv., vol. ii.; deduce some idea of it from the etymology of the
Beckmt'.no's Heytrage zur GcMchichte der Erfin- name. Deriving it from 1"Q3, 'to bark/ they
dttngen. th. iv. p. 15, IT.; J. D- Michaelis, De have assigned the idol the figure of a dog; although
Nitro Hebneor. in Comment. Societ. Ilegal. there are no traces of any idol of this figure wor
Vrarh't, pt. i. p. 166; and Supplem. ad Lex. shipped in ancient Syria. In theZabiau books the
Helraic. p. 1704 ; Shaw's Travels, 2nd ed. p. 479.
J. F. D. corres|K)nding name, is that of an evil
NETHINIM (DW1?; Sept. No6^). This demon, who sits on a throne upon the eartn, while
neme, which means 1 the given ' or * the devoted,' his feet rest on the IkjUooi of Tartarus ; but it is
vrj applied to the servants of the temple, or temple doubtful whether this should de identified with
.laves, who were under the Levites in the ministiy theAvite Nibhaz. Iken, Dissert, de IdolaNibchaz,
tt the tabernacle and temple. Gesenius (Jewish 1713; Norberg, Onomast. Cod. Nasar. ; Gesen.
Antiq.* p. 289) is wrong in alleging that there is Thesanr. in }TX21.
io trace of tiie name till the time of David. On NICODEMUS (N^otjmos), a Pharisee and
.he contrary, it was attached in the first instance memlier of the Sanhedrim, who was impressed by
o the Levites themselves. Thus God says, 1 1 have what he had heart! concerning Jesus ; but being
yive%\ the Levites a* a gift (Heb. nethinini) to unwilling, on account of his station, to commit
Aaron and to his sous from among the children himself without greater surety than be possessed,
>f Israel, to do the service of the children of retired by night to the house in which Christ
Israel in the tabernacle of the congregation* (Num. dwelt, and held with him that imjiortant discourse
viii. 19 . This, in fact, explains the origin of which occupies the third chapter of John's
the name. The term 'Levites,' however, was at Gospel. The effect which was then produced
first sufficiently distinctive as a title; but when upon his mind may be collected from the fact
subordinate helpers were eventually given to these, that subsequently, at one of the sittings of the
the latter took the name of Nethinim. The first venerable body to which he belonged, he ven
rrvants whom the Levites obtained were the tured to let fall a few words in favour of Jesus,
VOL. IU
418 NICOLAITANB. NICOLAITANS.
whose proceedings were then in question (John the counsels of perfection, he separated himself
vii. 50) ; and that he took part with his col from her; but not being able to persevere in his
league, Joseph of Arimathea, in rendering the last resolution, he returned to her again (as a dog
honours to the body of the crucified Redeemer to his vomit, wjKtW M rhy ffiior Ijicror); ami
(John xix. 39). Nothing further is known of Nico not only so, but justified his conduct by licen
demus from Scripture. Tradition, however, adds tious principles, which laid the foundation of the
that after he had thus openly declared himself a fol sect of the Nicolaitans.
lower of Jesus, and had been baptised by Peter, he Against this account (in which Tertullian,
was displaced from his office, and expelled from Hilary, Gregory of Nyssa, and several other
Jerusalem (Phot. Cod. p. 171). It is added that fathers, substantially concur) we may object( I)
he found refuge in a country house of his cousin That the custom of men putting away their wives
Gamaliel, and remained there till bis death. for the attainment, of a supposed higher sanctity
Modern writers have been disposed to identify evidently belongs to a later period, when the
Nicodemus with a rich and pious jterson of the monastic ideas produced these and similar prac
same name (but also called lionai), mentioned tices. Such an occurrence was natural enough
in the Talmud, whose family eventually sank in the age of Clement of Alexandria and of Ter
into great poverty (Otho. Lex. Rabbin.^ p. 459). tullianthat is, towards the conclusion of the
All this is, however, very uncertain, and what is second century; but we cannot believe it could
stated in the Apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus is have happened in the Apostolic age. (2) It is not
unsafe, and in some parts manifestly untrue. Too conceivable that his taking1 back his wife, even if
strong an appreciation of the world's good opinion he had, on those grounds, separated himself from
seems to have been the failing of Nicodemus, jer, would then be regarded as an immoral it)*,
although Niemeyer (Charakt. i. 113) lias lately much less as an enormous crime, esj>ecially con
made a strong elTort to clear him from this impu sidering what St. Paid had said on the subject
tation. We do not lay much stress upon what (1 Cor. vii. 3-6). (3) Epiphanius, alter stating
he ventured to say in the Sanhedrim ; for he that Nicolas lajised into the greatest enormities,
sutiered himself to be easily put down, and did informs us that all the Gnostics derived their
not come forward with any bold avowal of his origin from him; a statement which throws an
belief. Winer calls attention to the fact, that air of ridicule over ull he has told us on this
although he took part in the sepulchral rites of subject, and proves how little his authority in
Jesus, he did not join Joseph in his application to the matter is worth. 4i
Pilate for the body of his crucified Lord ; and Clement of Alexandria has preserved a dif
justly remarks that such characters usually re- ferent version of the story (Strom, itI. A, p.
quire a strong external impulse to bring them 522, edit. Potter), which Eusebius copies from
boldly forward, which impulse was probably in him (Hist. Eccles.y iii. 29), and which is repeated
this case supplied by the resurrection of Jesus. by Augustine and other ancient writers. 'The
NICOLAITANS (SucoXatrtd). This word apostles,' they say, 'reprehended Nicolas for jea
occurs twice in the New Testament (Rev. ii. C, lousy of his wile, who was lieautiful ; where
15). In the former passage the conduct of the upon Nicolas produced her, and said, Any taie
Nicolaitans, tA fyya ra>v HikoKcutwv, is con might marry her who pleased. In this afl'uir tl e
demned ; in the latter, the angel of the church in deacoti let fall the expression, Sti irapaxpijffcurBai
Pergamus is censured because certain members rfj trapul 5<s u that we should abuse the flesh
of his church held their doctrine, rfyv SiSaxV tvv which, though employe*.! in a good sense by hiin,
'NtKoKcuTwy. Irenxus, the earliest Christian was ]>erverted to a lad one by those who would
author who mentions them, says simply (Con pain to their licentiousness the sanction uf a re-
tra Hares.,, i. 26), * It very clearly appears, pectaMe name, and who from hence styled them*
from the Apocalypse, that the Nicolaitans held selves Nicolatains.' Who can believe that a sect
fornication, and the eating of idol -sacrifices, to should take iis rise and its name from a casual
be things indifferent, and therefore permitted to expression by a man whose obvious sen>e and
Christians.' In short, Irenaeus evidently knew whose conduct were opposed to the peculiarities of
nothing of the Nicolaitans, except what he the sect? Neither can we think the conjecture
gathered from the text of the Apocalypse ; as, in of d' rutins (Annot. in Apocatt/ps., ii. 6) at ail
deed, the concluding words of his short notice probable: 'Mihiveterum testtmonia conferenii,
suggest : * Quapropter dixit et de iis sermo : Sed media placet sententia, qua? Incc est: Nicolanm
hoc habes quod odisti opera Nicolaitarum, quse et accusatum fyKorwrtas. quod, uxorem pulchram
ego odi unless it be his statement that Nicolas, habeus, usitata ilia inter Christianos utriusque
one of the seven deacons (Acts v.), was the founder sexus ]iacis oscula non satis ferret, in contrarium
of the sect. The practices of these heretics were cucurrisse, et exemplo Laconum ac Catonis uxoris
the more reprehensible, as being not only opposed sua* iisurain permisisse aliis, plane quasi in eo
to the whole spirit and morality of the Gosjxil, quod manto et uxore volentibus lieret non pecca-
but a violation of an express decree of the Apos retur, &c.' For it is hard to conceive that a
tles and Elders, issued in relation to this matter custom which was universal could excite any
(Acts xv.). As time rolled on, however, the in jealousy ; and yet more so that a man imbued
formation regarding Nicolas and his proceedings with the doctrines of the Apostles, as Nicolas was,
seems continually to have increased, till Epipha- should seek to turn aside their displeasure by
nius, at length, furnishes us with a full-blown imitating the matrimonial enormities of Spartans
account of the manner in which the proselyte of or of Cato.
Antioch founded the sect which was supposed to It is evident from the fathers, that the Nicolai
bear his name. Nicolas, such is the story of tans with whom they were acquainted were
Epiuhanius (Advert, Hetres. i. 25, p. 76, edit. Gnostics; since they impute to them the distinctive
Petav.), had a beautiful wife, and, following tenets and practices of the Gnostics. But iu the
NICOLAS. NIMROD. 419
snort allusion in Rev. ii. 6, 15, there is nothing of adversity and trouble, in which men prey upon
to identify the tenets or conduct alluded to with each other, and the stroirg tyrannize over the weak
Gnosticism, even supposing that Gnosticism, pro (Isa. xxi. 12; Zech. xiv. 6, 7; comp. Hev. xxi.
perly so called, existed, in the Apostolic age,which, 23; xxii. 5). Hence continued day, or the ab
to say the least, has not been proved 10 be the case. sence of night, implies a constant state of quiet
So that the conjecture mentioned by Mosheim, and happiness, uudistuilied by the vicissitudes of
and which Tertullian appears to favour, may be jteace and war. Night is also put, as in our own
regarded as probable, that the Nicolaitans men language, for a time of ignorance and helplessness
tioned in Revelation had erroneously t<een con (Mic. iii. 6). In John ix. 4 night represents
founded with a party of Gnostics formed at a later death, a necessary result of the correlative usage
priori by one Nicolas. which makes life a day.
Tl>e ingenious conjecture of Michaelis is worthy NIGHTHAWK. [Tachmas.]
of consideration, who supposes that by Nicolai NILE [Egypt].
tans (Rev. ii. 6, 15) the Bame class of persons is NIMRA [Bkth-Nimha].
intended whom St. Peter (2 Ep. ii. 15) describes NIMROI) tVWM; Sept. Nej3o^S ; Josenhua
as iZaKohou&fjvavTcs rfj 655 rov Ba\adfi, followers Ne0pw5*jy), a son of Cush, the eldest son of Ham
of t/ie way of Balaam; and that their name, (Gen. x. 8- 10). Five sous of Cush are enume
Nicolaitans, is merely a Greek translation of rated in verse 7 in the more usual manner of this
their Hebrew designation, the noun Nuc^Acws (from chapter; but a cliange of phrase introduces
icikom and Xaos ; being a literal version of Cy'rZ, Nimrod. This difference may indicate that
while, in relation to the other five, the names
that is, Cy. >^-. The custom of translating have a national and geographical reference, this
names, which prevailed so extensively in modem appellation is exclusively personal. It is strictly
Km was undoubtedly practised also among an abstract noun, signifying contempt, rebellion,
the Jews, as the example in Acts ix. 36 (to which opostacy, impiety ; but ' it is not to be thought
others might be added) shows. Accordingly, the surprising, and it is a thing which, takes place in
Arabic version, published by Ei|>enius, renders all languages, that a noun which in respect of
the words rh tpya row NiKo\a'iratv, the works its form, is properly an abstract, becomes in the
of the Shuaibites, the Arabic Shuaib being ap use of speech a concrete; and conversely' (Ge-
parently the name for Balaam. The only ob seiiius, Lekrgcbaudc, p. 483). But such con
jection which occurs to us against this very cretes usually carry a strengthened idea of the
ingenious and prnlwble supposition, arises from abstract, a kind of impersonation of the quality.
the circumstance that, in the passage, Rev. ii. 14, Therefore Nimrod denotes intensively, the ex
15, both 'they that hold the doctrine of Balaam,' tremely impious rebel. Hence we conceive that
und ' the Nicolaitans/ are specilied, and are it was not his original proper name, but was
distinguished from each other: 'So bust thou aflixed to him afterwards, perhaps eveu after his
also,' ourws cxr xat ov, the Nicolaitans, as death, as a characteristic appellative.
well as the Ralaaiuites, mentioned in the previous No other persons connected with this work
Terse. So that whatever general agreement there must be considered as answerable for the opi
might l*e between those two classes of heretics nion which the writer of this article thinks to
ami their collocation in the passage before us rest u]K>n probable pounds, that the earlier part
seems to imply that there was such agreement of the book of Genesis consists of several in
it a|ipears equally evident that some distinction dependent and complete compositions, of the
also must have separated them the one from the highest antiquity and authority, marked by some
utiter. U. L. differences of style, and having clear indications
NICOLAS (NtKo*Aoo*), a proselyte of Autioch, of commencement in each instance. If this
and one of tne seven deacons (Acts vi. 5). No supposition be admitted, a reason presents itself
thing further is known of him; but a large body for the citation of a proverbial phrase in ch. x. JJ.
of unsafe tradition has been connected with his The single instance of minute circumstantiality,
name, under the supposition thai he was the in so brief a relation, seems to imply that the
founder of the heresy of the Nicolaitans, stigma writer lived near the age of Nimrod, while his
tised in Rev. ii.6, 15. (See the preceding article.) history was still a matter of traditional noto
NICOPOLIS (N*VoAi), a city of Thrace, riety, and the comjKirison of any hero with him
now Nicopi, on the river Nessus, now Karasou, was a familiar form of sjwech. It is also suj-
which was here the boundary between Thrace and posed that those, not fragments, but complete,
Macedonia; and hence the city is sometimes though short and sej>arale compositions (of which
reckoned as belonging to the latter. In Titus lit. eight or more are hypothetically enumerated in
15, Paul expresses an intention to winter at Ni- J. Pye Smith's Scripture and Geology, p. 202),
cojM'lis, and invites Titus, then in Crete, to join were, under Divine authority, prefixed by Moses
hi in there. to his own history. Their series has a continuity
NIGER [Simon]. generally, but not rigorously exact. If we place
NIGHT. The general division of the night ourselves in such a point of time, suppose the age
among the Hebrews has been described under succeeding Nimrod, which might lie the thud
Day ; and it only remains to indicate a few century after the Deluge, we may see how na
in.uked applications of the word. The term of turally the origination uf a common phrase would
human life is usually called a day in Scripture; rise in the writer's mind; and that a motive of
hut in one passage it is called night, to he followed usefulness would be suggested with it. But both
soon by day, the day is at band1 (Rom. viii. these ideas involve that of nearness to the time;
12). Being a time of darkness, the image and a period in which the country traditions were
shadow uf death, in which the beasts of prey go yet fresh, and an elucidation of them would 1*
forth to devour, it was made a symbol of a season acceptable and consonant to general feeling. Au
420 NIMROD. NIMROD.
apparently just reason thus accrues for the inser sequently joined himself to those who had begun
tion of this little and insulated portion of personal it. The former fact is positively affirmed by
history iu the midst of a tablet of the descent of Josephus but it is not protiable that be could
nations. A close translation of the whole passage have any other evidence than that of the general
is this: 'And Cush begat Nimrod: he began interpretation of his countrymen. The late Mr.
[Snn opened a course of action, led the way] to Rich, not thirty years ago, in the extensive plain
where lie buried the ruins of Babylon, discovered
being a hero in the earth [or in the land] : he the very remarkable mound witli remains of build
was a hero at the chase in the presence of Jehovah ; ings on its summit (of which see the figure in the
on which account the saying is, Like Nimrod, article Babbl, vol. i. p. 267. of t hi* work), which
the hero of the chase, in the presence of Jehovah. even now bears the name of Birs Nimrod : and this
And the chief [city] of hi* dominion was Babel ; may well be regarded as some confirmation of the
and [he founded] Ezek and Akkad, and Kalneli, common opinion. The precise meaning of the
in the land of Shinor.' word Birs is said to be unknown ; which seems to
The common rendering, * a mighty hunter/ is be a proof of high antiquity. There is only one
doubtless equivalent to this literal translation. other passage of the Old Testament iu which
The adjunct, * in the presence of .Iehovah,' occurs Nimrod is mentioned, Micah v. 6, * the land of
many times in the Hebrew Scriptures, and it Nimrod.' But it is not quite indubitable that
generally conveys the idea of favour and appro these words refer to Babylon, though they may
bation, as we in our language employ the word very properly be so coustrued ; for it is jnissible,
countenance. Hence some have supposed that and agreeable to frequent usage, to take them as
here the expression is used in a good sense, and put iu apposition with the preceding object of the
denotes that, by the special aid ami blessing of action, ' the land of Assyria.' The repetition of
God's providence, the bravery and skill of this the demonstrative particle adds something to
hero were remarkably successful, in attacking and the former of the two constructions, yet not de
destroying the ferocious animals which had cisively.
greatly multiplied. The Jewish commentator The two different translations of verse 11 have
Aharbanel, with other Rabbinical writers, 1 in been stated and explained in the article Assyria,
terpret those words favourably, saying that vol. i. p. 246. The translation there preferred, and
Nimrod was qualified by a peculiar dexterity which Bochart and many other high authorities
and strength for the chace, and that he offered to have sanctioned, is, 4 From that land he [Nimrod]
God [portions] of the prey that he took; and went forth to Asshur, and builded Nineveh and
several of the moderns are of opinion that this Rehoboth city, and Calah, and Reset) between
passage is not to be understood of his tyrannical Nineveh and Calah, that the great city.' As
oppressions, or of hunting of men, hut of beasts1 of the three last-named places we can find
{Ancient Univ. Hist., vol. i. p. 276, oct. eel.). scarcely a vestige, or rather none at all, in the
Hence they have contended that we have no Scriptures or in profane authors, we seem to have
reason for regarding Nimrod as any other than a here a proof of an antiquity far higher tlian the
benefactor to his country, and, in tliat view, a age of Mosesthus strengthening the idea of a
man acceptable and well-pleasing to Jehovah. collection, above mentioned. The annexed clause,
But the general opinion is. that no moral ap- 1 That [or this] the great city ' (we decline sup
proltatiou is implied, but only that, by his ex plying the verb it or teas, as we can have no
traordinary possession of prowess, the gilt of God, authority for determining the tense) is most
as is every natural talent, he became thus distin evidently, according to the use of the pronoun, to
guished in clearing the country of wild l)ea*ts; be referred to Reseu, and not, as some have up-
and that these exploits led him to make aggressions jiosed, to the remoter object, Nineveh.
upon men. Interpreters, witli scarcely an excep The writer of this article must acknowledge
tion, from the Septuagint and the Targumsdown that he thinks the other rendering, taking Asshur
to onr own times, understand the whole case thus ; for the name of the son of Shem (verse 22), is
that Nimrod was a man of vast bodily strength, the more probable. His reasons are, (1.) The
and eminent for courage and skill in the arts of internal probability as arising from a remark
bunting down and capturing or killing the made in the beginning of this article, that the
dangerous animals, which pro!ably were both whole chapter carries in itself moral evidence ot'
very numerous, and frequently of enormous size; having been written while many of the facts re
that, by these recommendations, he made himself mained iu the traditional memory of tribes and
the favourite of bold ami enterprising young men, natrons: thus this passage would give authentic
who readily joined his bunting expeditions ; that confirmation to a matter of current Itelief.
hence he took encouragement to break the pa (2.) Had Asshur not been the nominative to the
triarchal union of venerable and peaceful subor verb, but the name of the country, propriety
dination, to set himself up as a military chieftain, would have required a preposition separate > r
assailing and subduing men, training his ad prefixed, or the 7\ directive or local to be sub
herents into formidable troops, by their aid sub joined; as we find it in ch. xxv. 184 in the
duing the inhabitants of Shinar and its neigh going [i. e. on the road] to Asshur,' Asshurah
bouring districts ; and that, for consolidating and (see ample and elucidatory proof of this usage in
retaining his power, now hecome a despotism, he Kwald's Gram., Nicholson's tiansl., 420, and in
employed his subjects in building forts, which Nordheimer's Gram. vol. i. $ 642). We are aware
became towns and cities, that which was after of the objection, that this He directive is sometimes
wards called Babel being the principal. Com omitted; but, we reply, such omission is uncom
bining this with the contents of chapter xi., we mon, and an instance cannot be found easily, if
infer that Nimrod either was an original party in at all, of the omission when any importance
the daring impiety of building the tower, or sub- attaches to the idea oflocal direction (see abund
NIMROD. NIMROD. 431
nt examples in Noldius's Particul. Hebr. p. little history of particular persons, as they men
217). (3.) Tlie translation for winch we plead tion them. The person here spoken of is Nimrod,
is the plain ami natural one, the most obvious to of the line of Ham, who is mentioned as an ex
both writer and reader; whereas the other is traordinary character. As lie trespassed upon
artificial and obscure : which would not therefore Asshur, and forced him to leave the land of Shinaar,
be likely 1o be adopted by a writer, such as this his history is so Mended with that of Asshur, that
is, of extreme simplicity and straightforwardness. one could not be mentioned without the other.
(4.) All the ancient versions, except the Targum What is said is so far from being introduced out
of Oukelos (to which unquestionably great defer of its place, that nothing could come in more
ence is tine), adopt this construction. naturally, or with greater propriety. It was im
The objections to this are, (I.) That it is out possible to omit it without rendering the history
of place, and unnatural, to bring in any mention defective. Nimrod was a bold and powerful
of another family, and that a circumstance which man. He seized upon Babylon, and forced Asshur
would have found its proper position in verse 22. to leave that country ; who went out of the land,
To this objection we reply, that there are two and built Nineveh and other cities. This is the
links of association which would dictate the an- amount of it : and what can be more natural and
ticipative mention, the idea of building towns, proper?' (Anc. Mythol. vi. 192).
which has this only place in the whole enumera Concerning the subsequent life of Nimrod, the
tion of descents from Noah's sons ; and the fact Scriptures give not the slightest information, nor
that a sou of Shem, having for some reason even ground for conjecture. But, after seventeen
(probable, though we can only conjecture it), or more centuries, a dubious and supposititious
settled with his tribe among the Hamites, was, narrative got into credit, of which the earliest
either by prospects of superior advantage, or by promoter that we know was Ctesias, but which,
the jealousy and annoyance of Nimrod, induced variously amplified, has been repeated by many
to colonise another district. (2.) That, thus compilers of ancient history down to our own
taken, the proposition comes naturally as the times. Rollin, Shuck ford, and Prideaux, seem
correlate of verse 10; the one laying down the to have given it a measure of credit. It is briefly
commencement and chief seat of Nunrod's domi to this efl'ect :Some make Nimrod to be Belus,
nion, namely, Babel and its dependencies, anil and consider Nin (for os and us are only the
the other subjoining a secondary and subordinate Greek and Latin grammatical terminations) to
annexation. To this we reply, that it is quite have been his son: others identify Nimrod and
hypothetical, and that the How of thought and Ninus. It is further narrated that Ninus, in con
connection is plain and natural upon the other federacy with Aric, an Arabian sovereign, in
interpretation. (3.) That, in Micah v. 6, Assyria seventeen years, spread Ins conquests over Meso
is called * the land of Nimrod.' The doubtful potamia, Media, and a large jiart of Armenia
ness of this interpretation we have already shown. and other countries; that he married Semiramis,
(4.) The learned Mr. Bochart even claims sup a warlike comjjanion and continuatrix of his con
port from the lost writings of Ctesias, as cited by quests, and the builder of Babylon; that their
Diodorus the Sicilian ; and be might have added son Ninyas succeeded, and was followed by more
Justin's Epitome of Trogus. Ctesias lived later than thirty sovereigns of the same family, he and
than b.c. 400, and wrote histories of Assyria and all the rest being effeminate voluptuaries; that
Persia, of which some fragment*, or rather ab their indolent and licentious characters trans
stracts, are in the collections of Pho'ius. He pro mitted nothing to posterity ; that the crown
fessed to have derived his materials from ancient descended in this unworthy line one thousand
authorities in the respective countries; but he is three hundred and sixty years; that the last king
declared by his contemiwrary Aristotle to tie un of Assyria was Sardanapalus, proverbial for his
worthy of any credit, by Plutarch to ta fre luxury and dissij>ation ; that his Median viceroy,
quently a liar, by AulusGellius to be a dealer in Arliaces, with Belesis, a priest of Babylon, re-
fables; and he is characterised by Joseph Sca- tailed against him, took his capital Nineveh and
liger as a petty and absurd writer, full of errors destroyed it, according to the horrid practice of
and direct falsehoods, anil utterly worthless as an ancient conquerors, those pests of the earth, while
historical authority. Yet the utmost that can lie the miserable Sardanapalus perished with his
derived from Ctesias is, that Ninus was the first attendants by setting lire to Ins jialace, in the
king of the Assyrians, that he built Nineveh, ninth century before the Christian era.
calling it after his own name [suppose JVtn That some portion of true history lies inter
AaroA, Mown of Nin'], and that, after his death, mingled with error or fable in this legend, espe
bis widow, Semiramis, founded, and carried to cially the concluding jtart of it, is probable. Mr.
a great extent of magnificence, the city of Ba Bryant is of opinion that there are a few scattered
bylon. How precarious these premises are to notices of the Assyrians and their confederates
support the conclusion, the studious reader wilt and opponents in Kupolemus and other authors,
judge. of whom fragments are preserved by Kusebius;
Mr. Bryant has discussed (his question at large, and in an obscure |UBage of Diodorus. To a
and he gives the result thus: * The chief objec part of this series, presenting a previous subjuga
tion made by these writers [Bochart, and Hyde in tion of some Cauaanltish, of course Hamite
his Dt Reliy. Feterum Persarumt &c] to the nations, to the Assyrians, a revolt, and a reduc
common acceptation of the passage arises from tion to the former vassalage, Mr. Bryant thinks
this, that Asshur, they say, is uere mentioned out that the very remarkable passage, Gen. xiv. 1-10,
of his place, which is the most frivolous and ill- refers; and lie supports his argument in an able
grounded allegation tliat could be thought of. manner by a variety of ethnological coincidences
Nothing is more common with the sacred writers, (Anc. Mytkol^ vol. vi. pp. 195-203). But what
in giving a list of people, titan to introduce some ever we know with certainty of an Assyrian
42? NINEVEH. NINEVEH.
monarchy commences with Ful, about B.C. 760; children the language employed seems to denote.
and we have then the succession in Tiglath- It also appears from the same book that the sta^e
pileser, Shalmaneser, Sennacherib, and Esar- of society was highly complex, organized in divers
naddon. Under this last it is probable that the ranks from the king and the noble to the peasant ;
Assyrian kingdom was absorbed by the Clialda^o- and, if we may argue from the exactness with
BabyIonian. which the number of children is given, we should
As a great part of tlie ancient mythology and be justified in asserting tliat the jieuple were in an
idulatry arose from the histories of chiefs and advanced stage of civilization, seeing that tbeii
sages, decorated with allegorical fables, it is by social statistics were well attended to and care
no means improbable that the life and actions of fully preserved. Civilization, however, had brought
Nimrod gave occasion to stories of this kind. luxury, and luxury corruption ofmorals, for ' their
Hence, some have supposed him to have been wickedness had gone up before God * (ch. i. 2).
signified by the Indian Bacchus, deriving that Yet was not their iniquity of the lowest kind, for
name from Bar-Chtis, * son of Cosh :' and, it is pro the Ninevites repented at the preaching of Jonah.
bable, by the Persian giant Gibber (answering to In contemplating the dim shade of this immense
the Hebrew Gibbor^ * mighty man,' Miero/ iuGeu. city and powerful empire, and being made sen
x. 8, 9) : and by the Greek OWon, wltose fame sible that our sole means of acquiring the little we
as a ' mighty hunter' is celebrated by Homer, in know ubout it is furnished by a few pages con
the Odystcij) xi. 571-4. The Persian and the nected with a seer of the insignificant kingdom of
Grecian fables are both represented by the well- Israel, we cannot fail to be surprised, nor to ask
known and magnificent constellation.J. P. S. how it is that the records of Nineveh itself liave
jierished, and that almost its only memorial is
NINEVEH, meaning the dwelling of Ninus ; found among a petty and despised people 1 If the
a famous city of the ancient world, capital of the memorials of those great empires of ancient days
great Assyrian empire, which stood on the eastern have perished, ami we owe our knowledge of them
bank of the river Tigris, opposite to the present mainly to the Hebrew race, why did not these
Mosul ; its actual site l>emg most probably the Hebrew records perish too? That which pre
same with that of Ntmia and the tomb of Jonah, served them must liave been an influence no less
about threc-fourlhs of a mile from the river, in the potent than peculiar. The sacred writings of Use
midst of ruins, N. Lat. 3(i 20* 17"; E. L. 43 Hebrews were carefully preserved. This answer
10' 17". The name in Hebrew is ITlVJ ; in.the is not sufficient. What nation, having record?
Greek of the Septuagmt, Utvtvt, Nij/tuij; in ordi did not keep tliem with care? A special value
nary Greek, Niwj; Latin, Minus (Joseph. Autiq. must have been attached to the Hebrew memorials,
i. 6. 4 ; ix. 11. 3). The Bible makes the city a otherwise so special and effectual a care would not
sort of colony from Itabylon or Babel. Sliinar [see have lieeti bestowed on them. But a special value
BadEi-]. stating (Gm. x. II). *out of that land implies a special worth ; and we are thus led to
(Haliel, &c in the land of Shinar) went forth recognise the jtcculiar charade' of these writtei
Asshur and builded Nineveh.' After this .simple documents, namely, that they were true and
statement the sacred record is for a long time en divine.
tirely silent resecting Nineveh, which, we may A few years laler we find the prophet Nalluna
therefore presume, remained inconsiderable for entrusted with 'the burden of Nineveh.' From
many generations. At length, some fifteen hundred tliis book it would appear tliat the repentance of
years after the first mention of the place, in the the city, if sincere, was- not durable. Therefore
days of Jcmlmam H., king of Israel (u.c. 825), was the anger of Jehovah about to fall ujxai it
Nineveh again enters by name on the biblical and make it a perpetual waste. Expressions that
record, having meanwhile grown into a mighty are employed tend to give a high idea of the size
power. This re-appearance of Nineveh is acci and splendour of the place : it luul many Strang
dental, and bIiows that the Bible does not profess hoiils, and many gates with liars, proltably of brass;
to give any orderly and systematic history of the its inl>ahitants were * many as 1 he locust ;* it had
world. Other countries come on the scene and multiplied its merchants above the stars of heaven;
disappear, just as 1 lie course of events in the king its crowned (princes) were as the locusts, and its
doms of Judali and Israel seems to require or captains as the great grasshoppers (ch. iii. 12-17).
may chance to occasion. Nineveh is descril>ed So her wealth was prodigious : ' There is none end
in the book of Jonah as * that great city,* * an of the store and glory out of all the pleasant fur
exceeding great city of three days journey,* pro niture.* Tlie reason assigned for the destruction
bably in a straight line through the place, as tl>e of the city shows how great was its wickedness :
large cities of Asia stood on a great extent of * Out of t lie house of thy gods will I cut oil" the
country, having garden*, and even fields, in tlte graven image and the molten image ; I will
midst of them ; and Jonah is said to * enter into make thy grave; for thou art vile' (ch. i. 14),
the city a day's journey' (ch. iii. 4) before lie ' Woe to the bloody city 1 It is all full of lie*
began to foretell its overthrow ; that is, as is most and robbery ' (ch. iii. 1 j. Shortly after (u.c. 713}
likely, he penetrated into the lieart of the place, the delivery of tins prophecy Sennacherib, king of
as being that which was most suitable for deliver Assyria, having invaded Judaea, suffered a signal
ing his burden. The magnitude of tl*e place may defeat by the special act of God : 1 So Senuarh?rib
also be gathered from what is said in the last verse departed, and went and returned and dwelt at
of the book : * That great city, wherein are more Nineveh ' (2 Kings xix. 36). Very brief, however,
tlian six score thousand |>ersons that cannot dis was his dwelling there, for as he was worshipping
cern between their right hand and their left hand, in tlie house of Nisroch his god, Adrammelech
and also much cattle ' (grazing). The population and Shareser, his sons, smote him witli the sword ;
of a place must have been immense in which there and Ksarhaddon, his son, reigned in his stead
were no fewer than 120,000 children young (2 Kings xix. 37). Tlie predicted punishment of
NINEVEH. NINEVEH.
the city was now approaching*. Zephaniah also finest style of Eastern poetry, and adorned with
gave his authority that it would come (ch. ii. 13). the most splendid imagerya description which
See also Isa. xiv. 24, Bq. : 'The Lord will stretch exhibits in the most striking and interesting man
out his hand against the north and destroy Assyria, ner the greatness of its dominion and the grandeur
and will make Nineveh a desolation, and dry like of its statemay be found in Ezekiel xxxi.
a wilderness.' The language which immediately The scattered notices of Nineveh found in pro
ensues goes to confirm the view which has been fane authors agree substantially with the Scrip
given of the commercial greatness (it was the tural account. The phrase, * that great city '
entrepot for the trade of Eastern and Western Asia), (Jonah i. 2), which seems in the Bible to be em
the surpassing opulence, the high culture, ihe ployed as its customary appellation, is found
immense ]pulation, and the deep criminality of applied to Nineveh (NJVor /wycUij) in a poetic
the city of Nineveh. For the account of the de fragment preserved by Diodorus Sic. (ii. 23) ; so
struction of the city we must look beyond the that the epithet would appear to be one by which
Bible documents ; but a description of what the the city was ordinarily and generally charac
place was before its overthrow, conceived in the terized. Its greatness was such that it was deno-
439. [Nineveh,]
minated 1 the Great.' What, however, is most mentioned in Tacitus (Annal. xii. 13), and
important and interesting is the agreement in so is characterized as a casttitunh, or fort, probably
minute a particular of the sacred mid the profane some small fniiificjition raised out of the ruins of
authorities. From Strabo (xvi. p. 737). the place the city for predatoiy ]mrposet. Something of the
appear* to have been much greater than even kind was found there at a later period, for in the
Babylon ; and from Diodorus Sic. (ii, 3), that it thirteenth century Abulfaragius (Hist. Dynast.
measured 480 stadia in circumference, having very p. 404 ; Barhehianis, C/irotu p. 464) makes men
high and broad walls, which, aided by the river, tion of a castfllum there.
rendered it impregnable. This safety was, however, The tradition given by Herodotus (i. 185), that
merely imaginary. Sardanajialus, who had a lull its founder's name was Ninus, disagrees with the
share of die vices of his subjects, endured in ihe Biblical statement, which is that tire city was
eighth century before Christ a siege of three years' built by Asshur, and may be nothing more than
duration at the bands of the Medes, under Axdacea, a repetition of the practice so common with the
which led to the overthrow of the city (Diod. Sic. (iret-kt and Latins, of making founders for cities
ii. 26). But so large and so powerful a capital from the names which tlie places bear.
was not easily destroyed. Nineveh was the seat of The present remains comprise a j,impart and
an Assyrian kingdom till the year u.c. 623, when foss, four miles in circuit, with a moss-covered
it was taken by Nalto|>olassar of Babylon, and wall about twenty feet in height The ruins at
Cyaxares, king of the Medes, which led to the fii-t sight present a range of hills. From these
destruction of the Assyrian kingdom (Herod, i. hills large stones are constantly dug out, from
106). Nineveh flourished no more. Strabo (xvi. which probably a bridge over the Tigris has been
p. 737^ represents it as lying waste: though in the built.
times of the Roman emperors some remains of it Jonah's connection with the city is still pre
seem to have survived, a* a Nineveh on the Tigris served in a tomb which Ijears his name; but how
424 NISAN. NOAH.
far back in antiquity this building runs, it is now Methuselah, and the tenth in descent from Adam.
impossible to say. The tomb stands on a hill, Methuselah, who died at the age of 969, was the
and is covered by a mosque which is held in great longest lived of the patriarchs, and probably of
veneration. Bricks, partly whole, partly in frag all mankind. The genealogy is in the line of
ments, and pieces of gypsum with inscriptions in Seth, who is distinguished in the history (Gen. iv.
the arrow-head character, are found from time to 26) by an interposed observation, that in or about
time. Landseer, in his Sabeean Researches, gives his 105th year 'a beginning was made fur railing
an engraving of cylinders dug up at Nineveh, by the name of Jehovah:' or 'a beginning was
which he states to be numerous in the East, and made for calling upon the name of Jehovah :' or
supposes (o have been employed as signets : they ( profanation was committed for calling the name
are of jasper, chalcedony, and jade, and bear astro of Jehovalt/ i. e. applying the divine name to
nomical emblems, the graving of which, especially other objects. This diversity of renderings may
considering the hardness of the materials, shows a seem very extraordinary; but it is to be consi
high state of art. dered(1), that the jKirenthetic character of the
Mosul, with which Nineveh is commonly iden sentence and its extreme brevity preclude our
tified, stands on the oppugne, or western hank of receiving aid, except inferentially, from the con
the Tigris, and lies so near the river that its streets nection ; (2), that the verb ty}T\ appears not merely
are often floodeda circumstance which calls to to diverge from one primary meaning into several
mind some of the terms employed by the pro significations, differing from each other, yet ca
phetic writers before referred to. This place, like llable of being derived, in different lines of asso
its great prototype, carries on a trade (though to ciated thought, from the primary (which is very
a small extent) between the East and the YVest. much the case in the Hebrew and its allied lan
The climate is stated to be very healthy; the guages) ; but that it belongs to the class of words,
average temperature of summer not exceeding instances of which are probably to be fuund in
66 Fahr. ; but in spring, during the floods, all languages, alike in sound or in spelling, or
epidemics are common, though not fatal. even in both, but most widely different in mean
See Niebuhr, Heiseb. ii. 353, 368 ; Ives, Voyage, ing, and often in derivation, and therefore each
p. 327, seq. ; Rosenmiiller, Alterth. i. 2,116; entitled to be considered as a sejmrate verb,
Bruns, Erdbeschreibung, ii. 1, 199, q. ; Maiinert, having grown from a different radical, probably
v. 440, sq. ; Kinneir's Persia, 256-9 ; Olivier, lost. Dr. Julius Furst, in his very judicious and
Voyage en Turquie, iv. 265; Ainsworth's Assyria, philosophical Lexicography, incorporated in his
p. 256.J. R. B. edition of Buxtorf's Concordance (Leipzig, 1840),
NISAN (JO*?), the first month of the Hebrew makes of ty)T\ four independent verba, having the
civil year. The name, if Semitic, might be several meanings ofto pierce, to turn an object
traced to Y). netz, # * a flower,' and would hence from a holy use to something wicked, to begin,
mean * flower-month/ like the Fl ureal of repub and to whirl round. The question here lies be
lican France. As, however, this is a later name, tween the second and the third of these senses,
posterior to the Captivity (Neb. ii. 1 ; Esther iii. 7), (.i) That the frequent Hebrew phrase to caU^
of the month which was originally called connected by a preposition, especially h fat
Abib, Gesenius is inclined to follow Benfey in seek with the noun for name, sometimes signifies to
ing a Persian origin for the word, and finds it in the apply a name to an object merely, and sometimes
Zend Navapun. t new day,* made up of nav, ' new,*, to do so as an act of religious homage.
and apan, equivalent to the Sanscrit ahm, * day.' Tims the English reader sees the grounds of
Abib, by which name this munth is called in the the difficulty; and so great is that difficulty on
Pentateuch (Exod. xiii. 4; xxiii. 15 ; Deut. xvi. 1), every side as to have compelled the illustrious
means an ear of grain, a green ear; and hence Hebraist John Drusius to say, i Long has this
' the month Abib,' is * (he month of green ears.' passage kept me on the rack, and so it does still
It tlius denoted the condition of the barley in tiie and, after an able investigation, he concludes, yet
climate of Egypt and Palestine in this month. not confidently, in favour of that sense which we
Nisan, otherwise Abib, began with the new moon have put the second. The earliest interpretation,
of April, or according to the Ribbing, of March that of the Sepluagint, seems to have been formed
[Month]. upon a wrung reading, anil few or none regard it
NISROCH 01"|S?3 ; Sept. Mocrop^x), an idol a-* entitled to acceptance. The next in antiquity
of the Ninevites (2 Kings xix. 37 ; Isa. xxxvii. is the Targum (Chaldee Paraphrase) of Onkelos,
38). The word is now usually supposed to mean attributed to the lirst century of the Christian
era; it gives die passage, * Thus, in his days, the
' great eagle,* from ArabymS, eagle, and the sims of men set aside earnest supplication in the
syllable och, ach, which in Persian is intensitive. name of Jeja.' The Syriao has, * Then he began
This bird was held in peculiar veneration by the to call upon the name of the Lord.' The Latin
ancient Persians; and was likewise worshipped of Jerome is the same, both making Enos the agent
by the Arabs before the time of Mohammed. of the verb. But. St. Jerome, in his Qucestiones
(Jurieu, Hist, des Dogmes, iv. 4, ch. 1 1 ; Creuzer, in Cenesim, gives this translation and remark :
Symbolik, i. 723 ; Oesen. Thesanr. p. 892, where 1 " Then was the beginning of calling upon the
also may be seen several derivations proposed by name of the Lord yet many of the Hebrews
BohIfn from the Sanscrit and Zend). prefer a different meaningthat then first idols
NITRE. [Nktkr.] were fabricated in the name of the Lord and in
his likeness.'
NO, or NO-AMMON [Thehm]. Of these interpretations we own that the first
NOAH, the second father of the human race, most commends itself to our judgment ; yielding
was the son of the second Lamech, the grandson of the sense that, in consequence of the awful in*
NOAH. NOAH.
crease of wickedness, the tnie worshippers of God And from the sorrowful toils of our hands;
then began to be distinguished by the appellation From the ground,
sons of God. Thus the clause stands in an Which Jehovah hath cursed.'
illustrative connection with its proper sequel, The allusion is undoubtedly to the penal conse
Gen. vi. 1 j for ch. v. is an insulated j>art, which, quences of the fall iu eaithly toils and sufferings,
In the modern way of composition, would be a and to the hope of a Deliverer excited by the
genealogical table. This was the interpretation promise made to Eve. That this expectation was
of Aquila in the second century ; it is intimated grounded upon a divine communication we infer
in the margin of our common versiuti, and is from the importance attached to it, ami the con
adopted by Piscator in both his Latin and his fidence of its expression. See this subject well
German versions; by Diodati in his Italian, by argued iu Bishop Sherlock's Use and Intent of
Harkspan, by Leclerc (1696), by Bishop Patrick, Prophecy^ Disc. iv.
bv Wells (1724), by Dcreser (in Brentanu's That the conduct of Noah corresponded to the
Bible, 1*20), by Romanus Teller (1749), by faith and hope of his father we have no reason to
Boothroyd, by Leander van Ess, and no doubt doubt. The brevity of the history satisfies not
by many others. Dereser's note deserves to be human curiosity. lie was bom six hundred years
cited : Some pious families began to call them before the Deluge. We may reasonably suppose
selves sons (in the Hebrew idiom equivalent to that through that ]>eriod he maintained the cha
disciples, learners) ofGod^ in order to distinguish racter given of him :* Noah found favour in
themselves from the sons of men, those who dis the eyes of the Lord. Noah was a just man, and
regarded the instructions of divine authority, ami perfect in his generations. Noah walked with
gave themselves up to wickedness/ Wells's God ' (ch. vi. 8, 9). These words declare his
paraphrase is also excellent. Shuck ford gives piety, sincerity, and integrity, that he maintained
his sanction to this interpretation. Yet ttie second habitual communion with the Father of Mercies,
has great weight of both reason and authority in by the exercises of devotion, and that he was an
its favour, and probably the majority of expositors inspired instrument of conveying the will of God
have sanctioned it. None have expressed it better to mankind. The wickedness of the human race
than Bishop Alleigh, in the Bishops' Bible (1568): had long called upon the wisdom and justice
* Then l*egan men to make invocation in the name of God fur some signal display of his displeasure,
of the Lord.' It possesses a strong recommenda as a measure of righteous government and an
tion in tiiat the most usual signification of to call example to future ages. For a long time, pro
upon in the name of the Lordy in the Old Tes bably many centuries, the better part of men, the
tament, is to perform a solemn act of worship. descendants uf Seth, had kept themselves from
* Muses is presenting to us the piety of one family society with the families of the Cainite race.
which worshipped God in purity and holiness The furmer class had become designated as * the
when religion was almost universally corrupted sons of God,' faithful and ot>edieut : the latter
and collapsed' (Calvin). * Religious worship be were called by a term evidently designed to form
gan to be celebrated with greater life and energy, an appellation of the contrary import, * daughters
and more publicly, than had before been * (Jas. of men,' of impious and licentious men. These
Cappell, Willett, &c). women possessed beauty and blandishments, by
The third interpretation, first found in Onkelos, which they won the affections of unwary men,
and apparently implied in the Antiquities of and intermarriages upon a great scale took place.
Josephus, was maintained by Maimonides, Jarchi, As is usual in such alliances, the worse part
and other Jewish interpreters, and adopted by gained the ascendancy. The offspring became
our illustrious Selden, and by Antony van Dale. more depraved than the parents, and a universal
But it can .scarcely be made to harmonize with corruption of minds and morals took place.
the prefix ? before the second verb, which, it is Many of them l>ecame 4 giants, the mighty men
observed by Theodore Hacksjwn (whose eminence
in the niceties of Hebrew and all other Shemitic of old, men of renown ' (D^BJ nephilini)
literature was considered as without a parallel in apostates (as the word implies), heroes, warriors,
the former half of the seventeenth century), de plunderers, 'filling the earth with violence.' God
termines the sense of the antecedent verb to the mercifully afforded a respite of one hundred and
idea of beginning. twenty years (ch. vi. 3 ; 1 Pet. iii. 20 ; 2 Pet. ii.
The father of Noah must not l>e confounded 5), during which Noah sought to work salutary
with the Lamech who was the fourth in descent impressions upon their minds, and to bring them
from Cain. There is another instance of the to repentance. Thus he was ' a preacher of
same name in each line, Enoch ; but the |>eriods righteousness,' exercising faith in the testimony
of each of the two couples must have been very of God, moved with holy reverence, obeying the
different, though we cannot exactly comj>are divine commands, and, by the contrast of his
them, for the history does not give the years of conduct, condemning the world (Heb. xi. 7):
life in tlie line of Cain. The two Lamechs, how and probably he had during a long previous
ever, have one remarkable circumstance in com period laboured iu that benevolent and pious
mon ; in each of them a Iragment of inartificial work.
poetry is attached as his own composition. That At last the threatening was fulfilled. All
of the Cainitic Lamech is in Gen. iv. 23, 24. human kind perished in the waters, except this
That of the Sethite now comes before us in ch. v. eminently favoured an righteous man, with his
28, 29 :* Lamech lived L82 years, and then three sons (born about a hundred years before)
begat a son, and he called his name Noah, and the four wives [Dei.uok].
saying, At the appointed time this terrible state of the
This shall comfort us earth ceased, and a new surface was disclosed for
From our labour, the occupation and industry of the deliver
NOAH. NOAH.
family. In some places that surface would be probably the occasional cause, and from the la-
washed bare to the naked rock, in others sand mediate agency of the Spirit of God in communi
would be deposited, which would he long uncul- cating prophecy. The latter, indeed, is not an
tivable ; but by far the larger portion would be impregnable ground; for bad men might receive
covered with rich soil. With agriculture and its gifts of inspiration, as Balaam and Judas; but
allied arts the antediluvians must have been well Noah was eminently a righteous and perfect
acquainted [Adam]. The four men, in the vigour man. and it is inconceivable that a miraculous
of their mental faculties and bodily strength, ac * influence of God should be granted in immediate
cording to the then existing scale of human life, contiguity with a sinful action.
would l>e at no loss for the profitable application That prophetic denunciation is the last recorded
of their ]K)wers. Immediately alter the desolating fact of the life of Noah, though lie lived through
judgment the merciful Jehovah gave intimations the subsequent ]>eriod of 350 years. It is a pro
of his acceptance of the sacrifice and thanks phecy of the most remarkable character, having
givings of Noah and his family, and of his gra been delivered in the infancy of mankind ; in its
cious purposes revealed in the form of a solemn undeniable fulfilment reaching through more
oovenant for the continual benefit of them and than 4000 years down to our own time ; and
their posterity. The beautiful phenomenon of being even now in a visible course of fulfilment.
the rainbow was put to a new and significant use. It seems more strictly correct in philology, and
As infallibly certain as is the production of a more in accordance with fact, to render it as a
rainbow under certain conditions of the atmo prophecy, than as precatory of malediction and
sphere, so certain and sure of fulfilment are the blessing. We give it in the closest version.
promises of Jehovah. The act of grace is an
nounced in the condescending language which ' A Accursed Canaan !
slave of slaves he will be to his brethren.
was best adapted to the earliest condition of Blessed Jehovah, God of Shem !
human thought [Anthropomorphism]. 'The And Canaan will be slave to him,
Lord smelled a sweet odour; and the Lord said God will make Japheth to spread abroad,
to his heart, I will not add to inflict a malediction And he will inhabit the tents of Shem,
further ujkjii the ground on account of man' (Gen. And Canaan will be slave to him.'
viii. 21). * That old curse,' says Bishop Sherlock,
1 was fully executed and accomplished in the The first port of this prediction implies that, in
flood. In consequence of which discharge from some way, the conduct of Canaan was more of
the curse a new blessing is immediately pro fensive than even that of his father Ham. The
nounced upou the earth' (Use and Int. p. 89). English reader will perceive the peculiar allusion
Noah and his children would labour the more or alliteration of the third member, wlwn he is in
assiduously from the consolation and hope thus formed that the name Japheth comes from a verb,
inspired. Accordingly, in a subsequent part of the radical idea of which is opening, widening*
the narrative, we read, * And Noah began, a man expansion. In two ways one might imitate it ; by
of the ground' (ch. ix. 20), i.e. set diligently to translating both the words, or by coining a verb ;
his welcome labour, the sorrow being mitigated, thus, 1, God will enlarge the enlarger ; or, 2,
the prospect encouraging, and the assurance of God will japhethire Japheth. The whole para
success given by divine promise. The simple graph, short as it is, contains a germ which, like
phrase comprehends the continuity of action, the the acom to the oak, comprehends the spirit of
formation mid prosecution of habit. It is added, the respective histories of the three great branches
'And he planted a vineyard/ Dr. Dereser thinks of mankind. The next cliapter presents to us
that the two members of the sentence should be the incipient unfolding of the prophecy. See the
connected, producing this translation, 1 And Noah, article Nations, Dispersion ok.
in his field-work, commenced the planting of a 'Godwill give to Japheth an abundant pos
vineyard.' The narrative makes it evident that terity, which will spread itself into different re
the occurrence next mentioned, the invention of gions, and will dwell among the posterity cf
wine-making, must have been some years after Shem ; and Canaan's posterity will he compelled
the cessation of the flood ; for not Ham himself, to be slaves to that of Japheth. The following
but Canaan his sou, is the first and emphatic ob cliapter shows how this prophecy has been fulfilled.
ject of the prophetic curse. We cannot with The descendants of Japheth peopled Europe, the
reason assume less than fifteen or eighteen years. northern parts of Asia, Asia Minor, Media, Iberia,
We are thus led to the idea that agricultural Armenia, the countries between the Black Sea
processes were improved, and produce augmented and the Caspian, Great Tartary, India, China,
in variety and in quality. The vine had existed the European settlements in America, and pro
before the flood, and Noah could not be unac bably America itself. They also inhabit in part
quainted with it ; but not till now had grapes the more southerly parts of Asia, mingling freely
been grown of such size, sweetness, and abun with the posterity of Shem, who chiefly peopled
dance of juice, as to strike out the thought of those regions. On the oilier hand, Africa, which
expressing that juice, and reserving it in a vessel was peopled by the descendants of Canaan and
for future use. Noah, we think it probable, knew [other sous of] Ham, was conquered and brought
not that, in a few days, it would ferment and ac under the yoke by the Romans, descendants of
quire new and surprising properties. Innocently Japheth.' [This applies only to the Carthaginian?
and without suspicion he drank of the alluring and settlers in other districts along the north
beverage, as if it had been water from the spring. coast of Africa, which had been peopled by the
The consequence is recorded in the characteristic Phoenicians and other Canaanitish tribes. We
simplicity of style which affirms neither censure have not the shadow of authority for deriving the
nor apology. We regard that consequence as negro tribes, or any of the nations of Medial and
not a sinful intoxication, both from what was South Africa, from Canaan.] 'Down to oar own
NOAH. NOBLEMAN. 427
times Africa has been to all other nations the of Fohi on the mountains of Chin ' (Works, iii.
Bource of the supply of slaves' (Dereser, in the 151-5), It may be very rationally conceived that
Roman Catholic Germ. Trnnsl. of the Bible, by Noah remained long in the neighbourhood of his
him, Brentano, and Scholz, 17 vols. Franc f. descent from the ark ; and that, at last, weighty
1820-1833): an excellent version, made from reasons might induce him, with a sufficient num
the Hebrew and Greek. ber of associates, grandchildren and great-grand
It is an old tradition of the Rabbinical Jews, children, who would be IKirn in some 80 or 100
on which lliey lay great stress, that at this junc years, to migrate far to the East.
ture Noah delivered to his children seven pre Sir William Jones, also, is evidently inclined
cepts, to be enjoined upon all their descendants. to think the seventh Menu of the Hindoos, con
These prohibit, 1, idolatry; 2, irreverence to tiie nected in their ancient Imoks with a universal
Deity; 3, homicide; 4, unchastity ; 5, fraud and deluge, to be no other than a legendary represent
plundering; the 6th enjoins government and obe ation of Noah. The very name is, indeed, iden
dience; and the 7th forbids to eat any jwirt of an tical, Me Auh, the M being a common Oriental
animal still living. Mr. Seldeu has largely prefix, and AW* is Noah without the points.
illustrated these precepts, and regards them as a As the flow) affected equally the common an
concise tablet of the Law of Nature (De Jure cestry of mankind, all nations that have not sunk
Nat. ct Gent, juxta Disciplin. Ebra'0mni)t which into the lowest barbarUm would be likely to pre
excellent work of 900 |>ages is taken up in com serve the memory of the chief person connected
menting upon them. Though we have no posi witli it; and it would l>e a natural fallacy that
tive evidence of their having been formally every jwople should attach to itself a principal
enjoined lyv the great patriarch, we can have no interest in that catastrophe, and regard that chief
great reason for rejecting such an hypothesis. person as the founder of their own nation and be
After this event, we have in the Scriptures no longing to their own locality. Hence we can
further account of Noah, than that 'all his days well account for the traditions of so many peoples
were nine hundred and fifty years ; and he died.' upon this capital fact of ancient history, and the
That he iiad no more children is evident from the cltief person in it;the Xisuthrus of the Chal-
nature of the case, notwithstanding the antedilu da'aus. with whom is associated a remarkable num
vian longevity, from the impossibility of his hav ber of precise circumstances, corresponding to the
ing a second wife without horrid incest, which Mosaic narrative (Alex. Polyhist. in the Chronicle
surely no man of sound mind can impute to him, of Eusebius, so happily recovered by Mr. Zohrab,
and from the absence of the constant clause ofch. in the Armenian version, and published by him
v., which would naturally have come after the in 1818); the Phrygian No'e of the celebrated
28th verse of ch. ix., 'and begat sous and daugh Apamean medal, which, besides Noah and his
ters.' Mr. Shuckford regards this absence of any wife with an ark, presents a raven, and a dove with
mention of Noah, as 'a strong intimation that, he an olive-branch in its mouth (figured in Bryant's
neither came witli the travellers to Shinaar, nor Anc. Myth. vol. iii ); the Manes of the Lydians
was settled in Armenia or Mesopotamia, or any (Mr. W. J. Hamilton's Asia Min. iii. 383," [Na
of the adjacent countries. He was alive a great tions, Dispersion of] ; the Deucalion of the Sy
*lnle alter the confusion of Babel, for he lived .'150 rians and the Greeks, of whose deluge the account
years after the Hood; and surely, if he had come given by Lucian is a copy almost exactly circum
to Babel, or lived in any of the nations into which stantial of that in the hook of Genesis (Dea Syria ;
mankind were dispersed from thence, a person of Lucian i Opp. iii. 457, ed. Reitx; Bryant, iii. 28);
such eminence could not at once sink to nothing, the many coincidences in the Greek mythology
and i>e no more mentioned than if he had not been in resj>ect of Saturn, Janus, ami Bacchus; the
at all * (Connect, i. 99) But it must he confessed traditions of the al>origiual Americans, as stated
that the argument from silence, however strong it by Clavigero, in his History of Mexico; and
may appear in this case, is not decisive. The many others.J. P. S.
narratives of the Bible are not to be judged of by NOB (23 ; Sept. NopjBa), a city of Benjamin,
the common and just rules of writing history. in the vicinity of Jerusalem, belonging to the
Those narratives are not, properly sjwaking, a priests, and where the tabernacle was stationed in
history, but are a collection of such anecdotes and the time of Saul (1 Sam. xxi. 2; xxii. 9, 11, 19 ;
detached facts as the Spirit of holiness and wisdom Neh. xi. 32; Isa. x, 32. From the last of these
determined to be the most practically proper for texts it would appear that Jerusalem was visible
the religious anil moral instruction of all sorts of from Nob, which, therefore, must have been situ
men. The Bible was written for children and ated somewhere upon the ridge of t lie Mount of
poor peasants, as well as for scholars and philoso Olives, north-east of the city. Dr. Robinson states
phers. That learned and judicious author sup that he diligently sought along the ridge for
poses that Noah migrated far into the East, and some traces of an ancient site, which might be
that the Chinese mean no other than him when regarded as that of Nob, but without the slightest
their traditions assign Fohi as their first king, success ( JUbl. Jiesearches, ii. 150).
having no father, i.e. none recorded in their NOBLKMAN. The word so rendered in
legends ; to whom also they attribute several ac John iv. 46 is rtcvn\in>U. which is somewhat
tions and circumstances which apjwar to be derived various in signification. It may mean : 1. A
by disguisement from the real facts recorded in rege oriundtts, descended from a king. 2.
our sacred hook of Genesis. One in particular {nrrjpcTT}^ rov QaciKt tus, one belonging to the
is in connection with a universal deluge ; and court. 3. ctt/xztiwttjs fia&tkcws, a soldier of the
this is rc?ntioned also by Sir William Jones, who king, in which latter sense it often occurs in
says, ' the great progenitor of the Chinese is named Josephus. The second signification seems, how
by them Fohi/ unci that 'the earth's being wholly ever, to be the prevalent one ; and the Greek in
covered with water just preceded the appearance terpreters are also favourably inclined towards it.
428 NOD. NORTH.
MHnter found it likewise in inscriptions. Tbe of gold,' which perhaps corresponds wilh the
Syriac has here, * a royal servant ;' the Ethiopic, Xpvawirbs aiOrfp, the gilded aether, or sky. of an old
' a royal house-servant.' This person was, there Greek tragedian, quoted by Grotius. The sum*'
fore, probably of the court of Herod Anttpas, who Hebrew word seems used poetically for tlte whole
reigned over Galilee and Peraea (Tlioluck, Com- heaven in the following passage : ' He strefclieth
mentar aim Johan. iv. 46). out the north (literally the concealed, dark place),
NOD (113 ; Sept. NoiS), the. land to which (like xpbs $(pov, in Homer) over the empty place'
Cain withdrew, and in which he appears to have (Job xxvi. 7 ; Sept. V oiStr). Hence the mean
settled (Gen. iv. 11). While the site of Paradise ing, probably is. that the north wind clears the
itself remains undetermined, it is useless to seek for sky of clouds ; which agrees with tlie fact in Pales
that of the land of Nod. This land, wherever it tine, to which Solomon thus alludes, 'The north
was, could not have had a name till Cain went to wind driveth away rain' (Prov. xxv. 23). Homer
it; and it was doubtless called Nod (which stvles it ai6prry(yTT]j, ' producing clear weatlier '
signifies flight, wandering), from the circum (//. rr. 171; Od. v. 296). Josephus calls
stance that Cain fled to it. it aidpnoraros, ' that wind which most produce*
NOPH [Meki-his]. clear weather' (Antiq. xv. 9. 6) ; and Hesychius,
NOPHECH C7JD!)), a precious stone, named lTti8t$ios, or ' auspicious'; and see the remarkable
in Exod. xxviii. 18 ; xxxix. 11 ; F.leh xxvii. 16; rendering of the Sept. in Prov. xxvii. 16. In the
xxviii. 13; in all which places it is rendered words, ' cold weather cometh out of the north'
* Emerald ' in the Authorised Version. The (Job xxxvii. 9), the word rendered ' north " if
Sept. and Josephus render it by &Vafya{, or car D'lTD mezarim, which Gesenius understands to
buncle. This name, denoting a live coal, the mean literally ' the scattering,' and to be a
ancients gave to several glowing red stones re poetical term for the north winds, which scatter
sembling live coals (a aimilitudine ignium ap- the clouds and bring severe cold. He, therefore,
pellati, Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxii. 25; comp. Theo- with Cocceius and Schultens, approves of Kim-
phrast. De Lapid. 18), jmrticularly rubies and chi's rendering of the phrase by ' venti flantes et
garnets. The most valued of the carbuncles seems, dispergentes.' By some a northern star is here
however, to have been the Oriental garnet, a trans understood : the Vulgate has arciunu ; tbe Sept.
parent red stone, with a violet shade, and strong cutpuTTjpta (perhaps to le read apKTu-a or cumct
vitreous lustre. It was engraved upon (Theo- ovpos) ; while others, as Alten-Ezra, and alter
phrast, 31), and was probably not so hard as the him Michaelis, regard Mezarim in this text as tbe
ruby, which, indeed, is the most beautiful and same with the constellation denoted elsewhere by
costly of the precious stones of a red colour, but mazzaroth (Job xxxviii. 22), and mazzaloth
is so hard that it cannot easily be subjected to the (2 Kings xxiii. 5).
graviug-tool. The Hebrew nophech, in the breast The word pBV occurs also in the same sense in
plate of the high-priest, was certainly an engraved the following passages : ' the wind tumetb about
stone; and there is no evidence that the ancients to the north' (Eccles. i. 6); 'a whirlwind, out
could engrave the ruby, although this has in mo of the north' (Ezek. i. 4). 2. It means a quartet
dern times been accomplished. Upon the whole, of the earth (Ps. cvii. 3; Isa. xliii. 6 ; Ezek. xx.
the particular kind of stone denoted by the Hebrew 47 ; xxxii. 30 ; comp. Luke xiii. 29). 3. It
word must be regarded as uncertain (Rosen- occurs in the sense of a northern aspect or direc
miiller, Biblical Mineralogy, pp. 32, 33 ; Winer's tion, &c. ; thus, ' looking north' (1 Kings vii. 25 ;
Real-iDvrterbuch, art. ' Edelsleiue ;' Braunius, 1 Citron, ix. 24 ; Num. xxxiv. 7) ; oil ' the north
De Vest. Sacerdol. p. 523 ; Bellermaun, Ueber side' (Ps. xlviii. 2; Ezek. viii. 14; xl.44 ; comp.
die Urim, u. Thummim, p. 43). Rev. xxi. 13). 4. It seems used as the conven
tional name for certain countries, irres]>ectivtly
NORTH (J1DX; Sept. $oppas; Vulg. Sep- oftheir true geographical situation, namely, Baby
tentrio, &c). The Shemite, in sjteaking of the lonia, Chaldsea, Assyria, and Media, which are
quarters of the heavens and of the earth, supposes constantly represented as being to the north of
his face turned towards the east, so that the east Judgpa, though some of them lay rather to the east
is before him, the west behind, the south on the of Palestine. Thus Assyria is called the north
right hand, and the north on the left. Hence the (Zeph. ii. 13), and Babylonia (Jer. i. 14'; xlvi. 6,
words which signify east, west, north, and south, 10, 20, 24 ; Ezek. xxvi. 7 ; Judith xvi. 4). The
signify also that which is before, behind, on the origin of this use of the word is supposed to be
right hand, and on the left. Thus Aquila renders found in the fact that the kings of most of these
the words, ' the north and the south' (Ps. lxxxix. countries, avoiding the deserts, used to invade
12), $o^uay Kcil otfidV, the ' north and the right Judaea chiefly on the north side, by way of Da
hand.' The Hebrew word, translated north, occurs mascus and Syria. Thus also, the kings of die
in the five following senses: 1. It denotes a quarter north that were ' near," may mean the kings of
of the heavens ; 2. of the earth ; 3. a north aspect Syria, and ' those that are afar off,' tbe Hyrcaniaus
or direction; J. it is the conventional name for and Bactrians, &c, who are reckoned by Xeno-
certain countries irrespectively of their true geo phnn among the t>eoples that were subjected or
graphical situation ; and, 5. it indicates the north oppressed by the king of Babylon, and perhaps
wind. 1. It denotes a particular quarter of the others besides of the neighbouring nations that
heavens ; thus, ' fair weather cometh out of the were compelled to submit to the Babylonish yoke
north' (Job xxxvii. 22); literally, 'gold cometh,' (Jer. xxv. 26). By 'the princes of the north'
which Gesenius understands figuratively, as (Ezek. xxxii. 30), some understand the Trrians
meaning the golden splendour (of the lirmament), and their allies (ch. xxvi. 16), joined here with
and compares Zech. iv. 12, ' gold-coloured oil.' the Zidonians, their neighbours. 'Tbe families of
The Sept. somewhat favours this ideaebro Poppa the north' (Jer. i. 1 3) are inferior kings, who were
ritpn xpvaavyoirra, ' the cloud having the lustre allies or tributaries to the Babylonian empire
NOVICE. NUMBERS.
(comp. xxxtv. 1 ; L 41 ; li. 27). 'The families commences with the arrangements requisite for
of the north' (Jer. xxv. 0) may mean a still in preserving good order in the camp of the Isr telites.
ferior class of people, or nations dependent on The people are numbered for the express purpose
Babylon. 5. The Hebrew word is applied to the of separating the Levites from those Israelites who
north wind. In Prov. xxvii. 16, the impossibility had to bear arms, and of thus introducing into
ot* concealing the qualities of a contentious wife, practice the law concerning the first-born, for
is illustrated by comparing it to an attempt to whom the tribe of Levi became a substitute.
bind the north wind, nVTJQV. The invocation For this reason the people are not merely
of Solomon (Cant. iv. Hi), 'Awake, oh north, and numbered, but also classed according to their
come, thou south, blow upon my garden that the descent ; the order which each tribe should
spices may How out,' anil which lias occasioned occupy in the camp is defined; and the Levites
much perplexity to illustrators, seems well ex are introduced into their respective functions
plained by Kosenmuller, as simply alluding to (ch. i.-iv.).
the effect of winds from opposite quarters, in dis The cam]], having been consecrated, was to be
persing (he fragrance of aromatic shrubs (ver. 13, kept pure according to the law of Leviiical
14) far and wide, in all directions. A line de cleansings; consequently all persons were ex
scription of the efl'ectsof the north wind, in winter, cluded from it who were afflicted with leprosy,
occurs in Eoclua.xliii.2U; which truly agrees who had become unclean by a flux, and who had
with the ' horrifer Boreas' of Ovid (Met. i. 65), touched a corpse (ch. v. 1 4).
and in which reference is made to the coincident Tims, after civil and sacerdotal life had been
efleets of the north wind and of fire ( v. "21 ; comp. brought into a definite form, other laws based upon
v. 3, 4), like the ' Bores penetrabile frigus admit' this form came into force, especially those laws
of Virgil (Ueorg. i. U3) ; or Milton's description, which regulated (lie authoiity of the priests in
' The parching air civil affairs (ch. v. 5 ; vi. 27). These regulations
Bums fierce, and cold performs the effects of fire.* conclude with the beautiful form of benediction
Paradise Lost, ii. 59."). which indicates the blessing to be expected from
Josephns states that the north wind in the neigh the true observance of the preceding directions.
bourhood of Joppa was called by those who sailed The people are impressed witli this fact; the hearts
there MeAa^jScjpttor, 4 the black north wind,' and of the Israelites are willing to ofier the required
certainly his description of its effects, on one gifts, and to entrust them to the Levites.
occasion, oft' that coast, is appalling (De Bell. Jehovah is faithful to his promise, and glori
Jud. iii. 9. 3).J. F. D. ously reveals himself to his people (ch. vii.).
NOSK-JKWKL f Women], Before the Levites enter upon the discharge of
NOVICE, or Neophyte (Nc^wtoj). one their sacred functions, (lie law concerning the
newly converted (literally newly planted), not lamp to be lighted in the sanctuary is signifi
y.-t matured in Christian experience (1 Tim. iii. 6). cantly repeated (ch. viii..). These lamps sym
The ancient Greek interpreters explain it by *new- bolize the communication of the Holy Spirit,
hapli.*'d,' v*o&dirri<rToSi ' proselyte,' irpoff^AuTos, and bring to tiie recollection of the nation the
&c. The word continued to be in use in the early blessings of theocracy lo be derived from setting
church ; but it gradually acquired a meaning apart the tribe of Levi, which had recently been
snmew h;it different from that which it Itore under separated from the rest of the people.
the Apostles, when 'newly converted' and 'newly Then follows a description of the celebration
baptised' described, in fact, the same condition, of the Passover, preparatory to the departure of
the converted U'ing at once baptised. For when, the people fiom Mount Sinai (ch. ix. 1-14).
in subsequent years, the church felt it prudent to Some regulations are connected with the cele
put converts under a course of instruction before bration of the Passover, and the whole miraculous
admitting them to baptism and the full privi guidance of the people (^described (ch. ix. 15-x.).
leges of Christian brotherhood, the term Neo^irroi, Thus the entrance of Israel into I lie Holy Land
Kovitti, Nov ices, was sometimes applied to them, seemed to lie fully prejwn-d; and it was of great
although more usually distinguished by the ge importance to show how they were prevented
neral term of Catechumens. from entering it. Accurate details are therefore
NUMBERS is the appellation given to the given of the spirit which pervaded the nation;
fourth book of Moses, which in the Septuagint a spirit which, in spite of the foiliearance of God,
i* called 'ApidfioL and in the Hebrew canon manifested itself in dai ing rebellions against the
be-midbar, ' in the desert.' divine authority (ch. xi. and xii.).
Contents.This book embraces more espe Now comes the turning point of the history.
cially i he continuation of the Sinaitic legislation, Everything seems externally prepared for tfie
the march through the wilderness, the rejection of a conquest of the country, when it appears that the
whole generation, and the commencement of the nation are not yet internally ripe for the jierform-
conquest of Canaan. Thus we see that it treats ance of so important an act (ch. xiii., xiv.).
on very different subjects, and on this account it In immediate connection with this are some
has frequently been attempted to resolve it into laws which were given in the desert; the in
Mpsntte fragments and documents, and to repre tention of which was to reeal to the lecollection of
sent it ;is being comjKised of the most heterogene the rejected race, which had been justly con
ous materials. We will endeavour to refute this demned to suffer severe punishment, that never
opinion, by furnishing an accurate survey of its theless they had not ceased to be the people of the
contents, and by describing the internal connec covenant, and the deitositary of divine revelation
tion of its component parts, so that the organisa (comp. ch. xv. 2, 13-16, 22, 23, 37, sq.). In
tion of the book may lie clearly understood. this respect the facts mentioned in ch. xv. 32-36,
The sum and substance of the law having been and ch. xvi. are also of great importance. They
stated in the preceding books, that of Numbers show, on the one hand, the continuance of an evil
430 NUMBERS. NUMBERS.
disposition in the people, and, on the other, the them ; and also directs them to the ancient bless
majesty of God watching over his holy law. ings granted to the patriarchs. The bitterest
The content* of ch. xv.-xix. are of a similar enemies of the theocracy are here most deeply
character. The facts there recorded relate to a humbled, l>eing themselves compiled to con
period of thirty-eight yearn. The conciseness tribute to the glory of Jehovah (ch. xxii.-xx.ir.).
with which they are stated significantly indicates Not the Go*I, but the people of Israel, were dis
the strictly legal and theocratical principles of honoured through the devices of Balaam.
the Mosaical legislation. The period of Israel'* The subsequent account concerning tlie idolatry
rejection is characterised by the circumstance, into which the jieople were led, forma a striking
that the historian is almost silent respecting it, contrast with the preceding chapters, and evinces
as being a period not strictly belonging to theo the impotence of the Israelites, whose first attack,
cratical history. During this period the striking therefore, was to be directed against their seducer*.
deeds of God, his miracles and signs, the more This was to be the beginning of the conquest of
prominent operations of his grace, and his jie- Canaan, which was essentially a combat against
culiar blessings, cease. The rejection of the idolatry, and the victory of the kingdom of God
nation consisted in this suspension of the divine over jtagonism. The conquered country was
oj>erations. During this period God, as it were, granted to separate tril>es, and for this purpose the
ignored his people. Consequently, the historian tieople were once more numbered, and. Joshua
also almost ignores the rebellious race. Hut the apjwtnted their leader.
period in which the divine promises were to be Jehovah reserves tiis own rights in the distri
fulfilled again forms a prominent pention of the bution of the country, antl Israel is directed not
history. The termination of the penal period to forget the sacrifices to the Lord, the sabbaths,
is the commencement of the most important festivals, and vows; the ordinances concerning
era iu the Mosaical history. It brings the which are lion; briefly repeated, inculcated, and
legislation to a splendid conclusion. The most completed.
glorious facts here follow each other in close The people shall certainly gain the victory,
succession ; facts which were intended clearly to but only in strict communion with Jehovah.
demonstrate that the chosen people entered into Thus begins the combat against Midian, accord
the land of promise, not by their own power and ing to the directions of the law, and forming as
might, but that this lamI was given into their it were a pnttotype of the later comtiats of Israel
hands by the God of promise. against pagan lwwers (ch. xxv.-xxxi.).
Miriam was already dead ; and the forty years This was the last external work of Moses.
of wandering iu the wilderness were accom Henceforth his eye is directed only to tlie internal
plished. Israel was again in sight of the Holy affairs of his people. An entrance has been
Land on the borders of Kdom. Then Moses and effected into the country, and the conquered ter
Aaron also sinned; soon after, Aaron died, and ritory is divided among two tribes and a Iralf-
was succeeded by Kleazar. Israel sent ambas tiibe (ch. xxxii.).
sadors to the king of Kdom to obtain ]>ermis- Muses reminds the ]>eople of Jehovah's guid
sion to pass through his territory, but was haugh ance iu the wilderness, and of the manner iu
tily refused (ch. xx.). Everything seemed to which the whole land was to be conquered. He
be prepared by preceding events already re commands the desl ruction of the Canaunites and
corded. The dying oft' of the real emigrants of their idolatry. He appoints to what extent
from Kgypt might Ire exacted, afier the divine the land is to be conquered, and in what manner
decree that this should come to pass, had been it should he divided ; also the towns to tie granted
mentioned ; the unbelief of Moses arose from to the Levites, and the cities of refuge. He
the protracted duration of the time of punish establishes also the statute, which was of great
ment, which at length Aroke his courage; the imjiortance for the preservation of landed pro
spirit of Kdom arose iu overhearing animosity, perty, that an heiress should marry only u tdiin
because it seemed that Jehovah had forsaken his her own trilw (ch. xxxiii.-xxxvi.).
people. It was appointed that Israel should un There have frequently been rai&nl strong
dergo all tins in order that they might grow strong doubts against the historical credibility of the
in the Lord. Their strenglh was soon proved hook of Numbers, although it is impressed with
against Arad. They vowed to devote all the indubitable marks of the age to which it refers,
cities of the Cauaanites to Jehovah, who gave and of perfect authenticity. The numerical
them the victory. They were directed to avoid statements iu ch. i.-iv. are such that they re|>el
the boundaries of Kdom, and to have Canaan every suspicion of forgery. There could appa
alone iu view. The |>eople murmured, and (lie rently l>e no motive for any fabrication of this
significant symbol of the serpent was erected description. The numlrering of the people is iu
before them, reminding them of their ancient iwrfect harmony with Kxod. xxxviii. 2G. The
sin, and how it hail been healed ami over amount is here stated iu round numl>ers, U'cause
come by Jehovah. In all this Israel is con a general survey only was required. When
stantly directed to Canaan. They march cou reqikisife, the more exact numbers are also added
rageously to the boundaries of the Amorites, (ch. iii. 39, 43.) A later faUarivs, or forger,
singing praises to Jehovah, and, by the power would certainly have affected to possess the must
of the Lord, defeat the kings of Hcshboii and exact knowledge of those circumstances, and con
Bashan (ch. xxi.). sequently would have given, not round, but jmr-
In the plains of Moab still greater glory ticularly definite numbers.
awaits the chosen people. The pagan prophet The account of tlie setting apart of the tribe of
of Mesopotamia, being hired by the king of the Levi has been especially urged as l>earing the
Moabites, is overpowered by Jehovah, so that he marks of fiction; but this account is strongly
is compelled to bless Israel instead of cursing confirmed by the distribution of the cities of the
NUMBERS. NUMBERS. 431
Levites (Num. xxxv. ; Jos. xxi.). Tins distri Many vestiges of antiquity are found in ch. xxi.
bution is an undeniable fact, and the existence of The whole chapter, indeed, bears a characttvlwti-
these Levitical towns may le appealed to as a cally antique impress, which manifests itself in
document proving that the Levites were really all those ancient poems which are here commu
set apart. Our opponents have vainly endea nicated only in fragments, so far as was required
voured to find contradictions, for instance, in the for the illustration of the narrative. Even such
system of tithing (Num. xviii.), which, they say, critical sceptics as De Wette consider these
is not mentioned in Deuteronomy, where the poems to be relics of the Mosaical period. But
tithes are applied to different purposes (Dent. they are so closely connected with history, as to
xii. 6, 7, 17-19; xiv. 22, seq. ; xxvi. 12-15). he unintelligible without a knowledge of the facts
But there were two sorts of 1 tthes ; one aj>- to which they refer.
|K)inted for the maintenance of the Levites, and Narratives like the history of Balaam (xxii.,
the other to defray the expenses of public ban xxiv.) furnish also numerous proofs of their
quets, of which the Levites also jHirtook on ac high antiquity. These confirmations are of the
count of their positiun in society (comp. Neh. greatest importance, on account of the many mar
xiii. 10; Tobit i. 7). vellous and enigmatical points of the narrative.
It has also been asserted that the book of Compare, for instance, the geographical state
Numbers contradicts itself in ch. iv. 2, 3, and ments, which are uncommonly accurate, in
cli. viii. 24, with res[tect to the proper age ch. xxii. 1, 36, 39; xxiii. 14, 15, 27, 28. See
of Levites for doing duty. But the first uf these Hengstenlierg's Geschichte Bileam'a, Berlin,
jiassages s]>eaks about carrying the tabernacle, 1842, p. 221, sq.
umi the second about performing sacred functions The nations particularly mentioned in Ba
in the tabernacle. To carry the tabernacle was laam's prophecy, the Amatfkites, Kdomites,
heavier work, and required an age of thirty years. Moabites, and Kx-nites, belong to the Mosaical
The functions within the tabernacle were com- period. In ch. xxiv. 7, it is stated that the king
]taratively easy, for which an age of twenty-live of Israel would be greater than Agag: and it can
years was deemed, sufficient. be proved that Agag was a standing title of the
The opinions of those writers who deem that Anialekite princes, and that, consequently, there
the hook of Numbers had a mythical character, is no necessity to refer this declaration to
are in contradiction witli passages like x. 2b1, sq., that king Agag whom Saul vanquished. The
where Chobab is requested by Moses to aid the Kenites, at a later period, disappeared entirely
march through the wilderness. Such passages was from history. A prophet from Mesopotamia
were written by a conscientious reporter, whose likely to make particular mention of Assur (ch.
object was to slate facts, who did not con xxiv. 22). There is also a remarkable prediction,
fine himself merely to the relation of miracles, that persons sailing from the coast of Chittim
and who does not conceal the natural occurrences should subdue Assur and Eber (ch. xxiv. 23).
which preceded the marvellous events in ch. xi. sq. The inhabitants of the west should vanquish
How are our opjxments able to reconcile these the dwellers in the east. The writers who
facts* Here again they require the aid of a consider the predictions of Balaam to be rati-
new hypothesis, and speak of fragments loosely cinia post eventum, bring us down to so late a
connected. period as the Grecian age, in which the whole
The author of the book of Numbers proves jiassage could have l>een inserted only under
hirmelf to be intimately acquainted with Egypt. the supposition of most arbitrary dealings with
Tbe productions mentioned in ch. xi. 5 aie, history. The truth uf the biblical narrative here
according to the most accurate investigations, asserts its power. There occur similar accounts,
really those which in that country chiefly served in which it is strikingly evident that they pro
for food. ceeded from the hands of an author contemporary
In ch. xiii., xxii., we find a notice concerning with the events ; for instance, ch. xxxii., in
Z'm (Tanis), whicli indicates an exact know which the distribution of the trans-Jordanic ter
ledge of Egyptian history, as well in the author ritory is recorded, even the account, which has
as in his readers. In ch. xvii. 2, where the so frequently been attacked, concerning the Ha-
writing of a name on a stick is mentioned, we voth-jair, the small towns, or rather tent villages
find an allusion characteristic of Egyptian cirs- of Jair (xxxii. 41, 42; compare Judg. x. 4, and
t**ms (compare Wilkinson, Manners and Cus Dent. iii. 14). Even this account, we say, is
tom* of the Ancient Egyptians, i. p. 388. fully j list i lied by a closer examination.
The history of the rebellion of the sons of The list of stations in ch. xxxiii. is an im
Korah (xvi. 17) lias certainly some colouring of portant document, which could not have originated
ihe marvellous, but it nevertheless bears the stamp in a poetical imagination. This list contains
of truth. It is absurd to suppose that a poet who a survey of the whole route of the Israelites, and
wrote ch. xvii. 6, sq , in order to magnify the mentions individual ,>laces only in case the
priestly dignity, should have represented the Le Israelites abode there for a considerable period.
vites themselves as the chief authors of these cri It is not the production of a diligent compiler,
minal proceedings. This circumstance is the but rather the original work of an author well
more important, because the descendants of Korah versed in the circumstances of that period. A
(Num. xxvi. U) became afterwards one of the later author would certainly have avoided the
most distinguished Levitical families. In (his appearance of some contradictions, such as that in
position we find them as early as the times of Num. xxxiii. 30, 31, comp. with Deut, x. 6. This
David; so that it is inconceivable how any body contradiction may best be removed, by observing
should have entertained the idea of inventing a that the book of Numbers speaks of the expedi
crime *o be charged upon one of the ancestors of tion of the Israelites in the second year of their
this illustrious family. wanderings, and the book of Deuteronomy, of
NUN. OATH.
their expedition in the fortieth year. The list of Hebrew It is from this error of the Sept.
stations contains also important historical notices ; that some of our old versions have ' Joshua tbs
those, for instance, in ch. xxxiii. 4, 9, 14, 38. son of Naue.'
These notices demonstrate the accurate historical
information of the author.
We still dwell for a moment on the consi
deration of the great fact, which is the basis of 0.
the narrative of the whole booknamely, the
sojourn of the Israelites during forty years in OAK [Allon].
the wilderness. The manner in which the nar
rator states this fact, we have mentioned above. OATH (njJUP and H^K), an appeal to God
A view so strictly theocratical, and a description in attestation of the truth of what you say, or in
so purely objective, are mo*t betitting the law-giver confirmation of what you promise or undertake.
himself. Modern criticism has chiefly taken The Latin terra is Jusjurandum, or Jut-amentum.
offence at the statement that Jehovah had an Cicero (De Qfficiia, iii. 29) correctly terms an
nounced all this as a punishment to l)e inflicted oath a religious affirmation ; that is, an affirma
upon the people. This, they say, is incompre tion with a religious sanction. This appears from
hensible. However, the fact stands firm, that the the words which he proceeds to employ : * Quod
Israelites really abode forty years in the wilder autem aflirmate, quasi Deo teste, prumiseris, i I
ness. This fact is nroved in the Scriptures by tenendum est. Jam enim non ad iram deorum,
many other testimonies. Hence arises the ques quae nulla est, sed ad justitiam et ad ridem ]ier-
tion, ^ou this protracted abode was occasioned, tinet;1 which in effect means that an oath is an
and what induced Moses to postpone or give up appeal to God, as the source and the vindicator
the conquest of Canaan. I)e Wei re says that of justice and fidelity. Hence it appears that
such resignation, in giving up a plan to which there are two essential elements in an oath : first,
one has devoted the full half of a life, is not the human, a declared intention of speaking the
human. Gothe asserted, that by such a representa truth, or informing the action in a given case;
tion the picture of Moses is entirely disfigured. secondly, the divine, an ap*>eal to God, as a Being
All this renders the problem of our opponents who knows alt tilings and will punish guilt.
the more difficult. De Wette says, * Who knows According to usage, however, there is a third
what hap|>cned in that long period?' This ques element in the idea which * oath' commonly cou-
tion would amount to a confession of our entire veys, namely, that the oath is taken only on
ignorance concerning what was most important, solemn, or, more specifically, on juridical occa
and what is the real turning point of the history sions. The canon law gives all three elements
of Israel, and would make an enormous and when it represents Judicium, Veritas, Justitio, as
most striking gap in universal history. It is in entering into the constitution ofan oothJudicium,
credible that no tradition should have been pre judgment or trial on the part of society ; Veritas,
served, in which was told to posterity what was truth on the part of the oath-taker \Justitia, justice
here most important, even if it should only have on the part of God. An oath is accordingly a re
been in a very disfigured form. It is incredible ligious undertaking either to say (juramentum as-
that what was must important should have been sertorium), or to do (Juramentum promtssorium)
passed by, and that there should have been com something entered into voluntarily with the cus
municated only what was comparatively insigni tomary forms. Being a religious undertaking,
ficant. If this were the case, the traditions of the ap|>eal will vary according to the religious
Israel would form a perfectly isolated pheno opinions of the country in which the oatk is taken.
menon. Thus the history of Israel itself would In some instances it will l an apical imme
be something incomprehensible. Either the history diately to God; in others, to objects supposed to
is inconceivable, or the astounding fact is, indeed, have divine power; and by a natural declension,
a truth. And so it is. The resignation of Moses, when men have left the ouly true God, they may
and the sojourn of Hie people in the wilderness, appeal iu their oaths even to stocks and stones.
can be explained only by assuming an extraordi Accordingly the Romans Jwore, 4 per caput sunm
nary divine intervention. A merely natural inter vel suorum filiorum,' or * \ter geuium principis;*
pretation is here completely futile. The problem that is, by their own head or that of their children,
can only I* solved by assuming that the whole or by the genius of the emperor. We shall have
proceeded from the command of God, which is by and by to notice similar errors and abuses
unconditionally obeyed by his servant, and to among the Jews.
which even the rebellious people must bow, The essence of an oath lies obviously in the
because they have amply experienced that without appeal which is thereby made to God, or to
God they can do nothing. divine knowledge and power. The customary
For the works relative to Numliers, see the form establishes this, 4 So help me God/ The
article Pentateuch.H. A. C. H. Latin words (known to have been used as early
NUN (flj; in Syr. and Arab., a fish), the as the sixth century), whence our English form is
father of Joshua, who is hence constantly called taken, run thus : * Sic me Deus odjuvet et haec
Joshua ben-Nun, ' Joshua the sou of Nun.' sancta Evangelia;1 so may God and these Holy
Nothing is known of the person who bore this Gospels help me ; that is, 1 as I say the truth.'
name. The Sept. constantly uses the form it Nawj, The present custom of kissing a book containing
which appears to have arisen from an error of an the Gospels has in England taken place of the
earlier copyist (NATH for NATN). From the latter clause in the Latin formula.
forms NojSif and Ncu3f, found in some MSS., If, then, an appeal to God is the essence of an
it would seem that later trauscri bers sup oath, oath-taking is a practice which cannot be
posed this Nauif to be the pronunciation of the justified. Such an appeal is wrong, because it is
OATH. OATH.
a mere act of a creature's will, being unrequired nary law which Moses found prevalent, and was
and unsanctioned by God, in a case in which bound to respect, since no small portion of the
God is made a party to a certain course, which force of law lies in custom, and a legislator can
course may or may not be agreeable to his mind neither abrogate nor institute a binding law of his
(because a wish on the par? of the oath-taker for own mere will. Accordingly, Moses made use of
punishment, should he fail in his undertaking, or the sanction which an oath gave, but in that ge
any part of the same, is an act unbecoming a neral manner, and apart from minute directions
frail man, unseemly in its very nature, and awful and express words of approval ; which shows that
to think of when mans sinfulness and God's power he merely used, without intending to sanction, an
are rightly apprehended ; because it relaxes the instrument that he found in existence and could
general bonds of religion, and morality, and truth ; not safely dispense with. Examples are found in
(for in establishing an occasion when justice must Exod. xxii. 11, where an oath is ordered to be
be done, it authorizes tlie idea that its observance applied in the case of lost property ; and here we
is not imperative on other occasions) ; and because first meet with what, may strictly lie called a
it is founded on an essentially false view of reli judicial oath (Lev. vi. 3-5).
gious obligation ; for as God sees, knows, and The forms of adjuration found in the Scriptures
governs all things, and as all things so each tiling, are numerous. Saul sware unto Jonathan, ' As
so man is bound universally to speak the truth and the Lord liveth* (1 Sam. xix. 6). ' A heap and
perform what he undertakes, bound as much in a pillar' were for a witness between Labau and
each and in all tlie actions of his life, as his de- Jacob, with the ensuing for a sanction, ' The God
jieudance and God's sovereignty can bind a ra of Abraham and the God of .Nahor, the God of
tional and accountable being ; so that it is radi their father, judge betwixt us. And Jacob sware
cally false to suppose that there is or can be any by the fear of his father Isaac ' (Gen. xxxi. 52,
thing special in the obligation of an oath; the sq.). A common formula is, *Tbe Lord do 6o to
tendency of which falsity is not lo raise, but to me and more also* (Ruth i. 17 ; I Sam. iv. 44),
degrade the character, to redan the general which approaches nearly to our modern form,
standard of truth and rectitude, to weaken the ' So help me God,' and is obviously elliptical.
moral sense, by encouraging (he idea that on so Reference appears to he had to the ancient custom
cial occasions, and of course on special occasions of slaying some animal in confirmation of a treaty
on/y, truth is to be spoken and promises per or agreement. The animal thus slain and otlered
formed. in a burnt offering to God became au image or
It is one among those numerous small accord type, betokening the fate which would attend that
ances comparatively with the dictates of right one of the two contracting parties who failed in
.-eason which will be found to prevail in the his engagement ; and the words just cited were
Bible tlie more minutely it is investigated, and intended to be a voluntary assumption of the
which, though now, after a revelation has en liability thus foreshadowed on the side of those
lightened the mind, are discoverable by the mind, who joined in the covenant : subsequently the
are yet so far beyond the reach of the mind when sacrifice was in ordinary cases omitted, and the
left to its own resources, that tlie practice of anti form came in itself to have the force of a solemn
quity I>ears in an opposite directionit is one of asseveration.
tiiuse very important accordances with truth, that An oatli, making an appeal to the divine justice
the Mosaic legislation is not answerable for the and power, is a recognition of the divinity of the
practice of taking oaths, which existed before the being to whom the appeal is made. Hence to
time of Moses. It is found as early as the days swear by an idol is to lie convicted of idolatry.
of Abraham, who made the oldest servant of liis Such an act is accordingly given in Scripture
family swear he would select for Isaac a wife of as a proof of idolatry and a reason for condign
bis own kindred (Gen. xxiv. 2, 3, 37). It is here punishment. * How shall 1 ijardou thee for this?
observable that the oath is a private, not a judicial Thy children have forsaken me, and sworn by
j:ie ; only that the recloral authority of Abraham, them that are no gods' (Jer. v. 7; xii. 16; Amos
as patriarch, must lie taken into account. Tlie viii. 14; Zeph. i. 5).
form observed is found in these words : ' Put, Other lieings besides God are sometimes added
I pray tliee, thy hand under my thigh; and I in the form of au oath : Elijah said to Elisha,
will make thee swear by the Lord, the God of * As the Lord liveth, and as thy soul liveth'
heaven and the God of earth, that,* -fcc. An oath (2 Kings ii. 2: 1 Sam. xx. 3). The party ad
vras sometimes a public and general Umd, obliging dressed is frequently sworn by, especially if a
the parties who took it to a certain coursea case prince : ' As thy soul liveth, my lord, I am tlie
in which it apj>ears to have been sjxmtaneous and woman,' &c. (I Sam. i. 26; xvii. 55; xxv. 26;
voluntary; as when, in Judges xxi., the men of 2 Sam. xi. 11). The Hebrews, as well as the
Israel swore, saying, there shall not any of us give Egyptians, swore also by the head or the life of an
bis daughter unto Benjamin to wife (comp. ver. 5). absent as well as a present prince : ' By the life
From I Kings xviii. 10, it appears to have been of Pharaoh' (Gen. xlii. 15). Ilanway says that
customary to require ou occasions of great coupon the most sacred oath among the Persians is 1 by
a public oath, embracing even an entire ' king the king's head.' Aben Ezra asserts that in his
dom and nation ;* but whether taken individually time (a.d. 1170) this oath was common in Egypt
or hy some representative, we have no means of under the caliphs : death was the penalty of per
ascertaining. Such a custom, however, implying, jury. Selden, in his Titles of Honour (p. 45 i,
as it does, a doubt of the public faith of a people, ascribes the practice to the custom of applying
would hardly lie submitted to, unless on the part the name god to princes (Rosenm. Morgenl. i.
of an inferior. 200, sq. ; comp. Strabo, xii. p. 557 ; Herod, iv.
Oattis did not take their origin in any divine 68; Tertull. Apol. c. 52).
command. They were a part of that cousuetudi- The oath-taker swore sometimes by his own
VUi.. II. 2*
431 OATH, OATH.
head (Matt. v. 36; see Virg. JEn. ix. 300; Ovid, appears probable to me that the meaning of this.
Trist, iv. 4. 45; Juven. vi. 17); or by some pre custom was as if the superior said, with the con
cious part of liia body, as the eyes (Ovid, Amor. sent of his slave, If thou art under my power,
iii. 3.13; Tibull. iii. 6, 47); sometimes, but and therefore prepared to execute my commands,
only in tlie case of the later Jews, by the earth, put thy hand, U a token, under my thigh.*
the heaven, and the sun (Matt. v. 34, 3ft J Kurip. Winer, however, thinks that as it was usual to
Hippol. 1029; Virg. /En. xii. 170); as well as swear by the more important parts of the human
by angels (Joseph. De Bell. Jud. ii. 10. 4) ; by tlie frame, so this was a reference to the generative
temple (Matt, xxiii. 16 ; comp. Lightfoot, p 2S0); powers of man. Uut see on this interpretation,
and even by parts of tlie temple (Matt, xxiii. 16 ; as well as on tlie general question of swearing
Wetstein). They also swore by Jerusalem, as the by parts of tlie body, Meiner's Uesckichte der
holy city (Matt. v. 35 ; Light foot, p. 281). The Itelig. ii. 2SG, sq. It is, however, cettain that it
Rabbinical writers indulge in much prolixity on was usual to louch that by which a person swore:
the subject of oaths, entering into nice distinctions, 1 Tange precor mensam, tangunt quo inure
and showing themselves exquisite casuists. A precantes.'
brief view of their disquisitions may be seen in
Othon. Lex. p. 347, sq. Some oaths they declared Other instances may be seen in Niedek, De Po-
invalid : 1 If any one swear by heaven, earth, the pulor. Adored, p. 213, sq. At p. 218 of this work,
son, and such tilings, although there may be in with the plate relating to it, an instance may be
his mind while using these words a reference to found which cannot be mentioned, but which goes
Him who created them, yet this is not an oath ; immediately to confirm the idea advanced by
or it' any one swear by one of the prophets, or by Winer.
gome book of Scripture, having reference to Him The more usual employment of the hand was
who sent the prophet and gave the book, neverthe to raise it towanls heaven ; designed, probably, to
less this is not an oath' (Maimon. Hal. Schzbhuoth, excite attention, to point out the oath-taker, and
c. 12). So the Mishna (Schehkuoth, c. 4) : If to give solemnity to the act (Gen. xiv. 22, 23).
any one adjures another by heaven or earth, lie is In the strongly anthropomorphitic language of
not held bound liy this.' It is easy to see that parts of tlie Scripture, even God is introduced
oaths of this nature, with authoritative interpreta wiving, * I lift up my hand to heaven, and say, I
tions and glosses so lax, could hardly fail to live forever' (Deut. xxxii. 40). It can only be
loosen monil obligation, and to lead to much by the employment of a similar licence that the
practical perjury and impiety. Minute casuistical Almighty is represented as in any way coming
distinctions undermine the moral sense. When under the obligation of an oath (Exod. vi. 8;
a man may swear and yet not swear, by the same Ksek. xx. 5). Instead of the head, the j)hylactery
formula appear to bind himself and yet be free, was sometimes touched by (he Jews on taking an
contract with his associates an obligation from oath (Maimon. Schehhuoth, c. xi.). Even the
which he may be released by religious authorities, Deity is sometimes introduced as swearing by phy
tlie basis of private virtue and tlie grounds of lacteries ( Touch, fob vi. 3; Othon. Lex. p. 757).
public confidence are at once endangered. Besides, In cases where a civil authority adjured a |>arty,
the practice of unauthorized and spontaneous oath- that is, put a person to an (Kith, tire answer was
taking, which seems even in the earlier j>eriods of given by TDK, ov sivai, 'thou hast said ' ; 1 Kings
Jewish history to have been too common, became xxii. 16; Num. v. 19; Matt. xxvi. 63; Sche-
about the time of our Lord of great frequency, bhuoth, c. i. ; Miseh. ii.). Women and slaves
and must have tended to lower tlie religious, as were not permitted to take an oath (Maimon.
well as weaken the moral character. Pi ter's con Hilch. SrAeM. 9, 10, 11).
duct is a striking case in mint, who ' began to curse The levity of the Jewish nation in regard to
and to swear, saying, I know not the man' (Matt, oaths, though reproved by some of their doctors
xxvi. 74). An open falsehood, thus asserted and (Othon. Lex. p. 351 ; Philo, ii. 194), was noto
maintained by oaths and imprecations, shows bow rious; and when we find it entering as an element
little regard there was at that time paid to such into jKtpular |mctry (Martial, xi. 9). we cannot
means of substantiating truth. The degree of ascribe tlie imputation to the known injustice of
guilt implied in such lamentable practices is not heathen writers towards the Israelites. Tliis na
lessened by tlie emphasis with whir.h the Mosaic tional vice, doubtless, had an influence with the
law guarded the sanctity of the divine name, and Kssenes [Kssknks], in placing the prohibition of
prohibited the crime of perjury anil profanation oaths among the rule* of their reformatory order.
(Lev. xix. 12; Exod. xx. 7; Deut. v. Ill; Certainly, ' the Great Teacher ' forbade oaths alto
Matt. v. 33). gether. Tlie language is most express (Matt. r.
These remarks, tending to exhibit the state of 34-37; James v. 12). Equally decided was the
mind and the manner of conduct prevalent in interpretation put on this language by Ihc ancient
our Lord's time, show with what propriety he in church. Justin, Irena?us, liasil, Chrvsostom,
terposed his authority OR the point, and not only Augustine, held oaths to be unchristian (De Wette,
disallowed the vain distinctions of the Pharisees Sittenlehre, iii. 143). Even modern philosophy has
f Matt, xxiii. 16), but also forbad swearing entirely given its vote against the practice (see Benthain's
(Matt. v. 33). Before, however, we submit his ' Swear not at all*). That no case ha-* l>ecn made
doctrine on this matter to some remarks, there are out by Christian commentators in favour of judi
yet a few words to be added, in order to complete cial swearing we do not affirm ; but we knUsl be
our statement touching the ceremonial observed in excused if we add that the case is a very weak one,
connection with an oath. wears a casuistical appearance, and as if neces
We have already intimated that it was usual to sitated in order to excuse existing usages, and
put the hand under the thigh (Gen. xxiv. 2 ; xlvii. guard against errors imputed to unpopular sects,
291. On this practice Aben Ezra observes : * It such as the Quakers and Mennonites. If in
OBADIAH. OBADIAH.
ferential and merely probable conclusions, such contemporary of Hosea, who prophesied B.c.
as the case consists of, may be allowed to prevail 722. But, as is observed by Jahn, Newcome,
against the explicit language of Jesus and James, and others, it is evident from ver. 20 that he pro
Scripture is robbed of its certainty, and prohibi phesied while Jerusalem was subjected to the
tions the most express lose their force. For in yoke of the Chaldseans, and after the expatriation
stance, it has been alleged that our Lord himself of several of the citizenswhich refers him to the
took part in an oath when, being adjured by the period after the seventh year of the captivity,
high-priest, he answered *Thou hast said' (Matt, B.C. 599. Jahn maintains, from the warnings to
xxvi. 63-4l. But what has this to do with his the Kdomites, ver. 12-14, that Obadiah prophe
own doctrine on the point i Placed at the bar of sied before the destruction of Jerusalem by
judgment, Jesus was a criminal, not a teacher, Nebuchadnezzar; while De Wette infers from
bound by the laws of ins country, which it was a the mention of the * captivity of the children of
part of his plan never unnecessarily to disregard, Israel,* and the 1 captivity of Jerusalem ' in
to give an answer to the question judicially put to ver. 20, that the composition of the book must be
him, and hound equally by a regard to the great placed after the destruction of that city. From a
interests which he had come into the world to comparison of Obad. ver. 1-4, with Jer. xlix. 14-
serve. Jesus did not swear, but was sworn. The 16; Obad. ver. 6, with Jer. xlix. 9, 10; and
putting the oatlt he could not prevent. His sole Obad. ver. 8, with Jer. xlix. 7, it is evident that
question was, Should he answer the interrogatory one of these prophets had read tlw other's work.
a question which depended on considerations of It is not easy, observes Calmet, to decide which
the highest moment, and which he who atone of the two copied from the other; but from the
could judge decided in the affirmative. That fact that Jeremiah had made use of the writings
question in effect was, * Art thou the Messiah V of other prophets also, it has leen generally con
Hit reply was a simple affirmative. The employ cluded that Obadiah was the original writer
ment of the adjuration was the act of the ma (See Kiclihorn's Introd. 512; Rosenmuller's
gistrate : to have objected to which would have Scholin, and Jiiger, Ueb. dte Zeit Obadjah). That
brought on Jesus the charge of equivocation, if not Jeremiah was the original writer has been main
of evasion, or even the denial of his * high calling.' tained bv Bertholdt, Credner, De Wette, and
The general tendency of this article is to show others. l)e Wette supposes (Introd. 235) that
bow desirable it is that the practice of oath-taking Obadiah made use of Jeremiah from recollection.
of all kinds, judicial as well as others, should at His prophecies are directed against the Kdom
Jrast be diminished, till at the proper time it is ites, ami in this respect correspond with Amos i. 1 1,
totally aUdished ; for whatsoever is more than a Jer. xlix. 22, Kzek. xxv. 12-14, and Ps. exxxvii. 7
simple affirmation cometh from the Evil One, (Jahu's Introd,). He menaces Edom with de
in rov xorrjpov (Matt. v. 37), and equally leadeth struction for their hostile feeling towards Judah,
to evil. and their insulting conduct towards (lie Hebrews
On the subject of this article the reader may when Jerusalem was taken (ver. 11, 12); but
consult : Lydii Diss, de Juramento; Nicolai consoles the Jews with a promise of restoration
Df Jttram. Jlcbrerorum, Grttcorum, Romanorum from tlieir captivity, when the Hebrews and the
t (iurumque poptdorum ; Seldeni Diss, de Jura- Ten Tribes (Jahu's Introd.) shall repossess both
nit-nth ; Mblftnbecti De Juramento per Genium their land and that of Kdom and Philistiaa
yiiiu 'tpis; Sjwnceri Diss, de Juramento ;>er prophecy which was fulfilled in the time of the
Anchialum ;all of which may be found in the Maccal>ees, under John Hyrcanus, b.c. 125
*filh volume of Ugolino's Thesaurus A ntiq. Sacr. (Jahn, I. c).
See also Hansen, De Jurament. Vett. in Gretv. The language of Obadiah is pure; but Jahn
'thesaurus. A more recent authority may be and others have olwervcd tliat he is inferior to the
foxind in Staudiin, Geschichle der VorstelL. v. more ancient prophet* in its too great addiction to
Kide ; Tyler, Oaths ; their Origin, &c4. R. B. the interrogatory form of expression (see ver. 8).
OBADIAH (VJJW and iTnjj?, servant of His sentiments are noble, and his figures t>old
and striking (De Wette's Introd., Kng. transl.).
Jfhovah; Sept. 'Afthu6s U the name of several De Wette's translator observes that his hatred
pBISMSl mentioned in Scripture. towards other nations is not so deep and deadly
I. OBADIAH, the fourth of the minor pro- as that of some of his younger conternporaries.
!>h*"ts according to the Hebrew, the fifth accord See Leusden's QbadioJt ; Pfeiffer, Comm. in
ing to the Greek, and the eighth according to Obad. ; Schroer, Der Prophet Obad.t &c. ; Ve-
chronological arrangement, is supposed to have nema, I*cctt. in Obad.y with the additions of
prophesied alwut the year ii.c. 599 (Jahu's In Verschuirnnd Lohze; Kohler, Anmerkk.; Sclinur-
trod.). We have, however, but a small fragment rei's Dissert. Philol. ; Hendewerth, Obaaja Pro-
of his prophecies, and it is impossible to determine phctce Oraculum in Jdumttos. These are the
anything witli certainty respecting himself or his works referred to in De Wette's Introduction.
history. Several ]>ersons of this name occur about w. w.
the same period, one of whom presided at the restor 2. OBADIAH, the governor of King Ahab's
ation of the temple in the reign of Josiah, u.c. 621, household, and high in the confidence of his
and is considered by many to have been the master, notwithstanding his aversion to the idola
author of the prophecy. Another, who was go tries which the court patronized. In the ]>ersecu-
vernor of the house of Ahab, was regarded by tion raised by Jezelwl, Obadiah hid one hundred
the ancient Jews as the author of the look : of the Lord's prophets in caves, and supplied
which opinion is followed by Jerome (Hieron. them secretly with nourishment during the famine,
Comm. in Abdiam ; Sixtus Senens. Bib. Sanct.). It was this person, when sent out to explore th*
Others place the author in the reign of Aim/, B.C. country in the vain search of pasture unconsumed
728-699; while some think him to have been a by the drought, whom Elijah encountered wheu
?,k2
OBADIAH. OFFERING,
about to show himself to Ahao, and who was re (Exod. xxviii. 17 ; xxxix. 10), and also mentioned
luctantly prevailed upon to conduct the prophet in Ezek. xxviii. 13. In all these places it is
to his master (1 Kings xviii. 4-16). b.c 906. rendered 1 sardins' in the Authorized Version, fol
3. OBADIAH, one of the heroes of the tribe of lowing the Septnagint and Josephus (De BelU
Gad, who joined David at Ziklag(l Chron. xii. 9). Jud., v. 5, 7), who, however, in Antiq. iii. 7. 6,
4. OBADIAH, one of the nobles whom Je- makes it the sardonyx (trap&Awl). The sardius
hoshaphat sent to teach in the cities of Judah (2 is the stone now called the camelian, from its co
Chron. xvii. 7). lour ( came), which resembles that of raw
5. OBADIAH, one of the Invites who pre flesh. The Hebrew name is derived from a root
sided over the restoration of the temple under whirl] signifies being red. The sardius or car-
Josiah (2 Chron. xxxiv. 12). nelian is of the flint family, and is a kind of
6. OBADIAH, the head of a party, consisting chalcedony. The more vivid the red in this
of 218 males, with females and children in pro stone, the higher is the estimation in which it is
portion, who returned with Ezra from Babylon held. It was anciently, as now, more frequently
(Ezra viii. 9). engraved on than any other stone. The ancients
7. OBADIAH, one of the priests, who sealed called it sardius, because Sardis in Lydia was
the written covenant which Nehemiah caused the the place where they first became acquainted with
people to enter into (Neh. x. 5). it; but the sardius of Babylon was considered of
Other persons of this name occur in 1 Chron. greater value (Plin. Hiet. Nat. xxxvii. 7). The
iii. 21 ; vii. 3 ; viii. 38 ; ix. 1G. 1 1 ; xxvii. 19. Hebrews proltably obtained the camelian from
OBED ("HIV, serving ; Sept. 'flj3T)5), son of Arabia. In Yemen there is found a very line
Boaz and Ruth, and father of Jesse the father of dark-red camelian, which is called el-Akik (Nie-
David, according to the apparently incomplete buhr, JJescAreib., p. 142). The Arabs wear it on
genealogical list (Ruth iv. 17; 1 Chron. ii. 12). the ringer, on the ami above the elbow, and in
The name occurs in the genealogies of Matthew the belt before the abdomen. It is supposed to
(L 5) and Luke (iii. 32). stop hemorrhage when laid on a fresh wound.
OBED-EDOM (D1X inV, serving Edom ; OFFERING (the general name for which in
Sept. 'AfitSSapd). a Levite in whose premises, and Hebrew is T3!) is anything presented to God as
under whose care, the ark was deposited, when a means of conciliating his favour : which being
the death of Uzzah caused David to apprehend in the Jewish, as well as in all other religious, con
danger in taking it farther. It remained here sidered as the one thing needful, ofleiin.;* accord
three months, during which the family of Obed- ingly have always constituted an essential jiart of
edom so signally prospered, that the king was en public worship and private piety.
couraged to resume his first intention, which lie Ofl'erings have been divided into three kinds;
then happily carried into effect (2 Sam. vi. 10- 1. Inipeiratoria ; 2. Euchanstica ; :>. Piacu-
12). We learn from 1 Chron. xvi. 38, that Obed- laria : the first denoting those which are de
edom's connection with the ark did not then ter signed to procure some favour or benefit ; the
minate, he and his brethren having charge of the second, those which are expressive of gratitude
doors of the sauctuary (1 Chron. xv. 18, 24). fur Ixmnties or mercies received ; the third, tliose
OBIL chief of the camels; Sept. which are meant to atone for sins and pro
'A0faj), an Ishrnaelife, or Arab, doubtless of the pitiate the Deity. Porphyry also gives three
nonrule tribes, who had charge of the rnyal reasons for making offerings to the gods (Absti-
camels in tiie time of Davidan exceedingly tit nentia, ii. 24),in order to do them honour, to
employment for an Arab (I Chron. xxvii. 30). acknowledge a favour, or to procure a supply for
Aj Ohil means in Arabic 'a keeper of camels' human needs. Among the Hebrews we find a
Hieron. (ii. 2), reasonably infers that the person complex and multiform system of offerings ex
had liis name from his office, which has always tending through the entire circleof divine worship,
been a very common circumstance in the East and prescribing the minutest details. A leading
OBLATION IOkkkrinq]. distinction separates their offerings into unbloody
OBOTH, a station of the Israelites [Wan (niri3D, irpo(r<pupai Swpa) and bloody (D'PQT,
dering]. Qv<ricu). Used in its widest sense the term offering,
L. ODED Cnto erecting; Sept 'ClSrjS), the or oblation, indicates in the Hebrew htual a very
prophft who remonstrated against (he detention great number of thingsas the firstlings of the
as captives of the persons whom the army of King flock, first-fruits, tithes, incense, the shew-bread,
Pekah had brought prisoners from Judah, and the wood for burning in the temple (Neh. x.
at whose suggestion they were handsomely treated, 34). The objects offered were salt, med, baked
and conducted back with all tenderness and care and roasted grain, olhe-oil, clean animals, such
to their own country (2 Chron. xxviii. 9). as oxen, goats, doves, but not tish. The animals
2. ODED, father of Azariah the pro|>het, who were required to be spotless (Lev. xxii. 20 ; Mai.
was commissioned to meet and encourage Asa i. 8), and, with the exception of the doves, not
on his return from defeating the Ethiopians (2 under eight days old (Lev. xxii. 27^, younger
Chron. xv. 1-8). It curiously happen* that the animals being tasteless and innutritious. The
address which, at the commencement, is ascribed smaller U'asts, such as sheep, goats, and calves,
to Azariah, the son of Oded, is at the end ascribed were commonly one year old (Exod. xxix. 38 ;
to Oded himself (xv. 8). But this is supposed Lev. ix. 3; xii. 6; xiv, 10; Num. xv. 27;
to have been a slip of copyists, and the versions xxviii. 9, sq.). Oxen were offered at three years
read the latter verse like the former. of age; in Judges (vi. 26) one is offered which
is seven years old. As to sex, an option was
ODEM (D*jfc ; Sept. trdp9ior)t one of the pre sometimes left to the offerer, as in peace and sin-
cious stones in the breastplate of the high- priest offerings (Lev. iii. 1, 6 ; xii. 5, 6) ; at other time*
OFFERING. OFFERING. 437
males were required, as in burnt sacrifices, for, of the nation foreign princes, desirous of con
contrary to classical usage, the male was consi ciliating the goodwill of the Jews, made large
dered the more [wrfecr. In burnt-offerings and contributions both of natural objects and of
in thank -offerings the kind of animal was left to money towards the support of the ceremonial of
the choice of the worshipper (Lev. i. 3), but in public worship (Ezra vi. 9; 1 Mace. x. 39;
trespass and sin-offerings it was regulated by law 2 Mace. iii. 3 ; iv. 16 ; Joseph. Antiq. xii. 3. 3).
(Lev. iv. 5). If the desire of the worshipper was Tlie place where offerings were exclusively to be
to express his gratitude, he offered a peace or presented was the outer court of the national
lhank -offering ; if to obtain forgiveness, lie offered sanctuary, at first the Tabernacle, afterwards the
a trespass or sin-offering. Bunit-offerings were Temple. Every offering made elsewhere was
of a general kind (Num. xv. 3 ; Deut. xii. 6; forbidden under penalty of death (Lev. xvii. 4,
Jer. xvii. 26). Hecatombs or large numbers of sq. ; ])eut. xii. 5, sq. ; comp. 1 Kings xii. 27).
cattle were sacrificed on special occasions. In The precise spot is laid down in Le- i. 3 ; iii. 2,
1 Kings viii. 5, 63, Solomon is said to have * at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation
* sacrificed sheep and oxen that could not be told before the Lord.* According to the Mischna
or numbered for multitude/ 'two and twenty (Sebach. c. 5\ offerings were to be slain partly on
thousand oxen and an hundred and twenty thou the north side of the altar, and, if they were in
sand sheep' (see also 2 Chron. xxix. 32, sq. ; considerable, at any ]>art of the outer court. The
xxx. 21; xxxv. 7, sq. ; comp. Herod, vii. 43; object of these regulations was to prevent any
Xenoph. llellen. vi. 4 ; Sueton. Calig. 14). Offer secret idolatrous rites from taking place under
ings were also either public or private, prescribed the mask of the national ritual; and a commou
or free-will. Sometimes they were presented by an place of worship must have tended considerably
individual, sometimes by a family; once, or at to preserve the unity of the people, whose constant
regular and periodic intervals (1 Sam. i. 24; disagreements required precautions of a special
Job i. 5 ; 2 Mace. iii. 32). Foreigners were ]>er- kind (1 Kings xii. 27). The oneness, however,
mitted to make offerings on the national altar of tlie place of sacrifice was not strictly preserved
(Num. xv. 14 ; 2 Mace iii. 35 ; xiii. 23; Philo, in the troubled period of the Judges, nor indeed
Legat. p. 1014; Joseph, c. Ajnon. ii. 5). Otlerings till the time of David (1 Kings iii. 2,3). Offer
were made by Jews for heathen princes (1 Mace. ings were made in other places besides the door
vii. 33 ; Joseph. Antiq. xii. 2. 5). In the case of the Tabernacle (1 Sam. vii. 17 ; Judg. ii. 5).
of bloody-offerings the possessor, after he had High places, which had long been used by the
sanctified himself (1 Sam. xvi. 5), brought the Canaanites, retained a certain sanctity, and were
victim, in case of thank-offerings, with his horns honoured with otlerings (Judg. vi. 26; xiii. 19).
gilded and with garlands, &c. (Joseph. Antiq. Even the loyal Samuel followed this practice (I
xiii. 8. 2; Winer, Heal-icorterb. ii. 212, note 5) Sam.), and David endured it (1 Kings iii. 2).
to the altar (Lev. iii. 1 ; xii. 4 ; xiv. 17), where, After Solomon these offerings on high places still
laying his hand on the head of the animal (Lev. continued. In the kingdom of Israel, cut off as
i. 4 ; iii. 2 ; iv. 4), he thus, in a clear and pointed its subjects were from the holy city, the national
way, devoted it to God. Hav ing so done tie pro temple was neglected.
ceeded to slay the victim himself (Lev. iii. 2; Offerings being regarded as au expression ofgra
iv. 4) ; which act might be, and in later times titude and piety, nnd required as a necessary |>art
was, done by the priests (2 Chron. xxix. 24), and of ordinary private life, were diligently and abun
probably by the Levites (Hottinger, De Futic- dantly presented, failure in this point heing lield as
tionibus Sacerdot. circa victimam, Marb. 1706). a sign of irreligion (Ps. lxvi. 15; ex. 3; Jer.xxxviii.
The blood was taken, and, according to the kind 11 ; Matt. viii. 4; Acts xxi. 26 j Isa. xliii. 23).
of offering, sprinkled upon the altar, or brought Offerings were sworn by, as being something in
into the temple and there shed upon the ark of themselves holy, from the purpose to which they
the covenant and smeared u[Kin the horns of tlte were consecrated (Matt, xxiii. 18). And in the
altar of incense, and then the remainder poured glowing pictures of religious happiness and na
forth at the foot of the altar of burnt-offerings. tional prosperity which the poets drew, there is
Having slain the animal, the offerer struck off its found an ideal perfection of this essential element
head (Lev. i. 6), which when not burnt (Lev. iv. of Israelitish worship (Isa. xix.21 ; lvi. 7 ; lx. 7 ;
\ I) belonged either to tlie priest (Lev. vii. 8), or Zech. xiv. 21 ; Jer. xvii. 26; xxxiii. 18); and
to the offerer (comp. Mishna, Lebach. xii. 2). deprivation of this privilege was among the cala
The victim was then cut into pieces (Lev. i. 6 ; mities of the period of exile (Hos. iii. 4).
viii. 20), which were either all, or only the best Under the load and tlie multiplicity of these out
and most tasty, set on tire on the altar by the ward oblations, however, tlie Hebrews forgot tlie
priests or tlie offerer, or must be burnt without substance, lost the thought in die symbol, the thing
the precincts of the holy city. The treatment signified in tl>e sign ; and, failing in those devo
of doves may be seen in Lev. i. 14, sq.; v. 8 tional sentiments and that practical ottediencc
(see Hottinger, De Sacrijicus Avium, Marb. which offerings were intended to prefigure and
1 706). In some sacrifices heaving (rUDlTH) and cultivate, sank into the practice of mere dead
waving (tOtim) were usual either before or after works. Hereupon Ijegnu the prophets to utier
the slaying. their admonitory lessons-, to which the world is
Tlie annual expense of offerings, including indebted for so many graphic descriptions of tlie
those made by individuals as well as tlie nation, real nature of religion and tlte only true worship
must have been considerable. It may, however, of Almighty God (Isa. i. 11; Jer. vi. 20; vii.
be said that tlte country produced on all sides in 21, sq. ; Hos. vi. 6; Amos v. 22; Micah vi. 6,
great abundance most of the required objects, and sq. ; comp. Ps. xl. 6; li. 17, sq. ; Prov. xxi. 3).
that there were numerous forests whence wood for Thus the failures of one church prepared the way
use in sacrifice was procured. At later jietiods for tlie higher privileges of another, and the law
OG. OLIVES, MOUNT OF.
proved a schoolinaster to bring ng to Christ comp. Kzek. xvt. 13). In such uses oil, whea
(Matt. v. 23 ; Gal. iii. 24). Even before the fresh and sweet, is more agreeable than animal fat.
advent of our Lord pious and reflecting men, like Tlie Orientals think so ; and Europeans soon ac
the Essenes, discovered the lamentable abuses of quire the same preference. Oil was also in many
the national ritual, and were led to abstain alto cases taken as a meat-offering fLev. v. 1 1 ; Num.
gether from the customary forms of a mere out v. 15); and it was then mixed with the meal of
ward worship (Joseph. Antiq. xviii. 1.5). The oblation (Exod. xxix. 40; Lev. ii. 4 ; vi. 21 ; vii.
50th Psalm must have had great influence in 12; Num. vi. 15) [OvvutiNo]. The rite of
preparing the minds of thinking men fur a pure sprinkling with oil, as a libation, does not occur
and spiritual form of worship, the rather because in the law, but seems to be alluded to in Micah
some of its principles strike at the very root of all vi. 7.
offerings of a mere outward kind : thus, 4 1 will The application of oil to the person has been de
take no bullock out of thy house, nor he-goats scried in the article Anointing. Whether for
out of thy folds; for every beast of the forest is luxury or ceremony, the head and beard were
mine, and the cattle upon a thousand hills. If I the parts usually anointed (Deut. xxviii. 40 ;
were hungry I would iwt tell thee ; for the world 2 Sam. xiv. 2 : Ps. xxiii. 5 ; xcii. 11 ; civ. 15 ;
is mine, and the fulness thereof. Will I eat the Luke vii. 46); and this use of oil became at
flesh of bulls or drink the blood of goats ? Offer length proverbially common among the Israelites
unto God thanksgiving.1 Indeed the conception (Prov. xxi. 17>
and composition of such a noble piece show The employment of oil for burning has been
what great progress the best cultivated minds had illustrated in the article L ami's. It is only neces
made from the mdimental notions of primitive sary to add, that for this, and indeed for most
times, and may serve of themselves to prove that other purposes, olive-oil was considered the l>est,
with all the abuses which had ensued, the Mosaic and was therefore used in the lamps of the taber
ritual and institutions were admirably tilted to nacle. Tire custom of anointing the diseased
carry forward the education of tlie mind of the and the dead has been noticed in tlie article
people. Thus was tlie Hebrew nation, and Anointino; and for the use and composition of
through them the world, led on so as to he in fragrant oils and ointments, see Perfumes.
some measure prepared for receiving tlie Gospel The numerous olive-plantations in Palestine
of the Lord Jesus, in which all outward offerings made olive-oil one of tlie chief, and one of the
are done away, the one great offering being made, most lucrative products of tlie country : it sup
and all those who are members of the church are plied an article uf exteusive and profitable traffic
required to offer themselves, body, soul and spirit, with live Tynans (Ezek. XXVii. 17 ; comp. 1 Kings
a holy offering to the Lord (HeU. x. ; Rom. xii.\ v. 11); and presents of the finer sorts of olive-oil
' By Him therefore let us offer the sacrilice of praise were deemed suitable for kiitgs. There is in fact
to God continually, that is, the fruit of our lips, no other kind of oil distinctly mentioned in
giving thanks to his name. Hut to do good and Scripture; and the best, middling, and inferior oils
to communicate forget not; for with such sacri appear to have been merely different qualities of
fices God is well pleased* (Heb. xiii. 15, 16; olive-oil. The berries of the olive-tree were some
Matt. ix. 13 ; xii. 7 ; Rom. xv. 16 ; Phil. ii. 17 ; times plucked, or carefully shaken off by the hand,
2 Tim. iv. 6> l>efore they were ripe (Deut. xxiv. 20; Isa. xvii.
Lightfoot's work, Dc Ministerio Tcmpli, is 6; xxiv. 13). If while they were yet green, in
especially to be recommended on this subject; stead of being thrown into the press, they were
see also Outram, De Sacrif.; Roland, Antiq. only beaten or squeezed, they yielded the best
Sacr. iii. 1 ; Uauer, Gottesd. Veifass. i. 80, sq. ; kind of oil. It was called Ophacmumf or the
Rosenmuller, Kxcur&. I. ad Lev. The Jewish oil of unripe olives, and also * beaten' or ' fieaU
doctrines on offerings may be found in tlie trea oil* (Exod. xxvii. 20). There were presses of a
tises ScbacJiioty MenaeJioth, and Temttrn ; a se peculiar kind for piepanBg oil called JDS? T\X
lection from which, as well as from the Rabbins, gatli-shcmcn (whence the name Getlisemane, or
is given in that useful little work, Othon. Lex. oil-pies*,* Matt. xxvi. 36; John xviii. 1), in
Talimtd. p. 621, sq. ; sec Ugolin. Tihe&aur. torn, which the oil was trodden out by the feet (Micah
xix.J.R.B. vi. 15). The first expression of the oil was better
OG giant; Sept. *fly)y an Amoritish than the second, ami the second than the third.
king of Bashan (Num. xxi. 33 ; xxxii. 33; Deuf. Ripe olives yielded tlie least valuable kind of oil,
iv. 47; xxxl. 4). In form he was a giant, so but the quantity was more abundant. The best
tftat his bedstead was preserved as a memorial of sort of oil was prepared with fragrant spices, and
his huge stature (Dent. iii. H ; Josh. xiii. 12) was used in anointing: the inferior sorts were
[UkdJ. He was defeated by tlie Israelites under used with food and for lamp*.
Moses (Num. xxi. 33; Deut. i. 4; iii. 3); and OLIVE-TREE. [Zayi-j.]
bis country, which contained many walled cities OLIVES, MOUNT OF. a mountain oi ridge
(Deut. iii. 4-10), was assigned to tlie tribe of now called by the Arabs Jelwl et-Tur. lying to
Manasseh (Dent. iii. 13: Josh. xiii. 30) [Amq- the east of Jerusalem, from which it is separated
hites; Bash an ; Giant]. only by the narrow valley of JeWuhaphat. To
wards the south it sinks down into a lower ridge,
OIL (TDK* ; Sept. e\atov) was far more exten over against the so-called 'well of Nehemiak'
sively used among tlie ancient Hebrews than in now called by Franks tlie Mount of Offence, in
our northern climate. The use wf oil is equally allusion to the idolatrous worship established by
general throughout Western Asia at tlie present Solomon 'on tlie hill that is before,' tiiat is,
time, as it was in primitive ages. Oil was much eastward of * Jerusalem.* lu this direction lies
used instead of butter and animal far, at meats the usual road to Bethany, so often trodden by
and in various preparations of food ("see Food and our Saviour, About a mile towards the north it
OLYMPAS. ON. 430
another summit, nearly or quite as high as the binical tradition is, that the wife of On persuaded
middle one. The ridge between the two bends her husband to abandon the enterprise.
slightly eastward, leaving room for the valley below ON (J1N ; Sept. 'HAjouiroA.n), one of the oldest
to expand somewhat in that part. The view of cities in the world, situated in Lower Egypt,
the Holy City and of the Dead Sea, from the alxmt two hours N.N.E. from Cairo. The Sep-
southern summit, is described in the article tuagint translates the name On by Heliupolis,
Jerusalem ; that from the northern summit does which signifies 1 city of the sun ;' and in Jer. xliii.
not embrace the Dead Sea. The elevation of the 13, it bears a name, Beth-shcmesh (uppidum solis,
central peak of the Mount of Olives is stated by Pliny, Hist, Xat. v. 1 1 ), ofequivalent im|iort. On
Schubert (Reue, ii. 341) at 2556 Paris feet, or 116 is a Coptic and ancient Egyptian word, signifying
Paris feet above the valley of Jehoshaphat; and light and the mm (Ritter, Erdk. i 822). The
hence it appears to be 1 75 Paris feet above the site is now marked by low mounds, enclosing a
highest part of Mount Zion. Beyond the northern space about three quarters of a mile in length by
summit the ridge sweeps round towards the west, half a mile iu breadth, which was once occupied
and spreads out into the high level tract north of by houses and by the celebrated Temple of the
the city, which is skirted on the west and south Sun. This area is at present a ploughed field,
by the upper part of the valley of Jehoshaphat a garden of herbs ; and the solitary obelisk which
(Robinson s Researches, ii. 405-407 ; Olin's still rises in the midst of it is the sole remnant of the
Travels, ii. 127). This inconsiderable ridge de former splendours of the place. In the days of
rives all its importance from its connection with Edrisi and Abdallatif the place bore the name of
Jerusalem, and from the sacred associations which Ain Shems ; and in the neighbouring village,
hence became connected with it. To the mount Matariyeh, is still shown an ancient well bearing
whose ascent David ' went up, weeping and bare the same name. Near by it is a very old sycamore,
foot,' to which our Saviour olttimes withdrew with its trunk straggling and gnarled, under which le
his disciples, over which he often passed, and from gendary tradition relates that the holy family
which he eventually ascended into heaven, be once rested (Robinson's Biblical Researches, i. 36),
longs a higher degree of sacred and moral interest Heliopolis was the capital of a district or rvmos
than is to be found in mere physical magnitude, bearing the same name (Plin. Hist. Nat. v. 9 ;
or than the record connects even with Lebanon, Ptolem. iv. 8).
Tabor, or Ararat.
OLYMPAS ('OXvjiMrSt), a Christian at Rome,
whom Paul salutes in his Epistle to the Romans
(Rom. xvi. 15).
OMEGA (Q), the last letter of the Greek
alphabet, proverbially applied to express the end,
as Alpha (A), the first letter, the beginning of any
thing [Alpha].
OMER [VVeiohts and Measures].
OMRI C"rt5JJ, God-taught; Sept. 'Attfyl), sixth
king of Israel, who began to reign in B.C. 929, and
reigned twelve years. He was raised to the throne
by the army, while it was engageil in the siege of
Gibbethon, a Levitical city in Dan, of which the
Philistines had gained possession, when the news
came to the camp of the death of Blah, and the
usurpation of Zimri. On this, the army pro
claimed their general, Omri, king of Israel. He
then lost not a moment, but leaving Gibbethon in
the power of the infidels, went and besieged his
competitor in Tirzah. But he was no sooner de
livered of this rival [Zimri], than another ap
peared in the person of Tibui, whi m a jwrt of
the people had raised to the throne, probably from
unwillingness to submit to military dictation. 440.
This occasioned a civil war, which lasted six
yeais, and left Omri undisputed master of the The place is mentioned in Gen. xli. 45, where
throne, B.C. 925. His reign lasted six years it is said that Pharaoh gave to Joseph a wife,
more, and its chief event was the foundation of Asenath, the daughter of Poti-pherah, priest of
.Samaria, which thenceforth became the capital On (ver. 50). From the passage iu Jeremiah (ut
city of the kingdom of Israel (1 Kings xvi. 15- supra), it may be inferred that it was distin
28). [Samaria.] guished for idolatrous worship : * He shall break
ON (flK, strength ; Sept. 'AtV), a chief of the also the images of Beth-shemesh that is in the
tribe of Reuben, who was one of the accomplices laud of Egypt, and the houses of the gods of the
of Korali in the revolt against the authority of Egyptians shall he burn with tire.' The names,
Moses and Aaron. He is mentioned among ibe ' City of the Sun,' 4 Temples of the Sun," connected
leaders of this conspiracy in the first instance with the place, taken iu conjunction with the
(Num. xvi. 17), but does not appear in any of woids just cited from the prophet, seem to refer
the subsequent transactions, and is not by name the mind to the purer form of won,hip which pre*
included iu the final punishment. The liab- vailed at a very early period in Egypt, namely,
140 OUAN. OPHEL.
the worship of the heavenly bodies, and thence to mltted, was punished by premature deuth (Gen,
carry the thought* to the deterioration* which it xxxviii. 4, sq,).
afterwards underwent in sinking to the adoration
of images and animals. ONESIMUS ('OvVimos, profitable), a slavs
The trace* of this city which are found in his belonging to Philemon of Colossas, who fled from
classic authors correspond with the little of it L*onverted master, and proceeded to Rome, where he was
by St. Paul, who sent him back to hi*
that we know from the brief intimations of Holy master,
Writ. According to Herodotus (ii. 59), Heliopolis an eloquent a friend ami convert of the apostle, jwith
was one of the four great citic* that were rendered scribed in theletter, the purport of which is de
article Phii.rmon. Onesimus,
famous in Egypt by being the centres of solemn accompanied by Tychicu*. left Rome with not
religious festivals, which were attended by splendid only this epistle, hut with those to the Ephesians
processions and homage to the gods. In Heliopolis and Colossians (Col. iv. 'J). It is believed that
the observance was held in honour of the sun. Onesimus, anxious
The majesty of these sacred visits may be Itest Paul reused in him,to by justify the confidence which
appearing speedily before
learned now by a careful study of the temple* (in his
their ruin*) in which the rile* were )>erfortned the master, left Tychicu* to take the Epistle to
Ephesians ; and hastened to Colossae, where
(Wilkinson's Anc. Egyptians'). Heliopolis had its
priesthood, a numerous and learned body, cele he doubtless received the forgiveness which Paul
had so touchingly implored for him as *a brother
brated itefore other Egyptians for their historical beloved ' (Canon. Apost. 73). An uncertain
and antiquarian lore ; it long continued the uni tradition
versity of the Egyptians, the chief seat of their of Ueraea, makes Onesimus to have Iteen bishop
where he is said to have suffered mar
science (Kenrick's Herod, ii. 3; Wilkinson);
the priests dwelt as a holy community in a spa tyrdom (Const. Apostol vii. 46). The part
cious structure appropriated to their use. In which Paul took in this difficult and trying case
is highly honourable to him ; while for Onesimus
St mho's time the halls were to be seen in which himself,
Eudoxus and Plato had studied under the direc friendshiptheand highest praise is. that he obtained the
confluence of the apostle.
tion of the priests of Heliojwlis. A detailed de
scription of the temple, with its long alleys of 0N ESI PH ()RUS ('0*tjfflfopos, Mj|MM
sphinxes, ol>elisks, &c, may be found in Stralx> a believer of Ephesus, who came to Rome during
(xvii. ; Joseph, c. Apion. ii. 2), who says that the the second captivity of St. Paul in that city ; and
mural sculpture in it was very similar to the old having found out the apostle, who was in custody
Etruscan and Grecian works. In the temple a of a soldier, to whose aim his own w.is chained,
bullock was feda symbol of the god Mnevis. was not ashamed of his chain,' but attended him
The city sufTered heavily by the Persian invasion. frequently, and rendered him all the services in
From the time of Shaw and Pococke, the place his power. This faithful attachment, at a time of
has been described by many travellers. At an calamity and desertion, was fully appreciated
early period remain* of the famous temple were ami well remembered bv the apostle, who. in his
found. Abdallatif (a.d. 1200) saw many colossal Epistle to Timothy, carefully record* the circum
sphinxes, partly prostrate, partly standing. He stance; and, after charging him to salute in hi*
also saw the gates or propyltea of ihe temple co- name * the household of Ouesiphorus,' expresses
veredwith inscription*; he describes two immense the most earnest and grateful wishes for his spi
oltelisks wliose summits were covered with massive ritual welfare (1 Tim. ii. 16-lft). It would ap-
brass, around which were other* one-half or one- i>ear from this that Ouesiphorus nad then quitted
third the size of the first, placed in so thick a mass Home.
that they could scarcely he counted ; most of them ONION. [Betzal.]
thrown down. An oltelisk which the Kn ei .
Augustus caused to lw carried to Rome, and ONYX. [Yahalom.]
placed in the Campus Martins, is held by Zoega OPHEL (Ssyn ; Sept. 'XtydA), a place or
(l)e Orig. et Vsu Obelisci) to have l>een brought q.iarter of Jerusalem near the walls (2 Chron.
from Heliopolis, and to have owed its origin to xxvii. 3; xxxiii 44), on the east side (Neh. iii.
Sesostris. This city furnished works of art to 26; xi. 21). Ophel, or, as he calls it, Ophla
Augustus for adorning Rome, anil to Constantine
for adorning Constantinople. Ritter (Erdkunde, fO$>Ad\ *0<p\dsy, is often mentioned by Josephu*
i. 823) says that the sole remaining oltelisk is as adjoining the valley of the Kidrun and the
lemple mount (Dc Hell. Jxtd. v. 6. 1 ; vi. 6. 3).
from t>0 tit 70 feet high, of a block of red granite, He explains himself moie precisely iu v. 4. 2,
bearing hieroglyphics which remind the beholder where he makes the first wall of the city to ex
of what Strain) terms (he Etruscan style. * The tend from the tower of the Esseries over Sil<ani
figure of the cross which it t>ears (ctiur ansata) and the pool* uf Solomon to Ophel. From these
has attracted the sjiecial notice of Chrislian anti intimation* Winer collects that Ophel was a
quaries' (Ritter).J. R. B. high or ascending place, built over (iu the an
ONAN OflN, *trona, stottt; Sept. Atab), cient city) with houses. This view is confirmed
by Or. Robinson, who identifies it with t he low
second son of Judah, who, being constrained by ridge
the obligations of the ancient Levirate law to mount which extends southward from the temple
to Mount Zion, between the exterior valley
es|)ouse Tamar, hi* elder brothers widow, took of Jelnwhaphat and the interior valley of Tyro-
mean* to frustrate the intention of this mage, which
was to provide heirs for a brother who had died jKPon. The lop of this ridge is flat, descending
rapidly towards the south, sometimes by offsets of
childless. This crime, rendered without excuse by rocks; and the ground is now tilled and planted
ihe allowance of polygamy, and the seriousness of with olive and other fruit trees. This ridge is
which can scarcely be appreciated but in Ntpeet considerably below the level of Mount Moriah ;
to the usages of the times in which it wa* com- its length is 13j0 feet, and it* breadth in the
OPHER. OPHIR. 441
middle part, from brow to brow, 290 feet (Winer, among others, have been proposed : Melindah on
i. f. * Ophel f Robinsou, ii. 349) [Jerusalem]. the coast of Africa, Angola, Carthage, St. Do
mingo, Mexico, New Guinea, Urphe an island
OPHER (IDV; Arabic Jui\ algophro), in in the Red Sea, and Ormuz in the Persian Gulf.
tbe Song of Solomon (ch. iv. 5), denotes the calf Bochart thinks that ihe Ophir from which David
or fawn of a stag (aiT) ; it occurs in no other book obtained gold (1 Chron. xxix. 4) was the Cas-
of Scripture, is unknown in the Syriac and sanitis of Ptolemy and Stephanus, on the coast of
Clialdee, and appears to be only a poetical ap Arabia; while that visited by the fleet of Solomon
plication of a term more strictly belonging to was Taprobane, now called Ceylon (Geogr. Sacra,
fawn-like animals ; for in the above passage ii. 27). Pegu is the place selected by Mallsei
it is applied to couples feeding in a bed of (Hist. Ind. lib. i.). Others decide in favour of
liliesindications not descriptive of young goats the peninsula of Malacca, which abounds in
or stags, but quite applicable to the Antilo- precious ores, a]>es, and peacocks : others prefer
pine groups which are characterized in Griffith's Sumatra, for the same reason. Lipenius, relying
Cuvier, in subgenus X. Ccphalophus^ and XI. on the authority of Joseph us, Theodoret, and
Neotragit* , both furnishing species of exceed Procopius, who call Ophir 1 the golden land,* 1 the
ing delicacy and graceful diminutive struc golden chersontise,' says that the children of Jok-
tures, several of which habitually feed in pairs tan peopled all the countries bounded by the
among shrubs and geraniums on the hilly plains eastern seas, and that Ophir includes not only
of Africa ; and as they have always been and Sumatra or Malacca, but every coast and island
sfill are in request among the wealthy in warm from Ceylon to the Indian Archipelago. We
climates for domestication, we may conjecture shall now lay before the readers what we conceive
that a species designated by the name of Opher to be the exact amount of our information re
jwrhaps alluding to "VS'K* Ophir, or even specting Ophir, and show how far it applies to
Africa), was to be found in the irks or royal what appear to us to be the three most probable
gardens of a sovereign so interested in natural his theories respecting its situation, namely, Arabia,
tory as Solomon was, and from the sovereign's Africa, and India. Ophir is mentioned in the
own observation became alluded to in the truly following thirteen passages : Gen. x. 29 ; 1 Chron.
apposite imagery of his poetical diction (Cant, i. 23; 1 Kings ix. 28 ; 2 Chron. viii. 18 ; ix. 10 ;
iv. 12). Among the species in question, in which I Kings x. 11; Brit. 48] 1 Chron. xxix. 4; Job
both male and female aie exceedingly similar, and xxii. 24 ; xxviii. 16 ; Ps. xlv. 9 ; Isa. xiii. 12;
which might have reached him by sea or by caravan, Ecclus. vii. 18. Only seven of these passages
we may reckon Cephalophus Grimmia, C. Prr- afford even the slightest clue to its ]iosition,
pttsilla, C. Philantombay all marked by a small and these are reduced to three when the pa
black tuft of hair between their very short horns, rallel passages and texts in which Ophir is not
as also the Neotragus Pygmeay or Guevei, the a local name have been withdrawn. \Ve further
smallest of cloven-footed animals, and the Madoka, think that the situation of Tarshish is not in any
with speckled legs ; all these species being natives way connected with this inquiry. It is indeed
of Central Africa, and from time immemorial said, in reference to the voyage to Ophir, that
brought by caravans from the interior, for sale or ' Solomon had at sea a navy of Tarshish, and
presents.C. H. S. that once in three years came the navy of Tar
OPHIR occurs first, as the proper name of one shish' (1 Kings x. 22); and that * Jehoshaphat
of the thirteen sons of Joktan, the son of Eber, a made ships of Tarshish to go to Ophir for gold 1
great-grandson of Shem, in Gen. x. 26-29 ; (1 Kings xxii. 48); but the word may denote
Sept. OiHpelp; Vulg. Ophir). Many Arabian large merchant ships hound un long voyages,
countries are believed to have been j>eopled by perhaps distinguished by their construction from
these persons, and to have been called after their the common Phcenician ships, even though they
respective names, as Sheba, &c, and among were sent to other countries instead of Tarshish
others Ophir (Bochart, Phaleg, iii. 15). Ophir (compare the English naval phrase, an Indiaman,
occurs also as the name of a place, country, or and see Isa. xxiii. 1; lx. 9 ; Ps. xlviii. 7; Isa.
region, famous for its gold, which Solomon's ships ii. 16) ; and although the Tarshish ships which
visited in company with the Phoenician (TQIK ; went to Ophir (I Kings xxii. 48, &c.) are ex
Sept. Ov<ptp ; Alex. Ov<pttp : ~S,ou<f>ip, 2ov<f>tlp, pressly said by the writer of Chronicles to have
gone to Tarshish (2 Chron. ix. 21 ; xx. 36, 37),
Xaxpip, Xaifpipd ; Alex. 2axpapd and 2e>$r)pdi yet in the interval between the composition of
Aid. Sair^fi'p ; Cam. 'Ov^cip ; Alex, and Cam. the books of Kings and that of Chronicles the
'tbpttp ; Vulg. Ophir). The difficulty is to as name was most probably transferred to denote
certain where Ophir was situated. Some writers, any distant country [Tahshish]. The utmost
reasoning from the etymology of the word, which that can be said is, that Solomon sent ships to
is supposed to mean dust, &c, have inferred Tarshish as well as to Ophir, but it cannot be
almost every place where gold dust is procured proved that the same ships arc meant, or that they
in abundance. Others have rested their con went to both places in the same voyage. It seems
clusions upon the similarity of the name in to us most probable that Solomon sent direct to
Hebrew to that of other countries, as for instance Ophir for gold, wherever it might be ; and that,
Aphar, a port of Arabia mentioned by Arrian in whereas it had been hitherto procured from thence
his Periplus of the Erythratan Sea ; or upon tbe by David, &c. by foreign merchants, Solomon fitted
similarity of the name in the Sept., 2,<jc<pipd ; out a fleet to obtain it at first hand. Neither do
hence Sofala, &c. : and others, by a trans[>usition we think that the time occupied by the voyage to
of the letters of the Hebrew word, have, among Ophir is precisely determinable from the words
other conjectures, even made out Peru ! By such * once in three years came the navy* (1 Kings x.
methods of investigation the following countries, 22). Upon the whole then our information ap
442 OPHIR. OPHIR.
pears to amount to this, that King Solomon made tion that Ophir was the Arabian port Apbar,
a navy of ships in Ezion-geber, which is beside already referred to, it may be remarked that the
Eloth, on the shore of the Ked Sea, in the land name has undergone similar changes to that of
of Edom, and that his Pha>nician neighbour and the Sept. of Ophir; for it is called by Arrian
ally, Hiram, king of Tyre, sent in tins navy his Aphar, by Pliny Sapbar, by Ptolemy Sapphera,
servants, shipmen that had knowledge of the sea, and by Stephanus Saphiriui. Grotius thinks his
with the servants of Solomon, and that they came to be Ophir. The very name El Ophir has oeeu
to Ophir, and fetched from thence gold, and lately pointed out as a city of Oman, in former
brought it to Solomon (1 Kings ix. 26-29), and times the centre of a very active Arabian com
that they brought in the same voyage algum or merce (Seetzen, in Zachs. Monatl. Correspond.
almug-trees and precious stones (I Kings x. 11), xix. 331, fl.). In the article Ophir iu the
silver, ivory, apes, or rather monkeys, and pea Encyclopaedia Londinensist great stress is laid
cocks, or, according to some, pheasants, and to upon the objection that if Ophir had been any
others, parrots ; and that gold in great abundance where iu Arabia or Asia, Solomon could have
and of the purest quality was procured from conveyed the commodities he procured from it
Ophir (1 Chron. xxix. 4; Job xxviii. 16), ren by caravans : but surely a water-carriage was
dered by Symmachus xpvaos rpwrt7ost (Ps. xlv. more convenient, at least for the algum-trees,
9; Isa. xiii. 12); Vulg. mundo obrixo, (Ecclus. which he procured from Ophir, and of which he
vii. 18). The tirst theory which appears to be made pillars for the house of the Lord and fur
attended with some degree of evidence not purely the king's house (2 Chron. ix. 10, 11) [Ai.aun],
fanciful is that Ophir was situate in Arabia. In aud which it is highly improbable he bad the
Gen. x. 29, Ophir stands in the midst of other means of conveying by land. In favour of the
Arabian countries. Still, as Gesenius observes, theory which places Ophir iu Africa, it has been
it is possibly mentioned in that connection only suggested that we have the very name in
on account of its being an Arabian colony planted /W, Africa, the Roman termination, Africa terra,
abroad. Though gold is not now found in Arabia and that Tarshish was some city or country in
fNiehuhr, Description de VArabic, Copeuhague, Africa; that the Chald. Targumist on 1 Kings
1773, p. 124), yet the ancients ascribe it to the xxii. 48 so understood it, where he renders ^wHTl
inhabitants in great plenty (Judg. viii. 24,26; by npHQN. He probably inferred from 2 Chron.
2 Chron. i. ; 1 Kings x. 1, 2; Ps. lxxii. 15). xx. 36, that to go to .Ophir aud to Tarshish was
This gold, Dr. Lee thinks, was no other than the one and the same thing, and that Tarshish there
gold of Havilah (Gen. ii. 11), which he sup]>oses meant the name of a place. Origen also says, on
to have been situate somewhere in Arabia, and Job, xxii. 24, that some of the interpreters under
refers to Gen. x. 7, 29 ; xxv. 18 ; 1 Sam. xv. 7 ; stood Ophir to be Africa. Michaelis supposes
1 Chron. i. 9 (Translation of the Book Job, 6$c., that Solomon's fleet, coming down the Red Sea
Lond. 1837, p. 55). liut Diodorui Siculus from Kzion-geber, coasted along the shore of
ascribes gold mines to Arabia : MrraAAc^frat 5e Africa, doubling the Caj)e of Good Hope, and
Kal Kara rt\v Apa&'iav nai 6 Ttpoaayoptvofi^vos came to Tarshish, which lie, with many others,
atrvpos xPv<r^s (cump. Gen. ii. 12), ovx w*rirep su]fjx)ses to have been Tartessus in Spain, and
irapa Toij aAXois 4k y^ryp.a.T(jiv Kadftyopti/os, aW" thence hack again the same way ; that this con
tvQvs opvrr6fityos tupiffKcrai (ii. 50). He also jecture accounts for their three yearm' voyage out
testifies to the abundance of * precious stones1 aud home ; and that Spain and the coasts of Africa
in Arabia (ii. 54), especially among the in furnished all the commodities which they brought
habitants of Sabas (til. 46 ; comp. Gen. ii. lack (SpiciUff. Geogr. Hebr. Exterce. p. 98).
12; 2 Chron. ix. 1 ; I Kings x. 1, 2). Pliny Strabo indeed Bays that S|ain abounded in gold,
also speaks of the 'Sabtei ditissimi auri metallis' and immensely more so in silver (see 1 Mac. viii. 3).
(Hist. Nat. vi. 32). Again, * Littus Ham- Others have not hesitated to carry Solomon's fleet
in.Mim, ubi auri metalla ' (16.). Others suppose round from Spain up the Mediterranean to Joppa.
that though Ophir was situate somewhere on the The chief support for this supposition is the very re-
coast of Arabia, it was rather an emporium, at markable statement of Herodotus, that Necho, king
which the Hebrews and Tyrians obtained gold, of Egypt, the Pharaoh-Necho of Scripture, whose
silver, ivory, apes, almug-trees, &c, brought enterprising disposition appears from his project to
thither from India and Africa by the Arabian unite die Nile and the Red Sea by a canal, ' dis
merchants, and even from Ethiopia, to which patched some vessels, under the conduct of Phoe
Herodotus (iii. 114) ascribes gold iu great quan nicians, witli directions to pass by the columns of
tities, elephants' teeth, and trees and shrubs of Hercules, now called the Straits of Gibraltar, aud
every kind. Ajies, properly sj>eaking, are also after jienet rating the Northern Ocean to return
ascribed to it by Pliny (viii. 19); who speaks to Egypt; that these Phoenicians, taking their
also of the confluence of merchandize in Arabia: course from the Red Sea, entered into the Southern
'Sahaei mirumque dictu, ex innumeris populis Ocean, aud on the approach of autumn landed in
pars .!)'; in commerciis aut latrocinils degit : Libya, and planted some corn in the place wheie
in universum gentes ditissimee, ut apud quas they hap)>ened to find themselves; that when this
maxiuite opes Komanorum Parthorumque sul>- was ripe they cut it down and departed. Having
istaut, vendeutibus qua? e mari aut sylvis thus consumed two years, (hey in the third year
capiunt ' (ut supra). A little before he speaks doubled the columns of Hercules, and returned
of the Arabian emporiums : 1 Insula* multee : em to Egypt.1 He adds, 'This relation may obtain
porium eurum Acila, ex quo iu Indiarn tiavi- attention from others, but to me it seems incre
gatur.' Again: * Thimaneos. . . Areni : oppidum dible, for they affirmed that, having sailed round
in quo omnis negotiatio couveuit ' (comp. Strabo, Libya, they had the sun on their right hand.'
xvi. ; 2 Chron. ix. ; Ezek. xxvii. 21, 22; and Thus, he observes, 'was Libya for the first time
J>iod. Sic. ii. 54). In behalf of the supposi known ' (iv. 42). It seems certain that this
i
OPHIR. OREB. 443
voyage was accomplished, for the mariners would du sapan, qui est le meme que le bois de Bresil.
have the sun on their right hand after passing the On y trouve plusieurs mines d'or, qui les ha-
line, a fact which never could have been imagined bitans de Malaca et de Sumatra nomment ophirst
in tii.it age, when astronomy was in its infancy ; et dont quelques-unes, surtout celles que renferme
And it has been supposed that this was the voyage la cote orientale de Celebes, et les iles adjacentes,
made 'once in three years' by Solomon's fleet, sont plus riches que toutes celles du Perou et du
under the conduct also of Phoenician mariners. Bresil ' ( Voyage d'un Philosopher (Euvres Com
But, assuming this to have been the case, it seems plexes, Paris, 1797, p. 123). On the other hand,
strange that the knowledge and record of it should some writers give a wider extent to the country
have been so completely lost in the time of in question. Heeren observes that ' Ophir, like
Pharaoh- Necho, only two centuries after Solomon, the name of all other very distant places or re
as that Herodotus, whose information and accu gions of antiquity, like Thule, Tartessus, and
racy appear from this very account, should say others, denotes no particular spot, but only a
that Libya, evidently meaning the circuit of it certain region or part of the world, such as the
by the sea, was thus for the first time known. E-ist or West Indies in modern geography.
Heeren finds an answer in the desolating ravages Hence Ophir was the general name for the rich
of the Babylonian conquerors, and indeed in the countries of the south lying on the African, Ara
protracted siege of Tyre itself by Nebuchad bian, or Indian coasts, as far as at that time
nezzar, which followed shortly after the time of known' {Historical Researches, translated from
Solomon. It seems likely indeed that Necho the German, Oxford, 1833, vol. ii. pp. 73, 74).
bad heard of such a passage, and believed that It remains to be observed, that in Jer. x. 9 we
the Phoenicians knew how to find it; and that it have ' the gold from Uphaz,' ; and in Dan.
was not much frequented during many subse x. 5, 'the fine gold of Uphaz;' and see the Heb.
quent ages appears from the notice taken by of 1 Kings x. 18. In these instances Uphaz is,
Pliny of the few who had accomplished it (Hist. by a slight change of pronunciation, put for
Nat. ii. 67) ; and it was, we Know, after his Ophir. The words of Daniel are quoted and
time unused and forgotten till recovered by paraphrased in Rev. i. 13, in a manner which shows
the Spaniards, a.d. 1497. It must be allowed this to be trie true explanation of the difference.
that, if Solomons fleet actually pursued this If the words 'the gold of Parvaim ' (DMTD,
course, then Ophir as Africa, and Tartessus in 2 Chron. iii. 6) be really, as Bochart conjectures,
Spain, as Tarshish, seem on many accounts very the same with TB1N, the name had undergone a
jdausihle suppositious. In behalf of the con still wider alteration. It was by taking this for
jecture that Ophir was in India, the following granted, and arguing from the similarity, that
arguments are alleged : that it is most natural to the wild conjecture that Ophir was Peru was ob
understand from the narrative that all the pro tained. The alterations su tiered by the Septuagint
ductions said to have been brought from Ophir words are before the reader. Among other works
came from one and the same country, and that on this controversy not before referred to, see
they were all procurable only from India. The Wahner, De Regione Ophir ; Tychsen, De Corn-
Sept. translators also ap]tear to have understood it mere. Hebr. in Commentt. Gott. xvi. 164, &c. ;
to be India, from rendering the won! Stixpip, SovfJp, Huetii Commentatio de Navigations Salomonis ;
2<tpa, which is the gyptian name for that HeI and, Dissertt. Miscell. i. 172; or in Ugolini
country. Champollion says that, in the Coptic vo Thesaurus, vii.J. F. D.
cabularies India bears the name Co&ffl {VEgypt* 1. OPHRAH (iTjsJJJ; Sept. 'EtppaBd), a town
Motis les Pharoons, Paris, 1814, torn, i. p. 98; of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 23), seemingly in the
Jahlnuskii Ojnucula, Lug. Bat, 1304, torn. i. north-east of that tribe's domain (1 Sam. xiii. 17).
p. 3-16, &c). Josephus also gives to the sons of Accordingly it is placed by Kusebius and Jerome
Jokhtn the locality from Cophen, on Indian river; (Onomast. s. v. Aphta) five Roman miles east
and in part of Asia adjoining it (Anttq. i. 6. 4). of Bethel. This corresponds with the position of
He also expressly and unhesitatingly affirms that a place called et-Taiyibeh, which was visited by
the hind to which Solomon sent for gold was Dr. Robinson in Ids excursion to Bethel (Bibl.
* anciently called Ophir, but now the Aurea Researches, ii. 120-123). It is now a small
Chersouesus, which belougsto India' (Antiq. viii. village, curiously situated upon a conical hill,
fl. 4). The Vulgate renders the words ' the gold on the summit of which is an old tower, whence
of Ophir' (Job xxviii. 16) by 1 tinctis India colur- is commanded a splendid view of the valley of the
ihns. Hesychius thus defines 7,owpttp' xpa, iv Jordan, the Dead Sea, and the eastern mountains.
rj o't ToAvTjjiot Ki$oi, koI 6 xpfffJs, IfJici ; and 2. OPHRAH, a town in the tribe of Manas-
Snidas, 2ov<p*lp, xwpa ; and see Eusebii seh, to which Gideon belonged, and where he
Onomast. p. 146, ed. Clerici. There are several continued to reside after he had delivered Israel
places comprised in that region which was ac from the Midiauites, establishing there his ephod,
tually known as India to the ancients [India], which became a snare to Israel (Judg. vi. 11-24 ;
any (if which would have supplied the cargo of viii. 27). Josephus calls the place Ephra (An-
Solomon's llei.it : for instance, the coast of Mala tiq. v. 6. 5). It cannot be positively determined
bar, where the natives still call the peacock togei, from the narrative, whether this Oplirah was in
which is supposed to resemble the Hebrew D'*3H. the territory of Manasseh east or west of the Jor
Perhaps the most probable of all is Malacca, dan ; and no satisfactory attempt to fix the site
which is known to be the Aurea Chersonesus of has yet been made.
the ancients. It is also worthy of remark that OREB and ZEEB (DfcSH Sept. *Op)i0
the natives of Malacca still call their gold-mines Kal Zt$&), the remarkable names (raven and
ophirs. De P. Poivre says, * Lea iles malaises wolf) of two emirs of the Midianites, who were
produissent beaucoup de bois de *einture surtout made prisoners by the Ephraimites in attempting
Ui ORER om
.o recrost the Jordan after the victory of Gideon. lices torrentis of the Latin version. In reference
They were nut to death by the captors, and their to this, Celsius quotes: * Teiram istam Niluj
heads carried as a trophy to the conqueror, who was alluit ab oriente ad occidentern, ibique ad ripu
ihen on the other side the Jordan (Judg. vii. 25 : ipsius nascuntur arundines Indies, arbores Ebeni,
viii. 3). The first of these princes met his death
near a rock, which thenceforth bore his name (Isa. atque buxi, j\ash> item salicum et tamaxisci,
X. 20); the other seems to have at first sought arborumque similium Bylvae latissimse* (Geog.
refuge in one of those excavations in which wines Nubiensis, Clim. i. p. 1), It hardly required to
were preserved, and which was thenceforth called he proved that willows were found in Judaea and
the winepress of Zeeb (Judg. vii. 25). on the banks of the Nile, but still less does it
OREB, or Orbbim (3$ or D^Ttf), written require to be shown that the willow is common
also Arab and Auabih, occurs in several pas on the rivers of Babylon, for we have a species
sages of Scripture, in all of which it is translated which is called Salix Babylonica, commonly
willow in the Authorized, and most other modern known by the name of weeping willow, and which
versions. This sense has been inferred from the Celsius considers to be ]>eculiarly the willow oi
the brook. Bochart says of the channel* of tin
similarity of the word arab to the Arabic ' * ^ Euphrates, 'Quorum ripae tam multis salicibus
gharb, and from the most ancient Greek trans erant consitse, ut Babylonia ideo vocetur, vallii
lators adopting treat as the synonyme of the sali cum.' In all points, therefore, the willow
Hebrew arab. But it is also similar to ano seem well suited to the passages in which orebim
ther Arabic word, ghuraby signifying crows ; occurs, though it is probable that this may have
whence probably some of the early translators been used, like willow, in a generic rather titan
have adopted this as the meaning of the Hebrew in a specific sense; but there is another word,
word. Thus the Arabic translator lias, in Jobxl. which is also supposed to denote one of thes*
willows [Zaphzafhah],J. F. R.
17, adopted corvos, as the interpretation OREN QlK) occurs only once in Scripture,
of arabim. So also the Septuagint, in Isa. xv. and is variously translated ; but from the manner
7, gives the same interpretation to this word, in which it is introduced, it is impossible to de
and has thus l>een the cause of error and con termine whether any of the translations are cor
fusion. Moreover, in Lev, xxiii, 40, after tre'ar rect. The oren is mentioned with other trees, ot
it adds without authority &yvov K\d5ovs, ramn whose timber idols were made, in Isa. xliv. 14:
ios agnii and has adopted Hyvou in Job xl. 17 * He hewetn him down cedars (eres) and taketh
(Cels. Hierobot. i. 304). "Ayvos is intended, the cypress (tirsah), and the oak (allon), which
no doubt, for the plant which by botanists is now he strengthened for himself among the trees of
called Vitex agnus castus, and was at one time the forest ; he planteth an ash (oren), and the
called Salix amerina. rain doth nourish it/ Though the English ver
There is, however, little doubt of willow ' being sion renders it ash, others consider pine-tree to
the correct interpretation, from its suitableness to l>e the correct translation ; but for neither does
all the passages. Thus in Job xl. 22, referring to be there appear to be any decisive proot^ nor for the
hemoth it is said, ' The shady trees cover him with rubus or bramble, adopted for oren in the fable
their shallow ; the willows (orabim) of the brook of the Cedar and Rubus, translated from the He
compass him about.1 So the Jews when in cap brew of R. Berechia Hannakdan, by Celsius
tivity sing, ' By the rivers of Babylon, there we (Hierobot, i. 186).
sat down ; we hanged our harja upon the willows Oren is translated pine-tree both in the Greek
(orebim) in the midst thereof (Ps. exxxvii.) Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate, and this
And again, in Isa. xliv. 4, 1 And they shall spring has been acquiesced in by several of the most
up as among the grass, as willows (orebim) of learned critics, and among them by Calvin and
the water-courses.' The willow is as applicable Bochart. Celsius (/. c. p. 191) states, moreover,
as any other plant to the other passages, quoted that some of the Rabbins also consider oren to tie
above, in which orebim is mentioned. the same as the Arabic sunober (which U no
The word gharb is in the present day applied doubt a pine), and that they often join together,
in many parts of the East to the jioplar (which arasim, aranim, and bcroschim, as trees of the
one of the Latin versions gives for the Heb. ore6, same nature. Luther and the Portuguese version
Cels.; 304), a genus closely allied to the willow, read cedar. Rosenmuller contends that it is not
ami forming with it the group of Salicineac in the common wild pine (pinus sylvestris) which
modern botany. The words arab and gharb do is intended, but what the ancients called the do
not differ so much in the Arabic as they ap]>ear mestic pine, which was raised in gardens on ac
to do in the English dress; for the initial letters count of its elegant shape and die pleasant fruit
are ain and ghain, between which mutual inter it yields, the Pignole nuts of the Italians (Pimts
changes frequently take place. pinea of Linnaeus), and quotes Virgil as saying
That willows grow in moist situations, and in * Fraxinus in sylvis pulcherrima, pinus in hortis.'
the neighbourhood of both still and running water, The English version instead oipine gives ash
is sufficiently well known. That they are common as the translation of oren ; in consequence pro
in Judsea is evident from what Reland says: 'Sa- bably of omus having been adopted by several
lices, ramarisci, agnus castus, et canuec ingentes, translators, apparently only because the elementary
quae usum hastarum praebent, crescunt ad ripam letters of the Hebrew are found also in the Latin
Jnrdauis, uti referunt avrlvrai.' So also on word. Celsius objects to this as an insufficient
the banks of the Nile, to which we may sup reason for supposing that the ash was intended ;
pose Job alludes when he speaks of the behemoth and there does not appear to be any other proof.
being covered by the willow? of the brook, *a- Omus europeeat or manna ash, does, however,
OROR. OROTH. 445
grow in Syria, but being a cultivated plant, it may Wadys and on the rocks.' It is mentioned in
have been introduced. Celsius quotes from the the same situations by other travellers, and is no
Arab author, 'Abu 1 Fadli, the description ofa tree doubt common enough, particularly in wild, un
cultivated, and often inaccessible situations, and
ailed aran, which appears well suited is thus suitable to Jer. xlviii. 6: 'Flee, save
to the passage, though it has not yet been ascer your lives, and be like the heath (oror) iu the
tained what tree is intended. The aran is said wilderness.' Iu this passage, some authors pro
to be a tree of Arabia Petnea, of a thorny nature, pose reading orud instead of oror as the trans
inhabiting the valleys, but found also in the lators of the Septuagint seem to have done, for
mountains, where it is however less thorny. The they render oror by ovos arypios, wild ass. * Be
wood is said to be much valued for cleaning the like the wild ass in the wilderness,' which is con*
teeth. The fruit is in hunches like small grapes. sideied as agreeing well with the flight recom
The berry is noxious while green, and bitter like mended. Mr. Taylor, in Scripture Illustrated,
galls; as it ripens it Ijecomes red, then black inquires whether the orud, wild ass, may not be
and somewhat sweetish, and when eaien is grate the subject of both passages? This can only be
ful to the stomach, &c, and seems to act as a settled by Hebrew scholars; we have shown that
stimulant medicine. Sprengel supposes this to be the junijier, from growing in wild and inacces
t lie caper plant, Capparts spinosa of Linnanis. sible places, is also suitable to the sense of both
FaU-r thought it to he the Rhamnus siculua pen' passages.J. F. R.
taphyllus of Shaw. Link identities it with Fla- OROTH (nV"nt<) occurs in two passages of
courtia sepiaria of Roxburgh, a tree, however, Scripture, where it is translated herb in the Autho
which has not been found in Syria. To us it rised Version: it is generally supposed to indicate
appears to agree in some respects with Salvadora such plants as are employed for food. The most
persica, but not in all points, and therefore it is ancient translators seem, however, to have been
preferable to leave it as one of those still requiring at a loss lor its meaning. Thus the Septuagint
investigation by some traveller in Syria conversant in one passage (2 Kings iv. 39) ban only the
both with plants and their oriental names and Hebrew word in Greek characters, apiaO, and in
uses.J. F. R. the other (Isa. xxvi. 19), 'fa/ia, sanatiotiem, v.
ORION. [Astronomy.] mediciuam, vel herhas medicinales.' The Latin
OROR, or Arab (Tjny) occurs in two or Vulgate, anil the Chaldee and Syriac versions,
three places of Scripture, and has been vari translate oroth in the latter passage by lucemt in
ously translated, as myrica, tamarisk; tamarin, consequence of confounding one Hebrew word
which is an Indian tree, the tamarind ; re- with another, according to Celsius (Hierobot.\6\. i.
tanta, that is, the broom ; and also, as in t he p. 459). But the Syriac and Arabic translators
French and English versions, bruwre, heath, give the names for mallows, the Arabic l^ W
which is perhaps the most incorrect of all, though Uhabceza, in Lower Egypt called habeeza.
HasselquUt mentions (hiding heath near Jericho, With res]>ect to the meaning of oroth, Ilosen-
in Syria. As far as the context is concerned, some muller says that it occurs in its original and ge
of these plants, as the retarn and tamarisk, ueral signification iu Isa. xxvi. 19, green hei bs
would answer very well ; but the Arabic name, The future restoration of the Hebrew ]>eople is
jfijC arar, is applied to a totally different plant, there announced under the type and figure of a
revival of the dead. * Thy dew is a dew of green
a species of juniper, as has been clearly siiown by herbs,'' says the prophet, i. e. as by the dew, green
Celsius (Ilierobot. p. ii. p. liJ5), who states that herbs are revived, so shall thou, being revived by
Arias Moutauus is the only one who has so trans God's strengthening power, flourish again. The
lated fas Hebrew arar or oror (Jer. xvii 6) : passage, however, ap|>eais an ol>scure one, with
* For he shall be like the heath (oror) in the respect to the meaning of oroth. Celsius has,
deceit, and shall not see when good cometli, but with Ins usual learning, shown that mallows were
shall inhabit the parched place* in the wilder- much employed as food in ancient times. Of
nr,s, hi a salt lanil, and not inhabited.' The this there can be no doubt, hut there is no proof
word arar, iu all the old Arabic authors, signi adduced that oroth means mallows. It might or
fies a kind of juniper. it might not, because there are many other plants
Several species of juniper ate no doubt found which were and still are employed as articles ot
in Syria and Palestine, as has already been diet in the East, as purslane, goosefoot, cheu-
mentioned under the head of Ekes. Robinson podiums, lettuce, endive, &c. Some have trans
met with some in proceeding from Hebron to lated oroth in 2 Kings iv. 39, by the word eruca,
Wady Musa, near the romantic pass of Netnela : which is usually applied to a sj>ecies of brassica.
' On t he rocks above we found the junijier But it appears to us that oroth should be con
tree, Arabic ar'ar ; its berries have the appear sidered only in conjunction with pakyoth; for we
ance and taste of the common juniper, except find in 2 Kings iv. that when Klisha came again
that there is more of the aroma of the pine. to Gilgal, and there Was a dearth in the land, he
Thee trees were ten or fifteen feet iu height, and said unto his servant, * Set on the great pot, and
hung upon the rocks even to the summits of the seethe jwttage for the sons of the prophets (ver.
clitls and needles.' In a note the author says: 39); and one went out into the field to gather
* This i* doubtless the Hebrew iyV1}7 aroer (Jer. herbs (oroth), and found a wild vine, and ga
xlvii. 6); whence both the English veision and thered thereof wild gourds (paJcyoth) his lap full,
Luther read incorrectly heath. The juniper of tlie and came and shred them into the pot of pottage,
same translation is the retem* (Bibl. litsearches, for they knew them not ' From this it would ap
ii. 506). In proceeding S.E. he states : * Large pear that pakyoth had been mistaken for oroth;
trees of the juniper become quite common in the and as the former is universally acknowledged to
440 ORPAH. OSTRICH.
be theJruit of one of the gourd tribe, bo it is not existing. They appear promiscuously in Asia
unreasonable to conclude that oroth also was and Africa, but the troops or coveys of each are
the fruit of some plant, for which the pakyotk always separate ; the grey is more common in (he
had been mistaken. This is nothing more than south, while the black, which grows largest iii
conjecture, but it appears to be justified by the Cauraria, predominates to the north of the equator.
context, atid may be admitted, as nothing better One of the last mentioned, taken on t>oard a
than conjecture has been adduced in support of French prize, and wounded in the capture, we
oilier interpretations, and as there are fruits, such remember to have seen in London, where it was
as that of the egg plant, which are used as articles able to peck its food from a cross-beam eleven feet
of diet, and for which the fruit of the pakyotk, from the ground. The enormous bird afterwards
or wild gourd, might have been mistaken by an shown in Bullock's museum was said to be tire
ignorant person [Pakyoth].J. F. R, same. The common-sized ostrich weiglis about
ORPAH (HB^/awn; Sept. 'O^), daugh eighty pounds; whence it may be judged that the
ter-in-law of Naomi, who remained behind among individual here mentioned may have been at least
her kindred in Moab, when Ruili returned with forty pounds heavier.
Naomi to Bethlehem (Ruth i. 4-14) [Ruth].
OSPRAY. [Azaniah.]
OSSIFRAGK. [Pkkes.]
OSTRICH (HJjr yoanaA, poetically PUlPrTTQ
batk'ha-yaanak ; also D*33"l> Jobxxxix. 13). In
Arabic, nea-mah, thar-edtt jammed u e. * camel-
bird;* the same as the Persian suturmorghi in
Western Arabic, emmim ,* and in Greek, (TTpov66sy
and 0Tpoif6oK<f4i7\\os ; from which the Latin stru-
thio camelus is formed.
The ostrich is frequently mentioned in the
Bible in terms of great !>eauty and precision ;
which commentators, |>ertia])8 more conversant
with the exploded misstatements of the ancients
than with the true physiological history of the
bird in question, have not lieen happy in explain-
in.;, sometimes referring it to wrong species, such
as the peacock, or mistaking it lor the stork, the
eagle, or the bustard (Lev. xi. 19; Dent. xiv. 15;
J.'b xxx. 29 ; xxxix. 13 ; Isa. xiii. 21 ; xxxiv. 13 ;
xliii. 20; Jer. l.. 39; Lam. iv. 3; Micah i. 8).
In several of these passages1 owls 1 lias l>een used 441.
in our version for yaanah, now generally admitted
to mean 1 ostriches;' lor the passages where the The head of the ostrich is small, and not com
word occurs relate to 1 he deserts and the piesence posed of strong bones; the bill, in form somewhat
of serj tents certainly more applicable to the latter like that of a duck, is fiat, with a nail at the apex,
than the former; for although the owl and the and broad at the gape ; the eyes, hazel-coloured,
serpent are found in certain localities in the desert, have a clear and distinct vision of objects to a
neveitheless neither of them retires far into 1 lie ab great distance, although when seen obliquely they
solute barren waste, as the ostrich constantly is have an opalescent appearance; the auditory ap-
oiwrved to do. Both joneh and rinoninij as paralus is large and open, notwithstanding that in
1%-cocke well observes, apjiear to be derived from the jKiiring season ostriches are said to 1m* very deaf;
the jwiwer of uttering loud-sounding cries; and the neck, long and slender, is, together witli the
the third name, bath~ha-yaanah, 'the daughter of head, but scantily clothed with whitish shining
.ociferation.' or ' loud moaning.' is in conformity hairs, and in the jiairing season becomes for a time
with the others, and an Oriental figurative mode pink or rosy red ; towards the base it assumes the
of expressing the same faculty (which exists not, general colour of the plumage, which, with tlie
we think, in the females alone, hot in the whole quill and tail plumes, is entirely composed ofloose
species) ; for the ostrich has an awful voice, which, downy-webbed feathers, only differing in size and
when heard on the desert, is sometimes mistaken colour; the wings, each from three to four feet
in the night, even by natives, for the roar of a lion. long, exclusive of feathers, are entirely naked mi
It is uttered most likely as a warning to the the inner side, and are supplied towards the end
family, and as a threat to some nightly prowler, of the piuion bone on each side with two sl*irp
stealing towards the nest, and coming within ken pointed quills resembling those of a porcupine,
of their watchful organs. and no doubt serving for defence; the thighs,
There are two varieties, if not two species, of the nearly bare of plumage, and ofa deep flesh-colour,
ostrich ; one never attaining seven feet in height, are as full and muscular as those of a strong
and covered chiefly with grey and dingy feathers; man, and the tarsi or legs, of corresponding lengtn
die other sometimes growing to more than ten with the proportions of the neck, are covered with
feet, and of a glossy black plumage; the males in broad homy scales, and terminate in two toes ; the
both having the great feathers of the wings and inner, being the longest, is armed with a broad
tail white, but the females the tail only of that strong claw ; and that on the outside, only half the
colour. Their dimensions render them both the length of the other, is without any. The great
largest animals fC the feathered creation now feathers, so much prized in commerce, are twenty
OSTRICH. OTHN1EL. 447
in each wing, those of the tail being nearly always the feeling of anger may be inferred from the as
useless, broken, and wom. The cloven feet, long sertion that jackals and foxes (Cants Megalotis
neck, and vaulted back of these birds are in them Caama ?) have been found close to the nests of
selves quite sufficient to suggest to the imagination these birds, kicked to death. This fact is the more
an animal of the camel kind: but these external credible, as the last mentioned animal is a dex
appearances are not the only points of resem terous purloiuer of their eggs ; and it may be here
blance ; the stomach is so formed as to appear added, in proof of the organ of smelling not being
[tossessed of a third ventricle, and there are other quite so obtuse in the ostrich as is asserted, that
structural particulars, such as a sternum, not keel- Cafires and Hottentots, when they daily rob a
shaped, as in birds, but in the form of a round nest for their own convenience, always withdraw
buckler, to protect the chest, which, with the fact the eggs by means of a stick, in order to prevent
that they are without the muscular conformation the female finding out the larceny by means of
to render them capable of flying, altogether ap the scent which human hands would leave behind ;
proximate these birds to quadrupeds, and particu fur then they will not continue to lay, but forsake
larly to the order of Ruminant ia. the abode altogether. This circumstance may
Ostriches are gregariousfrom families consist account for the small number of eggs often found
ing of a male with one or several female birds, and in their nests.
perhaps a brood or two of young, up to troojjs of Although possessed of strength sufficient to
near a hundred. They keep aloof from the presence carry with velocity two adult human tieings, and
of water in the wild and arid desert, mixing with although readily tamed, even when taken in a
out hesitation among herds of gnu, wild asses, state of maturity, nay easily rendered familiar
quaggas, and other striped Equidaj, and the larger and docile, and although they are by no means
species of Antilopidae. From the nature of their the stupid creatures they have been believed, still
food, which consists of seeds and vegetables, al their voracity, leading to the destruction of young
though seldom or never in want of drink, it is poultry, and the impracticability of guiding their
evidetit that they must often approach more pro powers, will ever render them unsafe and unpro
ductive regions, which, by means of the great fitable domestics. Though at first sight useless,
rapidity of motion they possess, is easily accom we may be assured that Providence has not ap
plished ; and they are consequently known to he pointed their abode in the desert in vain ; and they
very destructive to cultivated fields. As the still continue to exist, not only in Africa, but in
organ of taste is very obtuse in these birds, they the region of Arabia, east and south of Palestine
swallow with little or no discrimination all kinds beyond the Euphrates; but it may be a question
of substances, and among others stones; it is also whether they extend so far to the eastward as Goa,
probable that, like poultry, they devour lizards, although that limit is assigned them by late
snakes, and the young of birds that fall in their French ornithologists.
way. We have had our own sketch-book snapped The flesh of a young ostrich is said to be not
out of our hand by an ostrich, attracted to it unpalatable ; but its being declared unclean in
by the sight of the white paper. It is not yet Mosaic legislation may be ascritad to a two-told
finally decided whether the two species are poly cause. The first is sufficiently obvious from its
gamous, though concurrent testimony seems to indiscriminate voracity already mentioned, and
leave no doubt of the fact: there is, however, the other may have been an intention to lay a re
no uncertainty reflecting the nest, which is striction upon the Israelites in order to wean them
merely a circular basin scrajwd out of the soil, from the love of a unmade life, which hunting in
with a slight elevation at. the border, and suf the desert would have fostered ; for ostriches must
ficiently large to contain a great number of eggs ; be sought on the barren plains, where they are
fijf from twelve to about sixty have been found not accessible on foot, except by stratagem. When
in them, exclusive of a certain number, always pursued, they cast stones and gravel behind them
observed to be outlying, or placed beyond the with great force; and though it requires long
raised larder of the nest, ami amounting appa endurance and skill, their natural mode of flee
rently to nearly one-third of the whole. These ing in a circular form enables well mounted
are supposed to feed the young brood when first Arabs to overtake and slay them. It may be
hatched, either in their fresh state, or in a cor questioned whether among the Hebrew names
rupted form, when the substance in them lias refeired to 'ostrich* iu our versions, one in par
produced worms. These eggs are of diflerent ticular, ncsseh, be not the Arabian bustard,
periods of laying, like those within, and the birds Otis Arabs) a bird of great size, abundantly
hatched form only a part of the contents of a clad with feathers, endowed with the habit of
nest, until the breeding season closes. The eggs half raising its wings, and keeping them in tre
are of diflerent sizes, some attaining to seven mulous motion, particularly when preparing to
inches in their longer diameter, and others lew, run; for this species always preludes with a
having a dirty white shell, finely speckled with rapid course before it can rise on the wing. It
rust colour; and their weight borders on three occurs iu Arabia and the desert of Syria, and
pounds. Within the tropics they are kept suf we take it to be the species represented by Sir
ficiently warm in the day-time not to require in J. G. Wilkinson, where an Egyptian leads by a
cubation, but beyond these one or more females rope atarit its neck a bird with three toed feet,
sit constantly, and the male bird takes that duty which that interesting writer takes, we believe by
himself after the sun la set. It is then that the inadvertence, to be a young ostrich.C. H. S.
short roar may lie beard during darkness ; and at
other times diflerent sounds are uttered, likened OTHNIEL Hon of God; Sept.
to the cooing of pigeons, the cry of a hoarse child, ToOovrfiX), first judge of Israel, son of Kcnaz, the
and the hissing of a goose; no doubt expresiveof younger brother of Caleb, whose daughter Achsah
different emotions; but that the roar is expressive of he obtained iu marriage by his daring valour at
448 OWL. OWL.
the siege of Debir (Josh. xv. 17 ; Judg. i. 13 ; 1 rina, the little owl. In this list Strix okis, the
Chron. mt. 13). Rendered famous among his long-eared owl, Strix brachyotus or ulula, the
countrymen hy this exploit, arid connected by a short-eared owl, known nearly over the whole earth,
twofold tie with one of the only twu Israelites of and Strix orientalis of Hasselquist, are not in
the farmer generation who had not died in the cluded, and several other species of these wan
desert, we are prepared for the fact that on him dering birds, both of Africa and Asiatic regions,
devolved the mission to deliver Israel from the occur in Palestine. DID cos or chos (Lev. xi.
Mesi)jH)tamian oppression under which, in punish 17; Dent. xiv. 16; Ps. cii. 6), rendered 'little
ment for llieir sin*, they fell after the death of owl' and 'owl of the desert,' is most applicable
Joshua and of the elders who outlived him (Judg. to the white or bam owl, Strix Jlamme*. Bo
iii. 9). This victory secured to Israel a peace of chart referred this name to the pelican, on account
forty years. For the chronology, &c, of this of the assumed signification of cos, ' cup,' by him
period see Judges. fancied to point out the (touch beneath the bill ;
OWL (DID com; T7y lilith). Two other whereas it is more probably an indication of the
disproportionate bulk and flatness of the head
Hebrew names have been likewise assigned in our compared
VelSMtll to presumed species of owls ; namely, the eye fullwith the body, of which it measures to
half of the whole bird, when the fea
PpCy t/itusnp/), which, although it must be con- thers are raised in their usual aprwarance. 1 (W
!.-'. that in common Hebrew it indicates the
owl, we have endeavoured to show is applied more iswithonly a variation of 'cup' and ' cap,' which,
particularly to the night-heron, Ardea nicticorax ticles,some inflexions, additional or terminal par
[Ibis], and TIBp kipltoz, either the same or con the oldis continent.
common to all the great languages of
founded, as it appears, with HDp kephod, which in Northern Asia. The barn owl is still sacred
has led to much controversy, and caused one or
the other to tie referred to six or seven animals,
all widely different, for they include owl, osprev,
bittern, hedgehog or porcupine (lBp) otter (?),
and tortoise. Our reasons for applying kephod to
the bittern will be found in Kephod. TIDp
kippoz, we have already noticed. Bochart, though
admitting that it may designate a kind of owl, was
inclined to refer the more specific appellation to
the jacvlus, or darting wrtjent ; and it may be
asked ITbetbet the Arab kcbsch, the wild mountain
sheep, or Arabian mttsmon, deriving its name
likewise from darting or plunging down preci
pices, does not deserve consideration* If these
names are in part mistakes, and the admitted not
free from ohjeetions, several others adopted by
translators for owl are proved to be quite wrong,
such as Luther's and the Vulgate. D^K iyim,
which is more applicable to howling quadrujieds 44t.
[Skoai.]. DDnii tachmas, night-hawk or go.it- The eagle-owl, or great-eared owl, Strix bubo,
sucker, ha* lieen taken for Strix otus, or ear-owl ; we do not find in ornithological works as an inha
which bird others again Mud in the CpC^ yan- bitant ofSyria, though no doubt it is an occasional
snph, one that dwells lieueaih ruins, and to which winter visitant: and the smaller species, Bubo
is imputed the very questionable habit mentioned Atheniensis of Grnelin, which may lie a rare but
hy the Aral)* of entering ojien windows at night Immanent resident, probably also visiting Egypt.
and tearing the faces of unguarded infants. lie It is not, however, we believe, that species, but
it observed that this unlikely tale is related as oc the Otus ascalaphus of Cuvier, which is common
curring in a country where the inhabitants, nearly n Egypt, and which in all probability is the tvpe
all the year round, sleep in tents or on the house of the innumerable representations of an eared
top ; but as the imputation evidently means to owl in hieroglyphreal inscriptions This may be
jwiint out an existing s|>ecies pre-eininentlv an the species noticed under the indefinite name of
object of superstitious fear, we would take it to TlBp kippoz, for it is fairly applicable to Isa.
be the JSvV Kitti which name apjiears again xxxiv. 15.
to include both the goat sucker and the owl. It Next we have Strix ulula, Strix brachyotus,
is not unlikely, in the indefinite form which zoolo or short-eared owl, likewise found in Egynt and
gical nomenclature maintained in Scripture, as Arabia, as well as to the north of Syria, a hold,
repeatedly pointed out in preceding articles, that pugnacious bird, residing in ruined buildings,
yansuph was used more or less generically for mistaken by commentators for the screech-owl,
night-birds, and thus was often taken for the owl, Strix stridula, and most probably the Txhh
because the family of Strigidm constituting all, lilith of the liible (Isa. xxxiv. 14). The Spacers!
or with few exceptions, * birds of darkness,' it was species, again, confounded with the goat-sucker,
most present in the public mind ; was connected, is, we believe, Strix coromauda [Might-Hawk],
as it still is, with su|ierstitious notions, and por and the same as Strix orientalis of Hasselqnisr,
tended evil to the vulgar. who makes it synonymous with massasa and
There are noticed in Egypt and Syria three with ttie Syrian bana, but apparently only upon
well-known sjiecies of the genus Strix, or owl : the evidence of the vulgar, who believe "in the
Srrir bubo, 4 the great-eared owl;' Strix Jtam- * spectral lady' appearance of the lilith and bana,
mea, the common barn owl ; and Strix passe and in its propensity to lacerate iufants, of which
ox. PAKYOTH. 449
thfe bird, together with the Strix ultila and bubo kens by which the priesthood pretended to recog
of antiquity, is accused. The original version of nise their sacred individuals. The cattle of
the story, however, refers, not to an owl or goat Egypt continued to be remarkable for beauty for
sucker, but to the poetical Strix of the ancients, a some ages after the Moslem conquest ; for Abdol-
Lamia with breasts, that is, a harpy or a vampire, latiph, the historian, extols their bulk and propor
being a blood-sucking species of the bat family tions, and in particular mentions the Al-chisiah
(Ovid, Fast., vi. 139, and the fables of C. Titinius, breed for the abundance of milk it furnished and
quoted by Gesner, De Strige, p. 738) [Bat]. for the beauty of its curved horns.
The little owl of Egypt is not likely to l>e the The domestic buffalo was unknown to Western
Passerine species of Europe, and proltably does not Asia and Egypt till after the Arabian conquest :
occur under a distinct name in Biblical Hebrew it is now common in the last-mentioned region
but that the owls which inhabited Palestine were and far to tlie south, but not beyond the equator ;
numerous may be inferred with tolerable certainty and from structural differences it may i e sur
from the abundance of mice, rats, and other ver mised that there was in early ages a domesticated
min, occasioned by the offal and offerings at distinct species of this animal in Africa. In
the numerous sacrifices, and consequently the Syria and Egypt the present races of domestic
number of nocturnal birds of prey that subsisted cattle are somewhat less than the large breeds of
upon them, and were tolerated for that purpose. Europe, and those of Palestine apjiear to be of at
C. U.S. least two forms, lioth with short horns anil both
used to the plough, one being tall and larky, the
OX OC9 bakar, in a collective sense, ' cattle,' other more compact ; and we possess figures of the
neat cattle '). Having already noticed the do present Egyptian cattle with long horns bent
mestic beeves under Bull and Cai.k (to which we down and forwards. From Egyptian pictures it
refer), the few words added here will apply to is to le inferred that large droves of fine cattle
the breeds of Western Asia and the manner of were imported from Abyssinia, and that in the
treating them. The earliest pastoral trilws appear valley of the Nile they were in general stall-
to have had domesticated cattle in tlie herd ; and fed, used exclusively for the plough, and treated
judging from the manners of South Africa, where with humanity. In Palestine the Mosaic law
we find nations still retaining in many resjwcts provided with care for the kind treatment of
primeval usages, it is likely that the patriarchal cattle ; for in treading out cornthe Oriental
families, or at least their moveables, were trans mode of separating the grain from the strawit
ported on the backs of oxen in the manner which was enjoined that tlie ox should not be muzzled
the Caffrea still practise, as also the Gwallahs and (Deut. xxv. 4), and old cattle that had long
grain-merchants in India, who come down from served in tillage were often suffered to wander
the interior with whole droves bearing burthens. at large till their deatha practice still in vogue,
But as the Hebrews did not castrate tlieir bulls, though from a different motive, in India. But
it is plain some other method of enervation (bis- the Hebrews and other nations of Syria grazed
toitrnuret) was necessary in order to render tlieir their domestic stock, particularly those tribes
violent and brutal indocility sufficiently tract which, residing to tbe east of the Jordan, had fertile
able to permit the use of a metal ring or twisted districts fur that purpose. Heie, of course, the
rope passed through the nostrils, and to ensure droves became shy and wild ; and though we are
something like safety and command to their inclined to apply the jiassage in Pa. xxii. 12, to
owners. In Egypt, emasculation, no doubt, was wild secies, yet old hulls, roaming at large in a
resorted to, for no ring is observable in the nume land where the lion still abounded, no doubt
rous representations of cattle, while many of these became fierce; and as they would obtain cows
indicate even more entire docility in these animals from the pastures, there must have been feral
than is now attained. breeds in the woods, as fierce and resolute as real
The breeds of Egypt were various, differing in wild Uriwhich ancient name may be a mere
the length and flexures of the horns. There were modification of Reem [Rkbm].C. H. S.
some with long horns, others with short, and even
none, while a hunched race of Nubia reveals an
Indian origin, and indicates that at least one of
the nations on tlie Upper Nile had come from the
valleys of the Ganges; for it is to the east of p.
the Indus alone that that species is to be found
whose original stock appears to be the moun PADAN-AHAM. [Aham. ]
tain yak (Dos grunniens). It is born with two
teetli in the mouth, has a groaning voice, and PAKYOTH (niy^S) and Pexaim (VSPD).
is possessed of other distinctive characters. Fi It is related in 2 Kings iv. 38-40, tliat Klislia
gures of this species or variety bear the signi having come again to Gilgal, when there was a
ficant lotus flower suspended from the neck, and, famine in the land, and many sons of the prophets
as is still practised in India, they are harnessed were assembled there, he ordered his servant to
to the cars of princesses of Nubia. These, as prepare for them a dish of vegetables : 1 One went
well as the straight-backed cattle of Egypt, are ont into the field to gather herbs (arath), anil
all figured with evident indication of beauty in found a icild vine, and gathered thereof wild
their form, and they are in general painted white gourd* (pakyoth sadr.lt) his lap-full, and came
with black, or rufous clouds, or entirely red, and shred them into the pot of ]x>ttage, for they
speckled, or grandmated, that is, black with knew them not/ 'So they poured out for the
numerous small white specks ; and there are also men to eat : but as they were eating of the pot
beeves with white and black occasionally marked tage, they cried out, O thou man of God, there is
in a peculiar manner, seemingly tlie kind of to- death in the pot; and they could not eat thereof.'
TOL. ii. 3o
450 PAKYOTH. PALACE.
From this it appears that the servant mistook the latter exhibiting precisely the same appear
the fruit of one plant, pakyoth, for something ance as in our shops, and when crushed, with a
else, called orotft, ami that the former was vine crackling niH*e, Uiiftith the feet, discharging,
like, that is, with long, weak, slender stems, and in the form of a light powder, the valuable drug
that the fruit had some remarkable taste, by which it contains/ In the Arabic version,
which the mistake was discovered whenever hunzal (which is the Colocynth) is used as the
the pottage was tasted. Though a few other gynouyme for pakyoth in 2 Kings iv. 39. The
plant* have been indicated, the pakyoth has (ilnlte Cucumber, Mr. Kitto continues, * derives
almost universally been supposed to l>e one of the its specific name ( Cucumis prophetarum) from
family of the gourd or cucumber-like plants, ill- iidtiun that it afforded the gourd which ** the
several of which are conspicuous for their bitter sons of the prophets'" shred by mistake into their
ness, and a few poisonous, while other*, it is well pottage, and which made them declare, when they
known, are edible. Therefore one of the former came to taste it, that there was " death in the pot/'
may have been mistaken for one of the latter, or This pliint is smaller in every part than the com
the oroth may have In-en some shnilar-sha|>ed mon melon, and has a nauseous odour, while its
fruit, as, for instance, the egg-plant, used as a fruit is to the full as bitter as the Coloquintida,
vegetable. The reasons why pakyoth has been The fruit has a rather singular appearance, from
supi>osed to be one of the gourd trit>e, usually the the manner in which its surface is armed with
Colocynth, are given in detail by Celsius (Hiero- prick !es, which are, however, soft and harm
bot. vol. i. p. 393). 1. The name is supposed to less * {Pictorial Palestine; Physical Geog. p.
be derived from J?^D paka, * to crush,' or 1 to eclxxxix.). But this plant, though it is nauseous
burst and this is the characteristic of the and hitter as the Colocynth, yet the fruit not being
species called the wild cucumber by the ancients. bigger than a cherry, does not appear likely to
Thus Pliny says : * Semen exilit, oculorum etiam have been that which was shred into the pot.
periculo.' This is the kind called Spring gurken Celsius, however, was of opinion that the Cucu-
by the Germans, and Squirting cucumber in mis agrestis of the Ancients, and which was
England. 2. The form of the fruit apjieam to found by Belou in descending from Mount
have been ovoid, as the pekaim of I Kings vi. IS Sinai, was the plant. This, he says, is the Olera
are supposed to be the same fruit as pakyoth ; asini of the Hebrews, the Chafe al hemar of the
4 And the cedar of the house within was carved Anibs, and the Cucumis asininus of the drug
with knops' (prkaim). So in vii. 21: 1 And gists of bis day. This plant is now called Sit -
under the brim of it round about there were knops mordirn elatcrium, or Squirting Cucumber, and
(pekaim) compassing it; the knops (pekaim) is a well known drastic purgative, violent enough
were cast in two rows, when it was cast.' Kimchi in its action to be considered even a poison. Its
distinctly says these were called ptkahn, * quia fruit is ovate, obtuse, and scabrous. But it is not
tiguram haberent ra>v pakyoth agrestiurn.1 That easy to say whether this or the Colocynth is most
the form of these was ovoid would appear from likely to have been the plant mistaken furorothf
the more free exposition of the Chaldaic version but the fruit of this sjweies might certainly be
of Jonathan, to whom the form of the fruit could mistaken for young gherkins. Both are bitter and
not have been unknown : 1 Kt ligunc ovorum poisonous.J. F. R.
subter labium ejus' (vid. Cels. /. c. p. 397).
3. The seeds of the pakyoth, moreover, yielded PALACE, in Scripture, denotes what is con
oil, as appears from the tract Shabbath (ii. 2): tained within the outer enclosure of the royal re-
' Nnn accenduut rosina, propter bonorem sabhati. sidencf, including all the buildings, courts, and
At sapientes permittunt wmnia olea sequential gardens (2 Chron. xxxvi. 19 ; comp. P. xlviii. 4 ;
oleum sesamorum, oleum nucum, oleum rapha- exxii. 7; exxii. 7; Prov. ix. 3; xviii. 19; Isa.
norum, oleum piscium, oleum pakyoth.' So xxiii. 13; xxv. 2; Jer. xxii. 14; Am - i. 7, 12,
Kimchi : ' Faciunt e seminibus eorum oleum, 14; Nah. ii. 6). In i lie New Testament the term
quod vocaut Kubhini nostri piss mem. oleum palace (avtdi) is applied to the residence of a
pakyoth' The seeds of the different gourd and man of rank (Matt. xxvi. 3; Mark xiv. 66;
cucumber-like plants are well known to yield oil, Luke xi. 21 ; John xviii. 15). The sp**cific
which was employed by the ancients, and still is allusions are to the jwhice built by Herod, which
in the East, both as medicine and in the arts. was afterwards occupied by thesUoman governors,
4 The bitterness which was probably perceived and was the pm'torium. or hall, which formed the
on eating uf the pottage, and which disappeared abode of Pilate when Christ was bniught l*fure
on the addition of meal, is found in many of the him (Mark xv. 16): the other passages abovt
Cpcumber tribe, and conspicuously in the specie* cited, except Luke xi. 21, refer to the residence
winch have t>een usually selected as the pakyoth, of the high-priest.
that is, theColocyuth ( Cucumis Colocynthis), the The particulars which have been given under
Squinting Cucumber (Mumordica Elaterium)t the head Holsk, require only to be aggrandised to
and Cucumis prophetarum : all of which are convey a suitable idea of a palace; for the general
found in Syria, as related by various travellers. arrangements and distribution of parts are the same
The Coloquintida is essentially a desert plant. in the palace as in the house, save that the courts
Mr. Kitto says, ' In the desert parts of Syria, are more numerous, and with more distinct
Egypt, and Arabia, and on the banks of the rivers appropriations, the buildings more extensive, and
Tigris and Euphrates, its tendrils run over vast the materials more costly. The palace of the.
tracts of ground, offering a prodigious number of kings of Judah in Jerusalem was that built by
gourds, which are crushed under foot by camels, Solomon, called * the house of the forest of Leba
horses, and men. In winter we have seen the non,* of which some particulars are given in
extent of many miles covered with the connecting 1 Kings vii. 1-12 ; and if read along with the de
tendrils and dry gourds of the preceding season, scription which Josephus gives of the same pile
r
IV
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PALESTINE. PALESTINE. 451
east ofthat river was called the Land of Gilead
(Deut. xxxiv. 1 ; Josh. xxii. 9, 1 1). In later times
the term Canaan was understood to include
Phoenicia (Isa. xxiii. 11 ; Matt. xv. 21-22), and
also the land of the Philistines.
2. Land of Israel, This name was given to
the whole country as distributed among and oc
cupied by the tribes of Israel. Those recent
writers have therefore fallen into error, who ima
gine that it ever comprehended the utmost extent
of dominion promised to the seed of Abraham, or
actually possessed by David and Solomon. The
designation, Land of Israel, was never applied
but to the aggregate possessions of the tribes as
defined by the limits laid down when the distri
bution was made in t he time of Joshua (Judg.
xix. 29; 1 Sam. xiii. 19; Ezek.vii. 2; Matt. ii.
20, 21, 77} 'Iffpo^A). In Eiek. xxvii. 17, and
other places, the land of Israel is considered as
the territory of the ten tribes, forming the se-
]*arate kingdom of Israel, as distinct from that of
Judah.
3. Land of Promise. So called as the land
which God promised to the patriarchal fathers
to bestow on their descendants. This name was
443. applied to it chiefly before the country was actually
possessed (Gen. xv. 18 ; 1. 24 ; Num. xxxii. 1 ;
(Antiq. v. 5), a faint idea may be formed of it, comp. Heb. xi. 9).
as a magnificent collection of buildings in ad 4. Land of Jehovah. So called as being in
joining courts, connected with and surrounded by a special and peculiar sense the property of
galleries and colonnades. The details of the Jehovah, who, as the sovereign proprietor of the
Jewish historian are not to be contemned ; for he soil, granted it to the Hebrews (I*ev. xxv. 23;
was necessarily better able than we are to appre Ps.lxxxv. 1 ; Isa. viii. 8).
hend the particulars in the Scriptural account, on 5. The Holy Land. This name only occurs
which his own description is based. To him we in Zech. ii. 12, 'The Lord shall inherit Judah,
are also indebted for an account of Herod's bis portion in the Holy Land.' It was, however,
Iialace, his description of which, from personal probably without any [articular reference to the
now ledge, may be found in De Bell. Jud. v. present text that this became from frequent use a
4. 4. proper name for Palestine. The land is here
called 1 Holy,1 as being the Lord's property, and
PALESTI NE. This name, usual] y applied to sanctified by his temple and worship : but Chris
the country formerly inhabited by the Israelites, tians, in applying to it the same title, probably
does not occur in the Hebrew Bible. It is, however, regard it more as the scene of the life, the travels,
derived from Philistia (DB^D), or the country and die suffering* of Christ
5. Judah, Jttdtea. This name belonged at
of the Philistines, which comprised the southern first to the territory of the tribe of Judah alone.
part of flie coast plain of Canaan along the After the separation of the two kingdoms, one of
Mediterranean. The word Philistia occurs in them took the name of Judah, which contained
Exod. xiii. 17; Ps. Ix. 8; lxxxiii. 7; Ixxxvii. the territories both of that tribe and of Itenjamin.
4; cviii. 9; Isa. xiv. 29, 31. From this arose After the Captivity, down to and after the time
the name Palestine (naKaurrlvq), which was ap of Christ, Judaea was used in a loose way as a
plied by most ancient writers, and even by Jo general name for the whole country of Palestine;
sephus fAntiq. i. 6. 2; ii. 15. 2; viii. 10. 3), but in more precise language, and with reference
to the wtiole land of the Israelites (see Reland's to internal distribution, it denoted nearly the
Palaatiiiaj p. 36, sq.). territories of the ancient kingdom, as distinguished
Names.The other names of the country may from Samaria and Galilee on the west of the Jor
be given in the order of their occurrence in Scrip dan, and Persea on the east.
ture. Divisions.The divisions of Palestine were
1. Canaan (JJ3?) from Canaan, the fourth different in different ages.
on of Ham, from whom the first inhabitants I. In the time of the Patriarchs, the country
were descended. It is the most ancient name of was divided among the tribes or nations de
the country, and is first found as such in Gen. scended from the sons of Canaan. The precise
xi. 31. This denomination was confined to the locality of each nation is not, in every case, dis
country belweeu the Mediterranean and the Jor tinctly known ; but our map exhibits the most
dan ; for Exod. xvi. 35 (comp. Josh. v. 11, 12) probable arrangement. Here it is sufficient to
shows that the Jordan was the eastern boundary mention that the Kenites, the Kenixxites, and
of Canaan. This is also seen in Num. xxxiii. the Kadmouites lived on the east of the Jordan
51 ; xxxiv. 11, 12; comp. Exod. xv. 15. When (Gen. xv. 18-21) ; and that, on the west of that
the name Canaan was thus used with reference river, or in Palestine Proper, the Hittites, the
to the country west of the Jordan, the region Perizxites, the Jebusites, and the Amorites, abode
2n2
452 PALESTINE. PALESTINE.
in the hill country of the south (afterwards be less extensive, east of the lake of Gennesareth.
longing to Judah); the Canaanitesproperly so 6. Auranitis, also called ItnreeOy and known to
calledin the middle, across the country, from this day by the old name of Hauran (Ezek. xlvti.
the sea-coast to the river Jordan ; the Girgashites, 16-18), to the north of Btitanaea and the east of
along the eastern border of the lake of Geune- Ganlonitis. 7. Tracftonitis, extending to the north
sareth; and the Hivites in the north, among the of Ganlonitis, and east from Paiteas (Caesarea
southern branches of the Lebanon mountains. Philippi) and the sources of the Jordan, where
The southern part of the coast was occupied by it was separated from Galilee (Luke iii. 1).
the Philistines, and the northern part by the 8. Abilene, in the extreme north, among the
Phoenicians. mountains of Anti-Lihanus, between Baalbec
2. In the time ofMoses, when the Israelites were and Damascus. The more important of these
preparing to enter Canaan, the distribution of the names have been noticed under their several
nations on the west of the Jordan had undergone heads.
very little change; hut, on the east of that river,
we find the three principal territories to have been Situation and Boundaries.Syria lies at
Bashan, in the north,that is to say, east and the easternmost extremity of the Mediterranean
north-east of the lake Gennetareth ; Gilead, in Sea, upon a line of coast which, if prolonged
the middle ; and, in the south, on the east of the northward, might have been conterminous with the
Dead Sea, the Land of Moab. eastern extremity of the Black Sea, did not the
3. After the Conquest, the land was distri peninsula of Asia Minor intervene. It forms
buted by lot among the tribes. The particulars itartof the western coast of Asia, and has Asia
of this distribution will be best seen by reference Minor and Mesopotamia on the north, Arabia on
to the map. Judah, Benjamin, Simeon, <ind Dan the east and south-east, Egypt on the south-west,
occupied the south ; Ephraim, half of Manasseh, and the Mediterranean on the west. Of this re*
and Issachar, the middle; and Zebulon, Naph- gion Palestine is the south-western part, extend
tali, and Asher, the north. Reuben, Gad, and the ing from the mountains of LeUinon to the borders
other half of Manasseh were settled beyond the of Egypt. It lies about midway between the
Jordan, in Bashan and Gilead. This distribu equator and the polar circle, to which happy po
tion was in no way affected by the division of sition it owes the fine medium climate which it
the country into two kingdoms, which took place possesses. Its length is embraced between 30 J 40'
after the death of Solomon. The boundary line and 33 32' of N. latitude, and between 33 4 V of
between them was the northern limit of the tribe K. longitude in the south-west, and 35 48' in the
of Benjamin. north-east. The line of coast from north to south
4. After the Captivity, we hear very little of trends westward, which causes the csjuntry lie-
the territories of the tribes, for ten of them never tweeu the coast and the valley of the Jordan to be
returned to occupy their ancient domains. much wider in the south than in the north. But
5. In the time of Christ, the country on the where the country was narrowest there were tws-
west of the Jonlan was divided into the provinces sessions on the east of the river, and where widest,
of Galilee, Samaria, and Judaea. Galilee is a there were none beyond the line of the river, so
name which occurs repeatedly in the book of that the actual breadth of territory was in some
Joshua (xxi. 32); and very often in the later degree equalized throughout ; and may be taken
history. It was applied to that part of Palestine at an average of sixty-five miles, the extreme
north of the plain of Esdraelon or Jezreel. This breadth l>eing about 100 miles. The length, from
province was divided into fx>wer or Southern, Mount Hermon in the north, to which the ter
and Upper or Northern Galilee. The latter sec ritory of Manasseh beyond the Jordan extended
tion was also denominated Galilee of the Gentiles (Josh. xiii. 11), to Kadesh-baruea in the south,
(Matt. iv. 15). Samaria occupied nearly the to which the territory of Judah reached, was 180 ,
middle of Palestine; but, although it extended miles. The above measurement is considerably
across the country, it did not come down to the greater than that which is usually given. Tins
sea-shore. Judaea, as a province, corresponded is because the usual measurement is founded
to the northern and western liarts of the ancient upon the authority of the popular scriptural
kingdom of that name; but the south-eastern por phrase ' from Dan to Beersheba.' But that phrase
tion formed the territory of Idumssa. On the was only used to designate the length of the
other side of the Jordan the divisions were, at country west of the river; for it is clear tliat the
this time, more numerous and less distinct. The territory beyond the line of the Jordan reached
whole country, generally, was called Pera?a, far more to the north, even to Mount Hermon
and was divided into eight districts or cantons, (now Jebel-es-Sheikh), while on the south we
namely :1. Pcreta, in the more limited sense, now know that Kadesh-barnea, on the borders
which was the southernmost canton, extend of the great Arabah, or valley south of the Dead
ing from the river Amon to the river Jabbok. Sea, was on a parallel considerably to the south
2. GUead, north of the Jabbok, and highly po of Beersheba. Even in making the measure
pulous. 3. VecapoUs, or the district of ten ment from Dan to Beersheba only, the extent
cities, which were Scythopolis or Uethshan (on would be greater than has usually been given,
the west side of the ' Jordan), Hippos, Gadara, seeing that Beersheba is now ascertained to be
Pella, Philadelpmi (formerly Rabbath), Dium, considerably to the south of the position formerly
Canatlia, Gerasa, Kaphaua, and, pertiaps, Da assigned to it. In fixing the limits as from Dan
mascus : but there is not much certainty with to Beersheba, it has been forgotten that the popu
regard to the ten cities from which the region had lar usage merely described two well-known points
its name. 4. GauUmitis, extending to the north towards the op|>osite extremities of the land, and
east of the Upper Jordan and of the lake of Gen* does not imply that there was no territory north
nesareth. 5. Batanma^ the ancient Bashan, but ward of Dan or southward ofBeersheba. The usage)
\ !* Plj +~7 IT ! ' 1
VmJ^rf^.. \] S0FTHEH5 PART I
Mrr-
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J
PALESTINE. PALESTINE. 451
is the same as that according: to which it was for hii views on the subject at greater length than
merly customary to describe the length of England can be afforded in this general summary. Sub
by the phrase, from London to York, although sequent inquiry has only confirmed the conclu
there is much country north of York and south of sions ut which he then arrived, and which may
London. Dan was the northernmost and Beer- here be summarily stated.
aheba the southernmost great and well-known The South Boundary. The text (Num. xxxiv,
towns of the land. Dan wus also near the northern 3, 5) we reail thus : * Your south border shall be
frontier of the western territory; but although at the wilderness of Zin adjoining to Edom. and
in the tract beyond Beersheba southward, there your south border shall be at the utmost point of
were tew inhabited sites, it is not mere desert, the great sea southward/ There is here a general
as was formerly supposed; but, as some years description of the line, namely, that it extends
since conjectured {Pictorial Bible, on Josh, xiii.), from the desert of Zin (Wady Arabah), at a
anil since proved by Dr. Robinson {Bib. Re ] joint not stated, to the Mediterranean, at a point
searches, i. 281-300), consists of good pasture also not stated. Then in the following verses the
grounds, into which the inhabitants of the settled writer returns to state the particulars of this same
country sent their Hocks to graze. boundary line : 'Your south border shall wind
Under this more extended view, Palestine may by the ascent of Akrabbim (at the end of the
be regarded as embracing an area of almost 1 1 ,000 Dead Sea), and pass on (down (he Arabah) to
square miles, which is somewhat more than is Zin ; and thence extending (still southward down
usually given to it. Having arrived at this re the Arabah), to the south of Kadesh-barnea, it
sult, we are enabled to give some suggestive com shall go on to Hazar-addar, and pass on to Az-
parisons of its extent, as contrasted with that of mon. And from Azmon the boundary shall wind
other countries, and find that * this does not give about to the river of Egypt, and its termination
a .superficial extent equal to one-fourth of Eng shall be at the sea.1 What is here said respecting
land and Wales, nor more than two-fifths of Scot Hazar-addar and Azmon we do not understand,
land, Ireland, or Portugal. Bavaria and Sar as the sites have not been determined ; but with
dinia offer an area about twice as large ; that of out this, it is clear that the writer, after prolonging
Denmark is about one-third larger, but according the eastern boundary line from the end of the
to the estimate we have made, the area of Pales Dead Sea down the edge of the Arabah, to a
tine is nearly double that of Wales, Wirteniberg, point somewhere south of Kadesh-barnea, then
or Tuscany. Thus, as to mere extent, the coun turns off westward to form the southern line,
try can only be compared to some of the smaller which he extends to the Mediterranean, at a
European states, of which Hanover, Belgium, point where ' ihe river of Egypt' falls into the
Switzerland, and thePaj>al States, appear to oiler sea. This river of Egypt is usually, and on
the nearest approximations. But the real surface very adequate grounds, supposed to be the stream
is much greater than this estimate and these com which falls into the sea near El-Arish. In for
parisons would imply ; for Palestine being essen merly considering this matter, we bad to prove
tially a hilly country, the sides of the mountains the position of Kadesh-barnea by argument ; but
and the slopes of the hills enlarge the available Dr. Robinson has relieved us from the necessity
surface to an extent which does not admit of cal of reproducing this argument, by having aclually
culation1 {Physical Geog.t p. xxviii., in Kitto's identified the site at a point very near to that in
Pictorial Hist, of Palestine). Still, with all which we had placed it. This conclusion obliged
allowances, Palestine is an exceedingly small us to draw the southern boundary line much to
country in proportion to I he interest which has the south of Beersheha (which, it will be observed,
been concentrated on it ; and this fact, as com is not named in these verges), and thus to assign
pared with the large claims to attention advanced to Palestine a large and important tract of coun
by and for the ancient inhabitants, has given try which had not formerly been ascribed to
occasion for ancient unbelievers and modern Israel. The determination of the site of Kadesh-
infidels to blaspheme. Cicero could infer the barnea makes all the rest clear; for it is certain
littleness of the Hebrew god from the smalluess that the boundary was drawn south of that place,
of the territory he had given to his people; and which is on a parallel 32 minutes south of that of
the poor blasphemies of such men as Voltaire Beersheba.
and Rhegellini are more lamentable, as uttered The ft est Border. In the 6th verse of the
against the light of history, which shows that the same chapter (Num. xxxiv.) the western border
true interest and importance of a country arise, is stated as delined by the Mediterranean coast.
not from its territorial extent, but from the men This was ihe boundary of Palestine; but the
who form its living soul ; from its institutions, Hebrews never possessed the whole of it, The
bearing the impress of mind and spirit ; and from northern part of the coast from Sidon to Akko
the events which grow out of the character and (Acre) was in the hands of the Phoenicians, and
condition of its inhabitants. It is thus that the the southern ]*art, from Azotus to Gaza, was re
histories of such small countries as Phoenicia, tained by the Philistines, except at intervals, in
Greece, early Rome, Venice, Holland, England, and after the time of David, when they were sub
possess an interest and importance to which those ject to the Hebrew sceptre [Phimstinks] ; and
of countries often times their extent cannot pre a central portion, about one-third of the whole,
sent the slightest claim. from Mount Carmel to Jabueh (Jamnia) was
After this general statement, we may examine alone permanently open to the Israelites. The rea
the lines of boundary with somewhat more atten son for the non-possession of the Philistine territory
tion. The clearest descript ion of them is that con has been stated; and the reason for their not occu
tained in Num. xxxiv. In going through that pying the coast from the border of Sidon to Carmel
chapter on a former occasion (Pictorial BibleJ, we take to be this. At the time of the conquest the
the present writer had on opportunity of stating southernmost Phoenician town was Sidon, to the
454 PALESTINE. PALESTINE
very border of which the coast assigned to Israel Deir, arises from tne obligation of excluding the
extended (Josh. xix. 24) ; but as the Hebrews site of Amman, as that city certainly did not
neglected to appropriate this territory, the Phoe belong to the Israelites.
nicians did so, and founded thereon Tyre and
other settlements. Tyre is admitted to have been Minrbaloot.Under this head we know not
'the daughter of Sidon' (Isa. xxii. 12), and there that we can do better than introduce the observ
are no traces of its existence in the time ofJoshua. ations of Professor Schubert in bis Reise nach
The friendly relations which afterwards grew up dem Morgenlande:* As regards the mineralogy
prevented the Hebrews from urging their claim to of the Jerusalem neighbourhood, and, if I may
the narrow slip of coast south of Sidon, which the form a judgment from the districts through
Phoenicians bad appropriated, and which indeed which I passed, of the Holy Land generally, I
the Hebrews, as an agricultural people, did not should say that the mountains on the west ot
feel the want of, though it was invaluable to the the Jordau consist chiefly of chalk, on which
Phoenicians. This sufficiently accounts for the basalt begins to occur beyond ( 'ana (northward),
exception. as is manifestly exhibited in the heights of Hat-
The North Border is as difficult to define as tin, and in the western descent to the lake of
the south. The verses in which it is described we Tiberias, in such large quantity and great ex
read thus : 'This shall be your north boundary; tent as I have never before observed. That
from the great sea ye shall draw a line to the the so-called white limestone, which is met
great mountain [Lebanon] ; from the great moun with around Jerusalem and thence to Jericho,
tain ye shall draw your l>order to the entering in which covers the summit and forms the declivi
of Hamath ; and the boundary shall pass on to ties of the Mount of Olives, and which is also
Zedad, and the boundary shall go on to Ziph- found at Mount Tabor and around Nazareth, is
ron, and its termination shall be at Hazarenan* a kind of chalk, is obvious to any one but
(Num. xxxiv. 7-9). This only refers to the slightly acquainted with mineralogy.1 By this
northern boundary of the western territory, or we suppose Schubert means that it is a chalk
Canaan Proper, and we may therefore extend it considerably indurated, and approaching to whit
in the same direction to Mount Hermou, for the ish compact limestone, such as may be seen in
purpose of completing the northern boundary. Normandy, on the high road bordering the Seine,
The Authorized Version of this text lias created between Havre and Rouen. * Layers and de
some confusion by translating TTUTTfl hor tached masses of flint,* Schubert continues, ' are
ha'ho* by 1 Mount Hor;' but the phrase, which very commonly seen in it ; and these mountains
literally means * mountain of the mountain,' that preserve the character of their formation, as well
is, 'the great mountain' obviously denotes Le- in t)*eir more solid condition, resembling Alpine
l>anon. We think that we cannot be mistaken in limestone and Schniirl-limestnne, as in their
understanding that the line commenced at the softer organization, which has a likeness to chalk-
sea somewl>ere not far to the south of Sidon, mail. Besides this indurated chalk, a stone is
whence it was extended to Lebanon, and crossing found in the immediate vicinity of Jerusalem,
the narrow valley (here called 1 the entering in of chiefly towards the north, as well as towards Safet,
Hamath ' ). which leads into the great plain en and in other parts of the country, whirl*, together
closed between Libauus and Anti-Libanus, ter with the dolomite formation occasionally met
minated at Mount Hermon, in the latter range. with, 1 could not but consider to be of what
This arrangement of the northern line of boundary in Germany is called the Jura formation. I
seems to us to meet all the difficulties arising from am supported in this conclusion by the opinion
deficient knowledge, which have hung like a of a professional gentleman, M. Russegger, the
dense mist over the northern boundary of Pales distinguished geologist, who travelled in Pales
tine. tine at a later period. He also describes the
The Eastern Boundary, as respects Canaan stone of which I am speaking as "a formation
Proper, was defined by the Jordan and its lakes; which, according to all external and internal
but as respects the whole country, including the marks, is to be classed with the upper Jura
portion beyond the Jordan, it is not so easily deter formation, the oolite, and the Jura-dolomite/*
mined; yet it may be made out with close atten Among the Jura-chalk, containing dolomite, of
tion. Salchah was a town on the eastern limits Jerusalem, Russegger found limestones contain
of Bashau, and also, therefore, of the Hebrew ing much i nmp but no dolomite; and this forma
territory (Deut iii. 10; Josh. xii. 5), There is a tion he was disjtosed to class with the inferior
town in the Hauran of the name of Salkhad, oolites.1 After mentioning that an unfortunate
visited by Burckhardt (.Syria, p. 99), who calls it accident, which deprived him of the use of the
Szalkhat, and which Gcsenius is disposed to extensive geological collections made by him in
identify with Salchah. This place is more to Arabia Petrasa, &c, prevented him from at pre
the eaBt than the territory usually assigned to the sent entering into the subject so largely as he
Israelites; and if the identification is to be relied wished, he subjoius : * This one observation on the
upon, the line drawn to this place from Hermon mineralogy of Palestine may, however be added,
must liave included a considerable breadth of that it deserves to be most emphatically called
country. From this point, however, the line the country of salt, which is produced in vast
must have inclined somewhat sharply to the abundance, chiefly in the neighbourhood of the
south-west, and it would be best to bring it to the Dead Sea, which deserves to be regarded as one
point where the Wady-ed-Deir enters the Zerka, of the great natural salt-works of the world.'
and thence extend it almost due south to the Under this head it may be noted tliat the fine
Anion, which was the southern limit of the impalpable desert-sand, which proves so menacing
eastern territory. The necessity of bringing the to travellers, and even to inhabitants, is scarcely
Astern boundary line so far west as Wady-ed- found in Palestine Proper ; but it occurs beyond
PALESTINE. PALESTINE. 45*
near Beirut, and in the neighbourhood which we must be content to refer the reader,
of Damascus. being prevented by want of room from intro
Palestine is eminently a country of caverns, ducing them in this place.
to which there is frequent allusion in Scripture Levki.s.Annexed to the additions to his
^CavksJ, and which are hardly so numerous in Paliistina, which Raumer has lately published,
any country of the same extent. Many of tiiem under tiie title of BeitrUge zur Bibliscken Geo-
were enlarged by the inhabitants, and even arti graphic, IN43, there is an engraved scale of levels
ficial grottoes were formed by manual labour. in Palestine. This document is curious and valu
In these the inhabitants still like to reside; as in able, and emUxlies the observations of Schubert,
summer they afford protection from the heat, and Riippell. Russegger, and others, whose scientific
in winter from cold and rain. Even now, in observations are more im]u>rtant than the rough
many places, houses are observed built so near to guesses of ordinary travellers. We shall copy
rocks, that their cavities may be used for rooms the residts in the subjoined table, and then offer
or sheds suited to the condition of the seasons. some remarks upon them. The measurements
Though the country is not unfrequently visited are in Paris feet, above and below the level of the
by earthquakes, they leave behind no such fright Dead Sea.
ful traces as those of Asia Minor ; as the vaults Above.
of limestone offer more effectual resistance than Great Hermon 10,000
the sandstone of the latter country. While the Mount St. Catherine (hi Sinai) 8063
great earthquake of January 1, 1837, precipitated Jebel Mousa (in Sinai) . 7033
many buildings to the ground in and around Jebel et-Tyh (in Sinai) . .
Nazareth, not one of the grottoes dedicated to de Jeliel er-Raman ....
votion was in the slightest degree injured, or their Kanneytra 2850
coutents disturbed. Hebron 2700
We are glad to see so competent a witness as Mount of Olives .... 2536
Schubert bear his testimony to the natural re Siujil 2520
sources of the soil, which sujKrficial observers, Safet 2500
judging only from present appearance, have so Mount Gerizim . . 2400
often questioned. He says, 1 The ridge of chalk Semua 2225
mountains, chiefly those containing marl, is in Damascus 2186
most places bo irrigated by water, and so acted Kidron (brook) .... 2140
upon by the sun, as to be remarkable for the Nabulus 1751
luxuriant growth of the great variety of plants Mount Tabor 1748
with which they are adorned. The basalt moun Pass of Zephath , . . 1437
tains give birth to numerous springs. No soil Desert of et-Tyh .... 1400
could be naturally more fruitful and fit for cul Nazareth 821
tivation than that of Palestine, if man had not Zerin 515
destroyed the source of fertility by annihilating Plain of Esdraelon ... 459
the former green covering of the hills and slopes, Below.
and thereby destroying the regular circulation
of sweet water, which ascends as vapour from the Lake of Tiberias . . . 84*
sea to be cooled in the higher regions, and then The Arabah at KadeaU . . 91
descends to form the springs and rivers, for it is Dead Sea 1337*
well known that the vegetable kingdom performs Some of these results are so extraordinary, that
in this circulation the function of capillary one might occupy whole pages in discussing them.
tubes. But although the natives, from exas The most important of them will he considered
peration against their foreign conquerors and under their proper heads; and it is here only ne
rulers (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xii. 54), and the in cessary to indicate a few of the more marked
vaders who have bo often overruled this scene of results. First, here is the remarkable fact, that
ancient blessings, have greatly reduced its pros the Mount of Olives and the Kidron, and conse
perity, still I cannot comprehend how not only quently Jerusalem, stand 700 feet higher than
scoiTers like Voltaire, hut early travellers, who the top of Mount Tabor, and about 2500 feet
doubtless intended to declare the truth, represent above the level of the Mediterranean. More to
Palestine as a natural desert, whose soil never the south, Hebron stands on still higher ground ;
could have been fit for pr >titable cultivation. and while it is 2700 feet above the sea on the
Whoever saw the exhaustless abundance of plants one hand, the Asphaltic Lake lies 4000 feet below
on Carmel and the border of the desert, the grassy it on the other. This fact has no known parallel
car]>et of Esdraelon, the lawns adjoining the in any other region, and within so short a distance
Jordan, and the rich foliage of the forests of of the sea : and the extraordinary depression of
Mount Tabor ; whoever saw the borders of the the lake (1337 feet below the sea level) adequately
lakes of Merom and Gennesaieth, wanting only accounts for the very peculiar climate which its
the cultivator to entrust to the soil his seed remarkable basin exhibits. The points at Tiberias
and plants, may state what oilier country on to the north, ami Kadesh to the south of the Dead
earth, devastated by two thousand years of warfare
and spoliation, could be more tit for heing again * These measurements are in English feet, and
taken into cultivation. The hountifu) hand of give the results of the lines of altitude carried
the Most High, which formerly showered abund from the Mediterranean to the Dead Sea and the
ance upon this renowned land, continues to be Lake of Tiberias, by the British engineers left in
still open to those desirous of his blessings.1 Syria to make a military survey of the country,
There are some very excellent remarks on this when the fleet was withdrawn from the coast in
subject in Dr. Olin's Travels (ii. 235-240), to 1841.
PALESTINE. PALESTINE.
Sea, are Iwtti, and nearly equally, below the Esdraelon, and the general height of which above
Mediterranean level, and, taken together, they the sea may, hy a comparison of levels, be esti
how the great slo|>e both from the north and from mated at between 900 and 1000 feet. Theelevated
the south inw.mis the Dead Sea, confirming the situation of this region is evinced by the gradual
discovery of Dr.Jilobiusoii, that the water-shed to declivity which it exhibits on all sides but the north,
the south of the Asplialtic Lake is towards its sloping on the East towards the Jordan and its
basin, and that therefore, the Jordan could not upper lakes, on the west to the plain of the Acre,
at any tune, as the country is at present const i- and on ihe south to the plain of Esdraelon. Tra
tuted, have llowed on southward to the Klauitic vellers exnress surprise at the deep descent from the
Gulf, as was formerly supposed. On the effects comparatively level plains of Galilee to the lake
resulting frtnn this great inequality of surface, we of Tiberias, which, as we have seen, is 905 Paris
cannot do better lhan cite the observations of feet below the level of Nazareth. This table-land
Schubert H< isi\ \\\. 104), which are of somewhat is not without its eminences. The chief of these
general application, although suggested hy the is Jelel Safel, which is seen to tower conspicuously
extraordinary elevation of the site of Jerusalem. . . and isolated, from every point except the north.
* Apart from the grandeur of this country's his This is one of the highest summits in Palestine
tory, nature has stam)>ed on its surface such dis (2500 Paris feet), although being merely a peak of
tinguishing and jteculiar features as hardly any the high table-land from which it rises, it does not
other |x>rtion of the world exhibits. This ob seem to exceed elevations rising from lower levels,
servation applies in ]>articular to the neighbour, which are scarcely inferior. Still it is very high,
hood of Jerusalem. Without taking into account even in apparent altitude. The summit of this
the girdle of height* ui its immediate neighbor lofty and steep mountain is crowned by a castle,
hood, the ascent on all sides to this high-seated and a little below the summit there is a city. This
town is very considerable. It is nearly 2000 city is supposed tube that which our Saviour had
feet above the sea, which is an elevation belong in view, as ' a city set on a hill,' in his sermon
ing to few cities of the Eastern hemisphere equally on the Mount (Matt. v. 4): but it is doubtful if
near the sea. The ascent is, however, most strik any city existed there so early, although modern
ing from the east, from the vicinity of the Dead ecclesiastical tradition has been disced to regard
Sea, and the Jordan. Science lias in our time this as the Bethulia of Judith [Bkthulia]. The
made such progress, that the question may l>e mountain itself is not named in Scripture, unless,
fairly raised :is there any place on earth where as is probable, it lie the ' mountain of Naphtali,'
extraordinary elevations and depressions co-exist mentioned in Josh. xx. 9. Among the swells of
so near each other as they do here, where in the this table-land are the Khurun Hattiu (Horns
distance of seven hours slow travel we tind a de of Hattin). This is a ridge about a quarter of
pression of at least 000 feet, and an elevation of a mile in length, and thirty or forty feet high,
more than four times that amount below and terminating at each end in an elevated peak,
aU>ve the level of the sea ? The ditlerence of which gives the ridge the shape of a saddle. This
ejevation between Jerusalem and the plain of is alleged to have been the place from which our
Jericho (near the village so called) is upwards of Lord delivered his famous Sermon on the Mount
3000 feet. Now it is Mppufed that 100 metres to the multitude standing in the adjacent plain.
of tin's ditlerence occasion a difference of climate The authority for this is very doubtful ; and in
equal to that which would be produced by a the neighborhood, towards Tiberias, there are at
degree of latitude; and consequently the tem least a dozen other eminences which would just
perature of points so near to eacli other must he as well answer to the circumstances of the history.
equal to the difference between places so remote One of these, nearly three miles south-east of this,
in latitude as Rome and London. While the is by similarly uncertain tradition alleged to be
climate in the plain of the Jordan and Dead Sea the sjiot where the five thousand were fed with five
is similar to that of Southern Amhia and the loaves, although that miracle probably took place
Delta of the Nile, that of Jerusalem exhibits a on the east side of the lake of Tiberias (Matt,
temperature similar to that of the isle of Lemnos xtv. 13-21).
and the Ancient Troy, or that of the vale of If we consider the difference of elevation l>e-
Tempe and the middle districts of Sardinia. tween the highland of Galilee and the low plain
And if, from the olaervatious of a few weeks only of Esdraelon, we shall see reason to regard the
(but made in April when the temperature is mountains and ridges of the t>order between them,
nearly at the average of the year), an inference nnd which form as it were the Umndaries of the
may be drawn, it will probably be near the low plain, as merely detached or connected
mark to estimate the average heat of the summer recesses, or peaks of the highland. The moun
at 81 or 85 degrees of Fahrenheit. tains of (iilboa ami Hermon, which bound the
plain of Esdraelon on the East, are certainly no
Mountains.As all the principal mountains other than portions of this high laid, though they
of Palestine are noticed in Inia work under their beoome mountains from (be lower level of the great
respective names, a few general observations are plain. Tabor itself seems but as one advanced
all that here seem necessary. Schubert's remarks, iteak or promontory of the high lauds of Galilee
given in this article under the heads Mineralogy [TaborJ. On the west the Great Plain is
and Levels, still further limit the scope of the ob bounded by Carmel, which may be either regard
servations to be offered, which will consist of a ed as a detached ridge, or as connected with the
bird's-eye view over the country from north to mountains of Samaria, which rise beyond the plain
south. on the south [Cakmbi.].
To Lebanon, which forms (lie northern boundary Southward of the plain of Esdraelon, through
of the land [Lebanon], succeeds the high table out to the borders of the southern desert, is an
land of Galilee, which extends to the plain of almost unbroken mountainous country, or ridge of
PALESTINE. PALESTINE. 417
mountains, extending north and soutti. It offers says Dr. Olin, * runs along the edge of steep pre
few conspicuous points, but its general elevation cipices and yawning gulfs, and in a few places is
in the centre may be determined by that of overhung with the crags of the mountain. The
Gerizim in the north (2400 Paris feet), of Olivet aspect of the whole region is peculiarly savage and
in the centre (2536 P. feet), and of Hebron in the dreary, vying in these resects, though not in over
south (2700 P. feet). The ascent to the higher powering grandeur, with the wilds of Sinai. The
and central region from the plain of the coast on mountains seem to have been loosened from their
the west is gradual, by a succession of natural foundations, and rent in pieces by some terrible
terraces; but eastward, in the direction of the convulsion, and there left to be scathed by the
Jordan and Dead Sea, the descents are compara burning rays of the sun, which scorches the land
tively abrupt and precipitous. witli consuming heat' (Travels, ii. 197). These
There is no distinct natural boundary between characteristics became more manifest on approach
the mountains of Samaria and Judaea. The hills ing the Jordan ; and the wild region extending north
of Samaria exhibit scenery very different from of the road l believed, with sufficient probability,
those of Galilee. They are often beautifully to form *the wilderness' where, after his baptism,
wooded, and the region is more populous and Jesus * was led up of the Spirit, to be tempted of
better cultivated than any other part of Palestine. the devil,' and where 'he fasted forty days and
Among numerous venerable olive-woods towns forty nights' (Matt. iv. 1, 2). The lofty ridge
and villages are scattered in every direction, which extends north of the road, and fronts the
and some of the views rival those of Switzer plain of Jericho, is called Quarantana, with refers
land. The principal mountains of Samaria are ence to this eveut, and the particular summit from
those of Ebal and Gerizim, which have been de which Satan is supposed to have displayed to the
scribed under the proper heads (Morison, it. 10; Saviour 4 the kingdoms of the world and the glory
Buckingham, Palestine, ch. xcii. ; Elliot, ii. 380; of them,' is crowned by a chapel, still occasionally
Olin, ii. 354). resorted to by the devouter pilgrims, while the
The mountains of Judaea, although of greater eastern face which overhangs the plain is much
historical celebrity, are now less attractive than occupied with grots and cells, once the favourite
those of Samaria, but apparently for no other abode of pious anchorites. The Quarantana forms,
reason than that their cultivation has been more apparently, the highest Btimmit of the whole im
neglected. The hills are generally separated from mense pile, and is distinguished for its sere and
each other by valleys and torrents, and are for the desolate aspect, even in this gloomy region of
most put of moderate height, uneven, and seldom savage and dreary sights. It has not, that we
of any regular iigure. The rock of which they know, been measured, but Dr. Olin computes
are coiiijwsed is easily converted into mould, its height at nearly 2000 feet in perpendicular
which, being arrested by terraces when washed height (Travels, ii. 119; Kitto's Palest.; Phys.
down by the rains, renders the hills cultivable, in Geog. p. xxxix.; Robinson, ii. 289; Husselquist,
a series of long narrow gardens, formed by these p. 128; Maundrell, p. 79; Morison, p. 523;
terraces, from the base upwards. Tims the hills Nau, p. 403).
were clad in former time most abundantly, and In the southern region, usually called in Scrip
enriched and beautified with the fig-tree, the olive, ture 'the hill country of Judah ' (Matt. iii. 1),
and the vine; and it is in this way that the there are few mountains of a marked character;
limited cultivation which survives is still carried the peaks of the general ridge being of little appa
on. But when the inhabitants were thinned out, rent elevation, although actually much elevated
and cultivation abandoned, the terraces fell to above the sea-level. The most remarkable of the
decay, and the soil which had collected on them whole of this wild region seems to have been dis
was washed down into the valleys, leaving only the tinguished as * the wilderness of Judah' (Luke
arid rock, bare and desolate. This is the general i. 39, 65), while ' the mountains of Judah,1 or
character of the bills of Judxa ; but in some parts * the hill country of Judaea,' applies to the moun
they are beautifully wooded, and in others the tainous region south of Jerusalem towards Hebron
application of the ancient mode of culture suggests (Josh. xi. 21; 2 Chron. xxvii. 4, &c). To this
to the traveller how productive the country once district belongs the wilderness of Tekoa (2 Chron.
was, ami how fair the aspect which it oilered xx. 20), and beyond it eastward, 'the wilder
(Kitto's Palestine; Phys.Geog. p. xxxix. ; comp. ness of Engeddi ' (1 Sam. xxiy. 2), Maon (1 Sam.
Mariti, ii. 362; Elliot, ii. 407, 408 ; Olin, ii. ; xxiii. 24, 25), and Ziph (1 Sam. xxiii. 14, 15),
Raumer, Paldstina, p. 47, sq.). names made familiar to us by the history of David.
The characteristics of desolation which have Here also is the Frank Mountain near Tekoa,
been indicated, apply with peculiar force to which has already been described [Bbthulia],
the northern part of Judaea, forming the ancient as well as the Carmel mentioned in the history
territory of Benjamin. Its most favourably-situ of Nabal (Josh. xv. 55; 1 Sam. xxv.). It would
ated mountains are wholly uncultivated; and seem that the hills of southernmost Judaea were,
perhaps in no other country is such a mass of before the conquest of the country by the Hebrews,
rock exhibited without an atom of soil. In called 'the mountains of the Amorites' (Deut. i.
the East, towards the plain of Jericho, it takes 7, 19, 20, 43, 44). This tract has only of late been
a naturally stem and grand character, sucli as explored by travellers on the new route from Petra
no other part of Palestine offers. It is through to Hebron, except by Seetzen,at (he beginning ofthe
this wild and melancholy region that the roads present century. To obtain a clear notion of it, we
from Jerusalem to Jericho, and (by way of Wady should view it from the great Arabah, beyond the
Saba) to tiie Dead Sea lie. It lias hence, by the southern extremity of the Dead Sea, whence it was
former route, often been passed by travellers in surveyed by the Israelites, when they contemplated
their pilgrimages to the Jordan ; and they unite in entering the Promised Land from the south-east.
depicting it in the most gloomy hues. ' The road,' The two terraces which, towards the south end of
45? PALESTINE. PALESTINE.
the Dead Sea on the east side form the descent to soil is good, and the water abundant from the
its deep basin from the high-lands of Judaea, numerous mountain springs on each side ; but
stretch off to the south-west, and the ascents from the concentration of the sun's rays renders the
the plain to the first, and from the plateau of the summer heat excessive. These are the sources of
first to the top of the second, which forms the that fertility for which the valley has, in all ages,
general level of Judxa, present to him who ap- been renowned ; but only a small portion is now
Eroaches from the lower region of the Arabah, cultivated, the rest being left in pasture to the
igh mountain barriers, which he has to ascend Arab tribes. (La Roque, i. 115-120 ; Volney, i.
by gorges or passes of more or less difficult ascent. 271 ; Burckhardt, pp. 4-18, 31 ; Addison, ii. 48-
After ascending from the great valley the traveller 50 ; Modern Syrians, p. 124).
passes over a wild district covered with rocky hills, The Plain of the Jordan. By this name we
till he comes to the frontier wall of the first terrace understand the margin of the lakes, as well as
or step, and which was probably pre-eminently 1 the the valley watered by the river. Here the heat
mountain of the Amorites.' There are in this three is still greater than in the valley of Lebanon,
principal passes ; the southernmost being that of and, in consequence, palm-trees and the fruits of
Nubeh-es-Sufah, the Zenhath of Scripture, called more southern climes than Palestine, will grow
also Hormah, which we know to have been the pass freely wherever there are soil and water. But the
by which the Israelites attempted to enter Palestine latter is usually wanting, and, therefore, except
from Kadesh, when they were driven back (Deut. on the immediate borders of the river, of the lake
i. 44 ; Num. xiv.45 ; Judg. i. 17). The top of this of Gennesareth, and of the lesser streams, tie
pass is given in the table of Levels, on the authority whole plain is barren and desolate: for the in -
of Schubert, as 1434 feet above the level of the sea. tense heat which causes exuberant fertility wher
A particular description of this ' vast inclined ever there is water, consumes the plain wherever
plane of rock 1 may be seen in Robinson's Re~ it is wanting.
searches (ii. 390). On reaching the top a journey The Plain of Jericho is but an opening or
of three hours among hills of chalky limestone expansion in the plain of the Jordan, towards the
brings the traveller to the second great ascent to Dead Sea. The whole expansion takes in the
the general level of the hill country of eastern plains of Moab on the east side of the river, and
Judssa. This second ascent is similar tothe first, the plains of Jericho on the west, the breadth
but not more than half as high. This statement across being from ten to twelve miles. In fact,
will convey some idea of that difficulty of mili the plain of the Jordan is in no other part so wide.
tary access to the country in this direction which The large plain of Jericho is partly desert, but,
eventually induced the invading Hebrews to take from the abundance of water and the heat of the
another and more circuitous route. climate, it might be rendered highly productive ;
In the direct south of Judah the approach is indeed, the fertility of this plain has been cele
marked by an ascent more gradual, over a suc brated in every age. Josephus describes it as the
cession of less elevated plateaus, from the desert most fertile tract of Judaea, and calls it a ' divine
regions of sand and rock to the hills of Judah. region.' He speaks also of its beautiful gardens,
Recent discoveries, in that quarter, chiefly those of and its groves of palm-trees ; and his description
Dr. Robinson, have shown that much of the south is borne out by Scripture, in which Jericho is
border country, which was formerly regarded as described as ' The city of palm-trees' (Deut.
desert, is in fact a variegated region affording good xxxiv. 3 ; Judg. i. 16). This region also pro
pastures, into which the sheep-masters of Judah duced honey, opobalsam, the cypress-tree (or el
doubtless sent their flocks of old. Ou the moun henna), and myrobalanum, as well as the com
tains of Palestine generally, see Raumer's Palas- mon fruits of the earth in prolific abundance.
tina, pp. 29-81 ; Winer's Real-worterb., art. The Scripture adds the sycamore-tree to the num
' Gebirge ;' Kitto's Palest., ' Phys, Geog.' ch. ii. ber of its products (Luke xix. 4). Of all these
productions which so distinguished the climate of
Plains and Valleys.The two preceding Jericho, and the greater part of which it enjoyed
sections will have given an idea of the general in common with Egypt, very few now remain.
arrangement of the plains and valleys of Pales Only one solitary palm tree lingers in the plain ;
tine : and it is therefore here only necessary to the sycamores have altogether disappeared ; the
indicate those which are separately the most im celebrated opobalsam is not known ; and the my
portant or the most distinguished. These are robalanum alone appears to thrive, being probably
those of Lebanon, of the Jordan, of Jericho, of the thorny shrub, growing wild in the plain, to
Esdraelon, and of the Coast. which the name of zukkum is given by the present
The Plain of Lebanon may be described as inhabitantsthe modem ' Balsam of Jericho* is
the valley which is enclosed lietween the parallel an oil, extracted from the kernels of the green nut
mountain ranges of Libanus and Anti-Libanus. which it bears. (Nau, p. 349 ; Morison, p. 507 ;
Although the greater part of it must have been with Surius, p. 491 ; Mariti, ii. 301 ; Robinson, ii.
in Solomon's dominion, it can scarcely be deemed 281, sqq. ; Olin, ii. 226).
to belong to Palestine Proper; but its geographical The Plain of Esdraelon is often mentioned in
and historical connection with that country re sacred history (Judg. iv. 13, 15, 16 ; v. 19; 2
quires its introduction. This enclosed plain is Kings xxiii. 29; Zech. xii. 11; Judith i. 8),
the Cojle-Syria of the ancients, and now bears as the great battle-field of the Jewish and other
the name of El-Bekka (the Valley). It is about nations, under the names of the Valley of Megiddo
ninety miles in length, from north to south, by and the Valley of Jezreel ; and by Josephus as
eleven miles in breadth, nearly equal throughout, the Great Plain. The convenience of its extent
except that it widens at the northern end and and situation for military action and display has,
narrows at the southern. This plain is, perhaps, from the earliest periods of history down to out
the most rich and beautiful part of Syria. The own day, caused its surface, at certain intervals,
PALESTINE. PALESTINE. 43*
to be moistened with the blood, and covered with largest streams, which enter the lake on tha
/he bodies, of conflicting warriors of almost every north, are each formed by the junction of two
nation under heaven. This extensive plain, ex others. It is usual to refer the origin of a river
clusive of three great arms which stretcli eastward to its remotest sources; but in this case the larg
towards the valley of the Jordan, may be said est and longest, being the most easterly of the two
to be in the form of an ncute triangle, having the streams, does not appear to have been at any time
measure of thirteen or fourteen miles on the north, identified with the Jordanthat honour having for
about eighteen 00 the east, and above twenty ages l.teen ascribed to the western stream ; this
on the south-west. In the western portion it river has distinct sources, at Banias and at Tel-
seems perfectly level, with a general declivity el-KSdi. At Banias (anciently Paneas, from
towards the Mediterranean ; but in the east it is the worship of Pan) a stream issues from a
somewhat undulated by slight gpurs and swells cious cavern, under a wall of n>ck, at the base of
from the roots of the mountains : from the eastern the Heish mountains. Directly over the cavem,
side three great valleys go off to the valley of the and in other parts, in the face of the perpendicu
Jordan. These valleys are separated by the ridges lar rock, niches have !>een cut to receive statues.
of Gilboa and Little Hermon, and the space Here Herod built a temple in honour of Augus
which lies between these two ridges, is the proper tus ; and there was a town somewhat below,
valley of Jezreel, which name seems to be some traces of which still remain. This is, undoubt
times given to the whole plain of Ksdraelon. edly, that place and cavern, at the foot of a
The valley of Jezreel is a deep plain, and about mountain, which Josephus describes as the main
three miles across. Before the verdure of spring source of the Jordan (Joseph. Antiq. xv. 10. 3;
and early summer has been parched up by the De Bell. Jud, i. 21. 3). Yet, in another place
heat and drought of the late summer and autumn, {De Bell. Jud. iii. 10. 7), this writer refers the
the view of the Great Plain is, from its fertility source to a remoter quarter. He relates that the
and beauty, very delightful. In June, yellow Tetrarch Philip cast some cliaff into the lake
fields of grain, with green patches of millet and Phiala, and as it came out at (lie Paneas cavem,
cotton interspersed, chequer the landscape like a the lake was deemed the true source of the river.
carpet. The plain itself is almost without vil This lake lay 120 stadia eastward, and was deep
lages, but there are several on the slopes of the and round, like a bowl or cupwhence its name
enclosing hills, especially on the side of Mount Phiala. Such a lake, about a mile in circum
Carmel. ("Robinson, ii. 160-162; Olin, ii. 376; ference and perfectly round, was discovered by
Schubert, iii. 163; Clarke, iv. 356-360; Jowett, Captains Irby and Mangles, as they journeyed
ii. 192; Stephens, ii. 307; Elliot, ii. 360.) from Damascus to Banias, not more than twelve
The Plain of the Coast is that tract of land miles from the latter place.
which extends along the coast, between the sea A second source of the Jordan, as descril>edby
and the mountains. In some places, where the ancient writers, is at the place now called Tel-el-
mountains approach the sea, this tract is inter Kadi, which is about three miles to the west of
rupted by promontories and rising grounds; but, the cavern at Banias. The Tell (hill) is a small
taken generally, the whole coast of Palestine may elevation in the plain, with a flat s|>ace on the
be described as an extensive plain of various top: here are two springs, one of which is very
breadth. Sometimes it expands into broad plains, large. The united waters immediately form a
at others it is contracted into narrow valleys. stream, twelve or fifteen yards across, which
With the exception of some sandy tracts the soil rushes rapidly over a stony bed into a lower plain.
is throughout rich, and exceedingly productive. After a course of about four miles the stream
The climate is everywhere very warm, and is unites with that from Banias, forming the reputed
considered rather insalubrious as compared with Jordan, which then continues its course to the
the upland country. It is not mentioned by any lake.
one collective name in Scripture. The part The true Jordanthe stream that quits this
fronting Samaria, and between Mount Carmel lakepasses rapidly along the narrow valley,
and Jaffa, near a rich pasture-ground, was called and between well-shaded banks, to the lake of
the Valley of Sharon ; and the continuation Geunesareth : the distance is about nine miles.
southward, between Jaffa and Gaza, was called Nearly two miles lelow the lake is a bridge,
The Plain, as distinguished from the hill-country called Jacob's bridge; and here the river is about
of Judah. A minute description of this plain eighty feet wide, and four feet deep. It is said
throughout its extent is given in Kitto's Palestine, that, in passing through, the Jordan does not
Phys. Geog* p. c.-cv. mingle its waters witli those of the lake of Gen-
nesareth : the same thing is reported of other rivers
Rivers.The Jordan is the only river of any that pass through lakes. It is certain that the
note in Palestine, and besides it there are only course of the river may be traced thnmgh the
two or three perennial streams. The greater middle of the lake by a line of smoother water.
number of the streams which figure in the history, On leaving the lake of Gennesareth the river
and find a place in the maps, are merely torrents enters a very broad valley, or Ghor, by which
or water-courses, which carry off the waters in name the natives designate a depressed tract or
the season of rain, or if they have their origin iu plain between mountains. This name is applied
springs, are spent, in the season of drought, soon to the plain of the Jordan, not only between the
after they quit their sources. lake of Gennesareth and the Dead Sea, but quite
The Jordan. We should like to consider this across the Dead Sea, and to some distance beyond.
river simply as the stream issuing from the reser The valley varies in width from five to ten miles
voir of the lake Huleh, but custom requires its between the mountains on each side. The river
source to be traced to some one or more of the does not make its way straight through the midst
streams which form that reservoir. The two of the Ghor; it flows first near the western hill,
460 PALESTINE. PALESTINE.
then near (lie eastern, but advances to the Dead in May, the river is full, and sometimes over
Sea through the middle of the valley. Within flows its lower banks, to which fact there are
this valley there is a lower one. and within that, several allusions in Scripture (Josh. iii. 15; 1
in some parts, another still lower, through which Chrnn. xii. 15 ; Jer. xii. 5 : xlix. 19 ; 1. 44 ;
the river Hows; the inner valley is about half a Ecclus. xxiv. 26). (Nau, p. 272; Shaw, ii. 156 ;
mile wide, and is generally green and lieautiful, Paxton, p. 158; Stephens, ii. 36*1-363; Burck-
covered with trees utid bushes, whereas the upjwror hardt, pp. 39-43; 314. 345, 514; Irby and
large valley is, for the most part, sandy or barren. Mangles, pp. 283-290 ; 304, 326 ; Buckingham,
. The distance between the two lakes, in a direct Arab Tribes, pp. 401-400 ; Palestine, i. SO, 93 ;
f0 St+wmJine, is about sixty miles. In the first part of its Robinson, ii. 255-267 ; iii. 3U9-312 ; 347, 355 ;
4Ws ttvc ilku CO"6 the stream is clear, but it becomes turbid Olio, ii. 229-334 ; Schubert, iii. S0-R4 ; Pococke,
as it advances to the Dead Sea, probably from ii. 71 ; Richardson, ii. I2">. 445, 446; Lindsay,
passing over beds of sandy clay. The water is ii. 65, 91 ; Elliot, i. 71-77.)
very wholesome, always cool, and nearly taste The Kishon, that ' ancient river,' by whose
less. The breadth and depth of the river varies wide and rapid stream the hosts of Sisera were
much in different places and at different times swept away (Judg. iv. 13; v. 21), lias been no
of the year. Dr. Shaw calculates the average ticed under the proper head [Kishon].
breadth at thirty yards, and the depth at nine The Belus, now called AaAr Kardanus, enters
feet. In the season of Hood, in April and early the bay of Acre higher up than the Kishon. It
448. [Patmos.]
On approaching the island the coast is found the supply of their own vessels and others which
to be high, and to consist of a succession of capes, often put in at the great harbour for provisions.
which form so many ports, some of which aie The island now bears the names of Patino and
excellent. The only one in use is, however, a Palrnosa, and the inhabitants do not exceed 4000
deep liay, sheltered by high mountains on every or 5<>00, many of whom are emigrants from the
side but one, where it is protected by a projecting neighbouring continent. About half way on
cape. The town attached to this port is situated which, whereon the town is built, is shown a
upon a high rocky mountain, rising immediately natural grotto in the rock, where St. John is
from the sea; and this with the Scala below supposed to have seen his visions, and to have
upon the shore, consisting of some sho| and written the Revelation. In and around it is a
houses, forms the only inhabited site of the island. small church, connected with which is a school
The best and most recent account of this island is or college, where the ancient Greek literature is
that of Schubert in his Reise nach Morgenland. said to be well taught and understood. On
iii. 421-412. the top of the mountain, and consequently in the
Patmos is deficient of trees, but aliounds in middle of the town, is a monastery, which, from
flowering plants and shrubs. Walnuts and other its situation, has a very majestic appearance.
fruit trees are grown in the orchards; and the It was built by Alexius Comneuus, and in the
wine of Patmos is the strongest and best fla library are a great many printed looks and
voured of any in the Greek islands. Maize manuscripts. The latter have been examined
and barley are cultivated, but not in a quantity and described by Dr. Clarke and Professor Car*
sufficient for the use of the inhabitants, and for lisle. See also Turner, Journal oj a TourJ iii.
Si
X
PAUL. PAUL. 481
98-101, and Schubert, had in the market-place of Athens, previous to the
434-434. delivering of his oration on the Areopagus ; (2) of
PAVEMENT. [Gabbati three quotations made by him from Greek poets,
PAVILION. [Tent.] one from the Phenomena (ver. 5) of his country
man Aratus (Acts xvii. 28), one from a lost play
PAUL (noSXos), originally Saul {\ of Menander (1 Cor. xv. 33), and one from Epi-
2av\os. askedfor), was a native of Tarsus, a city menides (Tit. i. 12), all of which, however, hear
of Cilicia (Acta xxii. 3, &c), and was of Jewish the general character of gnomes or proverbs, and
descent, of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil. iii. 5). might consequently find their way to the Apostle
From his father he inherited the rights of Roman merely as part of the current coin of popular con
citizenship, which had probably been earned by versation, without his having once visited the
some of his ancestry through service* rendered to treasury whence they were originally drawn ; and
the Roman state (Lardner, Works, i. 228, ed. (3) of certain similarities of idea and expression
1788, 8vo; Grotius, ad Act xxii. 28). The sup between some passages of the Apostle and some
position that he enjoyed them in virtue of being a that are found in classic authors (Home's Intro~
native of Tarsus is not well founded ; for though dttctioii, IT. 313) ; but none of which are of such
that city had been created by Augustus an urbs a nature as to necessitate the conclusion that
libera (Dion. Chrysost. ii. 36, ed. Reiske; Plin. the coincidence is more than purely accidental.
Hist Nat. v. 27), it does not follow from this that It must he allowed, however, that the mere cir
all its natives enjoyed the privilege of Roman cumstance of having spent his early years in such
citizenship ; and besides, from Acts xxi. 39, com a city as Tarsus could not but exert a very power
pared with xxii. 24, 27, it may be inferred that, ful influence on the mind of such a man as Paul,
as the chief captain knew Paul to he a native of in the way of sharpening his faculties, refining his
Tarsus and yet was not aware of his Roman tastes and enlarging the circle of his sympathies
citizenship, the latter of these was not necessarily and affections. 1 If, even to the meanest citizen/
associated with the former. From his receiving as Eichhom remarks, 'such a circumstance af
the name Saul it has t>een supposed that he was fordsunless lie be by nature utterly unobservant
the first-horn sou of his parents, and that they had much information which otherwise he could
long desired and often asked for such a favour not have obtained, and in consequence ol' this a
from God; that he was not their only child, how certain activity of mind, how much greater may
ever, appears from the mention made (Acts xxiii. not its effect be supposed to have been on a great
16) of his * sister's son.' Whether Andronicus, mind like that of Paul. To his birth and early
Junia, and Herodion, whom he terms, in the residence in Tarsus may be traced the urbanity
Epistle to the Romans (xvi. 7, 11), cvyy^yus fiov, which the Ajwstle at no time laid aside, and of
were of the number of his blood relations, or only which he was frequently a perfect model, many
l*longed to the same tribe with him, is a question insinuating turns which he gives to his epistles,
on which learned men have taken different sides and a more skilful use of the Greek tongue than
(comp. Lardner, Works, vi. 235 ; Estius, Comm. a Jew born and educated in Palestine could well
in /be.). have attained1 (Einleit ins N. T. iii. 5).
At that time Tarsus was the rival of Athens and But whatever uncertainty may hang over the
Alexandria as a place of learning and philoso early studies of the Apostle in the department of
phical research (Strabo, xiv. 5i; but to what Greek learning, there can be no doubt that, being
extent the future 'Apostle of the Gentiles ' enjoyed the son ol" a Pharisee, and destined, in all proba
the advantage of its schools we have no means of bility, from his infancy to the pursuits of a doctor
accurately determining. Attempts have been made of Jewish law, he would be carefully instructed
to show from his writings that lie was familiar from his earliest years in the elements of Rabbi
with Greek literature, and Dr. Bentley has not he nical lore. It is probable also that at this time
sitated to affirm that ' as Moses was learned in all he acquired his skill in that handicraft trade by
the wisdom of the Egyptians, so it is manifest which in later years lie frequently supported him
from this chapter alone (Acts xxvHA if nothing self (Acts xvii. 3 ; 1 Cor. iv. 12, Ac.) ; for it was
else had been now extant, that St. Paul was a great a maxim among the Jews, that ' he who does not
master in all the learning of the Greeks ' (Boyle teach bis son a trade, teaches him to steal.' This
Lectures, Serm. iii. sub. init). An authority like trade isdescril>ed by Luke as that of a trtnjvoiroiSs,
that of Bentley in a question of Greek literature a word regarding the meaning of which there has
is not to be lightly set aside ; yet on referring to the been no small difference of opinion. Luther
evidence which has been furnished both by himself makes it 'carpet-maker;* Morus (m Act, xviii.
and others in support of the opinion to which lie 3) and others, 'maker of mats or mattresses;"
has lent his sanction, it will not be found, we Michael is (Einl. ins N. T. J 216) and Haeulein
trunk, such as to justify the strong and decided (Einl. ins N. T. iii. 301), 1 tool-maker;' Chrysos-
language he has employed. This evidence consists, tom and others, 'worker in leather* (= crnvro~
(1) of a few supposed references, in the discourse r6fios)} Hug (hitrod. p. 505, Fosdick s Trans.)
alluded to by Dr. Bentley, to certain dogmas of and Eichhom (Einl. ins N. T. iii. 8), 'maker of
the Greek philosophers; but even supposing the tent-cloth ;' but most critics agree with our trans
Apostle to nave had these in his eye, it will not lators in rendering it ' tent-maker' (comp. Kui-
follow that he must have studied the writings in noel, Dindorf, Hiwenmuller, Olsuausen, in loc.\
which these dogmas were unfolded and defended, Winer, Realtcorterb. Art. 'Paulus;' Schleusner,
because he might have learned enough of them to in voc.).
guide him to such references, as by the supposition At the proper age (supposed to be after he was
he makes in that discourse, from those controver fourteen years old), the Apostle proceeded to
sial encounters with * the philosophers of the Epi Jerusalem, to prosecute his studies in the learning
cureans and of the Stoics,* which we are told he of the Jews. Here he became a student undsv
2i
482 PAUL. PAUL.
Gamaliel, a distinguished teacher of the law, and manded the reason of his furious zeal, in the
who is supposed to be the person of that name who remarkable words, ' Saul, Saul, why persecutes!
is celebrated in the writings of the Talmudtsts as thou meV Struck to the ground by the sudden
one of the seven teachers to whom the title 1 Rab- ness and overwhelming splendour of the vision,
ban ' was given (Lightftot, llorce Ilebr. in Act. ami able only to ask by whom it was he was thus
v. 34 ; Neander, dpnstol. Zcitaltcr. u. s. w. s. 62 ; addressed, he received for answer, * I am Jesus of
Otfao, Lex. llabbinico-Phil.s.v. 'Rabbi'), Besides Nazareth whom thou persecutest ; but arise, and
acquaintance with the Jewish law, and a sincere go into the city, and it shall l>e told ihee what to
conviction of the supreme excellence of Judaism, do.' This command the confounded and now
Gamaliel appears to have possessed a singularly humble zealot immediately rose to obey, but as
calm and judicious mind, and to hare exercised the brilliancy of the light which had shone
a freedom of thought as well as pursued a range around him had dazzled him to blindness, he had
of study very unlike what was commun among to be led into the city by his attendants. Here
the party to which he belonged (Acts v. 34 39; he remained for three days and nights in a state
comp. Neander, loc. eiU\ How much the in of deep mental conflict and dejection, tasting
structions and the example of such a teacher may neither meat nor drink, until a person of the
have influenced the mind of Paul in a direction name of Ananias appeared at the command of
favourable to the course he was subsequently Christ to relieve his distress, and to admit him
called to pursue, it is easy fur us to imagine, into the Christian fraternity by baptizing him
though from the absence of all testimony on the into the name of the Lord (Acts ix. 1-18).
subject it is not competent for us to affirm. Resjiecting the character of this transaction
We now approach the period in Paul's history different opinions have been entertained; some
when he becomes a prominent figure on the page regarding the whole narrative as a mere myth ;
of the sacred historian, and when, consequently, others maintaining that the events may be ex
the facts of his life can be more confidently nar plained on natural principles (such as a severe
rated. The points about which di(Terences of storm of thunder and lightning, by which Saul
opinion chiefly exist relate to the chronology of was blinded ami terrified, and which he, 'accord
the events recorded concerning him. On such ing to the faith of the ancients, viewed as an
questions our limited space forbids us to enter, and omen whereby he was warned to desist from the
therefore, contenting ourselves with a general re persecuting ilesign witli which he had com
ference to the article Acts of the Apostles, in menced his journey to Damascus' (Kichhorn,
this work, where the reader will find the dates Einleit. iii. 12); whilst others regard the whole
assigned to each event of prominent importance in as having been a mere vision which passed before
the Apostle's life, by Ussher, Pearson. Michael is, 'the inner consciousness' of Saul. Such sup
Hug, Haenlein, Greswell, and Anger, respec positions, however, are utterly irreconcilable with
tively, we shall proceed to narrate briefly the the authenticity of the Acts of the Apostles, and
Apostle's history, without any attempt to ascer with the references to this jieriod of his life by
tain the year either of his own life or of the the A|*wtle himself in his Kpistles (comp. I Cor.
Christian era when each event occurred. xv. 8; ix. I; Gal. i. 1; Neander, ApostoL
He is introduced to our notice by the sacred ZeiUtltcr. s. Ill IT. ; Olshausen, on Acts ix.
historian for the first time in connection with the 1-19; Lyttleton's Observations on the Conver
martyrdom of Stephen, in which transaction he sion and Apostleship of St. Paul).
was, if not an assistant, something more than a Immediately on his conversion to Christianity
mere spectator. He is described as at this time Saul seems to have gone into Arabia, where he
'a young man1 (rtwCof); but this term was remained three years (Gal. i. 11-17); and where
employed with so much latitude by the Greeks, he, in all probability, was chiefly occupied, by
that it is impossible from the mere use of it, to meditation and study, in preparing himself for
determine whether the jwirty to whom it was ap the great work to which he had been called.
plied, was under thirty, or between that and forty. Here also we may venture to suppose he receive!
The probability is, that Paul must have readied that Gospel winch afterwards he preached ' by
the age of thirty at least ; for, otherwise, it is not revelation* from Christ (Gal. i. 12). Neander
likely that he would have shared the counsels of (/. c. s. 121) and Anger (Z)e Tempp. in Actis
the chief priests, or been intrusted by them with App. Hatione, p. 123) have endeavoured to show
the entire responsibility of executing their designs that Paul went into Arabia to preach the Gospel ;
against the followers of Jesus, as we know was but the reasons they adduce have little weight,
the case (Acts xxvi. 10, 12). For such a task (comp. Olshausen, on Acts ix. 20-25).
he showed a painful aptitude, and discharged it Returning from Arabia to Damascus the Apostle
with a zeal which spared neither age nor sex commenced his public efforts in the service of
(Acts viii. 1-3; xxvi. 10, II). But whilst thus, Christ, by boldly advocating in the synagogues
in his ignorance and unbelief, he was seeking to of the Jews the claims of Jesus to be venerated as
be ' injurious ' to the cause of Christ, the great the Son of God. At first astonished, the Jews
Author of Christianity was about to make him a were afterwards furiously incensed at this change
distinguished trophy of its power, and one of ttie in the opinions and conduct of Saul, and in con
most devoted and successful of its advocates. sequence of their attempts upon his liberty anil
Whilst journeying to Damascus, with a commis life, he was obliged to make his escajje from
sion from the high priest, to arrest and bring back Damascus. This he effected with difficulty by
as prisoners to Jerusalem the Christians who had the aid of the Christians, some of whom let him
escaped thither from the fury of their persecutors, down in a basket from the window of a dwell
atid when he had almost completed his journey, ing erected upon the outer wall of the city
he was suddenly arrested by a miraculous vision (Acts ix. 21, &c. ; 2 Cor. xi. 32). After this
of Christ, who addressing him from heaven, de he went up to Jerusalem (for ihejirtt time after
PAUL. PAUL. 483
his conversion), where, on the testimony of Bar that he used the one among the Jews, but adopted
nabas, he was acknowledged as a Christian the other when he came to labour chiefly among
brother, and admitted by the Apostles to that Gentiles. But the most probable opinion is that
place in their fraternity which had been assigned of Beza, Grocius, Doddridge, Kuinoel, &c, that
to him by Christ. From Jerusalem he was soon as the Romans and Greeks were in the habit of
driven by the hostility of the Jews ; when, after softening the Hebrew names in pronunciation,
visiting Csesarea, he went to his native town and accommodating their form to that of the
Tarsus, where he abode several years (Acts ix. Latin or Greek (comp. Jason for Jesus, Silvanus
26-30). From this retreat he wai summoned by for Silas, Pollio for Hillel, &c), they substituted
Barnabas, who, having been appointed by the Paulus for him, and the Apostle henceforward
Apostles at Jerusalem to visit the church at
Antioch, where accessions had been made to the adopted the substituted name as his usual desig
number of the followers of Jesus from among the nation.
Gentiles as well as the Jews, and rinding the Not long after Paul and Barnabas had returned
need of counsel and co-operation in his work, to Antioch, they were deputed by the church
went to Tarsus to procure the assistance of Saul there again to visit Jerusalem, to consult the
(Acts xi. 22-35). After residing and labouring Apostles and elders upon the question, which
for a year in Antioch, these two distinguished certain members of the church at Jerusalem had
servants of Christ were sent up to Jerusalem with raised in that at Antioch, whether converts from
certain contributions which had been made heathenism required to be circumcised, and so
among the Christians at Antioch, on l>ehalf of become Jews before they could be saved i The
their brethren in Judea, who were suffering from Apostle on this occasion visited Jerusalem for the
the effects of a dearth (Acts xi. 27-30 ) This, as third time after his conversion ; and after the
commonly received, was the Apostle's second question had been settled by the parties in that
visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. city with whom the power to do so lay, he
Having discharged this commission they re and his companion returned to Antioch. After
lumed to Antioch, nccomjtfuiied by John Mark, restoring peace to the church there Paul proposed
the nephew of Barnabas, and were shortly after to Barnabas to undertake another missionary tour,
wards despatched by that church, in obedience to to which the latter cordially assented; but, un
an injunction from heaven, on a general mis happily, on tlie very eve of their departure, a con
sionary tour. In the course of this tour, during tention arose between them, in consequence of
the earlier part only of which they were accom Barnabas being determined to take with them his
panied by Mark, in consequence cf his shrinking nephew John Mark, and Paul being equally de
from the toils and dangers of the journey ami termined that one, who had on a former occasion
returning to Jerusalem, they visited Seleucia, inglorious] y deserted them, should not again be
Cyprus, Perga in Pamphylia, Antioch in Pisidia, employed in the work. Unable to come to an
Icon mm, Lystra and Derbe, cities of Lycaonia agreement on this point they separated, and Paul,
(in the former of which the fickle populace, accompanied by Silas, commenced his second
though at first they had with difficulty been pre missionary journey, in the course of which, after
vented from offering them divine honours, were passing through Syria and Ctlicia, he revisited
almost immediately afterwards, at the instigation Lystra and Derbe. At the former of these places
of the Jews, led to stone the Apostle until he was he found Timothy, whom lie associated with
left for dead) ; and then they returned by way of Silos, as the companion of his further travels, after
At:, ih. i. a city of Pamphylia, by sea to Antioch, he had been ordained by the Apostle and the
where they rehearsed to the church all that God presbytery of the church of which he was a
had done by them (Acts xiii.-xiv.). This formed member (1 Tim. iv. 14). Paul then passed
the Apostle'sjirst great missionary tour. through tlie regions of Phrygiu and Galatia, and,
In the narrative of this journey, given by Luke, avoiding Asia strictly so called, and Bithynia,
the historian, without assigning any reason for so he came with his companions by way of Mysia
doing, drops the name Saul and adopts that to Tr. as, on the borders of the Hellespont. Hence
Off Paul, in designating the Apostle. It is pro- they crossed to Samothracia, and thence to
liable from this, that it was during this journey Neapolis, and so to Philippi, whither he had
that the Apostle's change of name actually took been summoned in a vision by a man of Mace
place. What led to that change we can only donia saying, ' Come over and help us/ After
conjecture; and of conjectures on this point there some time spent in this city they passed through
has been no lack. Jerome and Augustine, whom, Amphipolis and Apollonia, cities of Macedonia,
among recent writers, Olshausen follows, ascribe and came to Thessalonica, where, though they
the change to the conversion ofSergius Paulus, abode only a short time, they preached the Gospel
whose name the Apostle assumed in commemora with no small success. Driven from that city
tion of so important an event. Chrysostom, fol by the malice of the Jews, they came by night to
lowed by Theophylact and Theodoret, imputes it Berea, another city of Macedonia, where at first
to tlie Apostle s determination that, as Peter had they were favourably received by the Jews, until
two names, he would not, even in this respect, a party from Thessalonica, which had followed
* be behind the chiefest of the apostles.' Nice- them, incited the Bereans against them. Paul,
phoms (Hist. Eccles. ii. 37) thinks he received the as especially obnoxious to the Jews, deemed it
name as a sort of nickname from tlie Romans, on prudent to leave the place, and accordingly re
account of his diminutive stature ; Paulus, quasi tired to Athens, where he determined to await
Pustllus. Lightfoot, Hammond, and others, sup the arrival of Silas and Timothy. Whilst resid
pose that from his birth the Apostle had the two ing in this city, and observing the manners and
names, the one in virtue of his Hebrew descent, religious customs of its inhabitants, his spirit was
the other in virtue of his Roman citizenship, and stirred within him, when he saw how entirely they
PAUL PAUL.
were immersed in idolatry ; and unable to refrain, which, after passing through Phrygia and Ga-
he commenced in the synagogues of the Jews, and latia, he visited Ephesus. The importance of
in tne market-place, to hold discussions with all this city, in relation to the region of Hither Asia,
whom he encountered. This led to his l>eiiig determined him to remain in it for a considerable
taken to the Areopagus, where, surrounded by time; and he accordingly continued preaching
perhaps the shrewdest, most polished, most acute, the Gospel there for three years, witli occasional
most witty, and most scornful assemblage that brief periods of absence, for the purpose of visiting
ever surrounded a preacher of Christianity, he, places in the vicinity. With such success were
with exquisite tact and ability, exposed the folly his effort* crowned, that the gains of those who
of their superstitions, and unfolded the character were interested in supjiortiug the worship of
and claims of the living and true God. For the Diana, the tutelar goddess of the city, began to be
purpose of more effectually arresting the attention seriously affected; and at the instigation of one of
of his audience, he commenced by referring to an these, by name Demetrius, a silversmith, who had
altar in their city, on which he had read the enjoyed a lucrative traffic by the manufacture of
inscription ayvttHrrtp 0e<, to an itnknotcn God; what appear to have been miniature representa
and, applying this to Jehovah, be proposed to tions of the famous temple of Diana (vaovs apyv-
declare to them that Deity, whom thus, without povs 'AprcTuSot, com]). Kuinoel, in Act. xix. 24 ;
knowing him (kyvoovvrts), they were worshipping. Neander, Apost. Zcit. s. 350), a popular tumult
Considerable difficulty has been found by many was excited against the Apostle, from the fury of
interpreters to reconcile this with the fact, that no which he was witli difficulty rescued by (lie
mention is made by the classic authors of any sagacity and tact of the town-clerk, aided by
altar in Athens bearing this inscription, whilst we others of the chief men of the place, who appear
are informed by Pansanias (Attic, i. 4; Eluw. to have been friendly towards Paul. By this
v. If) and Philostratus ( Vit. Apollom'i Tyan., occurrence the Ajxwtle's removal from Ephesus,
vi. 3), that there were several altars inscrilied on which, however, lie had already determined
ayvwo-Tois Btois, in the plural; and different (Acts xix. 21), was in all probability expedited ;
suppositions have b'-en made to account for the and, accordingly, he very soon after the tumult
Apostle's language (Kuinoel, in Act. xvii. 23). went by way of Troas to Philippi, where he
But why should we not receive the Apostle's own appears to have resided some time, and from
testimony on this subject, as reported by the in which, as his head-quarters, he made extensive
spired historian? It is certain that no one is in excursions into the surrounding districts, pene
circumstances to affirm that no altar existed trating even to Ulyricum, on the eastern shore of
in Athens bearing such an inscription at the the Adriatic (Rom. xv. 19). From Philippi he
time Paul visited that city ; and when, there went to Corinth, where he resided three months,
fore, Paul, publicly addressing the Athenians, and then returned to Philippi, having been frus
says he saw such an altar, why should we hesi trated in his design of proceeding through Syria
tate for a moment to take his words for what they to Jerusalem by the malice of the Jews. Sailing
literally mean? Besides, there is nothing in from Philippi, he came to Troas, where he abode
what Pausanias and Philostratus aJrirm that seven days ; thence he journeyed on foot to Assos ;
appears incompatible with Paul's assertion. It thence he proceeded by sea to Miletus, where lie
is to be observed that neither of them says there had an affecting interview with the elders of the
were altars, on each of which the inscription was church at Ephesus (Acts xx. 17, ff.) ; thence he
in the plural number, but only there were 'altars sailed for Syria, and, after visiting several inter
of gods called unknown' (fSwptol Ocwv dvopa- mediate ports, landed at Tyre ; and thence, alter
bueVaji/ ayv&o-T<t)v) ; so that for aught that a residence of seven days, he travelled by way of
appears to the contrary, each altar might l>ear Ptolemais and Cwsarea to Jerusalem. This con
the inscription which Paul says he saw ujx)n one. stituted his fifth visit to that city after his con
On being rejoined by Timothy (1 Thess. iii. 1 ), version.
and perhajM also by Silas (comp. Greswell's On his arrival at Jerusalem he had the morti
Dissertations, ii. pp. 31, 32), the Apostle sent fication to find that, whilst the malice of his
them both back to Macedonia, and went alone to enemies the Jews was nnalated, the minds of
visit Corinth, whither they soon after followed many of his brother Christians were alienated
him (Acta xviii. 5\ Here he abode for a year and from him on account of what they deemed his too
a half preaching tne Gospel, and supporting him lax and liberal notions of the obligations of the
self by his trade as a tent-maker, in which he was Mosaic ritual. To obviate these feelings on their
joined by a converted Jew of the name of Aquila, part, be, at the suggestion of the Apostle James,
who, with his wife Priscilla, had been expelled joined himself to four ptffOUl who had taken on
from Rome by an edict of the emperor, forbidding them the vows of a Nazarite, and engaged to pay
Jews to remain in that city. Driven from the cost of the sacrifices by which the Mosaic
Corinth by the enmity of the Jews, he, along with ritual required that such should be attsolved
Aquilaand Priscilla, betook himself to Ephesus, from their vows. With what success this some
whence, after a residence of only a few days, he what questionable act of the Apostle was attended,
went up to Jerusalem, being commanded by God as respects the minds of his brethren, we are not
to visit that city, at the time of the approaching informed, but it had no eflect whatever in se
passover. His visit on this occasiontnefourtii curing for him any mitigation of the hatred with
since Ins conversionwas very brief; and at the which he was regarded by the unconverted Jews;
close of it he went down to Antioch, thereby com on the contrary, his appearance in the temple so
pleting Ins second great apostolic tour. much exasperated them, that, before his vow was
At Antiocb he abode for some time, and then, accomplished, they seized him, and would have
accompanied, as is supposed, by Titus, he com put him to death had not Lysias, the commander
menced another extensive tour, in the course of of the Roman cohort in the adjoining citadel,
PAUL. PAUL. 485
brought soldiers to his rescue. Under the protec Rome, and thither accordingly Festus sent him.
tion of Lysias, ihe Apostle addressed the angry His voyage was long and disastrous. Leaving
mob, setting forth tlie main circumstances of his Caesarea when the season was already considerably
life, and especially his conversion to Christianity, advanced, they coasted along Syria as far as Sidon,
anil his appointment to preach tlie Gospel to the and1 then crossed to Mym, a port of Lycia ; thence
Gentiles. Up to this point they heard him p* they Bailed slowly to Cuidus; and thence, in con
tiently ; but no sooner had he insinuated that the sequence of unfavourable winds, they struck across
Gentiles were viewed by him as placed on a par to Crete, and with difficulty reached a port on the
with the Jews, than all their feelings of national southern part of that island called * The Fair
bigotry buret forth in a tempest of execration and Haven,' near the town of Lasea. There Paul
fury against the Apostle. Lysias, ignorant of what urged the centurion, under whose charge he and
Paul had been saying, from his having addressed his fellow* prisoners had been placed, to winter ;
the people in Hebrew, and suspecting from these but the place not being very suitable for this pur
vehement demonstrations of tlie detestation in pose, and the weather promising favourably, this
which he was held by tlie Jews that something advice was not followed, and they again set sail,
flagrantly vicious must have been committed by intending to reach Phccnice, a port in the same
him, gave orders that he should be examined, and island, and there to winter. Scarcely had they
forced by scourging to confess his crime. From set sail, however, when a tempest arose, at the
this indignity Paul delivered himself by asserting mercy of which they were driven lor fourteen
his privileges as a Roman citizen, whom it was days in a westerly direction, until they were cast
not lawful to bind or scourge. Next day, in the upon the coast of Malta, where they suffered ship
presence of the Sanhedrim, he entered into a de wreck, but without any loss of life. Hospitably
fence of his conduct, in the course of which, received by the natives, they abode there three
having avowed himself a believer in the doctrine months, during which time Paul had a favourable
of a bodily resurrection, he awakened so fierce a opportunity of preaching the Gospel, and of show
controversy on this point between the Pharisees ing the power with which he was endued for the
and tlie Sadducees in the council, that Lysias, authentication of his message by performing many
fearing he might be torn to pieces among them, miracles for the advantage of the people. On the
gave orders to remove him into tlie furt. From a approach of spring they availed themselves of a
conspiracy into whicli above forty of tlie Jews had ship of Alexandria which had wintered in the
entered to assassinate him he was delivered by the island, and get sail for Syracuse, where they re
timely interposition of his nephew, who, having mained three days ; thence they crossed to Rhe-
acquired intelligence of the plot, intimated it first gium, in Italy ; and thence toPuteoli, from which
to Paul, and then to Lysias. Alarmed at the place Paul and his companions journeyed to
serious appearance which the matter was assuming, Rome. Here he was delivered by the centurion
Lysias determined to send Paul to Cajsarea, where to the captain of the guard, who permitted him
Felix the procurator was residing, and to leave to dwell in his own hired house under the sur
the aflair to his decision. At Cajsarea Paul and veillance of a soldier. Anil thus he continued for
his accusers were heard by Felix ; but though the two years, * receiving all that came to him, preach
Apostle's defence was unanswerable, the procu ing the kingdom ofGod, and teaching those things
rator, fearful of giving the Jews otlence, declined which concern the Lord Jesus Christ, with all
pronouncing any decision, and still retained Paul confidence, no man forbidding him' (Acts xxi. 17;
in bonds. Some time after he was again sum x-ffviii. 31).
moned to appear before Felix, who, along with his At this point the evangelist abruptly closes his
wife Drusilla, expressed a desire to hear him * con narrative, leaving us to glean our information
cerning the faith in Christ;' and on this occasion regarding tlie subsequent history of the Apostle
the faithful and fearless Apostle discoursed so from less certain sources. Tradition stedlastly
pointedly on certain branches of good morals, in affirms that he suffered martyrdom at Rome, and
which the parties he was addressing were noto that the manner of his death was by beheading
riously deficient, that Felix trembled, and hastily (Tillemont, Memoires, i. p. 324) ; but whether
sent him from his presence. Shortly after this this took place at the close of the imprisonment
Felix was succeeded in his government by Porcius mentioned by Luke, or after a second imprison
Festus, before whom the Jews again brought their ment incurred subsequent to an intervening period
charges against Paul ; and who, when the cause of freedom and active exertion in the cause of
came to be heard, showed so much of a disposition Christianity, has been much discussed by modern
to favour the Jews, that the Apostle felt himself writers. The latter hypothesis rests chiefly on
constrained to apjieal to Caesar. To gratify King some statements in Pauls second Kpistle to
Agrippa and his wife Bernice, who had come to Timothy, which it is deemed impossible to recon
Caesarea to visit Festus, and whose curiosity was cile with the former hypothesis. The consideration
excited by what they had heard of Paul, he was of these belongs properly to the literary history of
again called before the governor and ' permitted that Epistle [Second Episti.e to Timothy],
to speak for himself.' On this occasion he reca and we shall not therefore enter upon them here.
pitulated the leading points of his history, and Suffice it to remark that, though the whole sub
gave 6uch an account of his views and designs, ject is involved in much obscurity, the prepon
that a deep impression was made on the mind of derance of evidence seems to be in favour of the
Agrippa favourable to Christianity and to the supposition of a second imprisonment of the
Apostle; so much so that, but for his having ap Apostle. The testimonies of some of the later
pealed to Caesar, it is probable he would have fathers in support, of this supposition cannot, how
been set at liberty. His cause, however, having ever, be allowed much weight, for they all rest
by that appeal been placed in the hands of the upon Eusebius, and he rests upon amere 'rumour*
emperor, it was necessary that he should go to (his words are \6yos x> Hist- Sook$, ii.
486 PAUL.
and upon the A|x>stle s expressions in the second In the apostle's own writings one or two inci
Epistle to Timothy. More weight is due to the dents of his life are alluded to of which no notice
testimony of Clemens Romanus, because of his has been taken in the preceding sketch of his
proximity in time to the Ajwstle, and of his resi history, in consequence of the obscurity in which
dence at Rome; bat all the information he fur they are involved, in some cases as to the time
nishes bearing on this question it that Paul, when they occurred, and in others as to the nature
* after having proclaimed the Gospel both in the of* the event itself. These are his visit to Jerusalem,
east and in the west and taught righteous mentioned Gal. ii. 1 ; Ins rapture into the third
ness to the whole world, and having come to the heavens (2 Cor. xii. J-l); the thorn in the flesh
boundary of the west (rtpua rr\? 5u<rur), and with which he was afflicted after that event
having testified before the rulers (or having1 suffered (ver. 7); and his fighting with wild beasts at
martyrdom hy order of the rulers, fiaprvp^tras Ephesus, mentioned in 1 Cor. xv. 32. As to the
itrl Vssv rryovfitvatv), thus left the world ami went first of these it does not readily synchronize with
to the holy place 1 (Ep. i. ad Cor. c. 5). By 1 the any visit of the apostle to Jerusalem noticed
boundary of the west' it is affirmed, on the part by Luke. That it was unterior to the visit men
of the advocates of a second imprisonment of the tioned in Acts xv. is evidenced by the entire dis
Apostle, that Clement means Spain, or perhaps crepancy of the two narratives (comp. Tate*s
the extreme west part of Spain ; and as Paul Continuous History of St. Paul, p. 141); and
never visited this during the portion of his life of that it was the same as the visit mentioned in
which we have record in the New Testament, it Actsxi. 30, is rendered doubtful by the circum
is inferred that he must have done so at a subse stance that on the occasion referred to by the
quent period after being 1 iterated from imprison apostle, Titus accompanied him anil Barnal>as to
ment. But this is not very cogent reasoning; for Jerusalem, whereas it would appear from the nar
it is still o|>eu to question whether by to r4p^a rative of Luke as if Paul and Barnabas were
T7?y Svfffus Clement really intended to designate without any companion when they went up with
Spain. We may give up at once the opinion of the alms for tin? jxwr saints (comp. Acts xi. 30,
Hemscn, that the place referred to is Ulyricum, and xii. 25). We are strongly inclined, there
as fanciful and untenable; nor do we feel in fore, to suppose that during the interval which
clined to contend strenuously for Rome as the elajtsed between what are commonly reckoned as
place intended, though this is not altogether im the apostle's second and third visits to Jerusalem
probable ; but it is not so easy to get over the (an interval of about Jicc years), a short visit was
suggestion that Clement means nothing more hy paid hy hun and Marimbas, along with Titus, of
the phrase than simply the western part of the a private nature, and probably with a view of
Roman empire, without intending to specify any consulting the apostles resident at Jerusalem, as
one place in particular. It is to he observed that to the proper treatmeut of Gentile converts .Gal.
his language is, through the whole sentence, vague ii. 2-10).
and exaggerated, as when, for instance, he affirms As respects the rapture into the third heavens,
that Paul * had taught righteousness to the whole one tiling appears very certain, vix., that those arc
world f and, in such a case, it is attributing too mistaken who attempt to identify this with the
much to Ins assertion to insist upon understanding vision on the road to Damascus which led to the
it of some definite locality. Besides, the use of apostle's conversion. The design, character, and
t\0b>v by Clement would seem to intimate that he consequences of the one are so different from those
was himself residing at the place or in the region of the other, that it is surprising any should have
which was present to his mind while writing as imagined the two events were the same (Neander,
the terminus ad quern of the A|Ktle's journey- Apottol. Zeitalter, i. 115). It is not improbable
ings ; and, moreover, if by the succeeding clause that the birraffia of which Paul writes to the Corin
we understand him as alluding to Paul s having thians was the same as the ?kcrams referred to by
suffered martyrdom by order of the emperor him in the recapitulation of the events of his life
(which is the rendering usually given by those who in his address to the Jews as recorded in Acts xxii.
adduce the passage as favouring the hypothesis of- 17. When in an ecstasy or trance an individual
a second imprisonment'), does it not appear to might be well described as dpirdytts, fur all out
follow that the rtp^ta Trjy SiWwr was the place ward perception was suspended, and the whole
where that occurred? Both these suggestions are mind was wrapt in contemplation of the objects
in favour of Rome, or of the West generally, as presented in the vision. The date, moreover,
the place referred to by Clement ; and adopting which the apostle assigns to the event, mentioned
tin's interpretation of Ins words, the inferential in the Epistle to the Corinthians, agrees very
evidence they have been supposed to yield in closely with that of the event mentioned in the
favour of the hypothesis that the Apostle enjoyed Acts. The latter. Paul says, occurred when he
a period of labour, and suffered a second impri was in Jerusalem for the first time after his con
sonment subsequent to that mentioned by Luke, version : the former, he says, took place * about
is of course destroyed. fourteen years* before the time of his writing the
If, on the evidence furnished by the allusions Second Epistle to the Corinthians. Now, ac
in the Second Epistle to Timothy, we adopt the cording to almost all the chronologers, a space of
supposition above stated, it will follow that Paul, fourteen years intervened between the apostle's
during the interval between his first and second first visit to Jerusalem and his writing that
imprisonments, undertook an extensive apostolic enistle; so that it is highly probable that the
tour, in the course of which he visited his former vision referred to in the two narratives is the same.
scenes of labour in Asia and Greece, and perhaps What ' the thom in the flesh' was with which
also fulfilled his purpose of going into Spain (Rom. the apostle was visited after Ins vision, has proved
xv. 21-28). He probably also visited Crete and indeed a qneestio vexata to interpreters (Cf. Poli
Dalmatia (comp. Greswell, vol, ii. pp. 78-11)0). Synops. Crit. in he.). The conclusion to which
PEACOCK. PEACOCK. 487
Neander has come on this subject appears to us discover a Hebrew root in Thukyim, rather
much the most judicious. ' We must regard it arbitrarily proposes a transposition of letters by
as something entirely personal, affecting him not which he converts the "word into Cuthyim, de
as an apostle, but as Paul ; though, in the absence noting, as he sup|M)ses, the country of the CuUtei,
of any information as to its characteristics, it which, in an extended sense, is applied, in con
would be foolish to decide more precisely what formity with various writers ofantiquity, to Media
it was* (ApostoL Zeit. i. 228> and Persia; anil Greek authorities are cited to
Respecting the apostle's righting with wild show that peacocks abounded in Babylonia, &c.
beasts at Ephesus, the question is whether this This mode of proceeding to determine the species
should be understood literally of an actual expo and the native country of the bird is altogether
sure in the theatre to the assault of savage beasts, inadmissible, since Greek writers speak of Persian
orfiguratively of dangers to which he was exjiosed peacocks at a much later jieriod than the age of
from the attacks of savage men. It is no objec Solomon ; and it is well known that they were suc
tion to the literal interpretation that Luke has not cessively earned westward till they passed from
noticed any such event in his narrative ; for from theGrtek islands into Europe, and that, as Juno's
Rom. xvi. 4, we find that the apostle must have birds, the Romans gradually spread them to Gaul
encountered many deadly perils at Ephesus of and Spain, where, however, they were not common
which no notice is taken by Luke. As little until alter the tenth century. But even if pea
force is there in the objection that Paul, as a cocks had l.nn numerous in Media and northern
Romau citizen, could not legally be subjected to Persia at the time in question, how were they to
such a punishment; for however his privileges in he furnished to a fleet which was navigating
this respect may Itave availed him on some occa the Indian Ocean, many degrees to the south of
sions, we know that they did not on all, else he the colder region of High Asia? and as for
would not have endured the indignity uf being the land of the Cuthei, or of Cusli, when it
scourged, as he was at Philippi (Acts xvi. 23), serves their purpose, writers remove it to Africa
and, according to his own testimony, often besides along with the migrations of the Cushites. The
(2 Cor. xi. 24, 25). Tradition is in favour of the Thukyim have been presumed to derive their ap-
literal interpretation (Nicephori Hist. Ecclcs. jtellation fiom uu exotic word implying 'tufted1
it. 6. 25); and no exegesis of the whole clause or * crested,* which, though true of the peacock, is
seems better than that of Theodoret : Kara dvOpuf not so obvious a character as that afforded by its
tuvqv Koyifffibv Bjjpiwy iyw6ut)v &opd, dAAct trapa- splendid tail; and therefore a crested jjarrot has
5<fs IvwQ-qv ; for it is far from improbable that Iteeu supjMised to be meant. Parrots, though many
the furious mob might have raised the cry "Ad species are indigenous in Africa, do not appear
leones' against the apostle, and that some unex 4)ii the monuments of Egypt; they were un
pected interposition had saved him from the fear known till the time of Alexander, and then both
ful doom. To interpret this statement of his treat Greeks and Romans were acquainted only with
ment at the hands of Demetrius, is absurdly to species from Ceylon, dest.tute of crests, 6uch as
make him refer to an event which at the time he Psittacus Alexandri ; and the Romans for a long
was writing had not occurred. time received these only by way of Alexandria,
On the writings of the apostle Paul, see the though in the time of Pliny otheis l>ecame
articles in this work under the titles of his dif known.' Again, the pheasant has been proposed
ferent epistles. as the bird intended; but Phas. Colchicus,
Pearson, Annate* Paulini, 4to. Lond. 1688, the only species known in antiquity, is likewise
translated by J. M. Williams, 12mo. Cambridge, without a prominent crest, and is a bird of
1 826 ; J. Lange, Comment. Hist. Ilermeneut. the colder regions ol the central range of Asiatic
tie Vitaet Epistoiis Ap. Pauli, 4to. Ha I.e. 1718 ; mountains. Following a line of latitude, it gra
Macknight, Translation of tfte Apostolical lCpu~ dually reached westward to High Armenia and
ties, vol. vi. fivo., vol. iv. 4to. ; Lardner, Works, Colchis, whence it was first brought to Europe by
vol. vi. 8vo., vol. iit. 4to ; More, Essay on St, Greek merchants, who frequented the early empo
Paul, 2 vols. ; Tate, Continuous History of St. rium on the Phasis. The centre of existence of
Paul (prefixed to a new edition of Paley's Horet the genus, ricli in splendid species, is in the woody
Paulinsr), 8vo. Lond. 1 840 ; Schrader, Der Ap, region beneath the snowy peaks of the Himalayas,
Paulus, 3 th. 8vo. Leip. 1830; Hansen, Der reaching also eastward to northern China, where
sfr. rpllhl, fll il fiiiH 1830; Tholuck, VermiscJde the common pheasant is abundant; but not, we
SchrifUn, bd. ii. (translated in the Edinburgh believe, any where naturally in a low latitude.
Biblical Cabinet, vol. xxviii.). W. L. A. Thus it appears that pheasants weie not the birds
PEACOCK. It is a question, perhaiw, more intended by the Hebrew Thukyim, although all
of geographical and historical than of Biblical versions and comments agree i ii.it after the Cebi,
interest to decide whether U^2T\thukyim (1 Kings or ajes (proliahly Cercoptthecus Entellus, one of
x. 22) and D*3V1 thukyim (2 Chrun. ix. 21) the sacred species of India), some kind of remark
denote peacocks strictly so called, or some other able bird is meant ; and none are more obviously
sjiecie* of animal or bird ; for on the solution of entitled to the application of the name than the
the question in the affirmative depends the real peacock, since it is abundant in the jungles of
direction of Solomon's fleet; that is whether, India, and would be met witti both wild and do
after passing the straits of Babel-Mandeb, it mesticated, by navigators to the coasts from Cam-
proceeded along the east coast of Africa towards boge to Ceylon, and would better than any of the
Sofala, or whether it turned eastward, ranging others bear a long sea voyage in the crowded ships
along the Arabian and Persian shores to the of antiquity. Moreover, we find it still deno
Peninsula of India, and perhaps went onwards to minated Togci in the Malabaric dialects of the
Ceylon, and penetrated to the great Australian, country, which may be the source of Thuki, as
rr even to the Spice Islands. Bochart, unable to well as of the Arabic Taints and Armenian Taut*
488 PEACOCK. PEGANON.
With regard to the objection, that the long ocel- till exhausted with fatigue it is struck on the head
lated feathers of the rump, and not those uf the and dispatched.
tail, as is commonly believed, are the most con A detailed description of a species so well
spicuous object offered by this bird, it may be an known, we deem sup-n
swered, that if the name Togei be the original, it
may hot refer to a tuft, or may express both the PEARLS. It is doubtful thatjtearls are men
erectile feathers on the head of a bird and those tioned in (he Old Testament. The word C*33,
about the rump or the tail; and that those of the gabish, rendered 'pearl' in Job xxviii. 18, ap-
peacock have at all times been sought to form arti pMM to mean crystal ; and the word D^^S,
ficial crests for human ornaments. One other peninim, which our version translates by 1 fubivsV
point remains to be considered; namely, whether is now suppttsed to mean coral [Coral]. But in
the fleet went to the East, or proceeded southward the New Testament the pearls (napyaphjjs) are
along the African shore? No douht, had the Phoe repeatedly mentioned. In Matt. xiti. 45, a
nician trade guided the Hebrews in the last men merchant (travelling jeweller) seeking goodly
tioned direction, gold and apes might have been pearls, finds one jarl of great price, and to be
obtained on the east coast of Africa, and even some able to purchase it. sells all that he hasall the
kinds bf spices in the ports of Abyssinia ; for all jewels lie had previously secured. In 1 Tim. ii.
that region, as far as the Strait of Madagascar, was y, and Rev. xvii. 4, pearls are mentioned as the
at that early period in a state of comparative afflu ornaments of females ; in Rev. xviii. 12-16,
ence and civilization. But in that case a great among costly merchandize; and Hev. xxi. 12,
part of the commercial produce would have been the twelve gates of the heavenly Jerusalem are
obtained within the borders of the Red Sea, and 'twelve pearls." These intimations seem to in
beyond the Straits; the distance to be traversed, dicate that |>earls were in more common use
therefore, being but partially affected hy the mon among the Jews after than before the captivity,
soons, never could have required a |>eriod of three while they evince the estimation in which they
years for its accomplishment; and a prolonged weiv in later times held (Plin. Hist. Nat. ix. 54;
voyage round tlte Cape to the Guinea and Gold xii. 41; ^lian, Aniin. x. 13; comp. Ritter,
Coast is an assumption so wild, that it does not Krdkunde, ii. 164). The island of Tylos (Bah
merit serious consideration ; but intending topro- rein) was especially renowned for its fishery of
... India, the fleet had to reach the Straits of pearls (Plin. vi. 32; comp. Strabo, xvi. p. 707;
Bab-el-Mandeb in time to take udvantage ofthe Athen, iii. 93); the Indian ocean was also known
western monsoon ; be in poit, perhaps at or near to produce pearls (Arrian, Jndica, p. 194 ; Plin.
Bombay, tafore the change; and after the storms ix. 54 ; xxxiv. 48 ; Strata, xv. p. 717). Heeren
accompanying the change, it had to proceed during feels assured that this indication must le under
the eastern monsoon under the lee of the land to stood to refer to the strait between Taprobana, or
Coodramalli, or the port of Palesimundus in Ta- Ceylon, and the southernmost point of the main
piobana, on the east coast of Ceylon ; thence to the land of India, Caj>e Comorin, whence Europeans,
Coronianilcl shore, perhaps to the site of the present even at present, derive their principal supplies of
ruins of Mahahalipuram ; while the return voyage these costly natural productions. This writer
would again occupy one year and a half. The ports adds, 1 Pearls have at all times been esteemed one
of India and Ceylon could furnish gold, precious of the most valuable commodities of the East.
stones, eastern spices, and even Chinese wares ; Their modest splendour and simple beauty appear
for the hist fact is fully established by disco to have captivated the Orientals, even more than
veries in very ancient Egyptian tombs. Silks, the dazzling brilliancy of the diamond, and have
which are first mentioned in Proverbs xxxi. 22, made them at all times the favourite ornament
could not have come from Africa, and many of despotic princes. In the West, the passion for
articles of advanced and refined social life, not this elegant luxury was at its height about the
the produce of Egypt, could alone have lteen period of the extinction of Roman freedom, and
derived from India [Oi'Hiit], they were valued in Rome and Alexandria as
Though in this short abstract of the arguments highly as precious stones. In Asia this taste was
respecting the direction of Solomon's fleet, there of more ancient date, and may be traced to a
may be errors, none, we believe, are of sufficient period anterior to the Persian dynasty ; nor has it
weight to impugn the general conclusion, which ever declined. A string of pearls of the largest
supports the usual rendering of Thxikyim by size is an iodispensable part of the decorations of
'peacocks;1 although the increase of species in an Eastern monarch. It was thus tliat Tippoo
the went does not appear to have been remarkable was adorned when he fell before the gates of his
till some ages after the reign of the great Hebrew capital; and it is thus that the present iuler of
monarch, when the bird was dedicated to Juno, and the Persians is usually decorated (/rfeen, i. 2.
reared at first in her temple at Samos. There are 224).
only two sjiecics of true peacocks, viz., that under PEGANON (Trrrydvov). The word me occurs
consideration, which is the Pavo cristatus of Linn.; only in LnkexL 42. * But woe unto you, Phari
and another. Pavo Muticus, more recently dis sees! for ye tithe mint and rue and all manner of
covered, which differs in some iwirticulars, and ori herhs, and pass over judgment,* &c In the pa
ginally helongstoJapanand China. Peacocksbear rallel ]>assage.
the cold of the Himalayas : they run with great lated anise in Matt, xxiii. 23, dill {ivriBov), trans
swiftness, and where (hey are, serpents do not instead of rue. theBoth English Version, is mentioned
dill and rue were cultivated
abound, a* they devour the young with great in the gardens of Eastern
avidity, and, it is said, attack with spirit even the times as they are at the presentcountries in ancient
day. Dioscorides
Cobra di Capello when grown to considerable size, describes two kinds, wwftpW opttvov. RtUa mon-
arresting its progress and confusing it by the ra
pidity and variety of their evolutions around it, *tana, and v^yasw mflwrtV, Ruta hortensis.
Ex hortensi autem esui magis idonea, quee juxta
PEKAH. PELICAN. 489
Scot provenit.' These are considered by botanists which the king lost his life (2 Kings xv. 25, sq. ;
to be distinct species, and are called respectively, xvi. 5, sq. ; Isa. vii. ; viii. 1-9; xv ii. 1-11).
the first. Huta montana, which is common in the PEKAHIAH (iTnpB, Jehovah has opened his
south of Europe and the north of Africa ; the other eyes; Sept QaKftrtas, ftucct'ar). son and successor
is usually called Rttta graveolens, and by some of Menahem, king of Israel, who l>egan to reign
R. hartensis, which is found in the south of in b.c. 760. He patronized and supported the
Europe, and is the kind commonly cultivated in idolatry of the golden calves; and after an un
gardens. Itue was highly esteemed as a medi distinguished reign of two years, Pekah, one ofhis
cine, even as early as the time of Hipocrates. generals, conspired against him, and with the aid
Pliny says, ' Hue is an herhe us medicinable as of Argoband Arish. and fifty (iileadites, slew him
the l**st. That ofthe garden hath a broader leafe, in the haram of his own palace (2 Kings xv.
and brauncheth more than the wild, which is 22-25).
more hotte, vehement, and rigorous in all opera
tions ; also that is it sowed usually in Febnmrie, PKLEG, son of Klwr, and fourth in descent
when the western wind, Favonius, bloweth. from Shem. His name. , means division% and is
Certes we (imi, that in old time rue was in some said to have been given him 1 because in his days
great account, and esjwciall reckoning above the earth was divided 1 (Gen. x. 25 ; xi. 16) ; con
other hearbs : for I read in auncicnt histories, That cerning which see Nations, Dispersion op.
Cornelius Cethegus, at what time as he was chosen PELICAN. HfcCjJ kaath; Syriac, haka
Consul! with Quintius Flaminius, presently Arabic and Talmuds, huh and kik.
upon the said election, gave a largesse to the The name kaath is supposed to be derived
people of new wine, aromatized with rue. The from the action of throwing up food, which the
fig-tree and rue are in a great league and amitie, bird really effects when discharging the contents
insomuch as this herb, sow and set it wbere you of the bag beneath its bill. But it may be sug
will, in no place prospereth better than under that gested, as not unlikely, that all the above names
tree; for planted it may be of a slip in spring' are imitative of the voice of the pelican, which,
(Holland's Pliny, xix. c. viii.). That itwasem- although seldom heard in captivity, is uttered
ployed as an ingredient in diet, and as a condi frequently at the periods of migration, and is
ment, is abundantly evident from Apicius, as compared to the braying of an ass. It may be
noticed by Celsius, and is not more extraordinary likewise that this characteristic has influenced
than the fondness of some Eastern nations were several translators of the Hebrew text in substi
of assafcrtida as a seasoning to food. That one tuting on some, or on all occasions, where kaath
kind was cultivated by the Israelites, is evident occurs, bittern for pelican, but we think without
from its being mentioned as one of the articles of sufficient reason [Kkmkid ; Bittern]. Kaath
which the Pharisees paid their tithes, though they is found in Lev. xi. 18 ; Deut. xiv. 17 ; Ps. cii. 6 ;
neglected the weightier matters of the law, Ro- Isa. xxxiv. 11 ; Zeph. ii. 14.
tenmuller states that in the Talmud {Tract She~ Pelicans are chiefly tropical birds, equal or
biith, cap. ix., $ 1) the rue is indeed mentioned superior in bulk to the common swan : they have
amongst kitchen herbs (asparagus portulactr et powerful wings; fly at a great elevation ; are par
coriandro) ; but, at the same time, it is there ex tially gregarious; and though some always remain
pressly stated, that it is tithe free, it l>eing one of in their favourite sultsolar regions, most of them
those herbs which are not cultivated in gardens, migrate in our hemisphere with the northern spring,
according to the general rule established in the occupy Syria, the lakes and rivers of temperate
Talmud.' Celsius long previously observed with Asia, and extend westward into Europe up the
reference to this fact: * Cum autem dicunt ibi
dem, rutam a decimatione immunem esse, osten-
dunt, quantum recesserint a consuetudine ma'
jorum, quos decimas ex ruta separasse, ipsum
affirmat os veritatis' (Hierohot. ii. u. 25a).
J. F. R.
PEKAH (TM, open-eyed; Sept. *a), the
officer who slew Pekahiah and mounted the throne
in his stead (o.c. 758), becoming the eighteenth
king of Israel, He reigned twenty years. Towards
the close of his life (but not before the seventeenth
year of his reign) he entered into a league with
Kezin, king of Damascene-Syria, against Judah ;
and the success which attended their operations
induced Ahaz to tender to Tiglath-pileser, king of
Assyria, his homage and tribute, as the price of his
aid and protection. The result was that the kings
of Syria and Israel were Boon obliged to al>andon
their designs against Judah in order to attend to
their own dominions, of which considerable parts Danube into Hungary, and northward to
were seized and retained by the Assyrians. Israel rivers of southern Russia. They likewise frequent
lost all the territory east of the Jordan, and the two salt-water marshes, and the shallows of harbours,
and a half tribes which inhabited it were sent into but seldom alight on the open sea, though they
exile. These disasters seem to have created such are said to dart down upon nsh from a consider
popular discontent as to give the sanction of public able height.
opinion to the conspiracy headed by Hoshea, in The face of the pelican is naked ; the bill lung,
490 PENIEL. PENTATEUCH.
broad, and flat, is terminated by a strong crooked are 6 vofios, and trtvv&TtvxoS' The word rtvxof
and crimson-coloured nail, which, when fish is occurs in the later Alexandrian writers in the
pressed out of the pouch, and the bird ia at rest, signification of volumen. The division into five
is seen reposing upon the crop, and then may be books is alluded to in the works of Josephus and
fancied to represent an ensanguined spot. This Pliilo. It seems that this division was first made
may have occasioned the fabulous tale which repre by the Alexandrian critics. In Jewish writers
sents the bird as wounding her own bared breast to are found statements indicating that the Penta
revive its young brood ; for that part of the bag teuch was formerly divided into seven portions
which is visible then appears like a naked breast, (comp. Jarchi, ad Proverb, ix. 1 ; ibique Breit-
all the feathers of thelnxly being white or slightly haupt).
tinged with rose colour, except the great quills, In the Jewish canon the Pentateuch is kept
which are black. The feet have all the toes somewhat distinct from the other sacred books of
united by broad membranes, aud are of a nearly the Old Testament, because, considered with re
orange colour. Pelicanus onocrotalus, the species ference to its contents, it is the book of books of
here noticed, is the most widely-spread "of the the ancient covenant. It is the basis of the reli
penus, being supposed to be identical at the Cape gion of the Old Testament, and of the whole
of Good Hope and in India, as well as in western theocratical life. The term law characterizes the
Asia. It is very distinctly represented in ancient principal substance of the Pentateuch, but its real
Egyptian paintings, where the birds are seen in kernel and central point is the foundation of the
numbers congregated among reeds, aud the natives Jewish theocracy, the historical demonstration of
collecting Iwisketfuls of their eggs. They still that peculiar communion into which the God of
frequent the marshes of the Delta of the Nile, and heaven and earth entered with one chosen people,
the islands of the river high up the country, and through the instrumentality of Moses; the pre
resort to the lakes of Palestine, excepting the paration for, and the development of, that com
Dead Sea. With regard to the words * of the munion ; the covenant relation of Jehovah and
wilderness or desert,' often added to the pelican*s Israel, from its first rise down to its complete ter
name in consequence of their occurrence in Ps. cii. mination. In considering the Pentateuch, the first,
fi, there is not sufficient ground to infer from them question which arises isWho was its author ?
any peculiar capability in the genus to occupy re It is of great importance to hear first, what the
mote solitudes ; for they live on fish, aud generally hunk itself says on this subject. The Pentateuch
nestle in reedy abodes; and man, in all re does not present itself as an anonymous produc
gions, equally desirous to possess food, water, and tion. It is manifestly intended and destined to
verdure, occupies the same localities for the same be a public muniment for the whole people, and
reasons. We thiuk the Psalmist refers to one it does not veil its origin in a mysterious ob
isolated by circumstances from the usual haunts scurity; on the contrary the book speaks must
of these birds, and casually nestling among rocks, clearly on this subject.
where water, aud consequently food, begins to According to Exod. xvii. 14, Moses was com
fail in the dry season, as is commonly the case manded by God to write the victory over the
eastward of the Jordansuch a supposition offering Amalekites m the book (1DD3). This passage
aa image of misery and desolation forcibly appli shows that the account to be inserted was in
cable lo the context.C. H. S. tended to form a portion of a more extensive work,
PELITHITES. [Chkrrthites and Pkli- with which the reader is supposed to be acquaint
TH1TES.] ed. It also proves that Moses, at an early period
PEN. [Writing.] of his public career, was filled with the idea of
leaving to his people a written memorial of the
PENIEL faffyfu* of God; Sept. Eftoi Divine guidance, and that he fully understood
coD), or Penukl, a place beyond the Jordan, the close and necessary connection of an authori
where Jacob wrestled with the angel, and 'called tative law with a written code, or |11DT- It is,
the name of the place Peniel; fori have seen therefore, by no means surprising that the observ
God face to face, and my life is preserved ' (Gen. ation repeatedly occurs, that Moses wrote down
xxxii. 30). There was in after-times a fortified the account of certain event* (Exod. xxiv. 4, 7 ;
town m this place, the inhabitants of which ex xxxiv. 27, 28; Num. xxxiii. 2). Esjiecially
posed themselves to the resentment of Gideon, important are the statements in Deut. i. 5;
for refusing succour to his troojts when pursuing xxviii. 58. In Deut. xxxi. 9, 24 (30) the whole
the Midianites (Judg. viii. 8). The site is not work is expressly ascribed to Moses as the author,
known ; but it must have been at some point including the poem in Deut, xxxii. It may be
on or not far from the north Itank of the Jablx>k. made a question whether the hand ofa later writer,
Men of this name occur in 1 Chron. iv. 4 ; viii. who finished the Pentateuch, is perceptible from
%5. ch. xxxi. 24 (comp. xxxiii. 1, and xxxiv.), or
PENINNAH (nj3, coral; Sept. *ewdva), whether the words in xxxi. 24-30 are still the
one of the two wives of Elkanah, the father of words of Moses. In the former case we have two
Samuel (1 Sam. i. 2). witnesses, viz. Moses himself, and the continuator
of the Pentateuch ; in the latter case, which seems
PENNY. [Drachma; Denarius-] to us the more likely, we have the testimony of
PENTATEUCH is the title given to the Moses alone.
five books of Moses. The Jews usually call the Modern criticism has raised many objections
Pentateuch mini"!, the law; or, more fully, against these statements of the Pentateuch rela
rrnnn nroin neon, thefve-ffths of the law. tive to its owu origin. Many critics suppose
This title again has been abbreviated into pCDfl, that they can discover in the Pentateuch indica
for the whole, and L7Din, for a single book of tions that the author intended to make himself
the Pentateuch. In Greek its usual appellations known as a person different from Moses. The
PENTATEUCH. PENTATEUCH. 491
most important objection is the following : that tions of the work ; but the arguments derived
the Pentateuch, speaking of Moses, always uses from this circumstance have been found insuffi
the third person, bestows praise upon him, and cient to prove that the Pentateuch was written by
uses concerning him expressions of respect. The different authors (comp. again the articles Ge
Pentateuch even exhibits Moses quite objectively nesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deu
in the blessing recorded in Deut xxxiii. 4, 5. teronomy).
To this objection we reply, that the use of the The inquiry concerning the unity of the Pen
third person proves nothing. The later Hebrew tateuch is intimately connected with its histo
writers also speak of themselves in the third per rical character. If there are in tiie Penta
son. We might adduce similar instances from teuch decided contradictions, or different con
the classical authors, as Caesar, Xenophon, and tradictory statements of one and the same fact,
others. The use of the third ]>erson, instead of the not only its unity but also its historical truth
first, prevails also among Oriental authors. In would be negatived. On the other hand, if
addition to this we should observe, that the na the work is to be considered as written by Moses,
ture of the book itself demands the use of the the whole style and internal veracity of the Pen
third person, in reference to Moses, throughout tateuch must correspond with the character of
the Pentateuch. This usage entirely corresponds Moses. Considerate critics, who are not under
with the character both of the history and of the the sway of dogmatic prejudices, find that the
law contained in the Pentateuch. By the use of passages which are produced in order to prove
the word I, the objective character of this history that the Pentateuch was written after the time of
would have been destroyed, and the law of Jehovah Moses, by no means support such a conclusion,
would have l)een brought down to the sphere of and that a more accurate examination of the con
human subjectivity and option. If we consider tents of the separate ]x>rtions discovers many ves
that the Pentateuch was destined to be a book of tiges demonstrating that the work originated in
divine revelation, in which God exhibited to his the age of Moses (compare here again the articles
people the exemplification of his providential on the separate books).
guidance, we cannot expect that Moses, by whom The general arguments for and against the au
the Lord had communicated his latest revelations, thenticity of the Pentateuch, which are here still
should lie spoken of otherwise than in the third per to be considered separately, are the following :
son. In the poetry contained in Deut. xxxiii. 4, The history of the art of writing among the
Moses s| teaks in the name of the people, which he Hebrews has often been apjtealed to in order to
personifies and introduces as speaking. The ex disprove the authenticity of the Pentateuch. It
pressions in Exod. xi. 3, and Num. xii. 3 and 7, is true that in our days no ciitic of good repute
belong entirely to the context of history, and to for learning, ventures any longer to assert that the
its faithful and complete relation ; consequently art of writing was invented subsequent to the
it is by no means vain boasting that is there ex Mosaical age (Ewahl's Geschichte des Volkes
pressed, but admiration of the divine mercy glori Israel, p. 61, sq.) ; but it is questioned whether
fied in the people of God. In considering these the Hebrews were acquainted with that art. Such
passages we must also bear in mind the far greater a doubt proceeds from erroneous ideas concerning
number of other jtassages which speak of the tlif condition of this people, and concerning the
feebleness and the sins of Moses. civilization necessarily imparted to them in Egypt.
It is certain that the author of the Pentateuch The reality of this civilization is proved by indu
asserts himself to be Moses. The question then bitable testimony. It is said that a work of such
arises, whether it is possible to consider tins asser extent as the Pentateuch was l>eyond the means
tion to be truewhether Moses can be admitted of the primitive modes of writing then existing.
to be the author? In this question is contained But various testimonies, not merely in the Penta
another, viz. whether the Pentateuch forms such a teuch itself, but also derived from other sources,
continuous whole that it is possible to ascribe it from the period immediately subsequent to that of
to one author f This question has been principally Moses, prove that a knowledge of the art of writing
discussed in modern criticism. In various man was widely diffused among the Hebrews (comp.
ners it has been tried to destroy the unity of the Judges viii. 14). And if there was any knowledge
Pentateuch, and to resolve its constituent parts of this art, its application would entirely depend
into a number of documents and fragments (comp. upon the particular circumstances of a given pe
here especially the article Genesis). Eichhorn riod. Some writers seem to entertain the opinion
and his followers assert that Genesis only is com that the materials for writing were yet, in the days
posed of several ancient documents. This assertion of Moses, too clumsy for the execution of larger
is still reconcileable with the Mosaical origin of works. This opinion is refuted by the fact, that the
the Pentateuch. But Vater and others allege that Hebrews became acquainted, just in the Mosaical
the whole Pentateuch is composed of fragments ; period, with the use of very good materials for
from which it necessarily follows that Moses was writing, such as papyrus, byssus, parchment, &c.
not the author of the whole. Modern critics are, (comp. Herodotus, v. 58). There are, indeed,
however, by no means unanimous in their opinions. mentioned in the Pentateuch some more solid
The latest writer on this subject, Ewald, in his materials for writing, suclt as tables of stone
history of the people ofIsrael (Geschichtedes Volkes (Exod. xxiv. 12, xxxi. 18, xxxiv. 1, &c.) ; but
Israel, vol. i. Gbttingen, 1843), asserts that there this does not prove that in those days nothing was
were seven different authors concerned in the Pen written except upon stoue. Stone was employed,
tateuch. On the other hand, the internal unity of on account of its durability, for specific purposes.
the Pentateuch has been demonstrated in many The language of the Pentateuch has also heen
able essays. The attempts at division are espe the subject of many discussions. It has frequently
cially sumiorted by an appeal to the prevailing use been urged that it differs less from that of the later
of the different names of God in various por books ofthe Old Testament than might have been
492 PENTATEUCH. PENTATEUCH.
expected if this work proceeded from Moses. In In the middle ages, but not earlier, we find
this objection the characteristic stability of the some very concealed critical doubts in the works
Oriental languages has been overlooked. The of some Jewsas Isaac Ben Jasos, who lived
Oriental languages are not, in the Bame degree as in the eleventh century, and Abeu Ezra. After
the Occidental, in a state of development and con the reformation, it was sometimes attempted to
stant change. It is also overlooked that the Penta demonstrate the later origin of the Pentateuch.
teuch itself, by its high authority, exerted a con Such attempts were made by Spinoza, Richard
stant influence upon the whole subsequent religi Simon, LeClerc, and Van Dale; but these critics
ous literature of the Hebrews. And we do not were not unanimous in their results. Against
know any other literature of the ancient Hebrews them wrote Heidegger (Excrcitationes Biblica,
except, the religious. In addition to this we must i. 210, sq.) ; Witsius {Miscellanea Sacra, i
observe that, nevertheless, the style of the Penta 103, sq.) ; and Carpzov (Introductio, i. 3S, sq.).
teuch has its distinctive features of antiquity. In the period of English, French, and German
The Pentateuch contains a number of charac deism, the Pentateuch was attacked rather by
teristic GRAMMATICAL FORMATIONS J Such are, jests than by arguments. Attacks of a more
for instance, the use of the pronoun NTH as a scientific nature were made about tbe end of the
feminine also, the form btin tor r6; WU; eighteenth century. Rut these were met by such
the forms f the imperatives in Gen. iv. 23, Exod. critics as John David Michaelis and Eichhom,
ii. 20, the word as a feminine for mj/3. who energetically and effectually defended the
The Pentateuch contains also wokds which do genuineness of the Pentateuch. These critics,
not occur ID the other parts of the Old Testament, however, on account of their own false ]>osition,
such as J*D, species ; 33A to curse, for 2p3 ; did as much harm as good tu the cause of the
lamb, for ; and iWl in the sig Pentateuch.
nification of property. A new epoch of criticism commences about
There occur also characteristic phrases, as, the year 1805. This was produced by Vater's
Commentary and De Welte's Beitrage zur Einr
their shade (D*?) is departed from them ; leitung in das alte Testament. Vater embodied
i.e. they are defenceless (Num. xiv. 9) ; he all the arguments which had been adduced
was gathered to his people, VDJ?; the agree' against the authenticity of the Pentateuch, and
able odour, or sweet savour, of the sacrifice, applied to the criticism of the sacred hooks the
niTJn rV"l ; to cover the eye of the earth, principles which Wolf had employed with re
pH ]*$ .Exod. x. 5, 15; Num. xxii. 5, 11, ference to the Homeric poems. He divided the
&cA Pentateuch into fragments, to each of which he
Others have vainly endeavoured to find in the assigned its own jieriod, but referred the whole
Pentateuch, and especially in Deuteronomy, generally to the age of the Assyrian or Babylo
vestiges of a later style. The instances produced nian exile. Since the days of Vater, a series of
by the opponents of the Mosaical origin of the the most different hypotheses has been produced
Pentateuch do not stand examination, and are, by German critics about the age of the Penta
therefore, unable to counterbalance the weight of teuch, and that of its constituent sections. No
argument deducible from the antique expressions one critic seems fully to agree with any other;
in the Mosaical writings. and frequently it is quite evident that the opinions
Lastly, the historical contents of the Pentateuch advanced are destitute of any sure foundation
are of very great im|orlancc in our present inquiry, that they are quite arbitrary, and produced by
because they constantly bear testimony in favour merely subjective motives. We will illustrate
of its age and authenticity, and lead to the follow this by a few examples relative to the Pentateuch
ing important results. We find, in later times, as a whole.
no period which we could deem capable of pro Schumann makes Ezra the author of the law.
ducing the Pentateuch as a whole: for this rea According to A. T. Hartmann the separate por
son, the opponents oT its authenticity are obliged tions of the law sprang up gradually, some of
to ascrihe the different portions of the work to them as late as the exile; but he does not show
widely different periods. If we allow that the by what circumstances they were combined into
apostles were such persons an they assert them a whole. According to Dr. Ammon, the Penta
selves to be, we must admit also that the very teuch was planned by Moses ; was gradually
frequent apostolical allusions to the Pentateuch continued down to the times of Solomon; was
are a high sanction to the work ; and we cannot entirely forgotten during the period of idolatry;
overlook the fact, that every opinion which, with was rediscovered under the reign of Josiah ; and
greater or less decision, finds in the Pentateuch was then retouched, and edited under the name of
a work of fraud, enters into an unavoidable con Moses. Von Bohlen urges the fact mentioned in
flict witli the New Testament itself. the second Book of Kings (ch. xxii.), as if it
In the remote times of Jewish and Christian were explanatory of the origin of Deuteronony;
antiquity, we find no vestiges of doubt as to the but he considers some portions to be of a much
genuineness of the Mosaical books. The Gnostics, later origin. He asserts that the Pentateuch was
indeed, opposed the Pentateuch, but attacked it partly written after the exile, that it was gradually
merely on account of their dogmatical opinions developed, ami was brought to a conclusion in the
concerning the Law, and Judaism in general; age of Christ. According to the latest statements
consequently they did not impugn the authenti of De Wette, in his Einlcitung in das alte Tes
city, but merely the divine authority, of the Law. tament, 157, sq., the Elohim portions were
Heathen authors alone, as Celsus and Julian, written in the age of Samuel and Saul, the Jb-
represented the contents of the Pentateuch as hovah portions nearly about the same period, but
being mythological, and paralleled them with Deuteronomy much later, under Josiah. Ewald
Pagan mythology. assigns seven authors to the Pentateuch, who, how
PENTECOST.
ever, wrote in very different periods. The first, this festival in some respects bears a close analogy
he supposes, wrote in the days of Samson; the to the Jewish one; and is evidently little more
second in the reign of Solomon; the third in the than a modification ofit. The converts ofthat day,
reign of Elijah, &c. on which the Holy Ghost descended, were the
The critical doubU respecting the authenticity first fruits of the Spirit. Jerome {Ad Tabid,
of the Pentateuch have produced in moderu times 7) elegantly contrasts this with the giving of
seveial woiks in defence of its genuineness; sucli the law on Mount Sinai : * Utraque facta est
as Kanne's Bibhscher Vnter&uchungen, 2 vols., quinquagessimo die, a Paschatc; lllo, in Sua;
1820; the observations by Jahn, Husenmuller, and hstC, in Sion. EM teme motu ccntreuiuit mons ;
Bleek ; Kanke s Untersuchunyen uber den Pen hie, domus ai>ostoloruni. Ibi, inter Mammas ig-
tateuch, 2 vols. ; Hengstenberg's Bettruge zur nium et micantia fulgura, turbo ventorum, et
Einleitung, vols. 2 and 3 ; Haveinick's Ein fragor tonitruorum persomnt ; hie, cum igne-
leitung in das alte Testament, vol. I ; Drechsler, aruin visione linguarum sonitus pariter de ccelo,
Veber die Ein/ieit xmd Authentic der Genesis; tanquam spiritus vehementis ad vendt. Ibi, clangor
Konig's AU-ttstamenttiche Studien, 2d number; buccina*, legis verba jierstrepuit ; hie, tuba evan
Sack's Apolcgetik, &c. gel ica ajiostolorum ore intonuit.1 This festival
The most important commentaries and exege- tiecame one of the three bapl ismal seasons (Tertull.
tical aids for the explanation of the whole Penta De Baptts. c. 10; Hieron., inZach* xiv. 8; ; and
teuch, and its constituent jiarts, are the follow it derives its name of Whitsunday, or white-
ing :Calvini Bonfrerii Pentateuchus Commen- Sunday, from so many being clad in white on
tart'o lllustratus, 1 625; Marckii Commentarius this the day of their baptism.
in prcecipuas quasdam Pcntateuchi partes, 1721 ; 1. PEOR (Tiy? ; Sept. ^vywp\ a mountain
Clerici Commentarius, 1710; Gerhardi Com in the land of Moab (Num. xxiii. 28). Eusebius
mentarius in Genesin, 1693 ; Merceri Comtnen- places it between Livias and Esbus, over against
taritts in Genesin, 1593] Voter, Commentor Jericho; which shows that it was not supposed to
uber den Pentateuch, 1H02, sq., 3 vols.; Ro be east of the Dead Sea, as usually stated (Ono-
senmuHeri Scholia, 3d ed., 1S21, sq : Schu- mast. s. v. 'Apafiwd MwdjS). It has not in modern
mann, Peutateuchus Hebraice ct Graece, torn. 1, times been recognised*
1829; Von Bohlen, Die Genesis ubersetzt und 2. PEOR, an idol [Uaal-Pkok].
erkldrt, Konigsberg, lS2o ; Tiele, Das erste
Dueh Mosis, Sfc, 1st vol., 1836; Tuch, Cum- PERES (D*TB, in our versions 'ossifrage*
mcntar uber die Genesis, 1838, &c. The follow Lev. xi. 13; Dent. xiv. 12). Although Neser
ing are the priucijial English works on the Penta is unquestionably the Hebrew name of the eagle,
teuch :Ainswurlh, Annotations on the Five a genus so conspicuous, and to this moment so
Books of Moses, I6U9 ; Kidder, Commentary common in Palestine, probably possessed more
on the Fire Books of Moses, 1713; Pm ker, than one designation in the national-dialects ofthe
Bibliotheca Bibiiea, 1720, 1730; Jamiesou, Cri country, and mister the term ossifrage it would
tical and Practical Exposition <>f the Penta indicate the great sea eagle. But Peres is by
teuch, 1748; Robertson, Clavis Pcntateuchi, other translators referred to a hawk, which they
1770; Graves, Lectures on the Pentateuch, IS15. denominate Aecipiter, although before scientific
H. A.C. H. ornithology had defined it to mark a particular
PENTECOST (UfyrqKoaTf)), the name (signi species, it had, as in antiquity, been generalized
fying liftieth) given in the New Testament to the and understood to mean any predaceous bird.
Feast of Weens, or of Ingathering, which was yElian notices Acdpttres equal in size to eagles,
celebrated on theJij'tieth day fiom the festival of arid these included b.lh the ospray and ossifrage.
unleavened bread, or the Passover ; or seven Hut these names have received specific determi
weeks from the 16th day of Nisun. It was a nations only sinceornithologists have more strictly
festival of thanks for the harvest, and com distinguished genera and species; for originally
menced" immediately after the Passover [Ptt- they were identical; our ospray being derived
tivals]. it was one of the three great yearly from the French thfrai, which is itself a mere
festivals, in winch all the males were required to euphonious pronunciation of ossifrage, intn dnced
appear before God at the place at his sanctuary. during the polishing of (iallo-Frankisli into the
Josephus suites that in bis time great numbers of modern idiom. Their scientific application, how
Jews resorted from every quarter to Jerusalem to ever, has been referred to two birds; osprev being
keep this festival { AnUq. xiv. 13. 4; xvii. 10, 2; 1 lie Paitdion ila/iarttts, 1 the fishing hawk," and
De Bell. Jud. ii. 3, 1). Tins testimony aflbrds ossifrage the Aquiln 0$eifragaut Brisson, or ' great
interesting corroboration of Acts ii. I. ' II; XX. sea eagle' of Pennant; authors having even pre
16 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 8, in which the same fact appears. tended that fragments of bones have been found in
The commencement of the Christian church on the stomach ofthe last mentioned. Ifthis fact were
Uie day of Pentecost, preceded as it was by our proved, it would justify the denomination of ossi
Lord's ascension, attached a jieculiar interest to frage, or 1 bone-breaker but the dispensation of
tuis season, and eventually led to its being set faculties in nature always indicates a purpose,
afiart fur the commemoration of these great events. which in the case of the Pandion, living as it does
It was not, however, established as one of the exclusively upon fish, appears inapplicable; for
great festivals until the fourth century. The com theirs are not the l>oiies understood by the name,
bination of two events (the Ascension and and such as the bird accidentally swallows are
the descent of the Holy Ghost) in one festival small and without nutriment. With regard to the
bos a parallel in the original Jewish feast, which sea eagle, which subsists mostly on the same diet,
is held to have included the feast of firsMruils, or on carrion, and only by chance on birds, whose
oud of the delivering of the law ( Exod. xxiii. 16 ; Uines in all genera are very hard, destitute of mar
Lev. xxiii. 14-21 ; Num. xxviii. 26). Indeed, row, and likewise without nutritious matter, the
PERES. PERFUMES.
case is nearly the same. Finally, breaking the Gypaetos barbatus of nomenclators, and ypty ut
bones must be effected by the beak, which is strong the Seventy. The Arabs, according to Hruce,
indeed, but only formed to strike, tear, or hold, not use the names Abou-Duch'n and Nisser-Werk,
to mastioate; and if the liotie3 are broken for l hat which is a proof that they consider it a kind of
purpose, where are they to be found? in the crop, eagle, and perhaps confound this species with the
the succentorial ventricle, or in the gizzard? great sea eagle, which has likewise a few bristle*
organs in birds of prey far from vigorous, of so under the throat; and commentators, who have
well defined as they are in other orders of the often represented Peres to be the black vulture,
class, particularly in GalHnacefe, Thus, there is in ora great vulture, were only viewing the Gypaetos
nature no such bird as one that breaks the bones of as forming one of the order Accipitres^ according
warm-blooded animals in order to swallow them; to the Ltnnaean arrangement, where Vultur bar
consequently, no identification can be made with batus (Syst. Nat.) is the last of that genu-., al
any of the sea eagles. Hut when we place toge though in the 13th edition (by Gmelin), we find
ther Peres, a name derived from a root denoting the name changed to Falco barbatus, and locate*!
1 to crush ' or * break,* and find that hy the Greek immediately before F. Albicilla, or the sea eagle,
name <fri]vrj (Pftene), the Hellenic nations called showing that until a still more accurate classifi
the Lammer Geyer of the Swiss, which Savijny cation placed the species in a sejiarate genus,
{Oiseaux d Egyptc et He Syrie) has proved to ornithologists had no determined idea of the true
le the ossifrage of the Romans; then it becomes place it should occupy, and consequently by
an immediate question, why such a denomination what generical ap]>ellatiou it was to be distin
should have l>een l>estowetl. The answer is, we guished.C. H. S.
think, satisfactory ; for constituting tlte largest PEREZ-UZZAH, a place in the neighbour
flying bird of the old continent, and being a hood of Jerusalem, which obtained this name
tenant of the highest ranges of mountains in (meaning ' breach of Uzzah') from the judgment
Europe, western Asia, and Africa, though some- inflicted anon Uzzah for rashly handling the ark
times feeding on carrion, and not appearing to (2 Sam. vi. 8; 1 Chron. xiii. 11).
take up prey like eagles in the talons, it pursues PERFUMES. In the article Anointino we
the chamois, young ibex, mountain deer, or mar have noticed the use of perfumes in. Eastern coun
mot, among precipices, until it drives, or by a tries ; and in the botanical articles all the aro
rush of its wings, forces the game over the brink, matic substances mentioned in Scripture are
to be dasiied to pieces lielow, and thus deservedly carefully examined. Here, therefore, we have
obtained the name of Ijoue-breaker. only to add a Itnv remarks, which the scope of
The species in Europe is little ifat all inferior in those articles does not embrace.
size to the Condor of South America, measuring The practice of producing an agreeable odour
from the point of the bill to the end of the tail four by fumigation, or burning incense, as well as that
feet twoor three inches, and sometimes ten feet in of anointing tlie person with odoriferous oils and
the expanse of wing ; the head and neck are nut, ointments, and of sprinkling the dress with fra
like those of vultures, naked, but covered witli grant waters, originated in, and is confined to,
whitish narrow feathers; and there is a heaid of warm climate-*. In such climates perspiration is
bristly hair under the lower mandible : t fie rest profuse, and much care II needful to prevent the
of the plumage is nearly black and blown, wit.i eflecis of it from l*eing offensive. It is in this ne
cessity we may find the reason for the use of per
fumes, particularly nt weddings and feasts, and
i>ti visit* to person* of rank ; and in fact on mmt
of the occasions which bring people together with
the intention of heing agreeable to one another.
The ointments and oils used by the Israelites
were rarely simple, but were com)H>und of various
ingredients (Job xli. 22; romp. Plin. Hist. Nat.
xxix. b). Olive oil, the valued product of Pa
lestine (I)eut. xxvHi, 40; Mic. vi. 15), was
combined with sundry aromatics, chiefly foreign
(1 Kings x. 10; Ksek, xxvti. 22), particularly
bosem, myrrh, and nard [see these words]. Such
ointments were for the most ]>art costly (Amos
vi. 6), and formed a much-coveted luxury. The
ingredients, and often the prejiared oils and resins
in a state fit for use, were obtained chiefly in
traffic from the Phoenicians, who imported them
in small alatiaster Uixes ; Ai \ n i>tku 1 . in
which the delicious aroma was best preserved.
A description of the more costly unguents is
450. : i ' I' -'I'::- given by Pliny (Hist. Nat. xiii. 2). The pre
paration of these required peculiar skill, and
some whitish streaks on the. shoulders, and an therefore formed a particular pmfession. The
abundance of piile rust colour on the back of the D^npl rokechim of Exod. xxx. 25,30; Neh.
neck, the thighs, vent, and legs ; the toes are short, iii. 8; Eccles. x. 1, called * Apothecary' in the
and bluish, and the claws strong. In the young the Auth. Vers., was no other than a maker of per
head and neck are black, and the species or variety fumes. So strong were the better kinds of oint
of Abyssinia appears to he rusty and yellowish on ments, and so perfectly were the ditTerent com
the neck and stomach. It is the griffon ofCuvier, ponent substances amalgamated, that they have
PERFUMES. PERGAMOS.
been known to retain their scent several hundred PERGA (TJ4pyrf), a town of Pamphylia, in
years. One of the alabaster vases in the museum Asia Minor, situated upon the river Oestrus, sixty
at Alnwick Castle contains some of the ancient srades from its estuary. On a hilt near the town
Egyptian ointment, between two and three thou stood a celebrated temple of Artemis, at which
sand years old, and yet its odour remains (Wil the inhabitants of the surrounding country held
kinson, .-l'te. Egyptians, ii. 314). a yearly festival in honour of the goddess. Perga
The * holy anointing oil,' employed in the was originally the capital of Pamphylia; but
sacerdotal unction, was composed of two parts when that province was divided into two, Side
* myrrh' [Mur], two parts * cassia' [Kiddaii], became the chief town of the first, and Perga of
one pari * cinnamon' [Kinnamonj, one part the second Pamphylia (Strabo, xiv. p. 667 ;
* sweet calamus' [Kanrh Boskm], compounded Pliny, Hist. Nat. v. 26; Pomp. Mela, i. 14;
4 according to the art of the perfumer,' with a suffi Cic. Vert. i. 30). The ajHtstle Paul was twice
cient quantity ofthe purest olive oil to give it the at this place (Acts xiii. 13; xiv. 25). In the
proper consistence (Exod. xxx. 23, 25). It was first instance he seems to have landed at Perga,
strictly forbidden that any ]>erfume like this, that and the Cestrus was then, in fact, navigable to
is, composed of the same ingredients, should be the town, although the entrance to the river is now
used for common purposes, or indeed made at all imixissable, having long been closed by a bar,
(xxx. 32, 33); and we cannot but admire the Tlie site has been established by Col. Leake, as
course adopted in order to secure the object con that where extensive remains of vaulted and
templated by the law. The composition was not rained buildings were observed by General
preserved as a secret, but was publicly declared Kbhler on the Cestrus, west of Stavros. It is
and described, with a plain prohibition to make called by the Turks Eski-kalesi.
any like it. Maimonides says that doubtless the
cause of this prohibition was, that there might be PERGAMOS (Tltpyafios), or Pbruamuh, a
no such perfume found elsewhere, and conse town of the Great Mysia, the capital of a king
quently that a greater attachment might be in dom of the same name, and afterwards of the
duced to the sanctuary ; and also, to prevent the Roman province of Asia Propria. The river
great evils which might arise from men esteeming Caicus, which is formed by the union of two
themselves more excellent than others, if allowed branches meeting thirty or forty miles above its
to anoint themselves with a similar oil {More mouth, waters an extensive valley not exceeded
Nevochim, ch. xx.). The reasons for attaching in natural beauty and fertility by any in the
such distinction to objects consecrated by their world. In this valley, in N. lat. 39 4', K. long.
holy appropriations, are too obvious to need 27 12', stood Pergamos, at the distance of about
much elucidation. twenty miles from the sea. It lay on the north
The prodigious quantity of this holy ointment bank of the Caicus, at the base and on the de
made on the occasion which the text describes, clivity of two high hud steep mountains, on one
being no less than 750 ounces of solids com of which now stands a dilapidated castle. About
pounded witti live quarts of oil, may give some two centuries liefore the Christian era, Pergamos
idea of the profuse use of perfumes among the Iwcame the residence of the celebrated kings of
Hebrews. We are, indeed, told by the Psalmist the family of Attains, and a seat of literature
(cxxxiii. 2), that when the holy anointing oil and the arts. King Kumenes, the second of the
was poured ujou the head of Aaron, it flowed name, greatly beautified the town, and increased
down over his beard and dress, even to the skirls the library of Pergamos so considerably that the
of his garments. This circumstance may give number of volumes amounted to 200,000. As
some interest lo the following anecdote, which the papyrus shrub had not yet begun to be ex
we translate from Chard in (Voyage*, iv. -13, edit. ported from Hgypt, sheep and goat skins, cleaned
Langles). Alter remarking how prodigal the and prepared for the purpo.se, were used for
eastern females are of perfumes, he gives this manuscripts; and as the art of preparing them
instance : ' I remember that, at the solemnization was brought to perfection at Pergamos, they, from
of the nuptials of the three princesses royal of that circumstance, obtained the name of perga-
Golcouda, whom the king, their father, who bad mena, or parchment. The library remained at
no other children, married in one day, in the Pergamos after the kingdom of the Attali had
year 1(170, perfumes were lavished on every in lost its independence, until Antony removed it
vited guest as he arrived. They sprinkled them to Egypt, and presented it to Queen Cleopatra.
upon those who were clad in white; but gave (Pliny, Hut. Nat. iii. 2; Plutarch, Anton.).
them info the hands of those who wore coloured The valuable tapestries, called in Latin aulsaa,
raiment, because their garments would have been from having adorned the hall of King Attains,
spoiled by throwing it over them, which was done were also wrought in this town. The last king of
in the following manner. They threw over the Pergamos bequeathed his treasures to the Romans,
body a bottle of rose-water, containing about half who took possession of the kingdom also, and
a pint, andthen a larger bottle of water tinted witli erected it into a province under the name of Asia
saffron, in such a manner that the clothes would Propria (Martial, Epiff. ix. 17). Pergamos re
liave l>een stained with it. After this, they rubbed tained under the Romans that authority over the
the arms and the body with a liquid perfume cities of Asia, which it had acquired under
of ladanum and ambergris, and they put round the successors of Attains, and it still preserves
the throat a thick cord of jasmine. I was thus many vestiges of its ancient magnificence. Re
perfumed with saffron in many great houses of mains of the Asclepium and of some other tem
this country, and in other places. This attention ples, of the theatre, stadium, amphitheatre, and
and honour is a universal custom among the several other buildings, are still tube seen. Even
women who have the means of obtaining this now, Pergamos, under the name of Itergamo, is a
luxury.' place of considerable importance, containing a
PERGAMOS. PERSIANS.
population estimated at 14,000, of whom about at the foot of the Acropolis, whose bold gray brow
3000 are Greeks, 300 Armenians, and the rest was crowned by the rugged walls of a barbarous
Turks (Macfarlaiie's Visit). The writer just castle, the usurper of the site of a magnificent
cited says, * The approach to this ancient and Greek temple.' The town consists for the most
decayed city was as impressive as well might part of small and mean wooden houses, among
be. After crossing the Caicus. I saw, looking which appear the remains of early Christian
over three vast tumuli, or sepulchral harrows, churches, showing * like vast fortresses amid vast
similar to those of the plains of" Troy, the Turkish barracks of wood.' None of these churches have
city of Pergamos, with its tall minarets and taller any Scriptural or A]x>calyptic interest connected
cypresses, situated on the lower declivities and with them, having been erected 4 several centuries
451. [Pergamos.J
after the ministry of the apostles, and when (o conclude that when he says in the above pas
Christianity was not a humble and despised sage, that the church of Pergamos dwelt 4 when
creed, but the adopted religion of a vast empire.' Satan's seat is/ he alludes to the worship of the
The Pagan temples have fared worse that then serpent, which was there practised (Rosenmuller,
Christian churches. 'The fanes of Jupiter and Bib. Geog. iii. 13-17 : Macfarlane, Visit to the
Diana, of .y$culapius and Venus, are prostrate in Seven Apocalyptic Churches, 1R32: Arundell's
the dust; and where they have not been carried Asia Minor, ii. -SO 2-7 ; Leake's Geog. of Asia
away by the Turks, to cut up into touil>stones or Minor, pp. 2<i5, 26(> ; Kichter. Wallfiihrten, p.
to pound into mortar, the Corinthian and Ionic 488, sq. ; Schubert, Itrise ins Morqenland ; Mis*
columns, the splendid capitals, the cornices and sionary Herald for 1839, pp. 228-30).
pedimoni all in the highest ornament, are thrown PERIZZITE (HT$ ; Sept. Gept&os), a Ca-
into unsightly heaps."
In Pergamos was one of 1 the seven churches naanitish tribe inhabiting the mountainous region
of Asia,* to which the Apocalypse is addressed. which they eventually yielded to Kphraim and
This church is commended for its fidelity and Judab (Josh. xi. 3; xvii. 15; Jiidg. i, 4, 5).
They were kindred to the Canaaniies strictly
firmness in t he midst of jiersecwturns, and in a so called (Exod. xxiii. 23 ; Judg. i. 45) :
city so eminently addicted to idolatry. * I know,' sometimes Canaanitea and Perizzite* are put lor
it is said, ' tiiy woiks, and tehere tfiou diveZlest, all the other tril>es of Canaan (Gen. xiii. 7 ;
even where Satan's scat is' (Rev. ii. 13). Now xxxiv. 30); while in other places the Per zzites
there was at Pergamos a celebrated and much are enumerated with
frequented temple of ^3sculapius, who probably same stock (Gen. xv. various other tribes of the
20 ; Exod. iii. 8, 17 ; Deut,
there, as in other places, was worshipped in the vii. 1, &c). A residue of the Perizziies still
form of a living serpent, fed in the temple, and remained in the time of Solomon, and were by
considered as its divinity. Hence ^Uculapius him subjected to boud-service (1 Kings ix. 20).
was called the god of Pergamos, and on the coins
struck by the town, .Aesculapius appears with a rod PERSIANS, the name of a people and nation
encircled by a serpent (Berger, Thesaur.y i. 492). which occurs only in the later periods of the
As the sacred writer mentions (Rev. xii. 9) the biblical history, and then for the most part ii
i and the old serpent, there is reason conjunction with the Medes [Medbs]a con
PERSIANS. PERSIANS. 497
junction which tends to confirm the truth of the over to his son Xerxes II. (b.c. 424), who reigned
acred records, since the most resectable histo but two mouths. He was followed by his step
rical authorities have found reason to conclude brother Sogdianus (b.c. 424), whose rule came to
that the Medes and Persians were in truth but an end in seven months ; thus making way for
one nation, only that at an earlier period the Darius Nothus, whose reign lasted nineteen years.
Medes, at a later period the Persians, gained the Artaxerxes II Mnemon next took the throne
upper hand and bore sway. This ascendancy, in (b.c. 404), and is reported to have reigned forty
the case of the Persians, as generally in the an or forty-three years (Diod. Sicul. xiii. 108; xv.
cient Asiatic governments, was owing to the cor 93). His successor was Artaxerxes Ochus (b.c.
rupting and enervating influence of supreme and 304), who occupied the throne for twenty-six years.
despotic power on the one side, and on the other Then came Arses (b.c. 338), reigning three years.
to the retention on the part of mountaineers, or of At last Darius Codomannus (b.c. 335) ascended
tribes seated remotely from the centre of the em the throne. Hut the valour, hardihood, and dis
pire, of primitive simplicity,in laborious lives, cipline which had gained the dominion, and which,
hard fare, and constant exposure, which create pa as the length of several reigns in the succession
tient endurance, athletic strength, manly courage, shows, had sustained it with a firm and effectual
independence: qualities which in their torn refuse hand, were almost at an end, having been suc
or throw off a yoke, and convert a subject into a ceeded by the effeminacy, the luxuriousness, and
conquering and ruling natiou. At what piecise the vices which had caused the dissolution of
time this great change was brought about in re earlier Asiatic dynasties, and among them that
gard to the Medes and Persians, we are not in a of the Medes, which the Persians had set aside.
conditfon to determine historically. With Cyrus When this relaxation of morals has once taken
the elder, however, iiegins (b.c. 558) the domina place, a dynasty or a nation only waits for a
tion of the Persian dynasty which held rule over conqueror. In this case one soon appeared in the
Media as well as Persia. Whether Cyrus came person of Alexander, misnamed the Great, who
to the throne by inheritance, as the son-in-law of assailing Darius on several occasions, finally over
Cambyses II., according to Xenophon, or whether came Mm at Arbela (b.c 330), and so put a period
he won the throne by vanquishing Astyages, tiie to the Persian monarchy after it had existed for
last Median king, agreeably to the statements of 219 years. On this the country shared the fate
Herodotus, is one of those many points connected that befell the other parts of the world which the
with early eastern history, which, for want of do Macedonian madman had overrun ; but, more
cuments, and in the midst of historical discre fortunate than that of other eastern nations, the
pancies, must remain probably for ever uncertain. name of Persia and of Persians lias been pre
Meanwhile the existence of Cyrus and the great served even to the present day, as the representa
tenor of his influence remain the same, though on tive of a jtectple and a government.
this and on other points historians give irrecon The events which transpired during this suc
cilable statements ;a remark which we make the cession of Persian kings, so far as they aie cou-
rather because a certain school of modem theology nected with the biblical history, may he thus
has attempted to destroy the general historical briefly narrated ; Cyrus, having conquered Ba
credibility of the Gospels, on the ground that the bylon, permitted the Jews to quit their captivity
several narrators are found to disagree. and return into Palestine, affording ihem aid for
The most interesting event to the theologian in the reconstruction of their national house of wor
the history of Cyrus, is the permission which he ship. Under Cambyses, who invaded Egypt and
gare (b.c. 53fi) to the captive Jews to return to became master of the land, adversaries of the Jews
their native land. After a prosperous reign of the tried to render them objects of suspicion at the
unusual length in Asiatic monarchies of thirty court; which intrigues, however, bad full effect
years, Cyrus was gathered to his fathers (b.c. 52'J). only in the reign of his successor, Smerdis, who
He was succeeded by Cambyses (b.c. 520), who, issued a decree expressly commanding the build
according to Herodotus, reigned seven years and ing of the temple to cease (Ezra iv. 21) ; in which
five months. Then came (b.c. 522) Smerdis, prohibition Smerdis, as he was of the Magian tribe,
nominally brother of Cambyses, but in reality a and therefore of (lie priestly caste, may have been
Magian ; and as the Magi were of Median blood, influenced by religious considerations. A milder
this circumstance shows that, though the Medes and more liberal jjolicy ensued. Darius, having
bad lost the sovereignly, they were not without by search in the national records ascertained what
reat power. Smerdis being assassinated (b.c. Cyrus had done towards the Jews, took off the
"21., Darius Hystaspis was elected king. He prohibition, and promoted the rebuilding of the
favoured the Jews, and permitted them to resume temple. Darius Hystaspis was distinguished for
and complete the building of their temple, which great enterprises, as well as liberal ideas. He
had been broken off by reason of jealousy on the carried the renown of the Persian arms to India,
part of the heterogeneous populal ions of Samaria Libya, and Europe, and began the Persian attempt
(Ezra iv. 2; 2Kiugs xvii. 24), and the influence to subjugate Greece. What Xerxes undertook,
which they exerted at the Persian court (Ezra and what success he had in his warlike under
iv. 11). The last monarch had for successor takings against Greece, is known to all. His
Xerxes (b.c. 485), who is probably the Ahasuerus conduct towards the Jews, as well as bis own
of Esther and Mordecai. Alter a reign of twenty despotism and luxuriousness, are exhibited in the
years, Xerxes was murdered by Artabanus, who, book of Esther with great force as well as truth.
however, enjoyed his booty only for the short pe- Artaxerxes Longimanus led an army into Egypt,
riod of seven months. The next in order was which had rebelled against its Persian masters.
Artaxerxes (I.) Longimanus (b.c 465), who en He was compelled to makepeace with the Greeks.
joyed his power for the surprisingly long period of Palestine must have suffered much by the passage
forty years, and then quietly handed the sceptre of troops through its borders on their way from
TOl. II.
498 PERSIANS. PERSIANS.
Persia to Egypt ; the new colony at Jerusalem say that they were not unworthy the grandeur of
began to sink, when the monarch permitted Nehe- the monarch on an occasion when * he shewed the
miah to proceed with full powers to tlie Jewish riches of his glorious kingdom, and the honour of
capital, in order to strengthen the hands of his his excellent majesty ;*or when the stately auto,
brethren. Darius Nothus had to fight on all sides crat, relaxing in a measure the rigour of his great
of Ins kingdom, and made Phoenicia the scene of ness, and descending from his god-like throne to
a war against the combined forced of i'*gypt and a nearer level with ordinary mortals, 4 made a
Arabia. Even Artaxerxes Mnemou, though long feast unto the people, both unto great and small,
busied with his arms in other parts, did not lose seven da\s in the court of the garden of the
sight of Egypt, which had thrown off his yoke, palace,' when.* were white, green, and blue pavi
and sent new Persian armies into the vicinity of lions, fastened with curds of Hue linen and purple
Palestine. In consequence, the Jews had much to silver rings and pillars of marble; couches,
to endure from the insolence of a Persian general, gold and silver, U|k>ii a tesselated pavement of red
namely, Bagoses, who polluted the temple, and and blue, white and black marble; and drink
1 punished the Jews seven years1 (Joseph. Antiq. was served all around in golden vessels of curious
xt. 7, 1). Ochus followed the plan of his father, fabric and divers shapes; ami wine in abundance,
subdued the revolted Phoenicians, and again fell whose worth bad gained for it the name of Hoyal,
upon Egypt. The remaining period of the Persian of which eacli person by express ordinance drank
dominion over the Jews jjasseil away peaceably what be pleased;or when, at the etui of these
(Winer, lieal^fVort. ; Joseph. Ant/,-,-., hit. xi. ; seven days of jtopular enjoyment, the king feasted
Jahu, Archaol. ii. 1,231-312; Schlosaer, A Iten with Yashti, thequeen, at a banquet for the IVomen
Welt, i. 212, sq.; J. G. Eichhom, Geschichte in her own palace, when the monarch commanded
Der Alt. Welt, i. 80, sq.). his seven high officers of state to bring Vailtii the
queen l>efore the king with the crown royal, to
show the |>eople and the princes her beauty, for
she was fair to look on ;or, finally, when a fa
vourite servant, being clothed in the royul apparel,
and set upon the horse that the king rode upon,
witli the crown royal upon his head, was con
ducted by the hand of one of the king's most
noble princes through the highways of the glitter
ing city, while heralds proclaimed before the re
splendent retinue, 'Thus shall it be done to the
man whom the king delighteth to honour then
blazed forih the glory of the Persian greatness, in
[Ancient Persian king on throne.] pomp and .splendour correspondent with the bril
liancy of the heavens and the luxuriance of the
The biblical books, Daniel, Esther, Nehemiah, earth under which and on which these luminaries
and Ezra, combine to present a true as well as shone. Nor, in the midst of alt this outward
high idea of the Persian court and government. j- hi i ; were there wanting internal regulation!
We will give a few particulars from Esther, a fitted to sustain and give effect to the wil! of the
book of deep and vivid interest, not ouly in its monarch and his council. A body of law was
story, but also, and by no means less, in the in exigence, to which additions were constantly
indirect history (as it may he termed) which it made by omnipotent decrees issued by the king.
contains regarding the({>erhaps) most splendid do These rescripts were made out by offic als, a
minion that ever existed upon earth. The extent b-tdy of men who are designated royal tcrilirs or
of tiie government was from India to Ethiopia, secretai ie<t ; and being drawn up in the pre
including 127 provinces. The empire was under scribed form, were copied and translated for
the control of vassal princes and nobles, 1 the 4 every people after their language.' Being then
power of Persia and Media,' under whom were 1 sealed with the king's ring,* the letters were sent
governors of various ranks, and officers for every 1 by post/ * on horseback and on mules, camels
species of duty. It was specially the duty of and young dromedaries,' to theking's lieuteu.-utH,
seven ministers of state (* chamberlains ') to serve and to the governors over every province, and to
in the immediate presence of the monarch. Other the rulers of every people of every one of the 127
officers, however high in rank, were admitted to provinces. History, as well as law, received dili
the royal person only through the barriers of a gent and systematic attention. 'A l>ook of record*
trictl y-obser*.ed ceremonial. Even the prime of the chionicles ' was kept, in which the events of
minister himself, and the favoured concubine who each reign were entered, probably under the sujier-
was hor*oured with the title of queen, durst come vittion of the learned caste, the Magi. This !>.-,.!;
no nearer than the outer court, unless, on making the monarch used to consult on occasions of im
their ap|>earance, the king extended towards them portance and perplexity, j tartly for instruction,
his sceptre of gold. The gorgeousness of the court I artly for guidance; so that the present was mo
dazzles the mind, and surpasses imagination. delled after the past, and the legislation and 1 he
When the king sat upon his throne, his chief conduct of the king formed one entire and, to some
vizier and his beloved queen on either side, with extent, consistent whole. Whence it appears that
rows of princes and nobles, like lessening stars, though the monarch was despotic, he was not
running in a line of fire-points from the monarch, strictly arbitrary. Aided by a council, contiolled
the sun in whose light they shone, and in whose by a priesthood, guided by the past as well as in
warm smile they were happy, feasting a hundred fluenced by the present, the king, much as lie may
and fourscore days with his great men, in a hall have been given up to his personal pleasures, must
and a palace of which the praise is too little to yet have had a difficult office to till, and heavy
PERSIANS. PERSIANS.
duties to discharge. Rulers are generally insecure favour of the king, and thereby proved instru
in proportion to the degree of their despotism ; and mental in saving the Jews scattered throughout
so we find, from the plot against the life of Aha- the empire from the bloody slaughter which Ha
suerus (Xerxes, B.C. 485-465), which Mordecai inan had designed should take place every where
discovered and made known, that even the re on the same day. Nor is it improbable that to
cesses of a palace did not protect the kings of influences connected witli the same high qualities
Persia from the attempts of the assassin. In the the decree may have been owing by which Cyrus
punishment, however, which fell upon the wicked set the people of the captivity free, that they might
Hainan, we see the summary means which the return home and build again the walls of Jeru
Persian monarchs employed for avenging or de salem. Cyrus, it is true, may have had some
fending themselves, as well as the unshared and regard to justice; he may have thought it prudent
unqualified power which they held over the life to send away from his country at least the best of
of their subjects even in the highest grades. Irl- these highly-endowed men ; he may not have l>een
deed it is not possible to read the (took of Esther unwilling to see Jerusalem rise again into power,
without fancying more than once that you are in and prove a friendly barrier against Egypt; but
the midst of the court of the Grand Seignior. Not the munificent manner in which the Jews were
least among the causes of this illusion is what is dismissed seems to betoken the agency of some
narrated in regard to the harem of Xerxes. The personal influence, if not of some personal aflec
women, it seems, had a palace of their own, and tion. Nehemiah (xiii. 6 ; comp. ii. 1, sq.)
dwelt there apart from the king, who pud them 8]>eak8 expressly of a favour which he obtained
visits of ceremony. This their abode, and they of Artaxerxes (Longimauus, B.C. 465), or Xerxes
themselves, were under the care of a royal cham- II. (b.c. 421), after an interview of several days.
l>erlain, whose power in the harem was supreme, By no means inconsistent with this personal fa
and who had abundance of resources for increas vour, nor improbable in themselves, are the
ing the state and promoting the comfort of those religious considerations by which the Scriptural
who pleased him; nor may he have been without writers represent Cyrus as being actuated in
an influence in determining the king in his choice Betting the Jews at liberty. The religion of the
of his favourite mistress. To supply the harem, Persians was in its essential and primitive form mo
officers were appointed in the several provinces, notheistic, and must therefore have been anything
whose duty it was to find out and procure for the but alien, in spirit at least, to that of the Hebrews.
monarch the fairest maidens in the world. Each Nor is there anything extravagaut in assuming
of these, after she had been in the women's house that so great a prince as Cyrus, who could scarcely
a twelvemonth, and had gone through a certain have yielded to the luxurious effeminacy in which
course of preparation, visited the king for one his successors indulged, and whose mind must
night in turn ; but she came in unto the king no have been elevated as well as powerful, under
more except the king delighted in her, and that stood in a measure, and highly appreciated, the
sue were called by name, in which case she be excellences of the Mosaic religion ; while the
came queen. ' And the king loved Esther above same general feeling which directed the storm of
all the women, and she obtained grace and favour the Persians against the polytheistic temples of
iu'his sight more than all the virgins ; bo that he Greece, may have prompted an earlier and better
set the royal crown upon her bead, and made her sovereign to liberate the Jews, and bring about
queen instead of Vashti.' the restoration of (lie monotheistic worship on
Mount Ziou. Certainly the terms are distinct
and emphatic in which Cyrus is made to speak
in our sacred books ; nor do we see any reason to
suppose that a Jewish colouring has lieen given
to these passages, or to question that we have in
them a faithful translation of the original state
documents (Ezra i. 1-4; i. 7-11; vii. 23 ; viii.
22). The two last passages here referred to would
seem to justify the inference that the favpur of
the Persian government was owing not merely lo
general religious influences, but also to specific
instances of good and ill connected with the will
of the Almighty ; probably national reverses,
more or less directly and believingly ascribed to
God, may have been in oijeration to aid the
433. [Ancient Persian guards.] restoration of the temple worship.
A general impression prevails that, to use the
The greatness of the power of the chief viziers words of Winer (Recd-\V6rlerb. s. v. 4 Persien '),
of the Persian monarchy is illustrated in the re * no edict published bearing the king's signature
corded acts of Haman and Mordecai. The mode could be revoked,* so that the ' laws of the Medes
of delegating ]H>wer was by presenting to the en and Persians ' altered not in the sense of being di
trusted person the royal signet, which apjjears to minished or reformed. Winer refers, as an autho
have licensed him to do what he would, by such rity, to Esth. i. 19 ; yet this book contains a strik
means as he pleased. ing fact which proves trie contrary ; for tlie decree
The great influence which Esther and Mordecai which Hainan had got promulgated for the de
possessed with Xerxes is attributable to the noble struction of the Jews was superseded by another
qualities, both of mind and body, for which the procured by the influence of Esther and Mor
Hebrew race were, and still are, conspicuous. decai, and this other of so decided a character as
These qualities won the heart and gained the to give the Jews in all the provinces of the empire
a* 2
500 PERSIANS. PERSIANS.
the power of assaulting and slaying their enemies. progress, yet we know that it did gradually, in the
In truth, the words ' that it he not altered ' seem, case of the Persians, lead first to dualism, and then
at least in the period to which the biblical records to gross idolatry (Bauer, Symbol, u. Alythol. i.
refer, to signify little more than the general sta 323, sq.).
bility of the law, and the certainty of its penalties. The name 'Persia' is not found in the older
The extraordinary power entrusted to the Jews records of the Bible, but after the Babylonish
serves to show that the social constitution of the period it (D"}2) occurs frequently (2Chron. xxxvi.
Persian empire was open to the greatest abuses.
What could be worse than for the government 30, 22; Eira iv. 5, sq. ; vi. 14, sq,; Estb. i. 3;
itself to let loose on society a scattered horde of viii. 10; I Mace. i. 1), meaning the great Persian
people, trembling for their lives, yet united in the kingdom founded by Cyrus, which in the period
strung bonds of religious fellowship ? They would of its highest glory comprised all Asiatic coun
want no encouragement, if only relieved of the tries from the Mediterranean to the Indus, from
penalties commanded Iry the decree of Haman, the Black anil Caspian Sea to Arabia and the
to do all they could privately 1 to be ready to Indian Ocean. This vast empire was divided into
avenge themselves on their enemies' (Eatli. viii. many provinces or satrapies, one of which was
13) ; but when couriers came riding post into all Persia (pmperly so called), or Persis (Karsistan),
parts where they were, hearing the royal Irehests which on the north was se|>arated from Media by
to the effect that, on the very day on which they the range of mountains denominated Parchratras,
themselves expected unsparing slaughter, they on the west bordered on Sosiana (Khusistan), on
were allowed not only 1 to stand for their life,' the south reached to the Persian Gulf, and on the
but 1 to destroy, to slay, and to cause to iierish all east was bordered by Carmania (Kirinan). The
the power of the people and province that would country that lies along the sea is a sandy plain,
assault them, both little ones and women, and to which the heat and poisonous winrls render unfit
take the spoil of them for a prey ' (Kith. viii. 11), for human abodes (Plin. Hiat. Nat. xii. 20). The
then, we may well believe, a dreadfid vengeance interior is crossed by rocky mountains, whose sum
would be taken, and frightful disorder caused, mits are covered with snow the greater part of the
the possibility of which in any social condition is year. This mountain chain renders the north of the
a proof that the first principles of justice are not country rough and unfruitful, so that herdsmen
understood ; and the actual existence of which and nomads alone dwell there. In the inter
shows that, whenever occasion required, they were mediate parts, however, are found many well-
recklessly set at nought. watered valleys and plains, which yield to few
On the religion of the ancient Persians we refer in fruitfulness and mildness of climate (Strabo,
to the articles Medks and Magi, from whom the xv. p.727 ; Ptolem. vi. 4 ; Mannert, Geoff, ii. 497).
Persians received their religion, as well as the The inhabitants of this province of Persis were
constitution of their social state. If, indeed, the connected by blood with the Medes, and were
Persians, as a separate tribe in the general govern divided into many tribes ami clans (Herod, i.
ment of the Medes, succeeded in getting tiie iip|ier 125), three of which were noble, the Pasargada?,
hand of their effeminate masters, and wresting the the Maraphii, and the Maspii. The Pasargadae
sceptre from their enfeebled hands, the Merles were held the pre-eminence ; of which tribe was Cyrus,
not without a recompense in that they |ierj)etuated, a circumstance to which he in part owed his power
even by the instrumentality of their conquerors, and influence.
most of the higher appliances and etlects of civi The Persian language was diverse from the
lization to which in the course of ages they had Shemitic, and connected with the halo-Germanic
given birth, and which have in all ages consti tongues, of which the Sanscrit may be considered
tuted the true honour of men and the best treasure as the eldest branch (Adelung, Mithridat. i. 255,
of stales. In truth, in this matter the relation into sq. ; O. Frank, De Persidis Lingua et Genio,
which the Persians entered with the Medes is that Norimb., 1809; Wahl, Gesch. d. Morgenland
which must exist where the rough, untamed energy Sprache . Literatur, p. 129, sq.).
of a half-barbarous race comes down on the culti The residences of the monarchs of the immense
vated, plains of a high but decaying civilisation ; country denominated Persia were various. Pasar
and that which, in its chief features, may be seen gada, with its royal tombs, was most ancient
in the relation which the Romans bore to the Persepolis rose not very far from it, and l>ecame
Greeks, and which the Northmen in their tarn a treasure-city. After the overthrow of the Baby
bore to the Romans : lonian kingdom, Cyrus, while preserving a regard
' Gracia capta ferum victorem cepit, et arte* for the more ancient cities of the empire, seems to
I til ii I it agresti Latio.' have thought Babylon a more suitable place for
the metropolis of Asia ; but as it might not lie
The oldest Persians were, however, fire-wor politic, if it were possible, to make a strange place
shippersa species of idolatry which is least the centre of his kingdom, he founded a new city,
removed from monotheism, and also least unpar Susa, where he was still on Persian ground, and
donable in such a clime as that of Persia. That yet not fur distant from Babylon. There was also
such a worship is not incompatible with the Ecbatana, the Median capital. These several
esoteric recognition of one intelligent Creator is royal aliodes seem to have been occupied by the
obvious, for the fire may have been regarded, and later monarchs, accenting as the season of the
doubtless by the wise and philosophic was re year called for a colder, wanner, or milder
garded, as merely symbolical of the Great Power climate.
which, as imaged in the sun, quickens, vivifies, We have before seen that the Persian monarchy
and blesses all things. But even so pure and lofty had its chronicles. These may have been con
form of symbolical worship tended to corruption ; sulted by our classical authorities, but are wholly
and though we are unable to trace the steps of the lost to us. We are therefore thrown on two foreign
PESTILENCE. PESTILENCE. 601
sources of information regarding the Persian his- such passages as 2 Sam. xxiv. 15, 16, weaken this
tory : 1. The Jewish, to be elicited chiefly from objection, and even Josephus understood the cause
the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther, of to be a pestilence, Antiq. x. 1. 5)it is impossible
which something has been said. 2. Grecian that such a mortality could have been produced,
writers. Of these, Ctesias availed himself of the in one night, by a disease whicli spread itself by
Persian annate, but we have only extracts from contagion, like the Oriental plague; and the same
his work in Photius. Herodotus appears also to remark applies, though in a less degree, to the
have consulted the native sources of Persian his three days' pestilence in the reign of David (2 Sam.
tory. Xenophon presents us with the fullest ma xxiv. 13). Those who entertain the common opi
terials, namely, in his Anabasis, his Hellenica, nion about the means by which the destruction of
and especially in his Cyropcedia, which is an Sennacherib's army was effected, regard the illness
imaginary picture of a perfect prince, according of Hezekiah (2 Kings xx. 1-1 1) as connected,
to Oriental conceptions, drawn in the person of both as to time and cause, with that event; and
Cyrus the elder. Some of the points in which the cousider his 1 boil ' especially to afford direct evi
classical authorities disagree may be found set dence that lie suffered from the plague. The lx>il
forth in Eichhom's Gesch. der A. Welt, i. 82, 8a would have certainly been a most characteristic
A representation of the Persian history, according symptom, if we had tlie least indication that his
to Oriental authorities, may be found in the Ilal- disease was pestilential ; but we have no evidence
liscke Allgemeine Weltgeschichtey th. iv. A very whatever that any epidemic prevailed at that time
diligent compilation is that of Brissonius, De at Jerusalem.
Regno Persarum, 1591. Consult especially The glandular plague, like the small-pox, is in
Heeren's Ideen, i. 1 ; and his HatuibucA der G. eruptive fever, and is the most virulent and mut
d. S. Allerth., i. 102. A full and valuable list contagious disease with which we are acquainte K
of the older authorities in Persian affairs may be The eruption consists of buboes, carbuncles, at
seen in the Bibliotheca Historica of Meusellius, petechias. Buboes are inflamed and swollen
vol. i., pt. ii., p. 28, sq.J. R. B. glands ; and tlie glands so affected are generally
PESTILENCE. The terms pestilence and those of the groin, axilla, neck, and the parotid
plague are used with much laxity in our Auth. glands. More frequently there are two, three, or
Version. The latter, however, which generally even four, such tumours. They sometimes sub
side of themselves; or, what is more commonly
represents the Hebrew $7^3, is by far the wider the case, they suppurate : and as this process sel
term, as we read of 'plagues of leprosy,* 'of hail,' dom commences before tlie disease has taken a
and of many other visitations. Pestilence is em favourable turn, it is regarded as the cause, hut
ployed to denote a deadly epidemic, and is the more conectly as a sign, of approaching recovery
word by which "CH (Sept. fictvctTOS, and occa A carbuncle is an inflammation of the skin,
sionally \qiu6s) is translated. In our time, how giving rise to a hard tumour, with pustules cr
ever, both these terms are nearly synonymous ; vesicles upon it. It resembles a common boil,
but plague is, by medical writers at least, restricted but differs from it iu this important respect. The
to mean the glandular plague of the East. There carbuncle becomes gangrenous throughout its
is indeed no description of any pestilence in the whole extent, so that when the eschar separates
Bible, which would enable us to form an adequate a large deep ulcer is left. Under the term
idea of its specific character. Severe epidemics petechia? are included evanescent spots and streaks
are the common accompaniments of dense crowd of various hues, from a pale blue to a deep purple,
ing in cities, and of famine ; and we accordingly which give z. marbled appearance to the skin.
often find them mentioned in connection (Lev. "When such livid streaks occur in the face, they
xxvi. 25; Jer. xiv. 12; xxix. 18; Matt. xxiv. 7; disfigure the countenance so much that a patient
Luke xxi. 1 1). But there is no better argument can haidly be recognised by his friends. The
for believing that ' pestileuce ' in these instances disease varies so considerably iu its symptoms and
means the glandular plague, than tlie fact of its course, that it is impossible to give one description
being at present a prevalent epidemic of the East. that will suit even the majority of cases. Some
It is also remarkable that the Mosaic law, which times the eruption dues nut appear at all, and
contains such strict rules for the seclusion of lepers, even the general symptoms are not of that violence
should have allowed a disease to pass unnoticed, to lead an ignorant pet son to suspect the least
which is above all others the most deadly, and. at danger. The patient is suddenly attacked with a
tlie same time, the most easily checked by sanatory loss of strength, a sense of confusion, weight in the
regulations of the same kind.* The destruction head, oppression at the heart, and extreme dejec
of Sennacherib's army (2 Kings xix. 35) has also tion of spirits. Such cases sometimes terminate
been ascribed to the plague. Butnor to insist fatally within twenty-four hours, and occasionally
on the circumstance that this awfully sudden on the second or third day. Generally, however,
annihilation of 185,000 men is not ascribed to the patient is attacked with shivering or coldness,
any disease, bat to the agency of an angel (since which is soon followed by fever, giddiness, pain
in the head, occasionally also by vomiting.
* Michaelis endeavours to explain why the Law Bulges and carbuncles in most cases make their
contained no ordinances about the plague, by appearance on the first day ; and successive erup
arguing that, on account of the sudden appearance tions of them are not unusually observed during
and brief duration of the disease, no permanent the course of the disease. There is a peculiar
enactments could have been efficient in mode and characteristic muddiness of the eye, which
rating its ravages, but only such preventive mea has been described by Dr. Russell as a muddiness
sures as varied according to the ever-varying cir and lustre strangely blended together. The fever
cumstances of the origin and course of its visita remits every morning, and increases during the
tions {Mot. Recht. iv. 290> day and night The vomiting then increases ;
502 PESTILENCE. PETER.
the tumours become painful ; and the patient winter. It was a common superstition that tut
wanders, and is inclined to stupor. On the morn plague abated on St. John's day.
ing of the third day, in favourable cases, a sweat The moit fatal, and at the same time the most
breaks out, winch produces great relief, and some general epidemic, was that which ravaged Asia,
times even proves critical. The exacerbation on Africa, and the whole ofEurope, in the fourteenth
the fourth day is more severe than on the pre century. It was called by the northern European
ceding ones, and continues intense until it is ter nations ' the Black Death,* and by the Italians
minated by the sweat on the morning of the fifth * la Murtilega Grande,' or the great mortality.
day, which leaves the patient weak, but in every According to Dr. Hecker, not less than twenty-five
respect relieved. After this, the exacerbations millions perished by it in the short sjtace of three
become slighter and slighter ; ami the buboes ad years, from 1317 to 1350. Since the commence
vancing favourably to suppuration, little or no ment of this century, Euro)* has been free from
fever remains after the beginning of the second the plague, with the exception of two or three
week. In other cases, again, the symptoms are instances. It occurred at Noja, in the kingdom
far more urgent, Besides vomiting, giddiness, of Naples, in 1815 and 1*16 ; at the Lazaretto of
and headache, there is also diarrhuxt at the out Venice, in ISIS; in GreilVenberg, in Silesia, in
break of the fever. During the night the patient 1819. It has not been seen in Gnat Britain since
becomes delirious or comatose. The pulse is full the great epidemic of 1665, which is stated to
and strong ; and though the tongue is not dry, have carried offeight thousand in one week. Qua
the thirst is excessive. The fever abates some rantine was first jierfnrmed in one of the island*
what on the succeeding momiug, but the pulse is near Venice, in 1-185. Persons who had been
frequent, the skin hot and dry, and the patient cured of plague in the Lazaretto on one of the
dejected. As the second day advances, the vomit adjoining islands were sent there, and all those
ing and diarrhoea become urgent, the eyes are with whom they had had intercourse, where they
muddy, expression of countenance confused, the were detained forty days. This period was pro
pulse quick, and sometimes low and fluttering, bably fixed upon on account of some medical
external heat moderately feverish, or occasionally hypothesis. Toe fortieth day was regarded as the
intense in irregular Hushing*. There is pain at last day of ardent diseases, and that which sepa
the heart, burning pain at the pit of the stomach, rated them from chronic. Forty days constituted
and incessant restlessness. \\ lien to these symp the philosophical month of alchymists. Theolo
toms are joined faltering of the tongue, or loss of gical, and even legal derivations, have been also
sj>eech, and the suiface of the body becomes cold given. The forty days of the flood; Moses' so
or covered with clammy sweats, death is inevi journ on Mount Sinai ; our Lord's fast ; ami.
table, although it may still be at some distance. lastly, what is called the ' Saxon term' (Saclisische
When the patient has been much weakened by Frist), which also lasts forty days. Bills of health
the vomiting, diarrhu?a, or haemorrhage, the third were probably first established in 15(17, by a coun
day proves fatal ; but more commonly the disease cil of health established nt Venice during a fatal
is prolonged two or three days longer. In tins plague that visited Italy for five years; but they
form of plague, buboes appear on the second or were not generally used until 1665. It is to these
third day, and sometimes later ; but whether they great measures that Europe is indebted far its
advance towards Buppuration, or not, they seem to present immunity from this terrible scourge ; and
have no effect in hastening or retarding the ter it cannot l>e doubted that, hut for the callous in
mination of the disease. Lastly, in some cases, difference of the Orientals (which proceeds from
the eruption of buboes and carbuncles constitute their fatalism, love of gain, and ignorance), the
the principal symptoms of the disease; and pa same measures would be adopted in the East, with
tients are so little indis|osed, that they are aide the same success. ( Hecker s Hist, of tin Epi
to go about the streets, or attend to their usual demics of the Middle Ages ; Dr. Brown, art.
avocations, if not prevented by the inllammation * Plague,' in Cycloj). of Pract. Med. ; Dr. Rus
of inguinal tumours. sell, Hist, of Aleppo.}\S. A. N.
Respecting the causes and origin of plague PETER (neVfOfi Aram., KDO; originally
nothing is known. There cannot be the slightest
doubt that it is propagated by absolute contact Simeon or Simon, PVPy\ heard) was a native
with, or a very near approach to, the bodies or of ttethsaida, in Galilee, and was the son of a
clothes of persons infected; but we are entirely at certain Jonas, or John ; whence he is named on
a loss to know how it is generated afresh. Ex one occasion in the Gosjiel history Simon Bar-
tremes of temperature have a decided effect in jona, that is, son of .Tona (Matt. xvi. 17). Along
putting a stop to it ; hut Dr. Russell oloerved with Ins brother Andrew, he followed the occu
that, in the year 1761, the plague at Aleppo pation of a fisherman on the sea of Galilee. It
wk9 mild, in 1762 it was severer, and in 1763 is probable that, 1 i fore they became known to
it was very fatal ; and yet there was no appre Christ, they were both disciples of John the Baptist.
ciable difference in the resjwclive seasons of That Andrew was so we are expressly informed
these years. In Egypt, the plague commences by the evangelist John ; and as his brother seems
in autumn, and is regularly put nn end to by to have l>een much of the same mind with him
the heats of summer ; and it is even asserted on religious matters, it is extremely likely lhat
that contaminated goods ore also disinfected at he was so likewise. Their becoming known to
this time. Christ was owing to John's pointing him out on
In Europe, the plague disappeared during the the day after his baptism to Andrew and another
winter. This was remarked in all the epidemics, disciple (probably the evaugelist John), as * the
except 4hat from 1636 to 1648, called the Great Lamb of God;* on which they immediately fol
Plague, on account of its long duration ; but even lowed Christ, and -pent some time in receiving
in this instance it abated considerably during the hisunstructions. Shortly after this, Andrew tuiuV
PETER. PETER. 003
ing Simon, carried him to Christ, who, on re time forward he comes before us under a new
ceiving him as his disciple, bestowed upon him aspect. A sober diguity and firmness of purpose
that surname by which he has since that time have displaced his former hasty zeal; sagacity
been most commonly designated : ( When Jesus and prudence characterize his conduct ; and whilst
beheld him be said, Thou art Simon the son of his love to his Master shows no symptom of abate
Jona ; thou shall be called Cephas, which is by ment, it displays itself rather in active labour and
interpretation a stone (trerpos).' After this inter much-enduring patience in his service, than in
view the two brothers seem to have returned to loud protestations or extravagant exhibitions of
their usual occupation for a season, as we have an attachment. In the subsequent Scripture history
account in Matthew (iv. 18-20) of their being lie is presented to us as the courageous herald of
summoned from that occupation by Christ on a the kingdom of Christ, by whose mouth the first
subsequent occasion, posterior to his temptation public declaration of salvation through Uie cru
in the wilderness, and to the commencement of cified Jesus was made to the people ; by whose
hi? public ministry as a religious teacher. From advice and counsel the early churches were planted
this time forward they were bis devoted and ad and governed ; and by whom jhe prejudices of
miring followers. In the course of the evangelical Judaism were first fairly surmounted, and the
LUtory several anecdotes of Peter are incidentally Gospel preached in all its universal freeuess to
recorded, for the purpose, doubtless, principally the Gentile world. The Acts of the Apostles con
of illustrating the character and teaching of our tain recitals of many interesting incidents which
Lord, but which tend also to throw light u]H>n the befell him whilst engaged in those efforts. Of
history and character of his attached disciple. these, the chief are his imprisonment and trial
Such are the accounts furnished by the evangelists before the Sanhedrim for preaching Christ, and
of his walking upon the agitated waters of the sea his bold avowal of his determination to ]eisist in
of Galilee to meet his master (Matt. xiv. 22, ff. ; that, work (Acts iv. 1-22); his miraculously in
Mark vi. 45, IT.) ; of his bold and intelligent flicting the punishment of death on the infatuated
avowals of the undoubted Messialiship of Jesus, couple who had dared to try an experiment upon
notwithstanding the difficulties which he, along the omniscience of the Holy Ghost (v. 1-11); his
with the rest of the disciples, felt in reconciling visit to Samaria, and rebuke of Simon Magus,
what they saw in him with what they had fondly who deemed that the miracles of the apostle were
expected the Christ to 1* (Matt. xvi. 13-20) ; Jf the result of some deep magic spell of which he
Lis rash but affectionate rebuke of his Lord for had not yet become possessed, and which, conse
speaking of suffering and death as in prospect for quently, he was desirous of purchasing from Peter
him, and as forming a necessary part of his me (viii. 14-21); the vision by which he was taught
diatorial work (Matt. xvi. 21-23); of Ids conduct that the ancient ritual distinctions lietween clean
in first rejecting, with an earnestness bordering on and unclean had l>eeu abolished, and thereby pre-
horror, the offer of Christ to wash his feet, and pared to attend on the summons of Cornelius, to
then, when the symbolical nature of that act bad whom he preached the Gospel (x. 1-4S); his ap
been explained to him, his over-ardent zeal that prehension by Herod Agiippa, and his deliverance
not his feet only, but also his hands and his head, by the interposition of an angel, who opened for
might be washed (John xiii. -I, IT.); of his bold him the doors of his prison, and set bun free
and somewhat vaunting avowal of attachment to (xii. 3-19); and his address to the council at
his Master, and his determination never to forsake Jerusalem, on the occasion of a request for advice
him, followed by his disgraceful denial ofJesus in and direction being sent to the church there by
the hour of trial (John xiii. 36, 37 ; Mark xiv. the church in Antioch, in which he advocated the
29, \cj; of his deep and poignant contrition for exemption of Gentile converts from the ceremonial
this sin (Matt. xxvi. 75) ; and of his Lord's ample institutes of the law of Moses (xv. 6-11). In all
forgiveness of his offence, after he had received these incidents we trace the evidences of his mind
from him a profession of attachment as strong having undergone an entire change, both as to its
and as frequently repeated as his former denial of views of truth and impressions of duty, from what
him (John xxi. 15-18). From these notices it is is displayed by the earlier events of his history.
easy to gather a tolerably correct conception of the On one occasion only do we detect something of
predominating features of the apostle's character his former weakness, and that, strangely enough,
up to tiiis period. He seems to have been a man in regard to a matter in which he had been the
of undoub:ed piety, of ardent attachment to his first of the a[jostles to perceive, and the first to
Master, and of great zeal for what he deemed Ins recommend and follow, a correct course of pro
Master's honour; but, at the same time, with a cedure. The occasion referred to was his with
mind rather quick than accurate in its apprehen drawing, through dread of the censures of his
sions, and with feelings rather hasty in their im Jewish brethren, from the Gentiles at Antioch,
pulse than determined and continuous in their after having lived in free and friendly intercourse
exercise. Uence his readiness in avowing his with them, and his timidly dissembling his con
opinions, and his rashness in forming them ; and victions as to the religious equality of Jew and
hence also the tendency which beset his honest Gentile. For this Paul withstood him to the face,
openness to degenerate into bravado, and his de and rebuked him sharply, because of the injury
terminations of valour to evaporate into cowardice which his conduct was calculated to produce to
at appalling forms of danger. His fall, however, the cause of Christianity. With this single ex
and his subsequent restoration, connected as these ception, however, his conduct seems to have been
were with the mysterious events of his Master's in full accordance with the name which his
crucifixion and resurrection, and with the new Master had prophetically bestowed on him when
light which had by ihern been cast around his he called him Simon the Rock, and with the
character and work, produced a powerful change position which Paul himself assigns to him, at
for the better upon the apostles mind. From this the very time that he recounts his temporary
504 PETER.
dereliction, as one of 'the Pillars of the Church* Antiq. xv. 2. 2; see also c. 3. 1), and to which,
(Gal. ii. 9, 14). consequently, it is probable that at some period
Thus far we are enabled, from the inspired do of his life * the apostle of the circumcision' (Gal.
cuments, to trace the history of this apostle ; but ii. 8) must have paid a visit. Some have sug
for what remains we must be indebted to evidence gested that Babylon in Egypt is probably in
of a less explicit and certain character. Eccle tended ; but this is set aside by the fact, that at
siastical tradition asserts that he performed an this time the Egyptian Babylon was nothing
extensive missionary tour throughout those dis more than a Homau fort (Strabo, xvu. 1).
tricts, to the converts in which his epistles are The assertion that Peter was bishop of Rome
addressed. ' Peter,' says Origen, ' appears to have is connected with another, by which the claims of
preached to the Jews in the dispersion, in Pnutus, the papacy are sought to t>e established, namely,
Galatia, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Asia* (In that to him was conceded a right of supremacy
Genesin, torn. iii. ; Euseb. Hist. Eccles. iii. 1,4). over the other apostles. In support of this, an
This tradition, however, though deriving some appeal is made to tliose passages in the Gospels,
countenance frgm I Pet. v. 13, is very uncer where declarations supposed to imply the bestowal
tain ; even Origen, in adducing it, speaks doubt- of peculiar honour and distinction on Peter are
ingly (KCK7}pvx*vcu (qik*v). The fact that no recorded as having leen addressed to him by our
allusion appears in his epistles to any personal Lord. The most important of these are : *Thou
acquaintance on the part of the apostle with those art Peter, and on this rock will I build my church*
to whom they are addressed, militates strongly (Matt. xvi. 18); and, 'Unto thee will 1 give the
against its authenticity. Another tradition re keys of the kingdom of heaven,' &c. (Matt. xvi.
ports the apostle as having towards the close of 19). At first sight these passages would seem to
his life visited Rome, become bishop of the bear out the assumption founded on them ; but,
church in that city, and sulTered martyrdom in upon a more careful investigation, it will tie seen
the persecution raised against the Christians by that this is rather in appearance than in reality.
Nero. The importance of these points in con The force of both is greatly impaired for the pur
nection with the claims urged by the Catholics pose for which Catholics produce them, by the
on behalf of the supremacy of the pope, has led circumstance, that whatever of power or authority
to a careful .and sifting examination of the accu they may l>e supposed to confer upon Peter, must
racy of this tradition; the result of which seems be regarded as shared by him with the other
to be, that whilst it is admitted as certain that apostles, inasmuch as to them also are ascribed
Peter suffered martyrdom, in all probability by in other passages the same qualities and powers
crucifixion (Tertullian, De Prescript., 38; Lac- which are promised to Peter in those under con
tantius, De Mortibus Persecutonim, c. ii.), and sideration. If by the former of these passages we
as probable that this took place at Rome, it has, are to understand that the church is built upou
nevertheless, been made pretty clear that lie never Peter, the apostle Paul iuforms us that it is not
was for any length of time resident in that city, on him alone that it is built, but upon all the
and morally certain that he never was bishop of apostles (Ephes. ii. 20) ; and in the book of Reve
the church there (Barrow, On the Pope's Sxtpre- lation we are told, that on the twelve foundations
macy; Works, vii. 207, IT., Lond. 1831 ; Cave's of the New Jerusalem (the Christian church) are
Life of St. Pettr, J 11 ; Campbell, Eccles. Hist. inscribed 1 the names of the twelve apostles of the
lect. xii. ; Neander, Gesch. d. Pfianz. und Lcit* Lamb" (xxi. 14). As for the declaration in the
u.s. w.,ii. 474; Winer, Real- ]V'6rterb.y\n 'Petrus,' latter of these passages, it was in all its essential
&c). By some an attempt has been made to ob parts repeated by our Lord to the other disciples
tain the support of the apostle's own testimony in immediately before his passion, as announcing a
favour of his having at one period resided at Rome, privilege which, as his apostles, they were to pns>
by interpreting the words, * the church that is at seas in common (Matt, xviii. 18; John xx. 23).
Babylon, the salutations of which he sends to It is, moreover, uncertain in what sense our Lora
tliose to whom he wrote his first epistle, as apply used the language in question. In both cases hit
ing to the church at Home; an attempt which words are metaphorical ; and nothing can be more
Dr. Campbell justly stigmatises as ' poor, not to unsafe than to build a theological dogma upon
call it ridiculous/ Even if we admit that at the language of which the meaning is not clear, and
time when this epistle was written it was under to which, from the earliest ages, different inter
stood amongst the Christians that Babylon was pretations have been affixed. And, finally, even
the prophetical name for Homean admission, granting the correctness of that interpretation
however, which is entirely unsupported by evi which Catholics put upon these verses, it will not
denceit would remain unexplained why the bear out the conclusion they would deduce from
apostle, in such a mere matter-of-fact affair as them, inasmuch as the judicial supremacy of
the communication of the friendly salutations of Peter over the other apostles does not necessarily
one church to another, should have employed the follow from his possessing authority over the
obscure and symbolical language of prophecy, church. On the other side, it is certain that there
when his meaning could have been so much more is no instance on record of the apostle's having
distinctly conveyed by a simple statement. This ever claimed or exercised this supposed power ;
would be the more inexplicable, that the style but, on the contrary, lie is oftener than once repre
of Peter is remarkably plain and perspicuous sented as submitting to an exercise of power upon
throughout the entire epistle. It seems much the part of others, as when, for instance, he went
more consistent, therefore, with rational principles forth as a messenger from the apostles assembled
of interpretation, to understand the statement lite in Jerusalem to the Christians in Samaria (Acts
rally of the Assyrian Babylon, in which city, as viii. 14), and when he received a rebuke from
we learn from Josephus, there was a great multi Paul, as already noticed. This circumstance is
tude of Jews (Ml koI *\4fios %r 'IovJafwr, so fatal, indeed, to the pretensions which have
PETER, EPISTLES OF. PETER, EPISTLES OF. 005
bean urged in favour of his supremacy over the i. 8) ; and also hy Papias ; (Hist. Eccles. iii. 39).
other apostles, that from a very early age attempts * In fact,' says De Wette (Einlcitung, $ 1731 < if
have been made to set aside its force, by the we except its omission in the ancient catalogue
hypothesis that it is not of Peter the apostle, in Muratori, and its rejection by the Paulicians,
but of another person of the same name, that Paul it has been never called in question.' De Wette
speaks in the passage referred to (Euseb. Uist. himself, who never omits an opportunity of raising
Eccles. i. 13). This hypothesis, however, is so a doubt, contents himself with observing that 1 as
plainly contradicted by the words of Paul, who its contents are really apostolic, any doubts
explicitly ascribes apostleship to the Peter of arising from the absence of any known personal
whom he writes, that it is astonishing how it could relationship between the author and those to whom
have been admitted even by the most blinded the Epistle was addressed, or any ]>eculiarity of
tealot (vers. 8, 9). Whilst, however, it is pretty doctrinal phraseology, find no favour or recog
well established that Peter enjoyed iw judicial nition.' He adds tltat the second Epistle, even
supremacy over the other apostles, it would, per though not genuine, bears testimony (iii. 1) to the
haps, be going too far to affirm that no dignity or genuineness of the tirsf.
primacy whatsoever was conceded to him on the The internal evidence is equally complete.
part of his brethren. His superiority in point of The author calls himself the Apostle Peter (ch.
age, his distinguished personal excellence, his re i. I), and the whole character of the Epistle shows
putation and success as a teacher of Christianity, that it proceeds from a writer who possessed: great
and the prominent part which he had ever taken authority among those whom he addresses, who
in his Master's affairs, both before his death and were most probably composed chiefly of Jewish
after his ascension, furnished sufficient grounds Christians. The writer describes himself as 'an
for his l>eing raised to a position of respect and of elder,' and 'a witness of Christ's sufferings' (v.
moral influence in the church and amongst his 1). The vehemence and energy of the style are
brother apostles. To this some countenance is altogether appropriate to the warmth and zeal of
given hy the circumstances that he is called Hhe Peter's character, and every succeeding critic,
first' (vp&ros) by Matthew (x. 2), and this ap who has entered into its spirit, has felt impressed
parently not merely as a numerical, but as an with the truth of the observation of Erasmus,
honorary distinction ; that when the apostles are 'that this Epistle is full of apostolical dignity
mentioued as a body, it is frequently by the phrase, and authority, and worthy of the prince of the
1 Peter and the eleven/ or, 4 Peter and the rest of apostles.1
toe apostles.' or something similar ; and that when The only indication as to the place from whence
Paul went up to Jerusalem by divine revelation, this letter was addressed to the five provinces, is
it was to Peter particularly that the visit was paid. contained in ch. v. ver. 13: 'She in Babylou,
These circumstances, taken in connection with the elected with you (rj iv Ba&v\>vi arwtK\*KT-f}), sa-
prevalent voice of Christian antiquity, would seem luteth you.1 For whether ' she in Babylon' refers
to authorize the opinion that Peter occupied some to the church or to an individual (in which latter
such position as that of irpottrrws, or president in case Peter's wife is the person generally believed
the apostolical college, but without any power or to be referred to), the letter must have been
authority of a judicial kind over his brother written in, or at least in the neighbourhood of,
4>ostles (Campbell, Eccles. Hist, lect v. and xii. ; Babylon. But where Babylon was, or whether it
Barrow, ubi sup,, &c. ; Eichhom, Einleit. iii. was the celebrated city of that name on the
599; Hug, Inirod. p. 635, Fordick'str. ; Home, Euphrates, as has been maintained by Beza,
Introd., iv. 432 ; Lardner, Works, vols. iv. v. Lightfoot, Basnage, De Wette, Neander, and a
i, ed. 17S8; Cave, Antiquitates ApostoUece, host of learned men, is a question which has
Ac.).VV. L. A. never been, and probably never will be, decided.
PETEK, EPISTLES OF. Of the seven It has been maintained, as an objection to the
Catholic Epistles, there are two ascribed to St. supposition that Babylon on the Euphrates was
Peter. The first of these is one of the 6fio\o- meant, that there were no Jews residing there at
yovpcvcL, or those universally received in the early the date of this Epistle, inasmuch as they had all
church. The second ranks among the orrtAc- been ex]>elled from that city in the latter part of
y6utva, or controverted [Aktileoombna] . the reign of Caligula, with the exception of such
Genuineness of the First Epistle.The ex as were permitted to remain on account of con
ternal evidence in favour of the genuineness of nection, or other special reasons (Hug's Introduc
this Epistle is complete. * One Epistle of Peter,' tion) ; while those in Seleucia, or New Babylon,
ays Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. iii. 3), 1 called the were soon after massacred, or fled to Ctesiphou, on
tirst, is universally received;' and Origen had the other side of the river. Hug, who still main-
before this time observed, that * Peter . . . has tains that Babylon on the Euphrates is intended,
left one Epistle acknowledged to be his.1 It is conceives that the atfiofAtvoi* or 'pious,1 were the
cited by Irenaeus {Adv. Hcer. iv. 9, 2): 'Peter persons to whom the apostle*! injunctions were
says in his Epistle, In whom, though now ye see addressed, and who " ere numerous in the East.
him not, yet believing, ye rejoice with joy un There is certainly no authority from ecclesiastical
speakable and full of glory ' (i. 8. And again history for supposing that Peter was ever at Ba
be cites 1 Pet. ii. 16) ; also, by Clemens Alexan- bylou ; but this silence proves nothing, for there
driuus {Strom, t 31 : * Peter in the Epistle says,* are fourteen years of the apostle's life concerning
&c. ; and by Tertullian {Scarp, c. 12), 1 Peter says which we have no information. But this mention
to the inhabitants of Pontus' (comp. 1 Pet. ii. 20). of Babylon by St. Peter has led to the belief that
Dr. Lardner observes (Hist, Apost. c. ix.) that he may have paid a visit to the Partisans (De
' it seems to be referred to by Clement of Rome Wette, I. c), of which, however, there is no other
in his first Epistle.1 Eusebius notices its citation indication among the ancients.
by Polycarp (comp. Polycarp, c. i. with 1 Pet. Babylon in Egypt, near Memphis, has been coo
506 PETER, EPISTLES OF. PETER, EPISTLES OF.
jectured by Pearson, Le Clerc, and others, to have especially, I Pet. ii. 13, with 1 Tim. ii. 2-4; ii.
been the scene of Peter's labours; but neither for IS, with Eph. vi. 5; 1 Pet i. l,with Eph. i. 4-7;
this is there any evidence, and it seems to have i. 3, with Eph. i. 3 ; i. 14, with Rom. xii. 2; ii.
been a very insignificant place, for Strabo de 1, with Col. iii, 8, and Rom. xii. 1 ; ii. 6-10,
scribes it only as a frontier garrison, occupied by with Rom. ix. 32 ; ii. 13, with Rom. xiii. 1-4,
one of the Roman legions quarlered in Egypt. ii. 16, with Gal. v. 13; ii. 18, with Eph. vi. 5;
Although the ancient Syrian writers conceived iii. I, with Eph. v. 22; iii. 9, with Rom. xii. 17;
the Babylon mentioned by St. Peter to have been iv. 9, with Philipp, ii. 14 ; iv. 10, with Rom. xii.
a city in the East, the Greek and Latin lathers 6, \<\ ; v. 1, with Rom. viii. 18; v. 5, with
held the name of Babylon here to have been, as Eph. v. 21 ; v. 8, with 1 Thess. v. 6; v. 14, with
in the Apocalypse, a metonymy for Rome. This 1 Cor. xvi. 20). There is. observes Hug (Introd.),
was the prevailing opinion in the time of Eusebius, evidence of more than accidental relationship even
who observes (Hist. Eccles. ii. 15) that Peter ' is in the deviation of expression, in which, however,
said to have comjKised his first Epistle at Rome, there is no essential difference. The similarity
which he indicates in calling it figuratively Ba in thought and expression, and even in their very
bylon.' This opinion is related by Jerome (De plan (Hug, I. c), are indeed most striking, and
Vir. Jllustr. cap. viii.), (Ecumenius (ii. p. 256), this circumstance has been well accounted for by
and Bede (Expos. 1 Pet. v. 13). It has been, as the fact that Peter had not himself visited the
is observed by Lardner and Michaelis, received Asiatic provinces, and had, therefore, reference
by most meml>ers of the church of Rome, but to the Epistles of his esteemed colleague for the
certainly not, as Mr. Home supposes (Introd. vol. general condition of the inhabitants, their manner
ii. c. iv. $ 3), after Macknight (On the Epistles), of life, their virtues and their failings, and their
by all the learned of that communion ; for, among civil and domestic relations. There are also
other*, Erasmus (Comment.-), Uu Pin (Canon of some passages identical with those in the Epistle
Scripture), and Hug (Introd.), contend against of St. James (comp. 1 Pet. i. 6, 7, with James i.
Rome ill favour of Babylon in Mesojjotamia. 2, 3 ; i. 24, with James i. 10 ; ii. 1, with James
That Rome was meant has been maintained also i. 21 ; iv. 8, with James v. 20; and v. 5, with
by Cirotins, Whitby, Macknight, and Lardner. James iv. 6), This latter passage is, indeed,
Perha)is the strongest objection to this hypothesis a citation from Prov. iii. 34 ; but the iden
urises from the consideration that the use of a tity of the conclusions drawn by each renders it
mystical name is unsuited to the character of an improbable that here was a merely accidental
epistolary writing, although adapted to the sym coincidence. It is also remarkable that in I Pet.
bolical and poetical style of the aiwcalyjise. It iv. 8, and James v. 20, there occurs (in each) the
is, however, certain that arcana nomina were same citation from Prov. x. 12. These resem
sometimes used by the early Christians. Louis blances, however, involve important cousequences.
Capell favours the idea of a mystical name, but If the Epistle of James was the first in order of
he stands alone in considering Jerusalem to be time [James], its right to a place in the canon
the place indicated. It may be added that there is providentially confirmed by the high and un
is independent authority for believing that Peter exceptionable authority of St. Peter.
was at Rome, but none that he was ever either in Object and Contents of Peter's First Epistle.
Assyria or Egypt. To afford consolation to the persecuted appea/s
Age of the Epistle.The Epistle must have been to have been the main object of this Epistle. To
written before a.d. 67-68, the year of St. Peter's this the moral instructions are subsidiary (Hug's
martyrdom. Lardner places the date in a.d. 63 or Introd.). The exhortations to a pure conscience,
64, chiefly from the fact that an earlier date than to rebut the calumnies of the time by their inno
a.d. 63 cannot be assigned for his arrival at Rome. cence, to abstain from violent disputes, to pay
Hug and I)e Wette (Introductions), and Neander respect to the existing authorities, to exercise in
(Hist, of the Planting of the Christian Church), creasing love and fidelity, were exhortations all
rind an indication of the true date in the Neronic given with a view to alleviate their fate, or enable
persecution, to which the Epistle manifestly re them to bear it. The repeated references to the
fers. The Christians were now suffering perse example of Jesus in his death and sufferings, are
cutions as Christians, and according to the designed to strengthen them for the endurance of
popular belief, of which Tacitus informs us Nero calamities. The exhortation to the slaves, too,
took advantage, they were punished as evildoers has reference to the unhappy days, in which, for
(malcjici, Tacitus ; Kaxoirotol, 1 Pet. ii. 12). real or imaginary wrongs and hardships, they
Hug fixes the date in the eleventh year of Nero's frequently became the accusers and betrayers of
reign, or a.d. 65, a year after the conflagration of their masters. The following is a summary of
the city, and live before the destruction of Jeru the contents :
salem. Lardner supposes that Peter's first Epistle The salutation and introduction, in which
could not have been written from Rome belore the inhabitants of the five provinces who were
the death of St. Paul, a.d. 66, as it is difficult to purchased by the sufferings of Christ, are exhorted
account for St. Pauls silence respecting him if to prepare themselves for a reward higher than the
Peter was at Rome at the date of any of his enjoyments of this fleeting life (i,l-13). They are,
epistles from that city. Others, however, as therefore, recommended to lay aside anything
Bishop Sherlock, consider that the first Epistle which could render them unworthy of Christ, the
was written about a.d. 60. It is at the same centre of their hopes, their pattern and their
time certain that Peter had read several of St. Saviour, and so to regulate then- conduct to their
Paul's Epistles, as he adopts expressions, and superiors that none should be able to reproach
sometimes whole phrases, from the Epistles to the them as * evildoers.1 These precepts were to ex
Romans, Ephesians, Colossians, Galatians, Thes- tend to slaves, to whom the meek and suffering
, 1 Corinthians, and 1 Timothy (comp. Jesus should be an example. Women, too, wen
PETER, EPISTLES OF. PETER, EPISTLES OF. 507
to render their submissive noiseless virtue their the allusion here is to Ps. xc. 4. Eusebius observes
efaiefest ornament and men should cherish and (Hist. Eccles. vi. 14) that 'Clement of Alex
honour them. All should be full of sympathy andria (a.d. 192-217) wrote, in his 'T*OToirtrcij
and love, and mutual indulgence. Their inno ('Adumbrations ' commentaries on the canonical
cence should be so marked as to shame the epistles, and also on the antilegomena, that is,
calumniator, and they should make preparation Jude and the other Catholic epistles, together
for the approaching catastrophe, when they should with that of Bamabas, and the so-called Revela
hare an opportunity of imitating Jesus in their tion of Peter.' Cassiodorus, however, who pub
sufferings : hoping for them all to have no other lished a Latin translation of the Adumbrations
reproach than that of being his disciples. The (De Instit. div. leg. c. 8), Beems to confine the
presbyters are enjoined to watch over their flocks, explications of Clement to 1 Peter, 1 and 2 John,
ami the subordinate to pay them respect, and. all and James.
should be on the watch, and lay aside their Although we do not know by whom the col
worldly cares. All these exhortations are enforced lection of Catholic Epistles, as distinct from the
by the example of Christ, and by the punishment Pauline, was made, yet there can be no reason
of the disobedient in the days of Noah, those spirits able doubt that such collection, including all the
in prison to whom Christ went and preached (iii. Antilegomena, existed before the close of the
19, 20). second century. It was well known in the time
of Origen, and is referred to by Eusebius as gene
The Second Epistle op St. Pxtek [Anti- rally received in his time (Hist. Eccles. ii. 23), for
lkoombna] has been the subject of more discus- he expressly calls St. James's ' the first of the seven
lion than any other book in the New Testament, Catholic epistles.' Eusebius at the same time
and its genuineness has been contested by not a few informs us of the doubts which had been raised
of the ablest critics. Our space will not allow before his time in regard to our epistle :' That
as to notice in detail all the objections which called the Second Epistle of Peter, as we have
have been raised against it, but it will be our been informed, has not been received as a part of
duty to state the most important. Its genuine the New Testament. Nevertheless, appearing to
ness, the date of its composition, and its cha many to be useful, it has been carefully studied
racteristics, are so intimately connected, that we with the other Scriptures ' (Hist. Eccles. iii. 3).
hall pursue a different method in treating of this The next writers who refer to the doubts respect
Epistle from that which we have adopted in regard ing our epistle, are Didymus, the blind teacher
to other books. of Alexandria, in the fourth century, and his
The author of the first epistle refers (1 Pet. v. pupil St Jerome. The former acquaints us
12) to a former letter, now no longer extant, which (Comment.) that ' it should not be concealed
has been generally concluded to be a private com that the present epistle was considered spurious
munication, as the present is expressly called the (falsatam esse), and that although published, it
Second Epistle (2 Pet. iii. 1). The first writer was trot in the Canon.' And Jerome observes
who has expressly named it is Origen (Homily (De vir. illustr.), that ' Peter wrote two epistles
on Joshua), who speaks of the tteo Epistles of called Catholic, the second of which had been
Peter. He also cites the second epistle in his denied by many (or most plerique) to be his,
fourth homily on Leviticus, ' Petrus dicit, con- because of the difference of style.' And again,
sortes, inquit, facti estis divina naturte ' (2 Pet. ' Paul had for his interpreter Titus, and Peter
i. 4), and gives it the name of Scripture ('as the had Mark, .... the two epistles attributed to
Scripture says in a certain place, the dumb ass, Peter differ in both style and character, and the
replying with a human voice, reproved the mad structure of their language ; from which we must
ness of the Prophet,' alluding to 2 Pet ii. 16 ; of necessity suppose that he made use of two dif
Opp. ii. p. 321). At the same time he observes ferent interpreters.' It may be here observed that
(ap. Euseb. vi. 25) that ' Peter has left one acknow the Fathers supposed that such of the sacred
ledged Epistle, and perhaps a second, for this is writers as did not understand Greek (among
contested.' Firmilian, Bishop of Cappadocio, also whom they reckoned St. Peter) dictated in their
(Ep. ad Cyprian.) speaks of Peter's epistles hi a native language to an amanuensis, who wrote
passage referring evidently to the second. Earlier down in Greek what they had uttered in Hebrew.
allusions have been supposed to exist in the Shep Silas, or Silvanus, has been conjectured to have
herd of Hermas ( Vision iii. 7), 1 reliquerunt viam acted in this capacity to St Peter in the writing
mam veram' (2 Pet. ii. 15), and Vision iv. 3, ' ef- of his first epistle (1 Pet. v. 2). Finally, St.
fugistis KBCulum hoc' (2 Pet. ii. 20). Clemens Gregory the Great observes, towards the close
Romanus has also l>ecn thought by some to have of the sixth century, that there were some who
referred to this epistle, in the passages, 1 saved asserted that 'Peter's second epistle, in which
Noah, the eighth preacher of righteousness' (see Paul's epistles were commended, was not his.'
2 Pet. ii. 6), and ' by hospitality and piety Lot was ' Before the fourth century,' olwerves the Roman
delivered from Sodom, when the whole region was Catholic Professor Hug, ' Christian writers with
destroyed by fire and brimstone, the Lord thereby perfect freedom advocated or denied the autho
making it manifest that he does not forsake those rity of certain writings of the New Testament
who trust in him, but those that turn aside be according as their judgment dictated.' We find,
appoints to punishment and torment' (2 Pet. ii. however, that before the close of the fourth cen
6, 7, 9). tury the doubts had subsided, and this epistle
Irenams (a. a. 178) is supposed by some to was received as genuine by St. Athanasius, St.
allude to 2 Pet iii. 8, 'The day of the Lord is Cyril, St. Epiphanius, St. Jerome, and St Au
as a thousand years ;' as is also Justin Martyr, gustine, and by Rufinus. Gregory Nazianien
who cites the same passage in an earlier part of alone considers it doubtful whether three or seven
the same century. But others have supposed that Catholic epistles ought to be used. The only
508 PETER, EPISTLES OF. PETER, EPISTLES OF.
dissentient voices, after this period, were pro the Church) asserts that the readers appear to have
bably Tlieodore of Mopsuestia, and Cosmas In- been personally instructed by the apostle, which
dicoplenstes [Antii.kgomena I, the latter on implies a relationship in which the author did nut
dogmatical rather than critical grounds, as the stand to tiie readers of the first epistle. He refers
destruction of the world by fire clashed with his to his approaching death (i. 14). The main object
opinions. It is enumerated in the canon of Lao- is the refutation of erroneous teachers. He, there
dicea (a.d. 360 ?), and in the 85th apostolical ca fore, as an eye-witness of the acting and teaching
non, and was finally adopted by the councils of of Jesus, is enabled to give them more accurate
Hippo and Carthage, which included among the instruction than those who would mislead them.
canonical books all those which are now com He exhorts them to advance in the knowledge and
monly received, making no distinction, however, doctrine of Jesus, by adding to their faitli forti
between the acknowledged and controverted books tude (ofwr^i'), and every otiier excellent quality.
of the New Testament, or between the canonical He denounces (cli. ii.) punishment against false
and deuterocanonical of the Old. teachers, by examples drawn from the disobedient
Although before this period certain books were angels, die wurld before the flood, and Sodom and
rejected from the defect of historical evidence, or Gomorrah. He inveighs against those teachers
from internal grounds of suspicion, an undev:- for resigning themselves to impurity, and S|>eak-
ating uniformity now took place, and no contro ing evil of God and angels, whereas angels have
versy was raised resiiectiug any of the books of not ventured to do this even of Satan. He com
the New Testament until the inquiring age which pares them to the false prophet Balaam, and to
ushered in the Reformation. We now find Eras clouds filled with wind. He rebukes those
mus denying the genuineness of our epistle. Al mockers who doubted of the coming of Christ,
though Luther does not appear to have hail any whicli was only delayed in mercy, but predicts
doubts of its genuineness, he revived the ancient the dissolution of the world by fire, and warns
distinction in regard to the books both of the Old them to keep themselves in readiness for the new
and New Testament,separating the apocryphal heavens and the new earth.
books of the Old Testament from the canonical, We have already seen that the main reasons
and in the enumeration of the books leaving the which induced many of the ancients to reject this
antilegomena of the New without any numbers epistle arose from the diflerence in style and
attached to them ; and in the Luneriberg edition of structure between the first and second epistle.
Luther's Bible, published in 1614 (68 years after The ancients have, however, not entered into
Luther's death), these books are headed by the detail in the examination of this subject, a task
words, ' Apocrypha of the New Testament ' [An- which has been left to their more critical suc
tii.bqokbna]. Our epistle was called in question cessors. It is said, for instance, to lie distin
by Calvin (Comm. in Ep. Caih.), who observes, guished by a different tisus loquendi, as by the
that 'notwithstanding some affinity in style, the word currip, frequently applied to our Lord ;
discrepancies between it and the former are such -rrapovaia. day of the Lord, or of judgment : and
as to indicate that they had not the same author/ instead of ' revelation,' knowledge (yrd<Tts and
It was, however, received by all the Reformed tiriyi/titm) is said to be enforced with peculiar
Confessions, as well as by the Council of Trent. prominence. The Christian religion is called ' the
It has been since that period rejected by Grotius way of truth, and of righteousness' (ii. 2, 21).
(Annot), Scaliger (Scaligeriana, ii. p. 22), Sal- It contains a surprising multitude of fiiraf Aeya-
masius (De Epise. p. 145), Semler (Pnrrf.), tiiva, instead of the very few found in the first
Eichhora (Einleit.), Schmidt (Einleit.), Walker epistle. A remarkable diflerence has been ob
(Clavis), Schott (Isag.). Guericke (Beilrage, p. served in resjiect to the appellations of our Sa
176, note), Credner (Einleit.), De Wette (Ein viour, who is in the first epistle generally called
leit.), Ullmann, to some extent (Der 2 Brief Pet.), simply Christ or Jesus Christ ; but the word
and Neander (Ht<. ofthe Planting, ejc.). Among Kvpios, which in the first epistle often occurs, and
its numerous defenders it will be sufficient to men is always applied (with one exception only, i. 3)
tion the names of Michaelis (Marsh's trausl-, vol. to God the Father, is applied in the second in
vi.), Lardner (i.e.) Pott (Proleg.), Augusti (i'n- almost every place to Christ. Its application in
leit.), Flatt (ProgrX Dahl (Dissert.), Bertholdt all other passages in the first epistle is confined
(Einleit. vol. vi.), who, however, rejects the second also to citations from the Old Testament, except
chapter ; Nietiche (Dissert.) and Olshausen ill ii. 13, where the Vulgate reads Deum. It
(Opusc. Academ.), with the learned Roman is peculiar to the first epistle to subjoin to the
Catholics Hug (Introd.) and Feilmoser : the latter, terms God, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit,
however, fluctuates in his opinion (Einleit. p. 527). epitbeU designed to exalt the glory of the divi
Before proceeding to consider the grounds for nity. The second epistle has no quotations from
and against the rejection of this epistle, it may be the Old Testament,in whicli the first abounds,
useful to inquire into its internal structure and and is remarkable for clothing its sentiments in
contents. the language of the Old Testament- I)e Wette
The writer designates himself here as the apostle furnishes as instances of repetition, indicating a
Peter (Simon, or, according to some MSS., Symeon carelessness of style in the author of the second
Peter, 2 Pet. i. 1 ; comp. Acts xv. 14 ; John's epistle, 2 Pet. i. 3, 4, where occur StSuprifitros,
Gospel, passim) more clearly than in the first and ttSapTrrat, and tick is several times repeated ;
epistle ; as personally known to Jesus (i. 14) ; as 2 Pet. ii, 1-3, in which dnuKtla occurs three
a beloved brother of Paul (iii. 15) ; and as the au times ; 2 Pet. ii. 7, 8, in which Stacuos occurs as
thor of the first epistle (iii. 1). It is addressed to many times; and 2 Pet. iii. 12-14, in whicli
the same persons with the first, whom he presup there is a similar repetition of rtpoot&Ktiv. The
poses to be acquainted with the writings of St. Paul first epistle is also said to be remarkable for a
(iii. 15 ; comp. Rom. ii. 4). Neander (Planting of frequent and peculiar use of the particle is, of
PETER, EPISTLES OF. PETER, EPISTLES OF. 509
which the second furnishes but one example (i. words are nearly the same .... and allegetb
19). Olshausen adds, that in the second epistle stories which have no place in Scripture' [Enoch ;
the subjects proceed in regular order, and uninter Jude] ; see also Edinburgh Review, Oct. 1*34,
ruptedly, while the first is remarkable for detached and the extract from it in Mr. Ward's Ideal of a
and independent sentences (see 1 Pet. i. 3-12). Christian Church, 1814, p. 175, where Luther is
But in compensation for these differences, the reproached for maintaining this opinion. It was,
resemblances are remarkably striking. One of however, adopted by Mill (Proleg.), Michaelis
the most obvious of these is the reference in both (Introd.), Storr (Opuse.), Haenlein (EinUit.\
to the deluge, and the number of persons saved, Dahl {l>e avQtvrla. Ep. Petr. poster, et Jud.),
the first epistle mentioning eight persons (I Pet. Wetstein (Test. Nov.), and among the Roman
iii. 20), and the second sneaking of Noah the Catholics by Du Pin and Calmet. One set of
eighth, Sy&oov Nwf o'tKatoavvri y K-fjpvxa (2 Pet. critics have supposed that one of the writers of
li. 5). Some, however, here connect Noah with these epistles had intended to illustrate at large
the following words, viz., Noah, the eighth what the other had briefly stated ; others, tliat one
preacher of righteousness, comparing it with the sought to abridge what the other had stated dif
parallel p-issage in Jmle, * Enoch, the seveuth from fusely. The former of these views is maintained
Adam,* the Jews having various ways of enume hy Hug and Olshausen. The latter writer founds
rating the good men who lived before Abraham his view on the tact that Peter does not give the
fUlImauiL, Der nceite Brief P.). minute statements found in Jude, especially in
There are some words used in a peculiar regard to the history of angels; in which pat-
sense hy the author of each epistle, as dir6$*ffts sages Jude alone goes into details, while Peter
(1 Pet. iii. 21 ; 2 Pet. i. 14) ; dprrj (1 Pet. ii. advances a general historical fart,which he con
0: 2 Pet. i. 3); awurT^fffla* (1 Pet. i. 17); ceives to be characteristic of a later composition.
avatrrptxp^ 0 1>et- >3; ii. 12; iii. 1, 17); Dr. Sherlock, bishop of London, adopted a
duwftos and dtnrt\os (1 Pet. i. 19; 2 Pet. ii. middle course. Perceiving that the argument
13); voptvtaBat (1 Pet. iv. 3 ; 2 Pet. ii. 10; from the style affected only the second chapter,
iii. V); ivtevfita (1 Pet. i. U; 2 Pet. ii. 10; which 'abounds in jHimpous words and expres
iii. 3); 6 caAfVox (1 Pet. i. 15; ii. 9, 21); sions,' and that the style of this chapter differed
and Wo* (I Pet. iii. 1, 5 ; 2 Pet. i. 20 ; ii. 16, as much from the rest of the second epistle as it
22; iii. 16). Some critics have, indeed, vindi does from the first, he conceived that neither
cated the genuineness of the enislle principally writer borrowed from the other, but that each
on the ground of resemblance in both sentiment made use of a common document. The expla
and diction. Of these it will lie sufficient for our nation of St. Jerome, that Peter used two different
MnrpoM to refer to Hug and Michaelis. The interpreters, the bishop entirely rejects, as, if this
former of ihese observes that the resemblance were the case, the difference of style would have
l>etween the two is 'so thorough as to denote an appeared in the whole epistle, and not in the
identity of authorship ' (Fosdick's transl.) ; and second chapter only. The bishop conceives that
Michaelis had before this asserted (/. c. ) that t lie notwithstanding the remarkable resemblance be
agreement )>etween them appeared to him to be tween both, there is sufficient variation to prove
ucb, ' tliat if the second was not written by St. Pe that tlie one was not a mere transcrilwr of the other's
ter, the person who forged it not only possessed the thoughts or language. ' St. Peter has an instance
(tower of imitation in a very unusual degree, but not to be found in Jude ; and St. Jude tins an in
understood likewise the design of the first epistle, stance not to Ite found in Peter : St Jude quotes
with which the ancients do not appear to have the prophecy of Hunch, of which St. Peter says no
lcen acquainted.' The principal difference of thing ; St. Peter refers to the preaching of Noah, of
style, however, is found in the second chapter, the which St. Jude says nothing, ultliough both relate
character of which is totally unlike anything to one and (he same thing, the destruction of the
contained in the first epistle. The resemblance, old world.' The circumstance, that each quotes
indeed, between this chapter and the short epistle from a common Hebrew document will, in his
of St. Jude is so striking, that it has been at all lordship's judgment, account not only for the
times perceived that one must have at least read, difference in style bttweru Peter's two epistles,
if not copied from the other. but for that which exisfs between the second
All those theologians who have disputed the chapter and the first and third of Peter's second
fptmitwnets of Peter's second epistle, have main epistle. The bishop at the same time admits
tained that its writer adopted the sentiments and that there are some instances of agreement which
language ofJude. and this opinion is favoured even cannot potfibly be drawn from uny Jewish book
by many of the modern advocates of its genuine (as 2 Pet. ii. 1-13. comp. with Jude 4-12; and
ness, including Olshausen and Hug. But which of 2 Pet. iii. 2, 3, with Jude 17, 18). He therefore
the two wrote first is, notwithstanding, a question supposes that Jude hud both the Second Epistle
impossible to decide. * St. Jude's Epistle is so of Peter and the old Jewish book before him.
like the second chapter of St. Peter's Second Herder supposes litis lot! book to have been the
KpUtle,' says Bishop Sherlttck, * the figures and Zendaretta of Zoroaster. The strongest objection
images in tx)th are so much the same, . . . . to Bishop Slierlock's ingenious conjecture will I*
tliat it has Iteen commonly thought that St. Jude found in the fact that the resemblance to the
copied after St. Peter's Epistle." This was the more qiistle of St. Jude is not confined to the second
generally received opinion, and was held among chapter of Peter's Second Epistle, but will 1*
the ancients by (Ecumenius (ii. p. 633), and found equally striking in the third chapter,
maintained at the time of the Reformation by amounting, in tlte originals, although not in the
Luther, who observes, in his Preface, that ' no one English authorized version, nearly to identity of
can deny that Jude's Epistle is an extract or expression (comp. 2 Pet. iii. 2, 3, p.v-q<jdr}vai rmv
copy from St. Peter's Second Epistle, as the very vpotipTjpttvotv frrjfidruy inch roiv ay'twv irpo^risV,
fr.O PETER, EPISTLES OF. PETER, EPISTLES OF.
teal ttjs Ttxv dvoa-TuKw yjfxoiu 4vto\t}$ tov KVplov same writer, ana further maintains that thete
(cai (rT^po^ touto trpwroy yiyxxTKOvrcs, ort 4\fv- is no coherence between the first chapter and tLe
Vorrax 4tc* sV%arssS' twc rjfitfiHv iv i uiraiyu"fri remaining portions of the epistle. But it has
tfiirdtKTcn Kara Tax iSi'ay ^iriOu^itas avruvy &c, been shown that tltis incoherence exists only in
with Jude 17, IS, ppfgrffrt twc jtT\fjJ.Ta>v Tu>r the fancy of the learned German, as the first
wpotipHutytav Orb t&v dirotnoKw tov KVplov chapter (-1, 16, 17) is but a preface lo the re
rjfiwv 'It)o~ov XpitrroC, 8ti tktyov ufiiv '6rt tic io~- futation of erroneous opinions in tbe second
X<krov xp6vov ikeixrovTou ifj.TrcuK.Tcu KaT& ris II. i Jntrod . and, further, from a comparison
tairrwv ixtfJvfi'tas. &c. A late eminent critic, of the first with the third chapter, that there are
perceiving that the opponents of the epistle were sufficient resemblances of expression to show that
induced by this resemblance of the second the whole epistle bad an identical origin (Olsliau-
epistle to St. Jude In deny its genuineness, main sen, De Integritate et authent. post. Pet. ep.).
tained that this resemblance was accidental, and But although neither these resemblances be
has endeavoured to show that the second chapter tween the Epistles of Peter ami Jude, nor the
is an interpolation, and that without it there is a difference in style between the First and Second
closer connection between the first and third Epistles of St. Peter, are of themselves sufficient
chapters (Bertholdt, Kinhitung in die Schriften to destroy the geuuinene>s of St. Peter s epistle,
des A. und N. Test.). But it ha* I teen satisfac yet they would doubtless have some weight in
torily shown in reply, that though the second affecting it, if supported by other internal marks
chapter tias no necessary connection with either of spuriuusness. We shall therefore now consider
the first or third, yeL there are references in whether such marks actually exist, and shall
the third chapter to matteis propounded in the mention the principal indications which have
second. Bertholdt conceives that the argument bad weight in the minds of some learned men
against the epistle, founded on the difference of against the authority of our epistle. In the first
style, is met by adopting his view, us the (irst place, anachronisms have been pretended to be
and third chapters agree in style with the first discovered which remove the epistle from the
epistle. Olshausen maintain*, in reply to this, ajtostolic age ami place it in tbe second century.
tltat the circumstance of Peter's having appro The lirst who imagined that he discovered uu
priated a great part of Judes epistle, will of itself indication of this nature was the illustrious Gro-
account for the difference of style in the second tius, who, conceiving that the errors of the Car-
chapter ; and that there is no discrepancy between pocratiaus, a sect which originated in the second
the style of the first and second epistles of Peter, centuiy, were those against which the second and
which is not common to every pari of the second third chapters were directed, ascribed tbe author
epistle, or strikingly peculiar to the first and third ship of Ihe epistle, not lo Simon oi Simeon Peter,
chapters. The hypothesis of Uerlhnldt, even if but lo Simeon, bishop of Jerusalem, i e success i
true, would not remove ihe difficulties, as many of St. James. Tins opinion, however, nhich
of the circumstances which have been supposed assumes upon mere conjecture that the name
to militate against the genuineness of the epistle Peter (i. 1), the words our beloved brother (iii.
ure found in the first, and still untie iit the third 15), and the loth, 17th, and 18th verses of the
chapter. It would be doing an unnecessary vio first chapter, were intcqtolated by those who
lence to our epistle, in direct up|K>sition to all wished to have the epistle pass for Peter's,
external testimony. has been long exploded (see esjtecially Nietzch,
Ullmann proceeded one step farther. 1 Not long Eput. Petri posterior auctori stto imprimis
since,' says Hug, * the Second Kpistle of Peter cont. Grotium vindicates, l^eips. 17M), arid Daft
met with an opponent, who menaced its dismem- hold, Einleitung. vol. vi. p. 310, mj.). Nietzch
tterment, und maintained bis right to do this has shown that the representation of the heretics
violence with learning and acuteiiess.' lie sepa descriltcd by Peter does not accord with the Car-
rates it into three distinct portions, which happen |>ocratiuns. It is as proltable that the Gnostics
to correspond with the present division into chap were the Jieretics aimed at, tbe seeds of whose
ters. The first chapter he ascribe* to Peter, and heresies were doubtless sown in the apostolic age.
considers it to be one of his epistles, the conclusion * This second Kpittle' fiii. 1), ill lite opinion of
if which was early lost. To this precious relic Grutins,refers to the (hiid chapter only, the two far
tome unknown person, to effect a well-meant mer chapters forming a distinct und previous leltei.
purjtose, has added the two next chap: era, for The doubts resped iug the coming of Chiist,
which the Kpistle of Jude afforded him mate expressed in 2 Pet. iii. 4, have ulso been cotim-
rials. The object of this writer, as well as of tlered as indicating a later age than (he ipattoHe,
Bertholdt, is to vindicate the genuineness of pait and it has been asserted by the opponents of (Ire
of the epistle, by rejecting those parte which are genuineness of our epistle, that sufficient lime
beset with greatest difficulties. bad not elajwed during St. Peter's lifetime for the
But while Ullmann. the divine alluded to application of the expression 'our fathers have
(Der ziccite Brief Pet. krit. unttrtncht, 1821), slept.' This passage is also one of those adduced
clearly shows that Bertholdt s hy|>othesis merely by Ullmann (/. c.) against the genuineness of ihe
lessens, without removing the difficulty, his own third chapter. Olshausen has replied to ibis ob
solution of the remaining objections, which con jection by maintaining that the scoffers nftrrM I
sists simply in cutting the knot, has not been such to were not believers hut gnostic heretics, who
as to satisfy any reasonable mind. He argues ridiculed the faith of true Christians in relation to
from a resemblance in style between St. Peter's the return of Christ.
first epistle, and the first chapter of the second, But a still more remarkable anachronism lias
and particularly from the use in each of certain Iteen pretended to be discovered in 2 Pet. iii. 15,
words in a peculiar sense, as dp*Ti$, curo'demr, 16, where Paul is said * in all hit epittles . ....
&c, that these portions emanated from tbe which the unlearned and unstable do wrest as they
PETER, EPISTLES OF. PETKR, EPXSTLES OF. 511
do the other Scriptures' (ras KoittIls ypafyds), &c, Acuity, and the sentence will stanu thus: 'the
thug both attributing a collection of the Pauline word spoken by the holy prophets and your
epistles to a period within the lifetime of their apostles, the commandment of the Lord and
author, and applying the term Scriptures, which Saviour.* This reading is also confirmed by the
is exclusively applied by the New Testament Vulgate, which has *et apostolorurn vestrorum,
writers totlic Scriptures of the Old Testament, to praeceptorum Domini et Salvatoris.' The Syriac
the Epistles of St. Paul. Now it is well known also reads, 'the commandment of our Lord and
that there was no collection of St. Paul's epistles Saviour, which through the apostles.'
completed before the second century, and that to On another alleged anachronism, brought for
no part of the New Testament was the term Sciip- ward by Neaudcr {Hist, of the Planting, Sfc,\
turcs applied until near its close [Sckiptuue, founded on the phrase * the holy mount' (2 Pet. i.
Holy]. In resnect to the former jKirt of this objec 18), we shall merely observe that this might with
tion, however, it has been well shown by Augusti as much force be adduced as an argument against
(Commcntar iiber die Cathol. Brief.) that Peter our epistle being a work of the second century.
does not here refer to all the epistles of St. Paul, hut An objection has been also taken from Peter's
that the word all is to be taken relatively, and re referring to the aqueous origin of the earth and
ferred to the more important epistles, which were its destruction by lire, which Ullmann and others
most probably widely diffused in the lifetime of consider mythical in their character. Rut so
the apostle. To the reasoning derived from the far from this being the case in regard to the origin
phrase 1 the other Scriptures,* wherein the word of the earth, it completely coincides with the
fcMJnfo with the article is Mid by TJUmann to indi Mosaic cosmogony ; ami as to the destruction of
cate things of a like nature, more than one reply the world by fire, although nowhere else alluded
has been given. It has been shown that things of to in the New Testament, it is not only intimated
a different nature are sometimes referred to by this by the prophets, but is in strict accordance with
phrase (comp. Luke xviii. 9 ; Acts v. 13; Ephcs.ii. the physiological conclusions of the science of
3; and iv. 17, if the reading be correct). Another modem geology. If Wetsteins interpretation be
interpretation of the words has therefore been pro well founded, and if the writer made use of these
posed, viz., that the word ' scriptures ' here has no strong figures to indicate the Roman war, and the
reference to the sacred writings, but to books in destruction of the Jewish state and city, instead of
general, or such writings as were used by the parties forming an objection, they will furnish an addi
referred to. Olshausen, however, has given an in tional and powerful argument in favour of the
terpretation, by which he conceives the serious diffi early date, and consequently of the genuineness
culties by which this passage is beset may be wholly of our epistle.
removed. He supposes that the words, * in which It is fully conceded that there is no other book
are some things hard to be understood,' relate to in the New Testament against whose authority so
the epistles which Paul had sent to the readers of many arguments can be adduced as against this
Peter's epistle, and that the ot/icr scriptures are epistle. One of the most impartial as well as
the otlier epistles of St. Paul, just before named, ablest critics of modern times, alter weighing
Traurai tsiffToXcd (all his epistles). This expla them all, (tomes to the conclusion that neither its
nation seems much more satisfactory than that genuineness nor its spmiousness can be demon
of Storr (De Cath. Epist. Occas. ct Cousil.), strated by undoubted arguments; but, while he
who conceives that ' other scriptures* mean other admits that unfriendly critics will see occasion
jnissaycs in the same epistles of St. Paul, as for doubt, yet, relying oir subjective grounds, he
ypwfr^ signifies a passage in Mark xv. 28, Luke is persuaded of the authenticity of the epistle,
iv. 21, where, however, it means a particular pas and that the arguments which go to disprove
sage, but not any passage indiscriminately. its genuineness are not of sufficient weight to
An objection of quite a different character lias establish its spuriousuets, or cause it to be
been derived from 2 Pet. iii. 2, already referred * stricken from the number of inspired books.'
to; in our English Version, ' the commandment This is in accordance with the decision which
of us the apostles of the Lord.1 But the order he lias formed of the sacred hooks, and whiv-h
of the words in our Greek copies will not bear consists ( 1 ) of those whose genuineness and author
this rendering: to answer our Version, we must ship ran he determined ; (2) of those whose spuri-
read ypuev twv 1AiroarSXwv. These words, there uusness can be shown, of which there are none ;
fore, * our apostles,* as the words must l>e (3) of those whose author is uncertain, but whose
translated, would seem to separate the writers authenticity is clear, viz., Hebrews, James, 2 and 3
from the apostles. Bishop Sherlock proteoses that John, and Jude ; and (4), those whose authenticity
the sentence be transposed, and that the word or Bpuriousness cannot 1m positively ascertained.
Tlfwy be placed after nvptov, as in the jtarallel These are, in his estimation, 1 and 2 Timothy,
jassage in Jude 17, when the whole sentence Titus, and 2 Peter. To these he adds the Apo
would run thus, ol tt}s tojc AwocriXuv lyroKys calypse, as being a work of a peculiar kind, but
toD Kvp'tou i-txwv koI (Turripos, * 1 1le command of whose genuineness he entertains no doubt
ment of the apostles of our Lord and Saviour;' (Olshausen, ut supra).
a reading supported by the jEthiopic, and which The authorship of other portions of the sacred
Olshausen also favours, observing that 1 there are writings may indeed I>e rendered uncertain, without
as many genitives as there are words, and throwing any doubts on their right to a place in the
these not following each other in proper order.' canon, as in the instance of the Epistle to the He
But there is no necessity for having recourse to brews. No one contests the right of ihe Epistles o*"
conjecture, if we adopt the reading of the Alex Jude or of James to their present position in the
andrine, the Vatican, the Ephrem, and other canon, although it is uncertain whether their au
manuscripts, which instead of vutiv have vpwv. thors were the apostles of those names or the bre
According to this reading there is no further dif- thren of our Lord. But it is fi* otherwise with the
612 PETKA. PHARISEES.
Epistle of St. Peter. As Calvin has observed, there is mention in the Old Testament of a
* If it is to be received as canonical, Peter must stronghold which successively belonged to the
have l>een its author ; for any other one to Amorites (Judg. i. 36), the Edomites (2 Kings
have personated the apostle would have been a xiv. 7) and the Moahttes (Isa. xvi. 1, comp. in
deception unworthy the Christian name.' It has Heli. ch. xlii. 11), and bore in Hebrew the name
)>een indeed maintained that some well-meaning of y^D Selah, which has the same meaning as
individual may have jrersonated Peter, either to
intimate that a reconciliation had taken place Petra in Greek, viz., 'a rock,' that circumstance
between him and St. Paul, to strengthen the has led to the conjecture that the Petra of the
minds of the Gentiles who doubted the coming Nabathseans had been the Selah of Kdom. Hut
of Christ, or the more easily to gain advantage the consideration of that point in a work of this
over the heretics. But although it may be true nature falls more naturally under the Bible bead
that some writers have through modesty (see of Ski.aii, to which article accordingly the
Lee's / dissertation upon 2 Esdras ; Laurence's reader is referred; and there likewise the question
Ascensio Vatis Isaur, p. 178; and the Rev. W. will l>e disposed of as to whether (on the suppo
MascaH's Preface to the Ancient Liturgy of t/ie sition of Petra being the Selah of Scripture) its
Church of England, 1841) used another's name site is to l>e identified with that of the modern
and prefixed it to their work, we are convinced, Kerek, or with the locality of the far-famed Wady
with OUhausen, from the internal structure of our Mi/SU [AllAIllA ; h.i m i '. ; NH3AI0TH] N.M.
epistle, that it would not have been jM>uihle to ' PHARAOH (n'yiB, Sept. *opo<i), the ge
have found a pious man the bold and unblushing neral title of the kings of Kgypt in the Old
inventor of a literary artifice so manifest as the Testament, and found only there and in the
author in question must have been it* lie had dis- writers who have drawn from that source. Jt
houesth assumed the character of Peter. We often stands simply like a proper name (Gen. xii.
must tli > I>ear in mind how cautious ami discri- 15 ; xxxvii. 36 ; xl. 2, sq. ; xliv. 1, sq. ; and so
minatiii; were the Fathers of the Church, who generally throughout the Pentateuch, and also in
tirst ad tutled this book into the canon. Nor Cant. i. 9; Isa. xix. 11; xxx. 2). 4 King of
were ton strangers to the application of the Kgypt' is wmetimes subjoined to it (I Kings
higher criticism, while they had op|>ortunities of iii. 1; 2 Kings xvii. 7; xviii. 21); and some
adducing external evidence, which is not within times also the more specific designation, or real
our rea h. 'Higher criticism/ says Hug, 'is pro]>cr name of the monarch is indicated, as Pha
stilt open to us, and I even eutertain the ho|>e of raoh Necho (2 Kings xxiii. 33), Pharaoh Hophra
drawing from it manifest proofs of the genuine ( Jer. xliv. 30). Josephus intimates that the word
ness of - "ne of these epistles, particularly those signifies 1 the king1 in the Egyptian language
of James and Jude, and the Second of St. Peter/ {Antiq. viii. 6. 2), This is apparently confirmed
lis apostolical character is confessed. 1 In the by our finding the word * king' written in the
two e|ii< lea i if Peter,' says Priest ley, * many atten dialect of Memphis, 01PJ)O ouro, and with the
tive reader* have observed that there is a masculine article JXOTpO piouro (Jabloruky,
|>eculiai ligiiity and energy, exceeding any tiling
in the writing! of Raul, and worthy of the prince Opttsc. i.371 ; Peyron, Lex. CopL, p. 150). The
oftWe a[ .-ties" {Hist, of Christian Church, i. 141 ; idea has, however, been more recently started (hat
see also vY right's Seiler, p. 513). Pharaoh corresponds to the Egyptian j-pH
liy those who acknowledge its genuineness phra, 1 the sun,* which is written as an hierogly
its date i-. generally fixed about the year a.d. G5, phic symbol over the titles of kings (Roselliui,
or not long liefore Peter's death, winch they deduce Monument. Storici, i. 117; Lipsius, Lettre d
from 2 Pt. i. 14. Wetstein concludes from 2 Pet. Uosettini, p. 25 ; W ilkinson, Anc. Egyptians, it.
lii. that it must hate been written before the de 267). It seems to us that this explanation might
struction of Jerusalem, in which case none will !< admitted without contradicting the other, see
allege that any but Peter could have leen its ing that it is not only possible, but highly pro
author. If it were proved that l'eter hail Jude's bable, that the Egyptians should make the name
epistle In-lure him, this must have been written not of the sun a royal title, and that at length custom
long before the same period, which agrees with rendered it equivalent to * king.' The practice
the time assigned by I)r. Lardner, Itetween 64 of ancient, and, indeed, modem Oriental kings, of
and 6l> [Juur]. Hut if Jude certainly quoted associating the idea of their own dignity with the
the book of Knoch, and if the result of the inves glory of the sun, is well-known.
tigation of Liicke, who concludes that this hook PHARAOH-HOPHRA. [Hophra.]
was written in the first ceniury, at the time of PH ARAOH-N ECHO. \N kcho.]
the Jewish war, and probably after the destruction PHARISEES (in the Talmud JW1D). The
of Jerusalem, be correct, this circumstance would name denotes those who are separated, i.e. from
of itself, cttteris paribus, settle the question in ordinary persons, of course, by the correctness of
favour of ihe priority of St Peter's second epistle their opinions and the holiness of their lives. They
[Judk]. Bishop Sherlock maintains that there were a Jewish sect who had the dominant influ
are no lens than live years intervening between ence in the time of our Lord, to whose faults the
the date of the two epistles of Peter (see Dissert overthrow of the state may I -< attributed, and who
ation on the Authority of the Second Epistle of have to bear the awful burden of having crucified
fit Peu*r).-\V. W. the Lord and giver of life.
PETR V (called by the earlier Greek writers A full and accurate knowledge of thePhariseea
TlfTpa or % Utrpa, but by the later at Tlfrpat) is even more important to the reader of the New
was the capital of the Nabathcean Arabs in the Testament than of the two other leading philo
land of Edum, and seems to have given name to sophical schools, because our Lord's doctrine has
the kingdom and region of Arabia Petrtta. A* an immediate reference to their several opiniona,
PHARISEES. PHARISEES. 513
because these opinions constituted the source of the These sects lay in embryo among the Jews while
power which was arrayed against him, and because, scattered over the provinces of Persia, were brought
absurdly enough, it has been asserted (as what forth at the rebuilding of the Temple, and grew
paradox has not ?) that Jesus did but borrow from continually in strength til! the days of Christ and
these schools what suited his purpose, so that his the overthrow of Jerusalemdivision in this, as in
system is nothing more than an heterogeneous all other cases, proving weakness, and issuing in
compound of old Jewish doctrines, dressed up ruin. The Mosaic institutions were in themselves
anew in order to serve a new purpose (Hennell's sharply defined and strongly sanctioned, nor could
Enquiry concerning the Origin of Christianity ; there well originate in them any important differ
London, 1838). ences, still less any sects. But in Persia the scat
The force of character which Moses possessed, tered Jews were subjected to new and impure cur
the wisdom he displayed, and the excellence of his rents ofopinion, which would do something to over
institutions in general, are seen in the fact that flow and overlay the primitive doctrines and usages.
for many centuries after his death no sect arose Here, then, was at once a soil for sectism. Puri
among the Jews. Such was the deep impression tans would spring up wishing to preserve or restore
which he made on the Hebrew nation that they the original form of doctrine and worship. They
ever after retained it, anil only under peculiar cir naturally called forth defenders of things as they
cumstances allowed any disturbing and effacing were. Bui in the disputes which would hence arise,
influences to affect it. So long a3 the culture of appeal must be made to reason, for the voice of pro
the nation flowed on in its own original and proper phecy was extinct, the divine oracles were silent;
channel, the Jewish religion was free from even a there remained only the Scriptures and the inter-
trace of sectism. But when foreign influences prrtatinnof them by meansof traditiona question
came iuto immediate contact and entered into al instrumentand reason, to which all were, in
close union with Mosaism, then the grounds were the nature of the case, comjielled to appeal. But
laid for diversities of opinion, and ere long, as a when there is a general appeal to reason in reli
natural consequence of diverse currents of impulse, gious questions, then philosophy is born in the
there came into existence different parties, agree church, and may be expected to take the several
ing in scarcely more than one thing, namely, that directions into which the diversities of formation
they were all of a religious description. and complexion urge the mind of man to run.
The precise period when the Pharisees appeared Accordingly it is ihe name philosophy which
as a sect, history does not supply us with the means Josephus gives to the three leading sects'the Jews
of determining. That they, however, as well as had three sects of philosophy ' (Antiq. XVin. 1,2;
their natural opponents, the Sadducees, existed in De Bell. Jud. ii. 12). This philosophical tendency
the priesthood of Jonathan, in the interval, that is, would, in process of time, be strengthened by
between 159 and 144 before Christ, is known from the influence of ihe Weslern world, whose phi
Josephus, who (Antiq. xiii. 5) makes mention of losophy was cultivated and spread in ihe East,
them as well as of the sect of the Essenes. The and particularly at Alexandria. Unlike the
terms he employs warrant the conviction that they philosophy of the Greeks, however, which had
were then no novelties, but well known, well de scarcely anything but a human ground on which
fined, and two established religious parties. But to stand and labour, the Jewish sects made a
from the time of Jonathan to that of Ezra (about divine revelation ihe object of their philosophical
460 b.c), there had taken place no great forma research, and so were saved from the grosser errors
tive event such as could of itself cause so great a and absurd wanderings into which the Greek
change in the Hebrew system as was the rise of schools were led while in pursuit of the airy
these sects ; whereas the influences to which the visions of their own heated brain.
Israelites had been subject in the Medo- Persian There is a tendency in all institutions to grow
dominions, and the necessarily somewhat new in process of time. Perhaps the tendency to grow
direction which things took on the rebuilding of corrupt is not less certain. In ihe rich and teem
the Temple and the restoration of the civil and ing soil of Persia, Hebraism could do no other than
religious polity, could hardly fail, considering the become rank. Accretions would also be made,
distance from Moses at which these changes hap and those in great number. But every accretion
pened, and the great extent to which the jwople would, of course, have the sanction which tielonged
had. lost even the knowledge of the institutions and to the primitive form. There never could be any
language of their forefathers, to lead to diversities corruption of religion, did not each new opinion or
of views, interests, and aims, whence sects would practice contrive to get to its behalf the sanction
spring as a natural if not inevitable result. There is, of the old and recognised type. Corruptions do
therefore, good reason to refertheorigin of the Phari not come as corruptions. Accretions fasten them
sees to the time of the return from the Babylonish selves on to an ancient institution, and are then
capt*vi*y, a period which constitutes a marked defended as old ; or they spring out of the body
epoch, as dividing the Hebraism of the older and of the institution itself, and then appear a natural
purer age from the Judaism of the later and more offshoot. Any way the old sanctions and perpe
corrupt times. Nor, did our space allow, should we tuates the new.
find it difficult to trace the leading features of the Thus the very soil in which Hebraism lay
Pharisaic character back to those peculiar opinions during the captivity, was fitted to produce the phi
and usages with which the old Israel itish type of losophy of the Pharisees, which was essentially
mind had been made familiar, and at the same time conservative and aggregative. It, in all times
corrupt, in the Persian empire. Nor are we aware and cases, kept the old, howsoever abundant it
that any solid objection can be taken to this refer became, and did not reject the new, provided its
ence of the rise of the Pharisees, provided it is un nature and tendency were to add and not to take
derstood that we do not suppose that they sprang away. Hence theirs was a system of positive be
forth, as Minerva in the legend, complete at once. liefs, distinguished rather by its exuberance than
VOL. SI.
514 PHARISEES, PHARISEES.
its purity, retentive of what was established, vene friendly to one another, and are for the exercUe
rating past ages, decrying novelties though having of concord and regard for the public ' (Joseph.
its very essence in novelties, and excluding all Dc Bell. Jud. ii. 8. II).
reform as hostile alike to God and man. This * The Pharisees are a sect of Jews which appear
tendency to aggregation on the part of the Phari to be more pious than others, ;md to expound the
sees is well described by Tertullian (De Prtrscrip. laws more accurately. These Pharisees artfully
c. 45) : 'Pliariseeos qui additamenta quajdam insinuated themselves into her (Queen Alexan
leg! adstruendoa Judaelsdivisi sunt,"making the dra's) favour by little and little, and became the
very ground of their separation and the reason of real administrators of public affairs ; they banish
their name to lie in the additions which they ed and restored whom they pleased ; they hound
made to the ancient law. This same characteristic and loosed at their pleasure; they had the enjoy
is found recognised by Josephus, when he ascribes ment of the royal authority, whilst the expenses
to them the preservation, if not the invention, of and the ditiicultiis of it belonged to Alexandra.
tradition. She was a sagacious woman in the management ot
But as we think it more for (he reader's in great affairs, and became not only very powerful
struction to lay before him the very words in at home, but terrible also to foreign |K)tentates ;
which this sect is described, than to give a philo while she governed other people, the Pharisees go
sophical account of the rise and conned ion of theirverned her. She was so sujicrstitious as to comply
principles, to which of necessity our own views with their desires, and accordingly they slew whom
would impart a colouring, we shall proceed to they pleased' (Joseph. Dc Hell. Jud i. 5.2, 3\
transcribe a nearly literal translation of the most * There was a certain sect that were Jews, who
ini[H)rtant passages in question. valued themselves highly upon the exact skill
'The Piiarisees have delivered to the ]*"ople a they had in the law of their fathers, and made men
great many observances by succession from their believe they were highly favoured by God, by
fathers, which are not written in the law of Moses, whom tins set of women were inveigled. These
and for that reason it is that the Sadducees reject are those that are called the sect of the Pharisees,
them, ami say that we are to esteem those observ who were able to make great opposition to kings ; a
ances to be obligatory which are in the written cunning sect they were, and soon elevated to a
word, but are not to olwerve what are derived from pitch of open fighting and doing mischief. Ac
the tradition of our forefathers. Heuce great dis cordingly, when all the people of the Jews gave
putes. The Saddurees are able to persuade none assurance of their good will to Ocsar and to the
but the rich, and have not the populace obsequi king's government, these men did not swear, being
ous to them, but the Pharisees have the multitude about 8000; and when the king imposed a fine
on their side.1 ' The Pharisees are not apt to be upon them, PhreroraV wife jaid it. In order to
severe in punishments' (Joseph, Antiq. xiii. 10. requite this kindness, since they were believed to
5 and 6 ; Epiphan. II<rr. 15). have a foreknowledge of things to come by divine
* The Pharisees live meanly and despise deli inspiration, they foretold how God had decreed
cacies in diet j and they follow the conduct of that Herod's government should cease, and that
reason, and what that prescribes to them as good the kingdom should come to her and Phreroras, and
they do. They also j>ay res|ect to such as are to their children ; so the kin* Herod slew feuch ol
iit years; nor are they so bold as to contradict the Pharisees as were principally accused, ami all
them in anything which they have introduced ; who had consented to what the Pharisees had fore
and when they determine that all things are done told' (Joseph. Antiq. xvii. 2. -I).
by fate, they do not take away from men the *The Pharisees say that some actions, but not
freedom of acting as they think fit, since their no all, are the work of fate (ci/iop/icV?;) ; that gome of
tion is that it bath pleased God to make a consti them are in our own power, anil that they are
tution of things whereby what lie wills is done, liable to fate, but are not caused by fate 1 (Joseph.
but so that the will of man can act virtuously or Antiq. xiii. 5. 9).
viciously. They also believe that souls have an * The sect of the Pharisees are supposed to excel
immortal vigour in them, and that under the others in the accurate knowledge of the laws of
earth there will be rewards or punishments, accord their country ' (Joseph. Vita, 6 38).
ing as men have lived virtuously or viciously in * The Pharisees have so great a power over the
this life. The latter are to be detained in an ever multitude that when they say anything against
lasting prison ; but the former shall have power to the king or against the high-priest, they are gene
revive and live again : on account of which doc rally lielieved ' (Joseph. Antiq. xiii. 10. 5).
trine they are able greatly to persuade the body 'The bodies of all men are mortal, and are cre
of the people ; nd whatsoever is done about divine ated out of corruptible matter ; but ihesoul isever
worship, prayers, and sacrifices, is performed ac immortal, and is a rwrtion of (lie divinity that in
cording to their directions, insomuch that the citieshabits our bodies' (De Bell. Jud. iii. 8. 5).
gave great attestations to them on account of their * Being now nineteen years old, I began to
entire virtuous conduct' (Joseph. Antiq. xviii. 1. conduct myself according to the rule of the sect
of the Pharisees, which Jb of kin to the sect of
* The Piiarisees are those who are esteemed most Stoics, as tlte Greeks call them 1 (Joseph. Vita,
skilful in the exact interpretation of the laws.
They ascribe all to Fate (or Providence) and to As Josephus himself was a Pharisee, many par
God, and yet allow that to act what is right or the ticulars respecting them may be gathered in his
contrary is for the must part in the power of man. works on occasions when he is speaking in his
They say that all souls are incorruptible, but that own person or avowedly delivering an opinion. A
the souls of good men only are removed into other remarkable instance presents itself in the Jewish
bodies, and that the souls of bad men are subject }Var(\\\. 8. 5), being an address delivered to his
to eternal punishment. Moreover, the Pharisees are soldiers, when in extremities, against self-destruc
PHARISEES. PHARISEES. 515
tlon. We shall transcribe only such parts as bear and oppressive but self-sparing rule, Matt, xxiii.
011 our subject : ' He is equally a coward who will 3, m[., 25 ; their affectation of grandeur and
not die when he is obliged to die, and lie who will distinction, Matt, xxiii. 5, sq. ; their shocking
die when be is not obliged so to do.' * Self-murder hypocrisy, Matt, xxiii. 14, 27, sq. ; their stand
is a crime most remote from the common nature ing on inconsiderable points, while they neglected
of all animals, and an instance of impiety against such as were of consequence, preferring ceremo
God our Creator.' * The bodies of all men are nial rites to justice and charity, Matt, xxiii. 24 ;
mortal, and are created out of corruptible matter ; xii. 2-7; Luke vi. 7; John ix. 16, sq. ; Mark
but the soul is ever immortal, and is a portion of vii. 1 ; the display which they afleeted even in
t lie divinity that inhabits our bodies. If any one works of religion. Matt. vi. 1, sq. ; xxiii. 5;
destroys or abuses a trust he hath received from a their pride and self-giatulation as assuredly, and
mere man, lie is esteemed wicked and perfidious; before others, religious men, Luke xviii. 9, sq. ;
but then if any one cast out of his body this divine their regard to tradition, Matt. xv. 2; Mark vii.
depofiitum, can we imagine that He who is thereby 3 ; i hey formed schools, which had masters and
affronted will not take cognizance of it V * Do disciples. Mutt. xxii. 16; Luke v. 33; agreeably
not you know that those who depart out of this with their general doctrines, they regarded the act
life according to the law of nature, and pay rather than the motive, Luke xi. 39; xviii. 11,
that debt when he that lent life is pleased to re- sq. ; and were gixen to fasts, prayers, washing,
auire it back again, enjoy eternal fume? that fiayiug of tithes, alms, &c, Matt. ix. 14; xxiii.
leir souls are pure and obedient, and obtain u 15, 23; Luke xi. 39, sq. ; xviii. 12; exhibiting
most holy place in heaven, from whence in the themselves to the people, in order to gain their
revolution of ages they are again sent into pure favour, as self-denying, holy men, zealous for
Unlies, while the souls of those whose hands have God and the law, a kind of Jewish stoics, Matt,
acted madly against themselves are received by the ix. 11 ; Luke v. 30 ; vi. 2; Matt, xxiii. 5, 15, 29 ;
darkest place in Hades T In the third section of while in reality they were fond of the pleasures
the same chapter Josephus claims for himself skill of sense, and were men of lax morals. Matt. v. 20 ;
in the interpretation of dreams as being means by xv. 4, 8 ; xxiii. 3, 14, 23, 25 ; John via, 7. At
which God presignified events. This power, and his an early period they determined in the Sanhe
acquaintance with the prophecies contained in the drim to withstand and destroy Jesus, instigated
sacred books, prompted and enabled him to address doubtless by the boldness with which he taught
* a secret prayer to God 1 for aid and support : he the necessity of personal righteousness and pure
thus gives other reasons for so doing, *as being a worship (Matt. xti. 14).
priest himself, and of the posterity of the priests ; In regard to the opinions of the Pharisees, (lie
and just then was he in an ecstasy and set before New Testament affords only fragments of inform
himself the tremendous images of the dreams ation, which are, however, in accordance with the
he had lately bad.1 His liability to, and belief in, fuller jmrticulars furnished by Josephus. From
dreams are exemplified by a passage in bis life Acts xxiii. 6, 8, we learn that they believed in
( 42) : 4 Wonderful it was what a dream I saw the existence of higher created beings than man,
that very night ; for when I had betaken myself doubtless the good anil bad spirits of the Chaldee
to my l>ed, grieved and disturbed at the news that philosophy. The same places also instruct us
had l>een written to me, a certain person seemed to that they held a resurrection of the dead (comp.
stand by me, who said,' &c. Matt. xxii. 24, sq.).
Josephus held worthy opinions on religious It thus appears that the Pharisees were in ge
lilierty. Having prevented Jews from compelling neral a powerful religious party, or rather tlie
some heathens to submit to l>e circumcised, he predominant influence, in the Jewish state, who
adds, * Every one ought to worship God according aspired to the control of the civil and religious
to his own inclinations, and not to be constrained institutions, affected popularity among the peo
by force ; and these men, who have fled to us for ple, exerted influence in the councils of kings,
protection, must not be so treated as to rejteut of queens, and people of rank ; were the recognised
their coming hither ' ( Vita, 23). teachers and guides of the national mind, proud
There is another source ofour knowledge of the of their orthodoxy, pluming themselves on their
Phariseesthe books of the New Testament. The superior sanctity, practising austerities outwardly,
light in which they here appear varies, of course, but inwardly indulging their passions, and de
with the circumstances to which its origin is due. scending to unworthy and shameful acts; and
The reader has just had before him the account of withal of narrow spirit, contracted views, seeking
a friend and an adherent, au account which, then - rather their own aggrandisement than the public
1'nie, we may believe, is conceived and set forth in good, of which they used the name merely as a
the most favourable manner. The Gosjiels present pretext and a cover.
the character of the Pharisees in a darker hue, in In onler to draw a full and complete picture
asmuch as here a higher standard is brought into we ought to combine and blend together the ac
use, a loftier morality is the judge. To pass on counts contained in Josephus and those contained
to the views given in the New Testament. The in the New Testament, which, it is important to
high repute in which the Pharisees were held, as observe, so entirely agree that they supplement
expositors of the national laws, whether civil or and illustrate each other, these making up for the
religious, may be seen in John vii. 48 ; Acts xxii. defects of those, or unfolding more fully features
3 ; the casuistry which they employed in expound of which the first give a bare outline or only a
ing the Scriptures, in Matt. ix. 34; xv. 5; single feature ; so that, while there is no contra
xxiii. 16 ; Mark vii. 7, sq. ; their excessive zeal diction, no incompatibility between the two, they
in proselyttsm, Matt, xxiii. 15 ; yet their conceal appear obviously to have l>een taken from the
ment of light and hindrance of progress, Matt, same subject and from actual life ; whence, we
xxiii. 13; their inordinate regard for externals, conceive, arises a very strong corroboration of the
516 PHARISEES. PHARISEES.
historic credibility of the New Testament nar in which most of the information in the New
ratives. A difference of colouring is indeed ob- Testament presents itself, and some of that which
between the picture
and that found in the Evangelists : yet the reader might lie still further
will hardly need any aid to enable him to see allow us to trace the development of the Pha
how the qualities spoken of by the first passed influence 011 through the primitive Christian 1
and degenerated into tho>e, so many of which down to later periods, as it would appear that
were strongly condemned by our Lord. * Many Rabbinism was but an unfolding of Pharisaism,
circumstances concurred to bring about tins cor the full and swelling stream of corrupt doctriues,
ruption. The Pharisees held anxiously to the views, and practices, of which the rivulets run up
decisions of the holy writings and the older Jew to the flays of Christ, and stretch back to those of
ish teachers. Thus their whole system was built Ezra, till they are lost in the fountain-headthe
upon authority, and their morality was changed .eligious philosophy of a debased Zoroasterism.
into a casuistry, like that of the Jesuits. To And from the contrast which presents itself be
every event that hap|>ened they knew bow to tween fhis gross earthly systema system imbued
apply either a (Ktssage of the sacred books or an throughout with selfishnessand the pint, benign,
00 + explanation of the same, or a corollary, an in heavenly doctrine and life of Christ, there arises
ference, an arbitrary extension or restriction. On (to our mind) an irresistible proof not only that
this account nothing is more pitiable or more our Lord did not and could not derive anything
ridiculous than their exegetical theology, whence from the Pharisees, but that no less clearly is his
their system of morality became uncertain and spirit from above than is theirs from beneathin
unconnected, without general principles, life, and all which no credit is taken for the bold, manly,
spirit. Thus arbitrariness ami ingenuity, instead noble, and self-forgetful manner iu which he un
of reason and solidity, were applied to morals; masked their hypocrisy, laid oj>en their hollow-
and to a party which assumed, and by its nature ness, condemned their pretensions, and withstood
must assume, dominion over the minds of men, and strove to nullify their influence. It is to unite
the temptation was often too great to accommo the hawk and the dove, to bring into one darkness
date their principles to the passions of men, and and light, to expect figs from thistles, if we will
to use for the same purpose their casuistry, de persist iu maintaining that Jesus and the Phari-
pendent on authority, which so easily lent itself sees had any essential and peculiar features in
to this end, The persecutions of Antiochus Epi- commonwe say essential and peculiar features,
phanes, the opposition of the Sadducees, bound because such only are of any value in the argu
them only the more to their old precepts and ment, since even the Pharisees, as men and
method of leaching, and filled them with an monotheists, doubtless had some good traits, and
ever-living opposition to every Gentile doctrine possessed some scattered rays of truth.
and custom. They considered themselves the Indeed we are not. to supjose that there were
more as the only genuine and pure Israelitish no individuals in the body free from its prevail
teachers of religion ; they preserved the reverence ing vices. There did not fail to be upright and
for the holy books, which had been of old widely pure-minded men, who united inward piety to
spread among the people ; and, aided by their outward correctness of conduct, and were indeed
principles, which were in fact very rigid, they superior to the principles of their sect; such was
could not fail to gain with the people a repu Nicodemus (John iii. 1); such also Gamaliel
tation for superior holiness. The greater this may have been (Acts v. 34; comp. Berach. xiii. 2;
reputation became, the greater was the temptation .Soto, xx. 3; Rabyl. .Soto, xxii. 2). Of men of
to hypocrisy. The more rigorous were their prin this kind many were led to embrace the Gospel
ciples, the more difficult was it to act entirely (Acts xv. 5).
up to them, and the easier were they led to ob Iu general, however, their ijower was all di
serve that with a holy appearance they could rected against Jesus and his work. With what
attain the power of imposing on the mass of the force they must have acted appears obvious from
people and of ruling over them. This dominion the preceding remarks. Nor is the reader to
of the Pharisees over the minds of the people was imagine that they were merely a few learned
nourishment for their pride, and incentive enough men, congregated together in the capital, engaged
to use it for selfish purposes. Like cunning in learned pursuits or religious practices, and in
priests and Jesuits, they played with forms and consequence leaving our Lord at liberty to pur
phrases, they seized a place in the hearts anil sue his ordinary duties up and down the land.
consciences of men, corrupted them even by The capital was doubtless their head-quarters,
means of pious instruction, led them whither they but they pervaded the entire country in consider
would have them go, acquired many a fair prize, able numbers (six thousand are referred to above),
and became rulers of an earthly kingdom of and were therefore present in all parts to with
darkness' (Stiiudlin, Sittenlc/tre, i. 431). stand the publication ol the Gospel of that king
Even were there discre|fancies, however marked, dom every feature of which they hated (Luke v.
on minor points between our Lord and Josephus, 17); and as they constituted a large portion of
yet the general type ami the leading features of the Sanhedrim ( Acts v. 84 ; xxiii. 6, sq.), and had
the character are in so striking a manner the an almost unlimited influence with the people,
same, that it is impossible not to feel that if great indeed was the power which they wielded
Josephus is true the Gospel history cannot be in their conflict with the infant church. Perhaps
false ; a consideration which acquires strength, there never was an instance in any social con
and reaches to a moral certainty, when the subject dition in which the elements of power supplied
is considered to which their accounts relate, the by religion, politics, high life, and humble con
admitted independence of the authorities, and dition were more thoroughly or more densely
especially the incidental and implicatory manner combined in order to oppose and destroy the
PHARISEES. PHILADELPHIA. 517
young power of new ideas and lofty aims. The clearly that the Greek philosophy had an influ
victory, however, was for man, because it was ence on the doctrines of the Pharisees. Consult
also of God. Darkness, indeed, prevailed for Tholuck, Comm. de vi quam Gr&ca Philosophia
three days, covering the land, and casting a thick in Theologiam turn Muhamedanor. turn Judeeor.
shadow over the world. But the sun of righteous exercucrit, Hamb. 1835-7.J. R. B.
ness arose, and still shines. PHARPAR, one of the rivers of Damascus
Pharisaism, how compact soever might be its [Abana and PharparJ.
appearance outwardly, and as against a common PHEBE. [Phckbk.J
enemy, had its own internal dissensions. The PHENICE (+ofKi|), a city on the south-east
question of more or less of moderate or extreme of Crete, with a harbour, in the attempt to reach
views, of what on one side would lie called tem which the ship in which Paul voyaged as a
porising and on the other consistency, agitated prisoner to Rome, was driven out of its course,
this school as it has agitated most others. In the and eventually wrecked (Acts xxvii. 12).
age of our Lord there were two leading parties, PHICOL (^>b*S, mouth of all, i. e. all-com
that of Hillel and that of Schammai, the former
representing a moderate Pharisaism, the latter manding), the proper, or more probably, the titu
( the straitest sect,* to which Paul had probably lar name of the commander of the troo| of
belonged. Abimelech, the Philistine king of Gerar. If the
Those who may wish to prosecute the study of Abimelech of the time of Isaac was the son of the
the subject now treated of with more minuteness Abimelech of the time of Abraham, we may con
and particularity, will do well io consult, Trium clude that the Phicol who attended on the second
Scriptorum lllust. de tribus Judaorum Sectis Abimelech was the successor of the one who was
Syntagma, in quo R. Serarii, J. Drusti, J. Sea- present with the first at the interview with Abra
ligeri opuscula cum aliis exhibentur ; J. Iri- ham (Gen. xxi. 22; xxvi. 26). But the whole
glandius, Diatrib. de Secta Kareeorum adj., subject of these interviews is beset with diffi
Delphis, 1703; Buddei Hist. Eccles. ii. 974, sq. ; culties [Abimelech ; Abraham; Isaac].
Flatt, Ueber die Lehre der Pharisaen in Paulus PHILADELPHIA (*,\a5f\$>fa), a city of
Memorab. ii. 157, sq. ; Paulus, Meletemata De Lesser Asia, and one of the seven containing the
Rep. Mortuor., Jenae, 1796. The valuable piece Christian churches to which the Apocalyptic ad
before referred to, namely, Trium Scriptor., &c, monitions were addressed. Tbe town stood about
may be found in Ugolini's Thesaurus, vol. xxii. twenty-five miles south-east from Sardts, in N.
In the same work (vol. xxii.) may also U- found laL 32 J 2S\ E. long. 28 30', in the plain of
other sources of information, namely, Carpzov, Hermus, about midway between the river of that
Appar. p. 173, sq. ; the treatises by J. Schmid, name and the termination of Mount Tmolus.
H. Opitz, and others. Much solid information It was the second in Lydia (Ptolem. v. 2; Pliu.
may be found in Staudlin's Sittenlehre Jesu, Hist. Nat. v. 30), and was built by King Attalus
i. 417, sq. See also Beer, Gesch. Lchren in Philadelphus, from whom it took its name. In
Mcinung. alter relig. Sect, der Juden, Brunu, b.c. 133 the place passed, with the dominion in
1822. Some of the extracts from Josephus show which it lay, to the Romans. The site is re
434. [ThilulelphU.]
918 PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO. PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO.
puted by Strabo (xiii. p. 628) to have been Marcion (Hieronym. /. e.). That this epistle
rery lh.hle to earthquakes; but it continued a should not have been quoted by several of the
S'ace of importance ami of strength down to the Fathers who have quoted largely from the other
yiantine age ; and of all the towns in Asia Pauline epistles (e. g. Irenacus, Clement of Alex
Minor it withstood the Turks the longest. It andria, and Cyprian), may be accounted for
was taken by Bajazet 1. in a d. 1392. partly by the brevity of the epistle, and partly by
Philadelphia still exists as a Turkish town, their not having occasion to refer to the subjects
under the name of Allah Shehr, 'city of God,' of which it treats. Paley has adduced the un
t. e. High-town. It covers a considerable ex designed coincidences between this epistle and
tent of ground, running up the slopes of four that to the Colossians with great force, as evincing
hills, or rather of one hill with four flat summits. the authenticity of both {Horce Paulintty c. 14);
The country, as viewed from these hills, ii ex and Kichhorn has ingeniously shown how a person
tremely magnificentgardens and vineyards lying attempting, with the epistle to the Colossians
at the tiack and sides of the town, nod before it before him, to forge such an epistle as this in the
one of the most extensive and beautiful plains name of Paul, would have been naturally led to
of Asia. The town itself, although spacious, is a very different arrangement of the historical cir
miserably built and kept, the dwellings being cumstances and ]>ersons from what we find in the
remarkably mean, and the streets exceedingly epistle which is extant (Einleit. itu N. T. iii.
filthy. Across the summits of the bill behind 302).
the town and the small valleys l>etween them This epistle was evidently written during the
runs the town wall, strengthened by circular and apostle's imprisonment (ver. 9, 10), aud, as we
square towers, and forming also an extensive and have already endeavoured to show [Colossians,
long quadrangle in the plain below. The mis KpthTi.E to Tim], during his two years' impri
sionaries Kisk and Parsons, in 1822, were in snnmcnt at Home. It was occasioned by his
formed by the Greek bishop that the town con sending back to Philemon his runaway slave
tained 3<K)0 houses, of which lie assigned 250 to Onesimus, who, having found his way to Rome,
the Greeks, and the rest to the Turks. On the was there, through the instrumentality of the
same authority it is stated that there are five ajmstle, converted to Christianity; and, after
. churches in the town, Itesides twenty others which serving Paul for a season, was by him restored to
were too old or too small for use. Six minarets, his former master, without whose consent the
indicating as many mosques, are seen in the ajiostle did not feel at liberty to retain htm.
town; and one of these mosques is believed by The epistle commences with the apostle's usual
the native Christians to have been the church in salutation to those to whom he wrote; after which
wlm-ii assembled tlie primitive Christians ad he aflectionately alludes to the good reputation
dressed in the Ajmcalypse. There are few ruins; winch Philemon, as a Christian, enjoyed, aud to
but in one part theie are still found four strong the joy which the knowledge of this afforded him
marble pillars, which supjiorted the dome of a (ver. 1-7). He then gently and gracefully intro
church. The dome itself has fallen down, but duces tlie main subject of his epistle by a refer
its remains may he observed, and it is seen that ence to the spiritual obligations under which
the arch was of brick. On the sides of the pil Philemon lay to him, and on the ground of which
lars are inscriptions, and some architectural or he might utter as a command what he preferred
naments in the form of the figures of saints. One urging as a request. Onesimus is then intro
solitary pillar of high antiquity has been often duced ; the change of mind and character lie had
noticed, as reminding beholders of the remark ex|>erieticed is stated ; his offence in deserting hit
able words in the Apocalyptic message to tl>e master is not palliated; his increased worth and
Philadelphian church;* Him that overcometh usefulness are dwelt upon, and his former master
will I make a pillar in the temple of my God ; is intreated to receive him hack, not only without
anil lie shall go no more out* (Rev. iii. 12) (Smith, severity, but with the feeling due from one
Stpt. Ecclesiarum Asicr, p. 13S; Arundel 1, Christian to another (ver. 8-16). The apostle
Seven Churches; Richler, It'ahlfnJtrten, p. 518; then delicately refers lo the matter of comjteusa-
Schubert, Morgenlande, \. 3.53-357 ; Missionary tiou for any loss which Philemon might have
Herald, 1831, p. 353 ; 183>, pp. 210 212) sustained either through the dishonesty uf Onesi
PHILEMON, KPISTLK TO. That this mus, or simply through tlie want of his service;
epistle was written by the apostle Paul is the and though he reminds his friend that lie might
constant tradition of the ancient Church. It is justly hold (lie latter his debtor tor a much larger
expressly cited as such by Oiigen (Ilomil. XIX. amount (seeing he owed to the apostle his own
in Jerem., torn. i. p. 185, ed. Huet.); it is re self), he pledges himself, under his own hand, to
ferred to as such by Tertultiau (Abu. ILtarc. make good that loss (ver. 17-19). Tlie epistle
v. 31) J and both Kuscbhts (Hist, t'ccle*. iii. concludes with some additional expressions of
25) and Jerome (Proem, in Ep. ad Phi/cm. torn, friendly solicitude; u request that Philemon would
if* p. 442) attest its uuiveisal reception as such prepare tlie a[x>stle a lodging, as lie trusted soon
in the Christian world. The latter, indeed, in to visit him; and the salutations of the apostle
forms us that some in his day deemed it unworthy and MOM of the Christians by whom he was sur
of a place in the canon, in consequence of its rounded at the time (ver. 20-25).
being occupied with subjects which, in their esti This epistle has been universally admired as a
mation, it did not become an apostle to write model of graceful, delicate, and manly writing.
about, save as a mere private individual; but * It is a voucher,' says Eichhorn, ' for tlie apostle's
this he, at the same time, shows to be a mistake, urbanity, politeness, and knowledge of the world.
aud repudiates the legit imacy of such a standard His advocacy of Onesimus is of the most insinu
for estimating the genuineness or authority ol any ating and persuasive character, and yet without
book. It was also admitted as canonical by the slightest perversion or concealment of any
PHILETUS. PHILIP. 019
fact. The errors of Onesimus are admitted, as while Chrysostom and Theodore of Mopsuestia
was necessary, lest the just indignation of his rather suppose it was because this apostle was weak
master against him should be roused anew ; but in faith. The answer of Philip agrees well enough
they are alluded to in tle most admirable man with either supposition, 'Two hundred penny
ner : the good side of Onesimus is brought to worth of bread is not sufficient for them, that every
view, but in such a way as to facilitate the one of them may take a little*(John vi. 1-7). But
friendly reception of him by his master, as a con it is well to compare this with John xiv. 8, where
sequence of Christianity, to which lie had, during the inappropriate remark of Philip, * Lord, show
his absence, been converted ; and his future us the Father, and it sufticeth us,' evinces that he
fidelity is vouched for by the noble principles of experienced in a degree beyond his brother apostles,
Christianity to which he had been converted. the difficulty which they generally felt in raising
The apostle addresses Philemon on the softest themselves above the things of sense.
side: who would wilfully refuse to an aged, a Intermediately, we find recorded the applica
suffering, and an unjustly imprisoned friend a tion to Philip of certain * Greeks' (proselytes of
request ? And sucli was lie who thus pleaded fur the gate) at Jerusalem, who wished to be in
Onesimus. The person recommended is a Chris troduced to Jesus, of whom they had heard so
tian, a dear friend of the apostle's, and one who much. 'Knowing that his master was not for
had personally served him : if Philemon will ward to gratify mere curiosity, Philip was un
receive him kindly, it will afford (he ajn)stle a certain whether to comply with their wish or not,
proof ofhis love, and yield him joy. What need, but first consulted Andrew, who went with him
then, for long urgency 1 The ajtostle is certain to mention the circumstance to Jesus (John xii.
that Philemon will, of his own accord, do even 21, 22). This incident, although slight, is indi
more than be is asked. More cogently and more cative of character, as we feel sure that some of the
courteously no man could plead' (Einleit. ins other apostles, Peter for instance, would at once
JV. T.t iii. 300). have complied with or declined this applica
Of separate commentaries on this Kplstle, the tion on (heir own responsibility. The sacred his
following is nearly a complete list: Ilenr. tory only adds to these facts, that Philip was
Hummel, Explanatio Ep. Ap. Pauli ad Philem., present with the other apostles at the religious as
Tiguri, 1670, fol.; Lebr. Ci>. Gottlieb. Schmid, sembly following t he Lord's resurrection (Acts
Pauli Ap. ad Philem, Ep. Gr. et Lat. Illustr. et i. 13).
tit Exemplum Hu/nanitatis Paidi Proposita, The ancient commentators attribute to Philip
lips. 1786, 8vo. ; Konrad Rudolf Hagenhach, the request of 1 one of the disciples' to Christ,
Pauli Ep. ad Philem. Interpretatus est, Basil, ' Suffer me first lo go and bury my father' (Matt,
1829, 4to. ; W. Attersol, Commentary upon the viii. 21 ; Luke ix. 59); but there seems no war
Ep. to Philem., Loud. 1633, 4to. ; Bp. Smal- rant for this; and it is not likely that it would
ridge. Saint PauVs Ep. to Philemon Explained have been overlooked by John in his account of
(Sermons, Oxf. 1724, fob, Serm. 39).W. L. A. Philip's call to the apostleship.
PHILETUS, an apostate Christian, mentioned The later traditions concerning this apostle are
by Paul, in connection with Hymenams, 2 Tim. vague and uncertain ; but there is nothing im
li. 17 [Hymbn^us], probable in the statement that he preached the Gos
1. PHILIP (QiKtmros), one of the twelve pel in Phrygia (Theodoret, in Ps. cxvi.; Niceph.
apostles. He was of Bethsaida, * the city of Hist. Eccles. ii. 39), and that he met his death at
Andrew and Peter' (John i. 44). He became one Hierapolis in Syria (Kuseb. Hist. Eccles. iii. 31 ;
of the disciples of JoDH the Baptist, and was in the v. 24). The further stalement, that Philip was
neighbourhood where John was baptizing, at the married and had daughters (Kuseb. w. s. ; Clem.
time of our Lord's baptism. Andrew and John, Alex. Strom, iii. 192 ; Niceph. ii. 4-1), very pro
who were also disciples of the Baptist, heard the bably arose from confounding him with Philip
testimony concerning Jesus which the latter gave, the Kvangelist (Acts xxi. 8).
and thenceforth attached themselves to him as 2. PHILIP, one of the seven first deacons
the promised Messiah. Through Andrew his (Acts vi. 5) ; also called an 1 Kvangelist* (xxi. 8),
brother, Simon (Peter) was brought to Christ j anil which denotes one of those ministers of the pri
as on the next day Philip unhesitatingly accom mitive church, wlio, without being attached to
panied Jesus when called to follow him, it is pro any particular congregation, preached the Gospel
bable that his townsmen had previously spoken to from place to place (Kph. iv. II; 2 Tim, iv. 5).
him of Jesus as the long-expected Saviour (John Being compelled to leave Jerusalem by the per
i. 35-14). Philip was thus the fourth of the secution which ensued on Stephen's death, Philip
apostles who attached themselves to the person of was induced to take refuge in Samaria. He
Jesusof those 'who left all and followed him.' there came to a city where Simon Magus was
The first act of Philip was to bring to t lie Lord held in high reverence through the wonders which
Nathanael, who is sup]>osed to have also became he wrought. But the substantial and lieneficent
an apostle under the name of Bartholomew (John miracle* which were performed by Philip in the
i. 45-51). Little more is recorded of Philip name of Jesus, drew away their attention from
in the Scriptures; but it is remarkable that the impostor, and pre)tared their minds for the re
when Christ beheld the five thousand people ception of the (in,p.-]. Simon himself seems to
whom he afterwards fed witli five loaves and two have regarded him as in league with some super
fishes, he singled out Philip for the question, human being, and looking upon baptism as the ini
4 Whence shall we buy bread that these may tiatory rite of a comjiact through which he might
eat T It is added, * This he said to prove him, for obtain the same powers, he solicited and obtained
he himself knew what he would do.' Bengel and baptism from the Kvangelist [Simon Maoub].
others suppose that this was because the charge of Alter Peter and John bad come to Samaria to
jroviding food had been committed to Philip, complete and carry on the work which Philip bid
MO PHILIP. PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO TH&
been the means of commencing, the Evangelist travellers ; but an interesting account of it may
himself was directed by a divine impulse to pro be found in the American Missionary Herald,
ceed towards Gaza, where he met the treasurer of by the missionaries Dwight and Schauffler, who
Candace, queen of Ethiopia [Candace ; Ethi were there in 1^3-4. The plain in which the ruins
opia], by whose conversion and Itaptism he he- of Philippi stand is embraced by the parallel
came the instrument of planting the first seeds arms of mountains extended from the Necrokop,
of the Gospel in Ethiopia (Acts viii. 1-39). Philip which pour into the plain many small streams,
then retraced his steps, and after pausing at by which it is abundantly watered and fertilized.
Azotus, preached the Gosjiel from town to town The acropolis is upon a mount standing out into
till he came to Ca;sarea (ver. 40). At this place the plain from the north-east, and the city seems
he seems to have settled ; for when Paid was on to have extended from the base of it to the south
his last journey to Jerusalem, tie and his party and south west. The remains of the fortress upon
were entertained in the house of Philip, on which the top consist of three ruined towers and con
occasion it is mentioned that he hail ' four siderable portions of walls, of stone, brick, and
daughters, virgins, who did prophesy* (Acts xxh very bard mortar. The plain below does not
9), or, who were endued with the faculty of shak now exhibit anything but ruinsheaps of stone
ing under divine inspiration, and of predicting and rubbish, overgrown with thorns and briars;
future events, together with otiier supernatural but nothing of the innumerable busts and statues,
gifts vouchsafed to the primitive Christians, in thousands of columns, and vast masses of classic
accordance with the prophecy in Acts ii. 18. ruins, of which the elder travellers speak. Ruins
With this fact the Scriptural history of Philip of private dwellings are still visible ; also some
closes, and the traditions which refer to his sub thing of a semi-circular shape, probably a forum
sequent proceedings are uncertain and conflict or market-place, 'perhaps the one where Paul
ing. The Greek martyrologies make him to have and Silas received their undeserved stripes.' The
been bishop of Tralles, in Lydia; hut the Latins most prominent of the existing remains is the
make him end his days in Caesarea (Acta Sanct. remainder of a palatial edifice, the architecture
ad G Juni); but in all old accounts Philip the of which is grand, and the materials costly. The
AjKistle and Philip the Evangelist are much con pilasters, chapiters, &c, are of the finest white
founded. marble, and the walls were formerly encased
3. PHILIP, son of Herod the Great, and with the same stone. These marble blocks are
telrarch of Batanoca, Trachonitis, and Auranitis gradually knocked down by the Turks, and
(Luke iii. 1) [Hehodian Family], * wrought into their silly grave-stones.* The tra
i. PHILIP, called by Josephus Herod, son vellers were informed that many of the ruins are
of Herod the Great, and first husband of Herodias now covered by stagnant water, at the bottom of
[Hehodian Family]. which they may be seen ; but they did not visit
PIIILIPPI (*i'\Hnroi), a city of the procon tliis spot.
sular Macedonia, situated eastward of Amphi- PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. Of
polis, within the limits of ancient Thrace (Acts this part of the Apostle Paul's writings the
xvi. 12; xx. 6; Phil. i. 1). It was anciently authenticity has never been questioned. Pro
called KpTjvlSts, from its many fountains; but fessing to be written by that distinguished servant
having been taken and fortified by Philip (if of Christ, it l>ears on every part of it the impress
Macedon, he named it, after himself, Philippi. of his i>eculiar style, manner of thought, and form
In the vicinity were mines of gold and silver; of doctrine; and the internal evidence of authen
and the spot eventually became celebrated for the ticity arising from the incidental allusions in it
battle in which Brutus and Cassius were de to persons and circumstances is very strong
feated. Paul made some stay in this place on (flora Patdin&y c, 7). It is referred to formally
his first arrival in Greece, and here founded the and expressly by Polycarp, in hi? Epistle to the
church to which he afterwards addressed one of PhUippians ( 3, & II), besides being repeatedly
Ins epistles. It was here that the interesting cir quoted by him. It is quoted by the churches at
cumstances related in Acts xvi. occurred; and Vienne and Lyons, in their letter to the churches
the city was again visited by the Apostle on his in Asia and Phrygia, preserved by Rusebius
departure from Greece (Acts xx. tit). In the (Hist. Eccles.) v. 2; by Irena?us {Cant. 7/trr., iv.
former Mange (xvi. 12) Philippi is called a IS, $ i) ; by Clement of Alexandria (Ptedag. lib.
colony (KoAwria), and this character it had in i. p. 107 ; Strom , iv. p. 511 ; Admon. ad Gentes,
fact acquired through many of the followers of p. 56); by Tertulliau (De ttesur. Carnis, c 23) ;
Antony having been colonized thither by Au by Origen {Cant. Ccls., lib. iii. n. 122, ed. Spen
gustus (Dion. Cass, xlvii. 432). The fact that cer; et strpiss.) : by Cyprian (Lib. Testim., iii.
Philippi was a colony was formerly disputed; 39). and by many ofthe later Fathers.
but it* complete verification has strongly attested From allusions in the epistle itself, it is evi
the minute accuracy of the sacred narrative. dent that it was written at Home during the
It is there also Mid to have been wpcSn) rijs period of the apostle's two years imprisonment in
ficpilios T-rjS MeuceSoWay ttoAis, *a chief city of that city, and in all probability towards the close
this part of Macedonia'not the capital, for that of that period (i. 13, H, 23, 26; ii. 18, 25). If
was Amphipolis (Livy, xlv. 29). Others explain seems to have been composed on the occasion of
the word irpwrf) with reference to geographi the return to Philippi of Epaphroditus, a member
cal position, i. e. the first city as one comes of the church in that place, who had been de
from the East ; but it has been well objected that puted to Rome with a pecuniary contribution
Paul had just landed at Neapolis, which is still from the church in aid of the apostle. Full of
further to the East (comp. Diod. Sic. xvi. 8; gratitude for this work of friendly remembrance
Strabo, vii. p. 51 1 ; also Uosenmiiller, Bibl. Gcog. and regard, Paul addressed to the church in
iii. 393). The site has not been much visited by Philippi this epistle, in which, besides expressing
PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. PHILISTINES. 531
nis thanks for their kindness, he pours out a flood exhortations to cheerfulness, moderation, prayer,
of eloquence and pathetic exhortation, suggested and good conduct (ver. 4-9); after which come a
partly by his own circumstances, and partly by series of allusions to the apostle's circumstances
what he had learned of their state as a church. and feelings, his thanks to the Philippians for
That state appears to have been on the whole very their seasonable aid, and his concluding bene
prosperous, as there is much commendation of the dictions and salutations (ver. 10-23).
Philippians in the epistle, and no censure is ex Heinriclis has advanced the opinion, that of
pressed in any part of it either of the church as a these three ]>arts of this epistle the first belongs to
whole, or of any individuals connected with it. a different comjmsition from the other two (Nov.
At the same time the aittstle deemed it necessary Test. Koppan. vol. vii. pt. ii. p. 31). It is not
to put them on their guard against the evil in worth while to recapitulate his reasonings in
fluences to which they were exposed from Juda- support of this notion ; they have been fully exa
izing teachers, and false professors of Christianity. mined and sufficiently refuted by Krause (An
These cautions he interposes between the exhort Epist. Pauli ad Phil, in duos Epistolas ....
ations suggested l y his own state and by the dispescenda sitt Ihs. crit. exeget. Regiom.
news he had received concerning' the Philippians, 1811), and Schott (Isagoge in N. T, i) 70).
with which his epistle commences and with which This epistle is written throughout in a very
it closes. We may thus divide the epistle into animated and elevated style. It is full of the
three parts. In the first of these (i., ii.), aftei most sublime thoughts and the most affectionate
the usual salutation and an outpouring of warm exhortations. It resembles more the production
hearted affection towards the Philippian church of a father addressing his children, than that of
(i. 1-11), the apostle refers to his own condition an apostle laying down authoritatively what is
as a prisoner at Home ; and lest they should be to be received and followed. The whole of it
cast down at the thought of the unmerited indig shows, as Theophylact observes, how very much
nities he had been called ujxhi to sutler, he assures he loved and estimated those to whom it was
them that these had turned out rather to the addressed, &v cVckcp airivrwy tr<p6Zpa <pt\wv
furtherance of that great cause on which his ainovs koL TiftO* ipcdvtrat (Proem, in Ep. ad
heart was set and for which he was willing to live PhiL).
and labour, though, as respected his personal Of separate commentaries upon this epistle, a
feelings, he would rather depart and be with considerable number has appeared, especially on
Christ, which he deemed to be * far better' the continent. Of these the chief are the follow
(12-24). He then passes by an easy transition to ing : M. H. Schotanus, Analys. et Comment, in
a hortatory address to the Philippians, calling Ep. Pauli ad Phil., cum observationibus et earum
upon them io maintain steadfastly their profes usibus, Franc. 1637, 4to. ; J. Gottfried Am
sion, to cultivate humanity and brotherly love, Ende, Pauli Ep. ad Phil. Gr. ex recens. Cries-
to work out their own salvation with fear and bachii; Nova vers. Lat. et annot. perpet. illust,
trembling, and concluding by an appeal to their Vitemb. 1798, 8vo. ; G. F. H. RheinwaWl, Com-
regard for his reputation as an apostle, which mentor. i>b. d. Brief Pauli an die Philipp.,
could not but be alTected by their conduct, and Berlin, 1827, 8vo. ; Konrad Steph. Matthies,
a reference to his reason for sending to them Erk/arttng d. Briefes Pauli an d. Pkil.% Greifs-
Epaphroditus instead of Timothy, as he had ori wold, 1835, 8vo. ; Hermann Gustav. Hblemann,
ginally designed (i. 25 ; ii. 30). In part second Comment, in Ep. ad Phil., Lips. 1839; Wessel
he strenuously cautions them, as already observed, Alb von Hengel, Comment, perpetuus in ep.
against Judaizing teachers, whom he stigmatizes Pauli ad PhiL, Amstel, 1839; A. Rilliet, Com-
as 'dogs* (in reference probably tn their im mentaire sur VEpitre de VApatre Paul aux
pudent, snarling, and quarrelsome habits), 1 evil- Phil., Geneva, 1841, 8vo. In English the works
workers,' and 'the concision;* by which latter of Pearce and Ferguson may be mentioned.
term he means to intimate, as Tlieophylact re W.L.A.
marks (in /oc.), that the circumcision in which
the Jews so much gloried had now ceased to PHILISTINES (DW?P ; Sept. *v\,artttu,
possess any spiritual significance, and was there and 'AAAo^fAoi ; Joseph. naAioT^oi, Antiq. v. 1.
fore no better than a useless mutilation of the IS), a tribe which gave its name to the country
person. On this theme he enlarges, making re known as Palestine, though it occupied only a
ference to his own standing as a Jew, and inti portion of the southern coast, namely, that which
mating, that if under the Christian dispensation was bounded on the west by the hill country of
Jewish descent and Jewish privileges were to go Ephraim and Judah, and on the south extended
for anything, no one could have stronger claims from Joppa to the borders of Egypt, thus touching
on this ground than he ; but at the same time on the Israelite tribes Dan, Simeon, and Judah.
declaring, that however he had once valued these, Indeed the jwrtions of Simeon and Dan covered
he now counted them 'all but lost for the excel a large jiart of Philistia, but its possession by the
lency of the knowledge of Christ1 (iii. 1-12). A Israelites was disputed, and was never entirely
reference to his own sanctified ambition to ad achieved. This country was originally held by
vance in the service of Christ leads him to exhort the Avims, who were destroyed and their land
the Philippians to a similar spirit; from this he seized by the Caphtorims, coming forth out of
passes to caution them against unnecessary con Caphtor (Deut. ii. 23). In Jer. xlvii. 4 the Phi
tention, and against those who walk disorderly, listines are denominated * the remnant of the
concluding by reminding them of the glorious country (or isle) of Caphtor.' In Amos ix. 7,
hopes which, as Christians, they entertained (ver. the Divine Being asks, ' Have I not brought the
13-21). In the third part we have a series of Philistines from Caphtor?1 The Caphtorim and
admonitions to individual members of the church the Philistim are also associated together as kin
at Philippi (iv. 1-3), followed by Borne general dred tribes in the genealogical list of nations
522 PHILISTINES. PHILISTINES.
given in Gen. x. 14, both being tier eiulants of denominated 'this uncircumcised Philistine*
Mizraim. This last passage would be more (comp. 2 Sam. i. 20). Yet the Philistines be
strictly in agreement with the others if the words longed to the Shem'ttic family. The names of
'out of whom came Philistim' were placed im their cities and their proper names are of Shemitic
mediately after Caphtorim. Where then is Caph origin. In their intercourse with the Israelites
tor ? Wliere are we to look for the Caphtorim ? there are many intimations that the two used a
There, wherever it was, are the Philistines to be common language. How is this, if they were
originally found. Caphtor lias been thought to immigrants in Palestine? This difficulty is re
be Cappadocia; so is it rendered by the Targuma, moved by supposing that originally they were in
as well as by the Syriac and Vulgate translations Palestine, being a ]>art. of the great Sbemitic
(* Palaesthinos reliquias insula? Cappadocia? '). family, went westward, under pressure from the
Bertlieau, however, decides that. Caphtor is Crete, wave of population which came down from the
on several grounds (Bertlieau, Zur Gcschichte higher country to the sea-coast, but afterwards
der Israelites, 1842; see also Die Phonizier, von returned eastward, back from Crete to Palestine ;
Movers, 1841 ; and Kanaan, von C. von Lengerke, so that in Amos ix. 7 it is to be understood that
1844). In Jer. xlvii. 4, Caphtor is named 1N : God brought them up to Palestine, as he brought
the word may indicate a cnast, but leads the the Israelites out of Egyptback to their home.
mind most forcibly to think of an island. The This view the passage undoubtedly admits ; but
Philistines, in 1 Sam. xxx. 14, 16, are termed we cannot agree with Movers in holding that it
Cherethites (Ezek. xxv. 16; Zeph. ii. 5), *J"|~D, gives direct evidence in its favour, though his
an adjective, which itself might be put into the general position is probably correct, that the Phi
English letters Cretans, and is derived from the listines tirst quitted the mainland for the neigh
proper name tVttt or Crete. Since the apjiear- bouring islands of the Mediterranean sea, aud
ance of Lakemacher's Ob&eroat. Philol. (ii. 11, then, after a time, returned to their original home
q.), and Calmet's Biblical Researches, the word (Movers, pp. 19, 29, 35). Greek writers, however,
Kreti has been considered to prove that the Phi give evidence of a wide diffusion of the Shemitic
listines were wanderers from Crete, which recent race over the islands of the Mediterranean. Thu-
scholars have confirmed. Thus Hitzig (Die 12 cydides says (i. ft) that most of the islands were
Kleinen Propheten) says, on Zeph. ii. 5, the Phi inhabited by Carians and Phoenicians. Of Crete
listines were offsprings of Barbarians, who dwelt Herodotus (i. 173) declares that Barbarians had,
of old in Crete (Herod, i. 173), and thence before Minos, formed the population of the island.
passed to different parts of the continent (Amos There is evidence in Homer to the same effect
ix. 7 ; comp. Tucb's Commentar zur Genesis, ( Od. ix. 1 74 ; comp. Strabo, p. 475). Many proofs
p. 243). offer themselves that, before the spread of the
Greeks and Romans support this view. Tacitus Hellenes, these islands were inhabited by Sbemi
(Hist. v. 2) relates that inhabitants of Palestine tic races. The worship observed in them at this
came thither from Crete. He uses indeed the time shows a Shemitic origin. The Shemitics
name Jews; but as the Philistines gave their gave place to the Hellenicsa change winch
name to Palestine, tiie heathen historian was not dates from the time of Minos, who drove them
likely to make any exact distinction in ttie case, out of the islands, giving the dominion to his son.
and may be understood to mean the Philis The expelled population settled on the Asiatic
tines, as inhabitants of Palsestina or Philistia. coast. This evidence, derived from heathen
Stephen of Byzantium, under the word rdfa sources, gives a representation which agTees with
states that this city, Gaza, was properly called the Scriptural account of the origin, the westerly
Minna, from Minos, king of Crete, who came to wandering, and return eastwards of the Philistines.
Gaza with his brothers Acakos and Rhadaman- But chronology creates a difficulty. Minos lived
thus, and named the place after himself (comp. probably about the year n.c. 1300. According to
Krcta, von Karl Hoeck, ii. 368). Stephanus the Old Testament the Philistines were found in
Hyzaut. adds that the Cretan Jupiter (Ztvs Kprj- Palestine at an earlier period. In Gen. xx.2; xxvi.
ToWnp) was honoured in Gaza. From other 1 ; we find a Philistine king of Gerar. But thij
writers it ap]>ears that the Cretan Jupiter bore the king (and others) may have been so termed, not
name of Mama in this Philistine city, where he because he was of Philistine blood, but because
was cliief of eight principal gods, and had a he dwelt in the land which was afterwards called
splendid temple consecrated to his service. The Philistia. And there are other considerations
authorities for this statement may be found in which seem to show that Philistines did not oc
Movers' Die Phonizier, p. 662. Marna seems cupy this country in the days of Abraham (con
only another name for Malchan, Baalan, or sult Bertlieau, p. 196). It is, however, certain
Baalti, denoting the protecting deity of the city. that the Philistines existed in Palestine in the time
The Philistines are represented in the Old of Moses, as a brave and warlike people (Exod.
Testament as foreign immigrants. The ordinary xiii. 17)a fact which places them on the Asiatic
translation of their name in the Septuagint is continent long before Minos. This difficulty
AW6$>j\oti men of another tribe. The root does not appear considerable to us. There may
have been a return eastwards before the time of
EJ^D, whence Philistine, denotes a wanderer, one Minos, as well as one in his time; or he may
from a foreign land, and was probably given by have merely put the finishing stroke to a return
the Hebrews to the foreign immigrants who called commenced from some cause or otherwar, over
themselves Cretans. If so, the Philistines did not population, &c.at a much earlier }>eriod. The
belong to any of the aboriginal stems. That they information found in the Bible is easily under
were not a portion of the Hebrew race appears stood on the showing, that in the earliest ages
from the fact that they were uncircumcised. In tribes of the Shemitic race spread themselves
I Sam. xvii. 26, Goliath of Gath is derisively over the west, and, becoming inhabitants of tht
PHILISTINES. PHILISTINES. 623
islands, gave themselves to navigation. To these he had become king of all Israel, but were several
tribes the Philistines appear to have belonged, times beaten by that brave monarch (2 Sam. v.
who, for what reason we Know not, left Crete, and 17, sq. ; viii. 1). * Mighty men,' performing
settled on the coast of Palestine. But in Gen. x. valorous deeds in imitation of David's rencontre
13, 14, the Philistines are derived from Mizraim, with Goliath, gave the king their support against
that is, from Egypt. How is this? Movers holds this brave and persevering enemy (2 Sam. xxiii.
that Phoenician invaders were the Hyksos of 8, sq.). Solomon apfiears to have been undis
Egyptian history, whence the Philistines would, turbed by the Philistines, but they had settle
in relation to their stay and dominion in Egypt, ments in the land of Israel under the early
be spoken of as of Egyptian origin. Bertheau, Ephraimittc kings (1 Kings xv. 27; xvi. 15).
however, condemns this view as too complicated, To Jehoshaphat they became tributary (2 Chron.
and states it as his opinion that the Philistines, xvii. 11). Under Jehoram, however, they, in
as dwellers in Crete, were reckoned as belonging union with the Arabians, fell on Jerusalem, and
to Egypt (see also Ewald, Geschichte, i. 289; carried off the king's substance, as well as his
Leugerke, Kantian^ p. 195, sq.). wives and children (2 Chron. xxi. 16). On
If now we follow the Biblical accounts we find the other hand, in the reign of king Jehoash,
the history of the Philistines to be in brief as fol their city Gatli was taken by Hazael, king of
lows. They had established themselves in their Syria, who also threatened Jerusalem (2 Kings
land as early as the time of Abraham, when they xii. 17). But in the time of Ahaz they revolted,
had founded a kingdom at Gerar (Gen. xxi- 32; and carried with them a part of western Judah,
xxvi. I). When the Israelites left Egypt they having 4 invaded the cities of the low country
were deterred by fear of the power of the Philis and of the south of Judah, and taken Beth-
tines from returning by the shortest roadthai shcmesh and Ajalon,' &c. (2 Chron. xxviii. IS;
which the caravans still takebecause it lay comp. lsa. xiv. 29). Hezekiah in the first years
through the country of the Philistines (Exod. of his reign obtained some advantages over them
xiii. 17). In the time of Joshua (xiii. 3) the (2 Kings xviii. 8). Soon, however, Assyrian
Philistines appear in a league of five princes armies went against Philistia, and, with a view
(D*3"^D, which may be a Philistine corruption to an invasion of Egypt, got into their power the
from *(>), governors of so many tribes or petty strong frontier-fortress of Ashdod (lsa. xx. 1),
states* all the borders of the Philistines from which at a later time Psammetichus took from
Sihor which is before Egypt even unto the bor them, after a siege of twenty-nine years (Herod,
ders of Ekron northward counted to the Cauaan- ii. 157). In consequence of the hostile relations
ites.' Joshua appears to have thought it prudent between Assyria and Egypt, Philistia suffered
to attempt nothing for the dispossession of the for a long iwriod, as the troops of the former
Philistines, and he therefore had no hostile re power took their way through that land, and
lations with them; for the division of Philistia Pharaoh-Necho captured the stronghold Gaza
among the tribes was nothing more than a pro (lsa. xlvii. 1). The same was done by Alexander
spective but unfulfilled arrangement (Josh. xv. the Great in his expedition to Egypt. On the
45; xix. 43). The days of the Judges, however, destruction of the Jewish state, the Philistines,
brought conflicts betwee^the Israelites and the like other neighbouring peoples, acted ill towards
Philistines, who dwelt wWe over the land, and the Jews, having 'taken vengeance with a de
even exercised domiuion over their Hebrew neigh spiteful heart' (Ezek. xxv. 15). Many of those
bours (Judg. iii. 31 ; x. 7; xiii. 1; xiv. 2, 4, 5; who relumed from the captivity 'had married
xv. 11). wives of Ashdod, and their speech spoke half in
In the time of Eli the Philistines succeeded in the speech of Ashdod' (Neh, xiii. 23, sq.). In
getting the ark into their possession (1 Sam. iv.); the Maccabeeati periil the Philistines were Syrian
but a defeat which they suffered under Samuel subjects, and had at times to suffer at the hands
put an end to their dominion, after it had lasted of the Jews (1 Mace. x. R6; xi. 60, sq.). King
forty years (1 Sam. vii.). This subjection of the Alexander (Balas) gave Jonathan a part of their
Israelites began after the death of Jair, and con territory, Accaron, with the borders thereof in
tinued to the termination of the period embraced possession (1 Mace, x. 89). The Jewish monarch
hi the book of Judges. Within this space of time Alexander Jannaeus overcame and destroyed Gaza
fill the life and the heroic actions of Samson. (Joseph. Antiq. xiii. 3. 3; De Bell. Jud. i. 4. 2).
Notwithstanding the total defeat which the Plii- By Pompey Azotus, Jamnia, and Gaza were united
I stines had undergone, and the actual termination to the Roman province of Syria (Antiq. xiv. 4. 4) ;
of their political supremacy, they continued to he but Gaza was given by Augustus to King Herod
troublesome neighl>ours. ' There was sore war (Antiq. xv. 7. 3).
against the Philistines all the days of Saul' (1 The Philistine cities were greatly distinguished.
Sam. xiv. 52); a conflict which was carried on Along the whole coast from north to south there
witli various success, and in which the king found ran a line of townsin the north the Phoenician,
great support in the prudent bravery of his son in the south the Philistinewhich were powerful,
Jonathan and the high courage of David (1 Sam. rich, and well-peopled. The chief cities of the
xiii. 4 ; xiv. ; xvii. 18 ; xix. 8 ; xxiii. 2R). Even Philistines were fiveGaza. Ashdod, Askalon,
after his separation from Saul David inflicted Gath, and Ekron (Josh. xiii. 3; Judg. iii. 3).
many blows on the Philistines (1 Sam. xxiii.), Several of these Palestinian cities flourished at
but soon saw himself obliged to seek refuge in the same time; and though now these, now those
Gatli (1 Sam. xxvii.), and was in consequence cities gained at different periods pre-eminence in
near making common cause with them against power, wealth, and population, and though somedid
Saul (1 Sam. xxix.), who met with his death at not rise till others had declined or perished, yet is
their hands while engaged in battle (1 Sam. xxxi.). it true that from the earliest times till the century
They also raised their arms against David, when after Christ a cumber of important towns existed
524 PHILOLOGUS. PHILOSOPHY, GREEK.
on the narrow strip of land which borders the may a knowledge of ancient learning, and more
Mediterranean sea, such as was never seen in any especially of ancient philosophy, supply valuable
other part of the world, the Ionian coast of Asia assistance for the better understanding of Christian
Minor not excepted. doctrines ; hut we may derive from such know
The greatness of these cities was mainly owing ledge the fullest and clearest proofs of the Itenefit
to commerce, for the coast of Palestine was in conferred by Christianity on the progress of prin
the earliest ages exclusively in possession of the ciple and civilization : and we may add, that we
trade which was carried on between Europe and have a direct warrant from St. Paul to employ
Asia. Besides a great transit trade, they had ancient learning, and more especially Greek phi
internal sources of wealth, being given to agri losophy, in rendering to the Christian religion the
culture (Judg. xv. -V). In the time of Saul they services we have sjiecified.
were evidently superior in the arts of life to the PerhajH there does not occur in the Christian
Israelites; for we read (1 Sam. xiii. 20) that the record a more striking and important passage
latter were indebted to the firmer for the utensils tliau ti. if which we shall quote from the Kpistle
of ordinary life. Their religion was not essen to the Romans : that Epistle which, for its general
tially different from that of the Phoenicians. The and paramount interest (being equally addressed
idol which they most reverenced was Astarte, to Gentile, Jew, and Christian), has been placed
the Assyrian Semiramis, or Derkcto, who was first of the Epistles. Indeed, the Epistle to the
also honoured as Dagon, in a very ancient temple Romans proves, by the plainest facts, that Christi
at Askalon and at Gaza, also at Ashdod (Movers, anity was absolutely necessary for the removal of
p. 5S9, sq. ; Lengerke, Kanaan, p. 200 ; Herod the most intolerable evils that ever oppressed the
i. 105; Judg. xvi. 23; 1 Sam. v. 1, sq. ; 1 Mace, world. The Apostle of the Gentiles, having in
x. 83). This was a sjweies of fish-worship, a the opening chapter given a fearful picture of the
remnant of winch may still he found in the vices and crimes of Home, the truth of which is
special care taken of certain holy fish in some fully established by the writings of Tacitus and
parts of Syria (Niebuhr, ReUet ii. 167; Burck- Suetonius, Martial and the Roman satirists
hardt, i. 278, 521). In Ek ron Baal-zebu h had (and in the next chapter, ii. 17, he charges the
his chief seat. Priests and soothsayers were same neglect of moral duty, under pretence of
numerous (I Sam. vi. 2). Their magicians were a sounder faith, upon the Jews), proceeds to
in repute (Isa. ii. 6), and the oracle of Baal- address Gentile and Jew in a strain of manly and
xebub was consulted by foreigners (2 Kings i. 2 . noble eloquence, which, if we estimate the mag
They had the custom of carrying with them in nitude of the interests, individual and domestic,
war the images of their gods (2 Sam. v. 21). private and public, religious, moral, and political,
Tradition makes the Philistines the inventors of which then depended and still depends on tl*e
the bow and arrow.J. R. B. understanding and reception of Christianity in
PHILOLOGUS (+t\6koyos)> one of the Chris its truth and power, must be allowed to leave
tians at Rome to whom Paul sent his salutations every other example of reasoning and eloquence
(Rom. xvi. 15). Dorotheus makes him one of the far behind it. The words of St. Paul, following
seventy disciples, and alleges that he was placed his exposure of the wickedness of Rome (of
by the a]Ktie Andrew as bishop of Sinope, in heathen vices as the direct consequences of heathen
Pontus. But this seems altogether improbable. superstitions) are continued in Rom. i. 21, 24-26,
PHILOSOPHY, GREEK. It cannot be ex 28, 29, &c.
pected, that within the limit.-* of a brief article, The Christian minister has in his spiritual
in a work of this nature, and of the size to armoury no weapon of keener edge or of finer
which it is limited, we should enter into an histo temper, whether for laying bare the hidden secrets
rical, critical, or even popular account of Greek of the heart, or for unfolding the mystery of salva
philosophy ; nor that the subject, however in tion in Jesus Christ. Wliat man, however igno
teresting in itself, should be introduced at all, rant, careless, or vicious he may be, does not find
farther than will minister to the right understand his inmost conscience respond to the words, 'and
ing and reception of Scriptural truth. In the thinkest thou this, O man, thatjudges! !hem which
articles Gnosticism and Louos we have shown do such things and doest the same, that thou shalt
that a knowledge of Greek philosophy throws escape the judgment of God?' What resister of
light on one of the most recondite doctrines of the truth, whether by open scoffing or secret disobe
Christianity, bringing us acquainted with expres dience), does not find himself pricked to the heart
sions and opinions current throughout the civilized by (he words, 4 them that are contentious, and do not
world during the rise and progress of Christianity, ol>ey the truth?* What sanctimonious hypocrite,
and showing how these modes of expression came rigid dogmatist, or tierce persecutor, does not find
to be adopted by the first converts to Christianity, the hollow nets and perilnusness of his pretence in
and afterwards to be employed by St. John in the words, 'not the hearers of the law are just
his Gospel Indeed, if a knowledge of the sacri before God, but the doers of the law shall l>e jus
ficial language of the Jews throws light upon tified?* What catholic-minded, sincere-hearted,
Christ's mission, in so far as its object was to put rightly-conducted Christian does not find comfort
an end to the numerous sacrifices ami ceremonial in the words, * but glory, honour, and peace, to
ministrations of the Jewish priesthood, it is not every man that worketh good/ What man faint
less evident tiiat a knowledge of the philosophical ing by the way will not take courage from the
language of the Greeks will throw light upon the words, 1 to those who by patient continuance in
first use amongst the Christian converts, and well doing seek for glory, and honour, and im
ujion the subsequent adoption by St. John into mortality, eternal life/ What Antiuomian pro
his Gospel, and by St. Paul into bis Epistles, of fessor of faith, as an excuse for disobedience, does
the remarkable language employed to describe the not feel his hope fail him as he reads the words,
mission and the nature of Christ But not only * not the hearers of the law axe just before God
PHILOSOPHY, GREEK. PHILOSOPHY, GREEK. 525
but the doers of the law shall be justified,'or and on the other hand, for faith without obedi
should he attempt to escape the plain meaning of ence. If we inquire into the real meaning of
the passage by the plea that he is neither Jew nor those remarkable words, we shall find it closely
Gentile, how will he escape from words addressed connected with our present subject, and directly
in the same spirit of making obedience the test of opjwsed to the unlearned and unwise meaning
faith* What shall we say then? Shall tee con which lias lieen deduced from it, by what may be
tinue ill sin that grace may abound? God forbid called the pride of ignorance, as a warrant for
Know ye not that to whom ye yield yourselves presumption. Indeed, it is not a little remark
servant* to obey, his servants ye are to whom ye able, that few passages require more real learning
obey, whether of sin unto death, or of obedience and tme wisdom for their sound interpretation,
unto righteousness ?' Lastly, who does not feel than that which has been so often and so hastily
his faith, hope, and charity enlarged, as he reads quoted as a warrant for a contempt of all learning.
the following catholic extension of justice, and Let us endeavour to understand the real meaning
mercy, and truth, published by the Ajxtle to the of the passage : and, in order to do so, let us
Gentiles' Glory, and honour, and peace, to return to our former quotation.
every man that worketli good, of the Jew tirst, and In the tirst chapter of the Epistle to the
also of the Gentile.1 Romans, the necessity of a great religious change,
The Protestant will not fail to remark that the preparatory to a great moral changea change of
preacliing of St. Paul exhibits a far more catholic faith and worship, preparatory to a change in
spirit than the narrower and more sectarian views principles and conductis fully and plainly made
of St. Peter. Indeed, tiie word Catholic might out. The Apostle to the Gentiles was about to
with much greater fitnes* be applied to the teach build upon the Jewish Scriptures, but for the
ing of I lie great Apostle to the Gentiles, than to edification of the whole world, a purer faith and
the teaching iff the apostle whose JudahuDg spirit a more reasonable service than Jew or Gentile
sought to narrow the grace of God, and to impose had yet known. The moral ruin of the Jewish
the yoke of the ceremonial law, and to keep up temple had already taken place' Behold, thou
the power of the priesthood. And if any one of art called a Jew, and restest, in the law, and
the apostles is to be selected as the patron saint makest thy boast of God ; and kuowest his will,
of the whole catholic church, surely that apostle and apprnvest the things that are more excellent,
should be 1 lie great Apostle to the Gentiles. Or, being instructed out of the law ; and art con
if the Church of Rome claims to be the Catholic fident that thou thyself art a guide to the blind, a
Church, there seems an especial reason for her light of them which are in darkness, an instructor
adopting the really catholic views of Christi of the foolish, a teacher of babes; which hast the
anity which were addressed by St. Paul to the form of knowledge and of the truth in the law ;
Romans. Thou, therefore, which teachest another, teachest
We have found it impossible to refer to the thou not thyself? Thou that preachest, A man
above striking and important passage from St. should not steal, dost thou steal 1 Thou that
Paul's Ejiistle to the Romans without, being led sayest, A man should not commit adultery, dost
into a few remarks upon its general 8coj>e and mean thou commit adultery? Thou that abhorrest
ing, liut the view on which we would especially idols, dost thou commit sacrilege? Thou that
insist, as the subject of our present article, is, that makest thy boast of the law, through breaking
theologians have in this passage, as they have in the law dishonourest thou God' (Rom. ii. 21)?
many other passages closely connected witli it, a On the other hand, the ruins of Gentile temples,
warraii" tor bringing ancient history, literature, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman, still witness the
and philosophy, and especially the philosophy of truth of St. Paul's words to the same effect
Greece, to i>ear upon the rise and progress, the 1 When they knew God, they glorified him not as
object and end of Christianity. For assuredly God, but became vain in their imaginations, and
every passage in the New Testament which their foolish heart was darkened. Professing
relates to the superstition of the Gentiles, the themselves to lie wise, they became fools, and
immoralities of the Gentiles, the opinions of the changed the glory of the incorruptible Go;l into
Gentiles, and the knowledge of the Gentiles, must an image made like to corruptible man, and to
derive evidence and explanation from Gentile birds, and four-footed leasts, and creeping things.
history, literature, and philosophy; just as pas Wherefore God also gave them up to unclean*
sages which have reference to the Jews must uess.'
derive evidence and explanation from Jewish His It is impossible to over-estimate the importance
tory, literature, and philosophy. The latter is of this lesson, or the plainness of the evidence;
more especially the case with passages in the New the lesson, that corruption of religion implies cor
Testament, which relate to the termination of ruption of morals; the evidence, the phenomena
sacrifice and the priesthood ; whilst the former of the civilized world a^t that great jieriod of
applies more especially to passages which relate history. Respecting the religious and moral
to the word of God and the Christian ministry. corruptions of ihe Jews at that period, our present
It might, indeed, be supposed from the opinions argument does not require us to say more. Let
and conduct of some Christians in all ages (who us then turn to the corruptions of the heathens.
have all but adduced their ignorance in proof of Those who are acquainted with the progressively-
the soundness of their faith), that the oft-quoted increasing profligacy of the heathen world, as ex
words of the learned, as well as pious, Apostle to hibited in Greek and Roman history and literature,
the Gentiles, 'alter that, in the wisdom of God, are aware that the picture drawn by St Paul is
the world by wisdom knew not God, it pleased fully borne out by facts. The sanctity and purity
God by the foolishness of preaching to save tliem of the domestic hearth were undeimined; the
that believe* (1 Cor. i. 12), contained a warrant, roof-tree virtues, which are a nation's strength,
on the one hand, for preaching without knowledge, had given way ; and the vast edifice of Greek
626 PHILOSOPHY, GREEK. PHILOSOPHY, GREEK.
science and Roman power was tottering to its Christ. Now, as there cannot l>e a greater evil
fall. That this is no exaggerated statement, we to society than the corruption of women, nor a
appeal to Plato, Aristophanes, and Laoiau, to greater good than female virtue, so there cannot
Tacitus, Martial, Ovid, and the Roman satirists. be a more important evidence respecting the value
Indeed, the summary given by the Roman His of Christianity in the progress of civilization,
torian of a somewhat earlier period, points to the than this proof which ancient history and lite
giinie conclusion :' Lahaute deiude paulatim rature supply; first, of the moral degradation
disciplina, volut desidentes, primo mores sequatur produced by heathen superstition ; and, secondly,
animo; deinde ut magis magisque lapei sint, linn of the moral cure wrought by Christianity.
ire cuaperint praccipites : donee ad hrec tempnra, In the Epistle to the Romans, it is the object of
qnibus nec vitia nostra nec remediapati posminus, St. Paul to prove, both to Jew and Gentile, that
perventum est* (Liv. Preef.). In that state of the moral world, though it hail the law of Muses
unprtnciple and indiscipline, Roman civilization and the philosophy of Greece, was so sunk in
was unable to resist the attacks which her vices superstition, sin, and crime, that the whole body
had provoked. The close connection between licen of society was corrupt, and that there was not a
tiousness and blood-guiltiness was never so hope of cure till the sources of corruption, whether
strikingly manifested as in the (rightful exhibi in the pharisaical observances of the Jew, or in
tions which formed 'a Roman holiday' in the the profligate superstitions of the Gentile, were
amphitheatre. Woman must have lost all the Plpereedfd by a purer faith and a sounder worship.
best attributes of her nature and her character St, Paul contends that neither the law of Moses,
before she could sit and applaud at such a scene. nor the philosophy of Greece, was able to raise
If, casting from us every Wot and petty jealousy, Jew or Gentile from the bondage of sin and
sexual, and sectarian, and philosophical, we con death ; and he challenges the religious and the
trast that scene of woman's debasement with moral, and, we may add, the political facts of
those happier scenes where thousands of our those times, to prove the truth of his assertion.
countrywomen have met in hall and temple, His object was not to depreciate either the Mosaic
and even in the open air, to give freedom to law or the Greek philosophy, the authority of the
the slave, and remember that these are as "cer one, or the morality of the other, but toshow that so
tainly direct consequences of Christianity, as long as the pharisaical observances of the Jew, and
those were direct consequences of heathen stq>er- the profligate superstitions of the Gentile, remained
stitiou (unless, indeed, St. Paul's unanswerable in force, neither leligion nor philosophy could pre
argument, and the concurrent testimony of ancient vent the world from sinking deeper and deeper into
and modem history, are false instead of true), pollution. The Apostle of the Gentiles allows
assuredly we have before us proofs of a great that * they knew God,' but he contends that
religious and moral and political advance in t lie 'they gloritied Him not as God and, therefore', he
situation and character ofwomen ; and the cause, asserts, * God gave them up to lasciviousness ;' lie
as well as the efl'ect, is plainly l>eloie us. allows, 1 that some amongst them, though they
We speak of a great ami notor ious fact, when had not the law, tlid by nature the things con
we say that there was not a hope lhat sanctity, tained in the law,* but he contends that the prin
and purity, and love, would lie restored to the ciples and conduct of such men were hut an ueaie
character of woman, and by her means to the in the midst of a howling wilderness, for thai the
domestic hearth,and by the domestic hearth to mass of men were given up 1 to vile alTections.'
tiie councils of legislators, and lite acts of nations, It is impossible to deny that in the Greek phi
that there was not a hope that woman would losophy we find the rise anil progress of a specu
resume, or rather, would assume, her true position lative knowledge of God of no common character
in society, till heathen superstitions and heathen or measure ; but it is just as impossible to deny
rites were superseded by a holier faith and a purer that though the nations, amongst which a few
worship. Nor is the fact less notorious or less such burning and shining lights had arisen, might
important, th.it it was the religion of Christ lie said ' to know God,* it was notorious that
winch, by superseding those heathen lupentitioni ' they glorified Him not as God.' It is by
and heathen rites by a holier faith and a purer following out St. Paul's argument, and by ex-
worship, did, at the same time, and as a direct amiuing the tiuth of his statements, that v.e feel
consequence, raise woman to her true position in all the necessity of an abolition of heathen super
Bociety. It is, we repeat, matter of fact that the stitions, and the establishing of a better l.iith.
religion of Christ restored sanctity, ami purity, before sound principles ami right conduct could
and love to the domestic hearth, milking those l>e understood and practised by the maai of
three Christian graces, if we may lie allowed that mankind, though they had U en conceived by a
expression, the best ornaments of the female cha few philosophers.
racter, and giving Christian love and Christian If to this evidence of the necessity of a change
charity an influence which has at once softened of faith and worship for the salvation of the
and purified the heart. And, were it possible that ancient world, proving that without such change
the ill-directed ingenuity which has laboured for the religious, and moral, and political reforma
the downfall of religion on the continent, should tions which were required, were quite unattain
get footing in this country, we persuade ourselves able,if, to this evidence, we add proofs of the
that it would be resisted effectually by our religions, moral, and political reformation which
countrywomen, who might plead that the l>est Christianity actually introduced,and if, to this
graces of their character,graces which have two-fold evidence respecting the necessity of a
made them eminent amongst the women of Europe, change of faith, and the efficacy of the change to
need we add, of lite world,their sanctity, their Christianity, we add the evidence of the actual
purity, and their affection, have been inspired, effects of Christianity in our own times, freedom
and disciplined, and directed by the religion of to the slave, knowledge to the ignorant, and civU
PHINEHAS. PHOENICIA. M7
ligation to the heathen (for though these benefits xvi. 1). It is probable that she was the bearer of
have been wrought by politicians, it has been in the Epistle to the Romans,
compliance with a motive and a zeal which as PHCENICIA, and the PHCENICIANS. The
suredly were not supplied by worldly wisdom or Greeks called those merchants who came from
worldly justice), and if, to this three-fold evi that coast of the Mediterranean Sea which runs
dence, we add pregent indications, that still parallel with Mount Lebanon. QoivtKfs. This
higher religious, and moral, anil political efl'ects name probably arose from the circumstance that
will lie wrought out by Christianitywe have in the chief article of the commeroe of these mer
this four-fold evidence a body of proof respecting chants was <poiv6s, purple. The word <poiv6s means
the usefulness of Christianity exactly titted for blood~red. ami is probably related to tp6vos, tnur~
the wants of the time.J. P. P. der. This derivation of the name is alluded to
PHINEHAS (DnVB, mouth of brass; Sept. by Stniho (i. p, 42). Strabo, however, maintains
*u/es), son of Eleazar and grandson of Aaron that the Phoenicians were called +u'i(s, because
the high priest. An incident which illustrates they resided originally on the coasts of the Red
t lie zealous and somewhat passionate character of Sea. Reland, in his Paleestina ex MtrnumentU
Phinehas, occurred before the Israelites entered, Veteribus Iliustrata, derives the name from
the Promised Land. The Israelites were en <potvt, palm-tree. Bochart, in his Canaan (i.
camped in the plains of Moab, and were lament 1\ derives it from the Hebrew pJJJ sons of
ing the sin into which they had been seduced by Ana/c.
1-he Midianites, when a prince of Judah named The country inhabited hy the Phoenicians was
Zimri was beheld conducting a woman of Midian called by the Greeks ^otyUrf. and by the Romans
uamed Cozbi to his tent. The licentious etfron- Phonic*. In Cicero (De Fin. iv. 20) there oc
lery of this act kindled the wrath of Phinehas, curs the doubtful reading Phoenicia. (Compare
who hastened after them into the tent, and trans* the Vulgate in Num. xxxiii. 51.) However, this
fixed them both with his javelin (Num. xxv. 7, latter firm of the name has come into general
sq.) This bold act pointed out Phinehas to use. (Comjinre Gesenii Monumenta P/iwnicia,
Moses as a propel person to accompany as priest Lips. 1*37, ]>. 338; Forbiger, liandbitch der
the expedition which was immediately after sent alien Gcoyraphie, Li]*. I tt 42-4*1, p. 059, sq.)
forth, under Ihe command of Joshua, against the This name was used by the ancients sometimes
Midianites, and by which the cause of the de in a wider, sometimes in a narrower sense. Phoe
luded Israelites was abundantly avenged (Num. nicia, in its widest signification, embraces the
xxxi. G, sq.) After the conquest of the Promised whole coast of the Mediterranean situated between
Land, when the warriors of the two and half the river Orontes and Pelusinm. (Compare
tribes beyond the Jordan were permitted to return Strabo, xvi. p. 754, sq.) When Ptolemaeus and
to their homes, Phinehas was at the head of the Stniho speak of Phoenicia in a more restricted
deputation sent after them to inquire and remon sense, they mention the river Eleutheros as its
st rate concerning the altar which, on their way, northern boundary; and Ptolemaens states also
tiiey had set up on the bank of the Jordan : and that Dora, situated to the south of the promon
it was be doubtless who pronounced the forcible tory Carmel, and north of the river Chorseus,
address to the supposed offenders. He was cer was the most southern of the maritime towm of
tainly the first to express his satisfaction and joy Phoenicia. The accounts contained in the Old
at the explanation which was given, and which, Testament agree with these statements, since they
with a lightened heart, he bore back to the bribes mention the town of Aradus (T|1{*), situated a
assembled at Sliiloh (Vosh. xxii. 5, sq.). shoit distance north of the river Eleutheros, as
It appears that while his father lived Phinehas being the most northern town of those maritime
filled the post of superintendent or chief of the colonies which had proceeded from Sidon, and
Lev ires, probably after Eleazar became high priest Dor as being the most southern maritime town
(Num. iii. 32; 1 Chron. ix. 2U). At the death l>elonging to the Canaanites, which the Israelites
of his father, he succeeded to the pontificate had not been able to conquer. (Compare Gen. x.
(Josh. xxiv. 33); but the only case in winch lie 18; Jos. xvii. 12, 13.) However, it appears that
ap[>earg officially in the Bible, is in connection at a later period the tithe of Manasseh was in
with the unhappy circumstances recorded at the possession of this town. (Comjure 1 Kings iv.
end of the book of Judges, in which he conies tl ; 1 Chron. vii. 29). The towns Dor and Acco
forward as high priest to consult Jehovah. This (Ptolemais) were mercantile places of less im-
mention of his name enables us to conclude that jwrtance than Tyre and Sidon, and are conse
the chronological place of these occurrences would quently not often mentioned. Hence arises the
lie rather towards the beginning than at the latter fact that the territory of Sidon issometiinesspoken
end of the book in which they are found f Judobs; of as if it were the most southern part of Phoe
Pkikst]. nicia. For this reason we, also, in speaking of
Phoenicia, mean only that slip of the coast which
2. PHINEHAS, son of Eli the high priest, and is bounded towards the east by Mount Lebanon,
brother of Hophni [Ei.i ; Hophni*, Samuel]. which is about twelve miles wide, and extends
PHLEGON (phiymr), one of the Christians about one hundred miles fiotn north to south, be
of Rome to whom Paul sent his salutations ( Horn, tween the river Eleutheros and the promontory
xvi, 14). The legend (ap. Dorotheas) makes Carmel. The Israelites called this slip jyOD, the
him to have been one of the seventy disciples, and Netherlands, or loielandsy in contradistinction to
bishop of Marathon. the neighbouring mountains. (Compare Forbiger,
PHCEBE (ofjEfci), a deaconess of the church Handbuch der alten Geographic, Lips. 1842-44,
at Cenchreai, recommended to the kind atten vol. ii. p. 659, sq.)
tion of the church of Rome by St. Paul, who had Phoenicia is situated between about lat. 33
received hospitable treatment from her (Rom. and 35 N., and under long. 33 E. The whole
52R PHOENICIA. PHCENICIA-
of Phoenicia is situated at the western declivity of those on theCilician coins. (Compare Gesenms,
Mount Lebanon. Compare the article Libanus Geschichte der Rcbrdischen Sprache und SchrifU
Phoenicia was distinguished hy the variety of its Leipz. 1815, p. 16, sq. ; and Geseuii Monu-
vegetable productions. This variety was occa tnenta Phemicia, p. 335, sq.)
sioned hy 1 he great diversity of climate produced In the Old Testament the Phoenicians and
by the diversity in the elevation of the toil. The Canaanites are, however, described as descending,
Lebanon is said to bear winter on its head, not from Shem, but from Ham. Herodotus, also,
spring on its shoulders, autumn in its lap, and to on the authority of some Persian historians, states
have summer at its feet. The fertility of Phoe that the Phoenicians came as colonists to the Syrian
nicia is increased by the numerous streams whose coasts from the Erythraean Sea. He even ap)eals
springs are in Mount Lebanon. Even in the to the statement of the Phoenicians themselves
Song of Solomon we read the praises of the spring (vii. 89). from which it appears that they resided
of living waters which flows down from Lebanon. originally on the shores of the Erythraean Sea;
The dense |M>pulation assembled in the great mer which sea, in its larger signification, extended from
cantile towns greatly rontiibuted to augment by the eastern shores of Egypt to the western shores of
artificial means the natural fertility of the soil. India. Strabo relates in his sixteenth book (p. 760),
The imputation of the country is at present very that in the Persian Gulf were two islands ; one
much reduced, but there are still found aqueducts of which was called Tytos or Tyloa, and the other
and artificial vineyards formed of mould carried Aradus, on which were found temples similar to
up to the terraces of the naked rock. Ammianus those of the Phoenicians, and inhabitants, who
Marcel t inns says, Phcenice regio plena gra- stated that the Phoenicians went out from them
tiarum et venustatis, urbibns decorata magnis et as colonists. An island, south of the Bahrein
pulchrisPhoenicia is a charming and beau Islands, still bears the name of Arad. (Compare
tiful country, adorned with large and elegant Niebuhr's Beschreibung von Arabien.) Jus
cities. Kven now tltis couutry is among the most tinus also (xvi. 3) furnishes a similar account
fertile in Western Asia. It produces wheat, rye, of the origin or the Phoenicians. These are the
and barley, and, besides the more ordinary fruits, authorities by which most antiquarians have been
also apricots, peaches, jHimegranates, almonds, induced to consider the Phoenicians as colonists
citrous, oranges, figs, dates, sugar-cane, and gra[>es, from the Persian Gulf. Hamaker, however, in
which furnish an excellent wine. In addition to his Miscellanea Phwnicin (Lugduni BatAvorum,
these products, it yields cotton, silk, and tobacco. 1828, p. 172, sq.), asserts that the Phoenicians
The country is also adorned by the variegated, came from the Arabian Gulf ; and Hengstenherg
flowers of oleander and cactus. The higher re (De Rebus Tyriorum, Berolini, 1S32, p. 93)
gions are distinguished from the bare mountains maintains that the Phoenicians came into their
of Palestine by being covered with oaks, pioes, country immediately after the disj>ersinii of man
cypres*-trees, acacias, and tamarisks; and above kind. However, they are not mentioned in
all by majestic cedars, of which there are still a Genesis among the inhabitants of Palestine.
few very old trees, whose stems measure from The first Phoenician colony was Sidon, which is
thirty to forty teet in circumference. The inha therefore called in Genesis (x. 15) the first-born
bitants of Sur still carry on a profitable traffic of Canaan. But soon other colonies arose, like
with the produce of Mount Lebanon, namely, Arka (Gen. x. 17), Aradus, and Smyrna (Gen.
wood and charcoal. Phoenicia produces also x. 18), &c, whose jtower exiended lieyoiul the
flocks of sheep and goats : and innumerable Jordan, and who drove out lielbie them the earlier
swarms of L>ees supply excellent honey, fu the inhabitant-* of Palestine. Hence it arose that the
forests there are bears, wolves, panthers, and appellation, 4 the land of Canaan,* was transferred
jackals. The sea furnishes great quantities of to the whole of Palestine, although it is by no
fish, so that Sidon, the most ancient among the means a country of a low level, but is full of
Phoenician towns, derived its name from fishing. high elevations. However, the Canaanites, in a
Concerning the natural geography of Phoenicia, stricter sense, were the ]}eople who resided in the
compare especially the works ofFoi biger, Rauuier, lower regions along the coast, and on the banks
and Robinson ; also Winer, vol. ii. p. 30, of the Jordan.
The inhabitants of Phoenicia might at the first When the Israelites conquered the country, the
view appear to have derived their origin from the Canaanites on the Phoenician coast, who resided
same source (pre- Abrahamite) as the Hebrews; in powerful maritime towns, preserved their inde-
for they t<puke the same language. The Phoe jiendence, and were called Canaanites in jiarti-
nician proptr names of persons and places occur cular. Thus we read, in Isa. xxiii. 11,
ring in the Old Testament may I* expluined Canaan, in the signification of Phoenicia. The
from the Hebrew. For instance. pTV ^D, Mel- same word has also this meaning in the inscrip
chizedek, king of righteousness (Gen. xiv. 18); tions on the Phoenician coins. In the Septuagint
tlie Hebrew *0Jf3D is frequently translated <polvt.
*]^D Abimelech,/rAer of the king (Gen. In Job xl. 30, A. V. xli. 6, the* word *3JU3 means
xx. 2) ; "IV, rocky the Hebrew name for Tyre. a merchant, because the Phoenicians were the
The Phoenician inscriptions on monuments and most important of all mercantile nations.
coins exhibit also the characteristics of the Hebrew The Cardlaginiaus, as Phoenician colonists,
dialect in contradistinction to the Aramamn and maintained, even in the days of St. Augustine,
Arabic. There are slight deviations from the an that they were Canaanites. In Greek writers also
cient classical Hebrew, which may easily be ex occurs the name xv& for Phoenicia (comp. Gesenii
plained from the circumstance that the mot Thesaurus Lingua Hebraica, Lipsise, 1839, torn,
ancient Phoenician inscriptions now extant are ii. p. 696, and Gesenii Monumenta Phctnicia,
not older than the fourth century before Christ. p. 270, sq.). The dialect of the Israelites perhaps
The most ancient Phoenician inscriptions are resembled more the Aramaean, and that of the
PHCENICIA. PHCENICIA. 529
Phoenicians more the Arabic ; but Qui difference B.C. 1250. From this work Porphyrins, in the
was nearly effaced when both nations resided in fourth century after Christ, borrowed some cos-
the same country, and had frequent intercourse mogonical arguments, which have been preserved
with each other. Concerning the original country in Kusebii Preparatio Evangelica (i. 10). The
of the Phoenicians and their immigration into Ca nature of these fragments is such, that they cannot
naan, compare especially Bertheau, Zur Gesckichte throw much light ujwn Phoenician history. Theo-
der hraeliton, pp. 152-186, Gbttingen, 1810; dotus, Hesycrates, and Moschos. are mentioned
anil Lengerkes Kanaan, Yolks unci Rcligions- as authors on Phoenicia, by Tatiauus (Cont.
geschichte Israels, vol. i. p. 182, sq., Konigsberg, Gracus, 37) : their works are likewise lost.
184-1. Geseuius mentions, in his Monumenta Phoenicia
During the period of the conquest of Canaan (p. 363, sq.), some later Phoenician authors, who
by the Israelites, the Phoenicians jwssessed the do not touch upon historical subjects. Our
following towns, which we will enumerate suc knowledge of Phoenician history is consequently
cessively, in the direction from south to north : confined to occasional notices in the Hebrew and
Dora (in, Josh. xi. 2; xvii. 11, sq.) ; Ptolemais classical authors of antiquity. This deficiency
Judg. i. 33) ; Ecdippa (3*738, Josh. xix. of historical information arises also from the cir
29) ; Tyre (11V, Josh. xix. 29) ; Saiepta (fllTO, cumstance that the facts of Phoenician history
1 Kings xvii.9,sq. ; Luke iv. 26) ; Sidon (flTXi were less connected than the events in the history
Gen. x. 15); Berytus (nnm, Ezek. xlvii. 16; of othtr nations. The Phoenicians never formed
one compact body politic, and consequently did
2 Sam. viii. 8); Byblus (S}3, Josh. xiii. 5); not always gradually advance in their political
Tripoli*, Simyra (nDVH, Gen. x. 18); Arka constitution and in the extent of their power.
(pHtftt, Gen. x. 17); Simna (*ron, Gen. x. Every town endeavoured to advance its commerce
16); Aradus (HTINn, Gen. x. 18). Compare in its own way. Thus their constantly entered
the res|>ective articles on these towns. Sidon is into the life of the Phoenicians new elements,
the only Phoenician town mentioned in Homer which disturbed a gradual historical progress.
(see Iliad* vi. 239; xxiii. 743; Odyss. xv. 415 ; Phoenicia was a country favourable to the growth
xvii. 421). of maritime towns, hut tlid not afford room for
The Phoenicians in general are sometimes called great politic il events. The history of the Phoe
Sidonians (comp. Geseuii Monumenta Phoenicia, nicians is that of their external commerce.
ii. 267, sq. ; Thesaurus Lingua Hebraicar, under A mercantile nation cannot bear despotic
the word |1T). Justinus (xviii. 3) alludes to government, l>ecause ihe greatest external !il>erty
the etymology of this name : 4 Condita urbe qnam is requisite in order constantly to discover new
a piscium ubertate Sidona appellaverunt ; nam sources of gain, and to enlarge the roads of com
piscem Phcenice3 Sidon vocabant,'a city being merce. The whole of Phoenicia consisted of ihe
built which they called Sidon, from the abundance territories belonging to the various towns. Kach
offishes ; for the Phoenicians call a fish sidon. of these territories had its own constitution, and
This statement is not quite correct. But the root in most of them a king exercised supreme power.
which in Hebrew means only to catch beasts We hear of kings of Sidon, Tyre, Aradus, and
and birds, con also l>e employed in Arabic when Byhius. It seems that after Nebuchadnezzar had
the catching of fishes is spoken of. This root liesieged Tyre th vain, the royal dignity ceased
occurs also in the Arnmaic, in the signification of for some time, and that there existed a kind of re
both hunting and fishing (compare the article publican administration, under $ujff'etes or judges.
Zidon). The regal power was always limited by the ma
Heeren, in his work, On the Commerce and gistracy and the priesthood. The iudependent
Politics of the Ancients, vol. i. part ii. p. 9. Gbt Phoenician ta'es seem to have formed a con
tingen, 1824, justly observes that the numerous federation, at the head of which stood for some
towns which were crowded together in the narrow time Sidon, and at a later period Tyre. Tripoli*
space of Phoenicia covered almost the entire coast, was built conjointly by the various states in order
and, together with their harUuirs and Meets, must to form the seat of their congress. The smaller
have presented an aspect which lias scarcely ever states were sometimes so much oppressed by
been equalled, and which was calculated to im Tyre, that they preferred' rather to submit to ex
press every stranger on his arrival with the ideas ternal enemies (compare Heeren*s Ideen, &c, p.
of wealth, jwwpr, and enterprise. 15, sq. ; Heck's Anleitwig zur yenaueren
We have no continuous history of the Phoeni Kenntnits der Welt- und Vulker-Geschichte, p.
cians. The sources of such a history, as well as 252, sq., anil 581. ki.).
the works proceeding from them, have been lost, The ]K>sition of Phoenicia was most favourable
.hwephus states that there were kept in various for the exchange of the produce of the East and
Phoenician towns, collections of public docu West. The Libanus furnished excellent timber
ments and annals. Menander of Ephesns derived for ships. Corn was imjtoited from Palestine.
his information from such annals when he wrote, Persians, Lydtans, and Lycians, frequently served
in Greek, a history of Tyre (compare Josephus, as mercenaries in the Phoenician armies (Kzek.
Contra Ap. 1. 17, 18). Dias, also, a native Phoe xxvii. 10, 11). Phoenicia exported wine to
nician, wrote, in Greek, a history of Tyre. Of Egypt (Herod, iii. 5, 6). Purple garments were
these two works, only a few fragments have been best manufactured in Tyre (Amati, De Resti-
preserved (compare Joseph. Antiq.t viii. 5. 3 ; xiii. tulione Purpurarum, 3d edit., Casense, 17H4).
J, sq. ; ix. 14. 2 ; Cont. Ap. i. 77, sq. ; Theophil. Glass was made in Sidon and Sarepta (compare
Ad Autol. iii. 22; Sync. C'Aron. p. 182\ Philo Heeren, p. 86, sq. ; Beck, p. 593, sq.). In Phoe
of Byblus translated and re-modelled, during nicia was exchanged the produce of all known
the reign of Hadrian, a history of Phoenicia and countries. After David had vanquished the
Egypt, said to be composed by Sanchouiathon, Edomite* and conquered the coasts of the Red
TOI- I'. 2M
530 PHCENICIA. PHOENICIA.
Sea, King Hiram of Tyre entered into a con mountains of Syria wood. The tribes about
federacy with Solomon, by which he ensured for the shores of the Caspian Sea furnished slaves
his people the right of navigation to India. The and iron; for instance, the Tibarseans (^3111
combined fleet of tiie Israelites ami Phoenicians Tubal), and Mnschi Q^O Meahech). Horse
sailed from the seaports of Ezion-geber and Klatli. men, horses, and mules, came from the Armenians
These ports were situated on the eastern branch (noun Togarinah). See Heeren, pp. RG-130.
of the Hed Sea, the Sinus JKlaniticns, or Gulf The treasures of the East were exported from
of Akaba. Israelitish-Phcenician mercantile ex Phoenicia by shijw which sailed first to Cyprus,
peditious proceeded to Ophir. perhaps Ablura, the mountains of which are visible from the
situated at 4 he mouth of the Indus (compare Phoenician coast. Citiuin was a Phoenician co
Lassen's Indische Alterthumskunde, i. 537, sq., lony in Cyprus, the name of which was trans
Bonn, 1844). It seems, however, that the Indian ferred to the whole of Cyprus, and even to some
coasts in general were also called Ophir. Three neighbouring islands and coasts called DTD
years were required in order to accomplish a mer (Gen. x. 4 ; Isa. xxiii. 1, 12). Hence also D'fliT.
cantile exj>edition to Ophir and to return with the name of a Canaanitish or Phoenician tribe
cargoes of gold, algum-wood, ivory, silver, mon (Gesen. Mori. Pham., p. 153). Cyprus was subject
keys, peacocks, and other Indian produce. Some to Tyre up to the time of Alexander the Great.
names of these products are Indian transferred Thcte are still found Phoenician inscriptions
into Hebrew, as almuggim ; Sanscrit which prove the connection of Cyprus with Tyre.
valgxty or, according to the Decanic pronuncia At Rhodes (D%3TT) also are found vestiges of
tion, valgum; D*2n~|C s/ien-habbi/n (ivory); Phoenician influence. From Rhodes the moun
Sanscrit ibha ; C|1p, hoph (ape) ; Sanscrit kapi ; tains of Crete are visible. This was of great
D^Din tukkiyim (peacock); Sanscrit cikhi, ac imjKirtance 1'or the direction of navigators, before
cording to the Decanic pronunciation (compare 1 the discovery of the compass. In Crete, and also
Kings ix.27; x. 11, 22) [Commkuce; Ophih]. in theCycladic and Sporadic Isles, are vestiges of
It seems, however, that these mercantile expe Phoenician settlements. On the Isle of Thasos,
ditions to India were soon given up, probably on on the southern coast of Thrace, the Phoenicians
account of the great difficulty of navigating the had gold mines ; and even on the southern shores
Red Sea. King Jehoshaphat endeavoured to of the Black Sea, they had factories. However,
recommence these expeditions, but his fleet was when the Greeks became more powerful, the Phoe
wrecked at Kzion-geber (1 Kings xxii. 49). nicians sailed more in other directions. They
Abcut B.C. 616 or 601, Phoenician seamen un occupied also Sicily and the neighbouring islands,
dertook, at the command of Pharaoh-Necho, a but were, alter the Greek colonization, confined
oyage of discovery, proceeding from the Red to a few towns, Motya, Soloes, Panonnus (Thuc.
Sea round Africa, and returning after two years vi. 2). The Plioeuician mercantile establishments
through the columns of Hercules to Egypt (Herod, in Sardinia and the Balearic Isles could scarcely
iv. 42). The 27th chapter of Ezekiel mentions be called colonies.
the commerce by land between India and Phoe Carthage was a Phoenician colony, which pro-
nicia. The names of mercantile establishments lably sjon became important by commerce with
on the coasts of Arabia along the Persian Gulf the interior of Africa, and remained connected
nave partly been preserved to the present day. with Tyre by means of a common sanctuary.
In these places the Phoenicians exchanged the After 1'hoenicia had been vanquished by the
produce of the west for that of India, Arabia, and Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians, the settle
Ethiopia. Arabia especially furnished incense, ments in Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain came into
gold, and precious stones. The Midianites (Gen. the power of Carthage. The Phoenicians had for
xxxvii. 28) and the Edomites (Bzek. xxvii. 16) a long period rxpirted bom Spain gold, silver,
effected the transit by their caravans. The forti tin, iron, lrad (Ezek. xxxviii. 13), fruit, wine, oil,
fied Idumacan town Petra contained probably the wax, fish, add wool. Tbeir chief settlement was
storehouses in which the produce of southern Tarshish, E^EHJi, subjection, from the root C'UH,
countries was collected. From Egypt the Phoe he vanquished, subjected. The Aranueans pro
nicians exported especially byssus (Kmc. xxvii. 7) nounced it i hence the Greek Tartes$o$.
for wine. According to an ancient tradition, the Teis was probably only the name of a town situ
tyrant of Thebes, Busiris, having soiled his hands ated to the west of the pillars of Hercules (Calpe
with the blood of all foreigners, was killed by the and Abyla, now Gibraltar and Ceuta), and even
Tynan Hercules. This indicates that Phoenician more west than Gades, at the mouth of the Baetis
colonists established themselves and their civiliza (Herod, iv. 62; Scymnus Chius, v. 161, sq ).
tion successfully in Upper Egypt, where all This river was also called Tartessus (Arist. il/e*
Strangers usually had been persecuted. teor. i. 13; Paus. vi. 19. 3; Strabo, iii.p. 148).
At a later period Memphis was the place where At a later period the town of Tartessus obtained
most of the Phoenicians in Egypt were established. likewise the Phoenician name Carteja, from mp,
Phoenician inscriptions found in Egypt prove town (Strabo, iii. p. 151).
that even under the Ptolemies the intimate con There are other names of towns in Spain which
nection between Phoenicia and Egypt still existed have a Pltccuician derivation ; Gades, TT3, septum,
(compare Geseuii Monumenta Phoenicia, xiii. fence (comp. Geseu. Mvn. i'/uen. p. 3U4,sq. 319);
221, sq.). Malaga, rfpD, on account of much salt-fish thence
From Palestine the Phoenicians imported, be exjwrted ; or, according to Gesenius (Man. Phten.
tides wheat, especially from Judxa, ivory, oil,
and lulrn ; also wool, principally from the neigh p. 312, sq., and 353% from ojficina
bouring nomadic Arabs. Damascus furnished fabrorum, iron-works, or manufactory of other
wine (Kick, xxvii. 5, 6, 17, 18, 21), and the metals, on account of the mines to be found there j
PHffiNICIA. PHYLACTERY. Ml
Belou, nVlD, civitas, city (Gesen. Mon. Phan. mp *pD, 'king of the city,' whom the Greeks
p. 311, sq., and 348> called the Tyrian Hercules.
The voyage to Torshish was the most import Of Baaltis, or Astarte, which are usually iden
ant of those undertaken by the Phoenicians. tified, although they seem to have been originally
Hence it was that their largest vessels were all different, we shall here add nothing to what has
called ships of Tarshish, although they sailed been already stated under Asiitokkth.
in other directions (1 Kings x- 22). Besides these principal deities, the Phoenicians
It appears, also, that the Phoenicians exported worshipped seven kabtn'm, D*T33, mighty ones,
tin from the British Isles, and amber from whose numbers corresponded with the seven
the coasts of Prussia. Their voyages on the planets. These kabirim were considered as pro
western coasts of Africa seem to have been merely tectors of men in using the jxwers of nature,
voyages of discovery, without permanent results. especially navigation. With these seven kabirim
The Spanish colonies were, probably, the prin was associated Esmun (fDC'K = WBB>n, the
cipal sources of Phoenician wealth, and were eighth), representing the sky full of fixed stars,
founded at a very remote period. The migration surrounding the seven planets, the refreshing air
of the Phoenician, Cadmus, into Baeotia, like and the warmth of life. Esmun was called by
wise belongs to the earlier period of Phcenician the Greeks 'AaKKipctos. Many Phoenician names
colonization. Homer seems to know little of the are compounded with Esmun- Hence we infer
Sidonian commerce ; which fact may be explained that he was frequently worshiped (comp. Gesen.
by supposing that the Phoenicians avoided all col Mon. Pheen. p. 136, sq.).G. B.
lision and competition with the increasing power PHRAT. [Euphrates.]
of the Greeks, and preferred to direct their voyages PHRYGIA (*ptry/a), an inland province of
into couutries where such competition seemed to Asia Minor, bounded on the north by Bithynia
be improbable. and Galatia, on the east by Cappadocia and Ly-
Phoenicia flourished most in the period from caonia, on the south by Lycia, Pisidia, and
David to Cyrus, b.c. 1050-550. In this period Isauria, and on the west by Caria, Lydio, and
were founded the African colonies, Carthage, Mysia. In early times Phrygia seems tc have
Utica, and Leplis. These colonies kept up a comprehended ttie greater part of the peninsula
frequent intercourse with the mother country, but of Asia Minor. It was subsequently divided
were not politically dependent. This preserved into Phrygia Major on the south, and Phrygia
Phoenicia from the usual stagnation of Oriental Minor or Epictetus (acquired) on the north west.
states. The civilization of the Phoenicians had a The Romans divided the province into three dis
great influence upon other nations. Their voyages tricts : Phrygia Salutaris on the east, Phrygia
are described in Greek mythology as the ex])edi- Pacatiana on the west, and Phrygia Katakekau-
tions of the Tyrian Hercules. The course of the meue {the but*nt) in the middle. The country,
Tyrian Hercules was not marked like that of as defined by the specified limits, is for the most
other conquerorsviz. Medes and Assyriansby part level, and very abundant in corn, fmit, and
mined cities, and devastated countries, but by wine. It had a peculiar and celebrated breed of
flourishing colonies, by agriculture, and the arts cattle, and the fine raven black wool of the sheep
of peace (com p. Heeren. pp. 24-W), and Movers, around Laodicea on the Lycus was in high re
Die Phamicier, i. pp. 12-55.) pute. The Mamnder and the Hermus were its
According to the Phoenician religion, the special chief rivers. The Phrygians were a very ancient
object of worship was the vital power in nature, people, and are supiwsed to have formed, along
which is either producing or destroying. The pro with the Pelasgi, the aborigines of Asia Minor.
ductive power ofnature, again, is either procreative, Jews from Phrygia were present in Jerusalem at
masculine, or receptive, feminine. These funda the Feast of Pentecost (Acts ii. 10), and the pro
mental ideas are represented by the Phoenician vince was afterwards twice traversed by St. Paul
gods, who appear under a great variety of names, in his missionary journeys (Acts xvi. 6; xviii.
because these leading ideas may be represented 23). The cities of Laodicea, Hierapolis, and
in many different ways. Compare Movers, Un- Colossee, mentioned in the New Testament, be
tersuchungen iiber die Religion und die Gott- longed to Phrygia, and Antioch in Pisidia was
keiten der Pluenicier, Bonn, 18-11 ; Sfahr, Die also within its limits (see the names). Rosen-
Religions systeme der Heidniscfien Volker des muller, Bibl. Geog. iii. 43-45; Winer, Pealtcbr-
Orients, Berlin, 1836, pp. 376-448; Selden, terbuch; Leake, Geog. of Asia Minor.
De Diis Syris. PHUL. [Pul.]
We need not liere enter into details concerning PHUT (1MB ; Sept. *oto), a son of Ham (Gen.
the Phoenician gods, as the principal of them have x. 6), progenitor of an African people of the same
been noticed under their names [Baai., Ashto- name, sometimes rendered * Libya' (Jer. xlvi. 9;
reth]. It suffices to state generally, that the Ezek. xxvii. 10 ; xxx. 5 ; xxxviii. 5; Nah. iii. 9)
procreative principle was worshipped as Baal, [Nations, Dispersion of].
bjD, lord, and as the sun. The rays of the sun PHYLACTERY (tpvKcucrfipta, called in
are, however, not only procreative, but destruc Rabbinical Hebrew tvDfl tephelin), strips of
tive; and this destructive power is especially re parchment inscribed with particular passages of
presented in the Ammonitish fire-god Moloch. Scripture (Deut. vi. 4-9; xi. 13-21; Exod. xiii.
Thus Baal represented both the generative and 1-10, 11-16). They were folded up and en- 1
destructive principles of nature; in which latter closed in a small leather box, and worn upon the '
capacity the Hebrews worshipped him by human forehead nearly between the eyes, or upon the left
sacrifice (1 Kings xviii. 28 ; Jer. xix. 5). He was arm near to the heart, l-eing attached by straps
the tutelary god of Tyre, and hence had the name of leather (Joseph. Antiq. iv. 8, 13; Hieron. in
rf Melkar, mp^D, equivalent to Melech-kereth Exek. xxiv. 17). They were considered as thui
2m 2
&32 PHYSIC, PHYSICIANS. PHYSIC, PHYSICIANS.
reminding the wearers to fulfil the law with the birth (Exod. i. 16) ; and of the copious materia
head and heart (comp. Roscnmiiller in Exod, medica. the 1 many medicines/ which their me
dical practice had brought into use (Jer. Ixvi. 1 1).
On the strength of ihese notices, and in the ab
sence of equally detailed information respecting
the state of medicine among the Hebrews, it
has become usual to bring under the present
bead all that Wilkinson and others tell us re
specting the medical service of the Egyptians:
but, in truth, all this has little connection with
the Hebrews, and tends nothing to the illustra
tion of Scripture, except in the particular in
stances to which we have referred : for nothing
can be more manifest than that the state of me
dicine was very different among the Egyptians
from what it was among the Hebrews. It ia,
therefore, better to bring together the few facts
which are really available, than to occupy our
space with irrelevant matter. This will embrace
so much of the Egyptian matter as is properly
xiii. 9); and they were also regarded aj amulets, applicable to the subject.
protecting the wearer from the powers of evil, hisIn servants,
Gen. 1. 2, it is said that Joseph 'commanded
the physicians, to emUilm his
especially demons (Targ. in Cant. viii. 3). On father; and the physicians emttalmrd Irsael.'
this notion was founded the Greek name of tj>u- Uy this we are not to understand that all the
\aicrriptov, which means a 'safeguard.' These ap physicians of Joseph took part in the operation.
pendages were used during the stated prayers, and The command must be considered
only by men. The whole observance is founded to those among them to whom this asbusiness addressed
on the authority of the texts which are written longed. It seems rather remarkable to find bein
on the strips of parchment, as Exod. xiii. 16 : the household of Joseph a considerable number of
' It shall he for a token upon thine hand, and
for frontlets (JIIQOID, bands, fillets) between physicians. Warburton (Divine Legation, b.
thine eyes;1 which, although in all probability iv. 3-83) compares with this account what
Herodotus (ii. 84) says of the Egyptian phy
only figurative expressions, have been literally sician
understood, and acted upon hy the Jews sinco them as: 1 followsThe medicine practice is divided among
the Exile. In existing usage the skin employed of sickness, aud: each physician is for one kind
no more; and ull places are
in making the phylacteries is prejared with much crowded with physicians:
care, and the writing Iraced with minute accu cians for t lie eyes, physiciansforforthere are physi
the head, phy
racy and neatness. The Hebrew ritualists give sicians for the teeth, physicians for the stomach,
very exact and numerous directions on this sul -
iect, which are required to be closely observed. and for internal diseases/ Therefore, remarks War-
burton, it ought not to appear strange that Joseph
The case itself is composed of several layers of had a considerable number of family physicians
parchment or of black calf-skin. The phylac- ' Every
teries for the head have four cavities, in each needs, asgreat family, as well as every city, must
of which is put one of the four texts to which faculty. Herodotus expresses it, swarm with the
we have referred ; but the phylacteries fur the arm now appearA anmultitude of these domestics would
have oidy one cavity, containing the same texts a first minister,extravagant piece of state even in
all written on one slip of jiarchment. Lightfoot wise, when each but we see it could not be other
distemper had its pruj)er phy
thinks it not unlikely that our Saviour himself sician.' The renown of the Egyptian
wore the Jewish tep/ielin or phylacteries, as well in ancient times, may sufficiently physician*,
as the zizith or fringes, according to the custom by the fact that Cyrus had a physicianillustrated sent him
of his nation; and that in Matt, xxiii. 5, our from Egypt, and Darius always bad Egyptian
Lord condemns not the wearing of them, but the physicians at bis court (Herodot. Hi. 1. 129).
pride aud hypocrisy of the Pharisees in making On this subject see Plin. Hist. Nat. vii. 57 ; xxvi.
them broad and visible, to obtain resiwct and re 3; xxix. 30; Wilkinson,
putation for wisdom and piety (Hor. Heb. ad 390 394 ; Hengstenberg, D.Anc.B'ucher Egyptians, iii.
Matt, xxiii. 6). Maimonides, Yad Hacash. pp. Aeoypten, pp. 70, 71 ; Sprengel, Ge&cht.Moses u.
d. Alt*
2, 3; Carpzov, Apparat. p. 190, sq. ; Beck, Welt., i. 62
Dissert. <lc usu Phylacterior. ; TJgoliuo, be Phy-
lacter. Hebraror., in Thesaurus, torn. xxi. ; Bnx- tionIn was
the early stage of medical practice atten
torf. Synag. p. 179, sq. ; Townley, Reasons for aid and confined among all nations to surgical
external applications: even down to a
the Laws of Moses, p. 350). comparatively late period outward maladies
PHYSIC; PHYSICIANS. There can be apjtear to have been the chief subjects of medical
no question that the Israelites brought some treatment among the Hebrews (Isa. i. 6; Ezek.
knowledge of medicine with them from Egypt, xxx. 21 ; 2 Kings viii. 29 ; ix. 15) ; and although
whose physicians were celebrated in all antiquity. they were not altogether without remedies for in
To the state of medical knowledge in that country ternal or even mental disorders (2 Chron. xvi.
there are indeed some allusions in Scripture, as 12; I Sam. xvi. 16), they seem to have made
contained in the notice of the corps of physicians but little progress in this branch of the healing
in the service of Joseph (Gen, ]. 2) ; of the use art. The employment of the physician was,
of artificial help and practised midwive* in child however, very general both before and after the
PHYSIC, PHYSICIANS. PI-BESETH. 533
exile (2 Chroo. xvi. 12; Jer. viii. 22; Sirach was certaiuly necessary that the inspecting priest
xxxviii. 1 ; Murk v. 26 ; comp. Luke iv. 23; v. should be able to discriminate, according to the
31; viii. 43> rules laid down iu the law, the diagnosis of the
The medicines most in use were salves, par disease placed under his control (Lev. xii. 13;
ticularly balms (Jer. viii. 21; xlvi. 11; comp. xiv. 15). The priests themselves were apt tc
Prosper Alpinus, Med. Aiyypt., p. 118), plas take colds, &c, from being obliged to minister
ters or poultices (2 Kings xx. 7; comp. Plin. at all times of the year with naked feet; whence
xxiii. 63), oil-batiis (Joseph. De Bell. Jxtd. \. there was in latter times a medical inspector
33. 5; ii. 21. 6 ; T. Bab. tit. Bcrachoth, i. 2), attached to the temple to attend to their com
mineral baths (Joseph. Anttq. xvii. 6. 5 ; Vita, plaints (Kail, De Morbis Sacerdot. K T.; Light-
16; De Bell. Jud. i. 33. 5; ii. 21. 6; comp. foot, p. 78 1 J.
John v. 2, sq.), river bathing (2 Kings v. 10). Of anatomical knowledge some faint 1 races
Of remedies for internal complaints, some notion may be discerned in such passages as Joh ix. 8, sq.
may he formed from the Talmudical intimations It does not appear that the Hebrews were iu the
of things lawful and unlawful to be done on the habit of opening dead bodies to ascertain the
Sabbath day. They were mostly very simple, causes of death. We know that the Egyptians
such as our old herbalists would have been d is* were so, and their practice of embalmment must
posed to recommend. For instance :* It is un have given them much anatomical knowledge
lawful to eat Greek hyssop on the Sabbath, (Wilkinson, Ane. Egypt, iii. 3921 But to the
because it is not food tit for healthy people; acquisition of such knowledge there were great
but man may eat wild rosemary, and drink obstacles among a |ieople to whom simple con
nyn DUK (" bloom of the herbs ;" some plant tact with a corpse conveyed pollution. Besides
regarded as an antidote against pernicious li the authorities cited, see F. Bonier, Dissert, de
quids); a man may eat of any kind of food as Statu Medicines ap. Vett. Ebr.f 1755 ; Sprengel,
medicine, and drink any kind of herbage, except De Medicina Ebrtor.y I7S9 ; Mead, Medka
water of DvJFI dekalim (". c. u water of trees," Sacra, 1755; Schmidt, Bibl. Medic.; Norberg,
De Medicina Arabum, in Opusc. Acad, iii,
that is, from a spring between two trees, the first sq. ; see also Diskasks of tuk Jews, and the
draught of which was believed to promote diges names of diseases in the present woik.
tion, the second to be laxative, aud the third uu
emetic); and of D^TpV DID cos ikkarim (a PI-BBSETH (riD^ *S ; Sept. Bo^otrrof), a
mucilage or oiutment of pulverized herbs and city of Kgypt, named with several others in Rzek.
gum in wine), as these are only remedies for the xxx. 17. According to the Septuagint, which is
jaundice; but a man may drink the water of followed by the Vulgate, it is the same with Bu
dekalim for thirst, and may anoint himself with bastus, which was the prinei[>al town of the Nonius
the oil of ikkarim, but not us a remedy, He liubastites (Plin. Hilt. Nat. v. 9; Ptol. iv. 5).
who has the toothache must not rinse his teeth Bubastus itself is evidently a corruption of Pi-bast,
with vinegar, but he may wash them as usual Pi Iteing the Kg>ptiau article; and Pi-beseth
(t. e. dip something in vinegar, aud rub them), seems also to l>e manifestly no other than a corrupt
and if he gets cured, lie does get cured. He who reading of the same Egyptian name (Wilkinsons
has pains in his loins must not rub them with Modem Eyypt. i. -127). That name was derived
wine or vinegar; he may, however, anoint them from the goddess Bubastis (Copt. Vascht), whom
with any kind of oil, except rose-oil. Princes the Greeks identified with their Artemis. A great
may anoint (dress) their wounds with rose-oil, as festive pilgrimage was yearly made to her temple
they are in toe habit of anointing themselves on in this place by great numl>ers of people (Herod,
other days' ( T. Bab. tit SabbathJ'o\. 110; com]). ii. 5-9). Bubastus is described with unusual mi
Lightfoot, llor, Hcbr. in Matt. v. 26). nuteness by Herodotus (ii. 137, 138); und Wil
Amulets were also much in use among the kinson assures us that the outlines of his account
Jews ; the character ofwhich may be shown from may still be verified. The city was taken by
the same source : * It is permitted [even on the the Persians, who destroyed the walls (Diod. Sic.
Sabbath] to go out with the egg of a grasshopper, xvi. 51); l>ut it was still a place of some con
or die tooth of a fox, or the nail of one who has sideration under the Romans. It was near Bu
been hanged, as medical remedies ' ( T. Bab. tit. bastus thai the canal leading to Arsiuoe (Suez)
Sabbath, fol. 4. 2). Strict persons, however, dis opened to the Nile (Herod, ii. 138); and although
countenanced such practices as belonging to ' the the mouth was afterwards often changed and taken
ways of the Amorites.1 Enchantments were also more southward, it has now relumed to its tirst
employed by those who professed the healing urt, locality, as the present canal of Tel-el -Wadee
especially in diseases of the mind; and they were commences in the vicinity of Tel Basta, This Tel
much iu the habit of laying their hands upon the Basta, which undoubtedly represents Bubastus,
patient (2 Kings v. 11; Joseph. Antuj. ii. 5). is in N. lat. 30 36'; E. long. 31 33. The site
The i-urt taken by the priest in the judgment is occupied by mounds of great extent, which
on leprosy, &c, has led to an impression, that the consist of the crude brick houses of the town, with
medical art was in the hands of the Levitical the usual heuts of broken pottery. The temple,
body. This may in some degree be true ; not of which Herodotus states that, although others in
i>cauie they were Levites, but because they, more Egypt were larger and more magnificent, noi.e
titan any other Hebrews, had leisure, and some were more beautiful, is entirely destroyed ; but
times inclination for learned pursuits. The acts tiie remaining stones, being of the linest red gra
prescribed for i .< priest by the law do nut, how nite, confirm the historian's testimony (Wilkinson,
ever, of themselves, prove anything on this point, Modern Eyypt. i. 300, 427-429; Kilter, Erd-
as the inspection of leprosy belonged rather to kundct i. 825).
sanitary police than to medicinealthough it PIGEON. [Dove; Turtlk-Dovb.]
6M PI-HAHIROTH. PILATE, PONTIUS.
PI-HAHIROTH (n'Tnn *f> a place near Pilate was deeply affected with their resolution
the northern end of the Gul f of Suez, east of Baal- to keep their laws inviolable, and presently com
lephon (Exod. xiv. 2, 9; Num. xxxiii. 7). The manded the images to be carried back from Je
Hebrew signification of the words would be equi rusalem to Caesarea.'
valent to ' mouth of the caverns ;' but it is doubt 1 But Pilate undertook to bring a current of
less an Egyptian name, and as such would signify water to Jerusalem, and did it with the sacred
a * place where grass or sedge grows.' Jablunsky, money, and derived the origin of the stream from
Opusc. i. 447 ; ii. 159, comp. Gesen. Tktsaur. a distance of 200 furlongs. However, the Jews
s. v. [Exodus]. were not pleased with what had been done al*>ut
this water ; and many ten thousands of the people
PILATE, PONTIUS, was the sixth Roman got together, and made a clamour against him,
Procurator of Jnda*a ( Matt, xxvii. 2 ; Mark xv. 1 ; and insisted that he should leave off that design.
Luke iii. 1 ; John xviii.-xix.), under whom our Some of them also used reproaches, and abused
Lord taught, suffered, and died (Acts iii. 13 ; iv. the man, as crowds of such people usually do.
27; xiii. 28; 1 Tim. vi. 13; Tacit. Antial. xv. So lie habited a great number of his soldiers in
44). The testimony of Tacitus on this point is their habit, who carried daggers under their gar
no less clear than it is important; for it fixes be ments, and sent them to a place where they might
yond a doubt the time when the foundations of surround them. He bid the Jews himself go
our religion were laid. The words of the great away ; but they boldly casting reproaches upon
historian are: Auctor nominis ejus Christus, Ti- him, he gave the soldiers that signal which had
berio imperitante, wer Procuratorem Pontium Pi- been beforehand agreed on, who laid upon them
latum supplicio aflectus est.* The author of that much greater blows than Pilate had commanded
name (Christian) or sect was Christ, who was ca them, and 'equally punished those that were tu-
pitally punisheu in the reign of Tiberius by Pon multuous and those that were not; nor did they
tius Pilate.' spare them in the least ; and since the people
Pilate was the successor of Valerius Gratus, were unarmed, and were caught by men prepared
and governed Judaea, as we have seen, in the for what they were about, there were a great num
reign of Tiberius. He held his office for a period ber of them slain by this means, and others of
often years. The agreement on this point between them ran away wounded. And thus an end waa
the accounts in the New Testament and those put to this sedition/
supplied by Josephus, is entire and satisfactory. * We have,' says Lardner, 'another attempt of
It has been exhibited in detail by the learned, ac* Pilate's of the same nature, mentioned in the
curate, and candid Lardner (vol. i. 150-389, letter which Agrippa the Elder sent to Caligula,
Lond. 1827). as this letter is given us by Philo. In some
Pilate's conduct in his office was in many re particulars it has a great resemblance with the story
spects highly culpable. Josephus has recorded Josephus has told of Pilate's bringing the en
two instances in which Pilate acted very tyran signs into Jerusalem, and in others it is very dif
nically (Antiq. xviii.3. 1 ; comp. De Bell. Jml. ii. ferent from it ; which has given occasion to some
9. 2, sq.) in regard to the Jews. * But now Pilate, learned men to suppose that Philo has l>een mis
the Procurator of Judaea, removed the army from taken. For my own part, as I make no doubt
Csesarea to Jerusalem, to take their winter quarters but Josephus's account of the ensigns is true, so
there, in order to abolish the Jewish laws. So he I think that Philo may also be relied on for the
introduced Caesar's effigies, which were upon the truth of a fact he has mentioned, as happening in
ensigns, and brought them into the city; whereas his own time in Judaea, and, consequently, I
our law forbids us the very making of images ; judge them to be two different facts.'
on which account the former procurators were Agrippa, reckoning up to Caligula the several
wont to make their entry into the city with such favours conferred on the Jews by the Imperial
ensigns as had not those ornaments. Pilate was family, says: * Pilate was procurator of Judaea.
the lirst who brought those images to Jerusalem, He, not so much out of respect to Tiberius as a
and set them up there : wtiich was done without malicious intention to vex die people, dedicates
the knowledge of the people, because it was done gilt shields, and places them in Herod's jmlace
in the night-time; but, as soon as they knew it, within the holy city. There was no figure upon
they came in multitudes to Cssarea, and inter them, nor any thing else which is forbidden, ex
ceded with Pilate many days, that he would re cept an inscription, which expressed these two
move the images; and when he would not grant thingsthe name of the person who dedicated
their requests, because this would tend to the in them, and of him to whom they were dedicated.
jury of Caesar, while they yet persevered in their When the people perceived what had been done,
request, on the sixth day he ordered his soldiers to they desired that this innovation of the shields
have their weapons privately, while he came and might he rectitied ; that their ancient customs,
sat upon his judgment-seat ; which seat was so winch had been preserved through so many ages,
prejMired in the open place of the city, that it con and had hitherto been untouched by kings and
cealed the army that lay ready to oppress them : emperors, might not now be violated. He re
and, when the Jews petitioned him again, he gave fused their demands with roughness, such was his
a signal to the soldiers to encompass them round, temper, fierce and untractable. They then cried
and threatened that their punishment should lie out, Do not you raise a sedition yourself; do not
no less than immediate death, unless they would you disturb the peace by your illegal practices.
leave oft* disturbing him, and go their ways home. It is not Tiberius's pleasure that any of our laws
But they threw themselves on the ground, and should be bmken in upon. If you have received
laid their necks bare, and said they would take any edict, or letter from the emperor to this pur
their death very willingly, rather than the wisdom pose, produce it, that we may leave you, and de*
of their laws should be transgressed ; upon which pute an embassy to him, and entreat him to re*
PILATE. PONTIUS. PILATE, PONTIUS. 535
voke bis orders. This put him out of all temper ; death, which was in the hands of the Roman
for he was afraid that it' they should send an em Governor, and was specifically held by Pilate.
bassy, they might discover the many mal-admi- Pilate, indeed, bore the title of Procurator, and
nistratious of his government, his extortions, his the Procurator, as being a fiscal officer, had not
unjust decrees, his inhuman cruelties. This re geueially the jmwer of life and death. * But/
duced him to ihe utmost perplexity. On the one says Lardner (i. comp. pp. 83-1 64 ), 4 Pilate, though
hand he was afraid tu remove things that had he had the title of Procurator, had the power of a
been once dedicated, and was also unwilling to President. The Evangelists usually give Pilate,
do a favour to men that were his subjects ; and, Felix, and Festus, the title of Governor, a general
on the other liand, lie knew very well the inflexible word, and very proper, according to the usage of
everity uf Tiberius. The chief men of the na the best writers, and of Josephus in particular, in
tion observing this, and perceiving that he re many places/ According to the Evangelists, the
pented of wtiat he had dune, though he endea- Jewish council having, as they pretended, con
Toured tu conceal it, wrote a most humble and victed Jesus of blasphemy, and judged him guilty
submissive letter to Tiberius. It is needless to of death, led him away to Pilate, and seem to
say how he was provoked when he read the ac have expected that lie should confirm their sen
count of Pilate's speeches and threatenings, the tence, and sign an order that Jesus should be pu
event showing it sufficiently. For he soon sent a nished accordingly. Indeed, the accounts found
letter to Pilate, reprimanding him for so audacious in the Gosjtels and in other authorities, touching
a proceeding; requiring, also, that the shields the civil condition of ihe Jews at this time, are in
should be removed. And, accordingly, they were strict agreement. We proceed to mention an
carried from the metro]>olis to Ccesarea by the sea other instance of accordance, which is still more
side, called Sebaste, from your great grandfather, forcible, as t>eing on a very minute point.
that they might be placed in the temple there con From Matt, xxvii. 19, it apiwars that Pilate
secrated to him, and there they were repnsiled.' had hi* wife (named probably Procla, or Claudia
To the Samaritans, also, Pilate couducted him Proctila) with him. A partial knowledge of Ro
self unjustly and cruelly. His own misconduct man history might lead the reader to question the
led the Samaritans tu take a step which in its<-lf historic credibility of Matthew in this particular.
does not appear seditious or revolutionary, when In the earlier iieriods, and, indeed, so long as the
Pilate seized the opportunity to slay many of the Commonwealth sutwisted, it was very unusual for
people, not only in the fight which ensued, but the governors of provinces to take their wives with
also in cold blood after they had given themselves them (Senec. De Control'. 25), and in the strict
up. 'But when this tumult was up]>eased, the regulations which Augustus introduced he did not
Samaritan Senate sent an embassy to Vitelline, allow the favour, except in peculiar and sj>ecified
now President of Syria, and accused Pilate of the circumstances (Sneton. Aug. 21). The practice,
murder of those who had been slain. So Yitellius however, grew to l>e more and more prevalent,
sent Marcellus, a friend of his, to take care of the and was (says Winer, Real-wort, in * Pilate')
affairs of Juda?a, and ordered Pilate to go to customary in Pilate's time. It is evident from
Rome to answer before the emperor to the accusa Tacitus, that at thetime of the death of Augustus,
tions of the Jews. Pilate, when he had tarried Germanicus had his wife Agrippina with him in
ten years in Judaea, made haste to Rome, and Germany (Annal. \. 40, 41 ; comp. iii. 33-59;
this in obedience to the orders of Vitellius, which Joseph. Antiq. xx. 10. 1 ; I'lpian, iv. 2). In
he durst not contradict; but before he could get deed, in the beginning of t he reign of Tiberius,
to Rome, Tiberius was dead ' (Joseph. Antiq. Germanicus took his wife with him into the East.
xviii. 4. 2). This removal took place before the Piso, the Prefect of Syria, took his wife also along
Passover, in a.d. 36, probably about September with him at the same time (Tacit. Annal. ii. 54,
or October, a.d. 35 ; Pilate must, therefore, as 55). ' But,' says Lardner( i. 152), 'nothing can
he spent ten years in Judaea, have entered on render this (the practice in question) more ap-
his government about Octolier, a.d. 25. or at least jwrent than a motion made in the Human Senate
before the Passover, a.d. 26, in tiie twelfth year of by Severus Carina, in the fourth consulship of
Tiberius's sole empire (Compare Lardner, i. Tiberius, and second of Drusus Csesar (a.d. 21),
391. sq. ; Winer, Iieal-tcorterb.). that no magistrate to whom any province was as
To be put out of his government by Yitellius, signed, should U> accompanied by his wile, ex
on the complaints of the people of his province, cept the Senate's rejecting it, and that with some
must have been a very grievous mortification to indignation' (Tacit. Annal. iii. 33, 34). The fact
Pilate; and though the emperor was dead before mentioned incidentally, or rather implied, in Mat
he reached Rome, he did not long enjoy such im thew, being thus confirmed by full uud uuques-
punity as guilt permits ; for, as Euseb'ms (Chron. tiouahle evidence, cannot fail to serve as a cor
p. 78) states, fie shortly afterwards made away roboration of the evangelical history.
with himself out of vexation for his many mis Owing to the atrocity of the deed in which
fortunes (wotKtkais ircptireauv <rvp<p6pcus)- Pilate took a piincipal part, and to the wounded
It is a matter of considerable im|>ortance in re feelings of piety with which that deed has been
gard to the exposition of the New Testament, to naturally regarded by Christians, a very dark idea
define accurately what relation the Jews stood in has been formed of the character of this Koman
during the ministry ofChrist in particular to their governor That character was undoubtedly bad ;
Roman masters. Lardner has discussed the ques but moral depravity has its degrees, and the cause
tion with a learning and ability which have ex of religion in too sacred to admit any spurious aid
hausted the subject, and he concludes that the from exaggeration. It is therefore desirable to
Jews, while they retained for the most nart their form a just conception of the character of Pilate,
laws and customs, both civil and religious, un and to learn sjwcifically what were the vices)
touched, did not possess the power of life and under which he laboured. For this purpose a
536 PILATE, PONTIUS. PILATE, PONTIUS.
brief outline of the evangelical account seems some credit for the apparently sincere efforts which
necessary. The narratives on which the follow he made in order to defeat the malice of the Jews
ing statement is founded may he found in John and proem the liberation of Jesus.
xviii., xix. ; Matt, xxvii.; Mark xv. ; Luke If now we wisli to form a judgment of Pilate's
xxiii. character, we easily see that he was one of that large
Jesus having been betrayed, apprehended, and class of men who aspire to public offices, not from
found guilty of blasphemy by the Jewish San a pure and lofty desire of benefiting tiie public
hedrim, is delivered to Pilate in order to undergo and advancing the good of the world, but from
tlie punishment of death, according to tlie law in selfish and personal considerations, from a love
that case provided. This tradition of Jesus tu of distinction, from a love of power, from a love
Pilate was rendered necessary by tlie fact that the of elf-indulgence; being destitute of any fixed
Jews did not at that time possess on their owu principles, and having no aim but office ami in
authority the power of lite and death. Pilate fluence, they act right, only by chance ami when
could not have been ignorant of Jesus and his pre convenient, and are wholly incapable of pursuing
tensions. He might, had he chosen, have imme a consistent course, or of acting with firmness and
diately ordered Jesus to be executed, for he had self'-ib nial in cases in which the preservation of
been tried and condemned to death by the laws integrity requires the exercise of these qualities.
of the land; but he had an alternative. As the Pilate was obviously a man of weak, mid there
execution of the laws, in the case at least of ca fore, with bis temptations, of corrupt character.
pital punishments, was in the hands of the Roman The view given in the Apostolical Constitutions
Procurator, so without any violent straining (v. 14), where unmanliness (avavtipla) is ascribed
might his tribunal be converted into a court of to him, we take to be correct. This want of
appeal in the last instance. At any rate, remon strength will readily account for his fading to
strance against an unjust verdict was easy and rescue Jesus from the rage of his enemies, and also
proper on the part of a high officer, who, as having for the acts of injustice and cruelty which he prac
to inflict the punishment, was in a measure re tised in his governmentacts which, considered
sponsible for its character. And remonstrance in themselves, wear a deeper dye than does the
might easily lead to a revision of the grounds on conduct which he observed in surrendering Jesus
which tlie verdict had been given, and thus a to the malice of the Jews. And this same weak
cause might virtually be brought, deiwvo^ before ness may serve to explain to tlie reader how much
the Procurator : this took place in the case of our influence would be exerted on this unjust judge,
Lord. Pilate gave htm the benefit of a new not only by the stern bigotry and uersecnting
trial, and pronounced him innocent. wrath of the Jewish priesthood, but specially by
This review of the case was the alternative that the not concealed intimations which they threw
lay before Pilate, the adoption of which speaks out against Pilate, that, if he liberated Jesus, he
undoubtedly in his favour, and may justify us in was no friend of Tiberius, and must exject to
declaring ihut his guilt was not of the dee|>est dye. have to give an account of his conduct at Kome-
That the conduct of Pilate was, however, highly And that this was no idle threat, nothing beyond
criminal cannot be denied. But his guilt was the limits of probability, Pilate's subsequent
light in comparison of the criminal depravity dejwsition by Vitellius shows very plainly ; nor
of the Jews, especially the priests. His was could the procurator have been ignorant either of
the guilt of weakness and fear, iheirs the guilt of the stern determination of the Jewish character,
settled and deliberate malice. His state of mind or of the offence he had by his acts given to the
prompted him to attempt the release of an ac heads of tlie nation, or of the insecurity, at that
cused person in opposition to the clamours of a very hour, when the contest between him and the
misguided mob; theirs urged them to compass priests was proceeding regarding the innocent
the ruin of an acquitted person by instigating the victim whom they lusted to destroy, of bis owu
iK)pulace, calumniating the prisoner, and terrify jxwitiou in the office which he held, and which,
ing the judge. If Pilate yielded against his of course, he desired to retain. On the whole,
judgment under the fear of personal danger, and then, viewing the entire conduct of Pilate, his
so took part in an act of unparal leled injustice, the previous iniquities as well as his bearing on the
priests and their ready tools originated the false condemnation of Jesusviewing his own actual
accusation, sustained it by subornation of per jhtsition and tlie malignity of tlie Jews, we cannot,
jury, and when it was declared invalid, enforced we confess, give our vote with those who have
liieir own unfounded sentence by appealing to passed t he severest condemnation on this weak
the lowest passions. Pilate, it is clear, was ut and gu'hy governor.
terly destitute of principle. He was willing, in That Pilate made an official report to Tiberius
deed, to do right, if he could do right without of the condemnation and punishment of Jesus
personal disadvantage. Of gratuitous wickedness Christ, is likely in itself; and Incomes the more
he was perhaps incapable, certainly in the con likely, if the view we have given of Pilate's cha
demnation of Jesus he has (he merit of being for racter is substantially correct, for then the go
a time on the side of innocence. Hut he yielded vernor did not regard the case of Jesus as an
to violence, and so committed an awful crime. ordinary, and therefore inconsiderable one, but
In his hands was the life of the prisoner. Con must have felt its importance alike in connection
vinced of his innocence he ought to have set him with the administration of justice, the civil and
at liberty, thus doing right regardless of conse religious character of the Jews, and therefore with
quences. Hut this is an act of high virtue which the tenure of tlie Roman j>ower. The voice of
we hardly require at the hands of a Roman antiquity intimates that Pilate did make such a
governor of Juda*a ; and though Pilate must re|H>rt ; the words of Justin Martyr are : 'That
bear the reproach of acting contrary to Ids own these things were so done you may know from tlie
declared convictions, yet he may equally claim Acts made in the time of Pontius Pilate 1 (ApoL
PILATE, PONTIUS. PINNACLE. 537
i. 76). A similar passage is found a little further PINE TREE. [Oren.]
cm in the same work. Now, when it is considered PINNACLE. In the account of our Lord's
that Justin's Apology was a set defence of Chris temptation (Matt. iv. 5), it is stated that ihe devil
tianity, in the shape of an apiwal to the heathen took him to Jerusalem, ' and set him on a pinnacle
world through the persons of its highest func of the temple ' (iirl rb irrtpvyiov tov Upov). The
tionaries, it must seem very unlikely that the ]>art of the temple denoted by this teim lias been
words would have Urn used had no such docu much questioned by different commentators, and
ments existed ; and nearly as improbable that the only certain conclusion seems to be that it
tnose Acts would have lieen referred to had they cannot be understood in the sense usually at
not been genuine. Tertullian also uses language tached to the word (i. e. the point of a spiral orna
equally decisive (Apol. v. 21). Kusebius gives a ment), as in that case the article would not have
still fuller account {Hist. Eccles. ii. 2). These been prefixed. Grot ins, Hammond, Doddridge,
important passages may be found in Lardner (vi. and others, take it in the sense of balustrade or pin
006, seq.). See also Ord's Acta Pilati* or Pi nated battlement. Hut it is now more geneially
late's report (vii. 4), long circulated in the early sup[K)sed to denote what was called the king's
church, being received without a suspicion portico, which is mentioned by Josephus {Antiq.
(Chrvsost. Horn* viii. in Pasch. ; Epiphan. Har. xv. 11. 5), and is the same which is called in
L 1 ;*Euseb. i. 9 and 11 ; 9, 5, and 7). There can Scripture * Solomon's porch.' Of this opinion
be little doubt that the documents were genuine are Wetstein, Kuinoel, Parkhurst, Rosenmiiller,
(Hencke, Opusc. Acad. p. 301, sq.). Such is the and others [Tkmi'j.b]. Krehs, Schleusner, and
opinion of Winer (Reat-worterb.). Lardner, who some others, however, fancy that the word signi
has fully discussed the subject, decides that * it fies the ridge of the roof of the temple; and Jo-
must be allowed by all that Pontius Pilate com- .1 tig. xv. II. 5) is cited in proof of this
posed some memoirs concerning our Saviour, and notion. But we know 1 lint iron spikes were fixed
sent them to the emperor 1 (vi. 610). Winer adds, all over the roof of the temple, to prevent the holy
* What we now have in Greek under this title edifice from being defiled by birds; and the pre
(Pilate's Report), see Fabricii Apocr. i. 237, 239 ; sence of these spikes creates an objection, although
iii. 456, as well as the two letters of Pilate to the difficulty is jkt i . nut insuperable, as we
Tiberius, are fabrications of a later age.' So are told that the priests sometimes went to the top
Lardner : * The Acts of Pontius Pilate, and his of the temple {Middoth. oh. 4 ; T. Bab. tit. Taa-
letter to Tiberius, which we now have, are not nith, fol. 29). Dr. Bloomfield asks : * May it
genuine, but manifestly spurious.1 We have not not have been a lofty spiral turret, placed some
space here to review the arguments which have where about the centre of the building, like the
been adduced in favour of and against these docu spire in some cathedrals, to the topmost look-out
ments ; but we must add that we attach some of which the devil might take Jesus V (Recens.
importance to them, thinking it by no means Synopt. in Matt. iv. 5). We answer, no : steeples
unlikely that, if they are fahrications, they are do not belong to ancient or to Oriental architec
fabricated in some keeping with the genuine ture, and it is somewhat hazardous to provide one
pieces, which were in some way lost, and the for the sole purpose of meeting the supposed oc
loss of which the composers of our actual pieces casion of this text.
sought as well as they could to repair. If this Lightfoot, whose opinion on this point is enti
view can be sustained, then the documents we tled to much res]>ect, declares his inability to
have may serve to help us in the use of discretion judge, whether the part denoted should l>e con
to the substance of the original Acts. At all sidered as belonging to the holy fabric itself, or to
events, U seems certain tliat an official report some building within the holy circuit. If the
was made by Pilate; and thus we gain another former, he can find no place so fitting as the top
proof that * these things were not done in a
comer.* Those who wish to enter into this sub of the dSiK, or porch of the temple; but if the
ject should first consult Lardner (ut supra), and latter, the royal porch or gallery (<rroa fiaatKucfj)
the valuable references he gives. See also J. G. is the part he would prefer. He adds that above
Altaian, De Epist. Pil. ad Tiber. Bern. 1755; all other ports of the temple, the porch thereof,
Van Dale, De Orac. p. 609, sq. ; Schmidt, and indeed the whole pronaos, might not unfitly
Einleitung ins N. 7*., ii. 249, sq. Of esjiecial be called rb Trrfpvyiov tov Upov, the wing (for
value is Herrnanssou, De Pontio Pilat., Upsal, that is the literal meaning) of the temple, ' l>e-
1624 y also Burger, De Pontio Pilot., Misen. 1 782. cause like wings it extended itself in breadth on
On the general subject of this article, the reader each side, far beyond the breadth of the temple.
may refer to Germar, Docetur ad loca P. Pilati If therefore the devil had placed Christ on the
Jacinora, cat., Thoruu, 1785 ; J. M. M tiller, very precipice of this part of the temple, lie may
De P. Christum servandi Studio, Hamb. 1751 ; well be said to have placed him " upmi the wing
Niemeyer, Charakt. i. 129, sq. ; Paulus, Com- of the temple ;" both because this p.u I was like a
ment iii. 697, sq. ; Lucke, On John XIX.; wing to tiie temple itself, and liecause that preci
Gutter, De Conjugis Pilati Somnio, Jen. 1704; pice was the wing of this part' (//or. Hcbr. ad
Kluge, De Somnio Uxoris Pilati, Hal. 1720; Matt. iv. 5). With regard to the other alterna
Hen art, Examen Somnii Ux. PH., Olden b. 1735; tive, it is only necessary to cite the description of
8:h niter's Urtfieil iiA. Pilatus, in Eichhorn's Josephus to show that the situation was at least
jfiblioth. d. Bibl. Liter, x. 823, sq. ; Olshausen, not inappropriate to Satan's object: * On the
Comment, ii. 453, sq. ; Mounier, De Pilati in south part | of the court of the Gentiles) was the
' ins i Servat. agendi ratione, 1825. Hase, in aroa $aatKiK-f), " the royal gallery,'' that may be
his Leben Jesu, p. 245, aflbrds valuable literary mentioned among the most magnificent things
references on this, as on so many other New Tes under the sun ; for above the profoundest depth
tament subjects.J. H. B. of the valley, Herod constructed a gallery of a
038 PIRATHON. POETRY, HEBREW.
vast height, from the top of which if any one and others, that tlie topazes known to them came
looked down, oKorolnnav ol/K i^Kovfityr}S tt)s from the Topaz Island in the Red Sea (Pliny,
&<\/cais tit iptTfnrrov rbv 0v86v, " he would become Hilt. Nat. xxxvii. 8 ; comp. vi. 29 ; Diod. Sic.
dizzy, his eyes being unable to reach so vast a iii. 30; Strabo, xvi. p. 770), whence it was pro
depth." ' bably brought by the Phoenicians. In Ezek.
PINON. [Punon.] xxviii. 13, the pitdah is named among the pre
cious stones with which the king of Tyre was
PIPE. [Musical Instruments.] decked.
PIRATHON (linjnS ; Sept., Josephus, and It may be added that Bohlen seeks the origin
1 Mace. ix. 50, QapadtZv), a town in the land of of the Hebrew word in the Sanscrit language,
Ephraim, to which Ahdon, judge of Israel, be in which pita means ' yellowish,' ' pale ;' and, as
longed, ami in which lie was buried (Judg. xii. Gesenius remarks, the Greek Taxation itself might
13. 15). Josephus names it twice (Antiq. v. 7, seem to come from the Hebrew illQB, by trans
13; xiii. 1. 3) ; and in the last instance coincides position into mSD (see Thetaurut, p. 1101 ;
with L Mace. ix. 50, in ranking it among the Braunius, De Vettitu, p. 508 ; Hofmann, Mineral.,
towns whose ruined fortifications were restored by i. 337 ; Pareau, Comment on Job, p. 333 ; Rittet,
Bacchides, in his campaign against the Jews. Erdkunde, ii. 675).
PISGAH (niDS ; Sept. +0070), a mountain PITHOM (DhB ; Sept TltMn), one of the
ridge in the land of Moah, 011 the southern border 1 treasure-cities 1 which the Israelites built in the
of the kingdom of Sihon (Num. xxi. 20 ; xxiii. land of Goshen 'for Pharaoh' (Exod. i. 11)
14 ; Dent. iii. 27 ; Josh. xii. 3). In it wob Mount [Egypt ; Goshen]. The site is by general con
Nebo, from which Moses viewed the Promised sent identified with that of the Patumos (ndrov-
Land before he died (Deut. xxxiv. 1) [Nebo]. /iot) of Herodotus (ii. 158). Speaking of the
PISIITAH. Reference was made to this article canal which connected the Nile with the Red
from Flax ; but, as it is desirable to consider it in Sea, this author says, ' The water was admitted
connection with Shksh, both substances will be into it from the Nile. It began a little above
treated of under that head. the city Bubastis [Pi-BKSKTH.],near tlie Arabian
PISIDIA (riioiSla), a district of Asia Minor, city Patumos, but it discharged itself into the
lying mostly on Mount Taurus, between Pam- Red Sea.' According to this, Patumos was si
pbylia, Phrygia, and Lycaonia. Its chief city tuated on the east side of the Pelusiac arm of the
was Antioch, usually called Antioch in Pisidia, Nile, not far from the canal which unites the
to distinguish it from the metropolitan city of the Nile with the Red Sea, in the Arabian part uf
same name [Antioch, 2]. Egypt. The Itinerarium of Antoninus furnishes
a further limitation. It cannot be doubted that
PITCH. [AsPHALTU*.] the Thum (8oJ/i) which is there mentioned is
PITDAH (rnt?B ; Sept. TomffioF), a pre identical with Patumos and VMom. The Pi is
cious stone ; one of those which were in the breast merely the Egyptian article. Now this Thum
plate of the high-priest (Exod. xxviii. 17), and was twelve Roman miles distant from Heruopolis,
the origin of which is referred to Cush (Job the ruins of which are found in the region of the
xxviii. 19). It is, according to most ancient present Abu-Keisheid. All these designations
versions, the topaz (rmi{iov ; Joseph. Torafor), are appropriate if, with the scholars who accom
which most of the ancient Greek writers describe panied the French expedition, we place Pithom
as being of a golden yellow colour (Strabo, xvi. on the site of the present Abhaseh, at the entrance
p. 770); Diod. Sic. iii. 39), while Pliny (Hist. of the Wady Fumilat, where there was at all
Nat. xxxvii. 32) states its colour to be green. times a strong military post. (Hengstenberg, Die
Relying 011 this last authority, several modern B'iLcher Motet und Aegypten ; Du Bois A vine,
authors have asserted that the ancient gem thus in Detcript. de tEgypte, xi. 377; xviii. 1, 372;
named was no other than the modern crysolite. Champollion, VEgypte tout let Pharaont, i.
But this notion has been confuted by Bellarmann 172; ii.58).
(Urim and Thummim, p. 39), who shows that PLANE-TREE. [Armon.]
the hues ascribed by the ancients to the topaz, are PLAGUE. [Pestilence.]
found in the gem to which the modems have ap PLEDGE. [Loan.]
plied that name. This is a precious stone, hav
ing a strong glass lustre. Its prevailing colour PLOUGH. [Agriculture.]
is wine-yellow of every degree of shade. The POETRY, HEBREW ; the poetry which is
dark shade of this colour passes over into carna found in the Bible, and which, rich and multi
tion red, and sometimes, although rarely, into farious as it is, appears to lie only a remnant of a
lilac; the pale shade of the wine-yellow passes still wider and fuller sphere of Shemitic literature.
into greyish ; and from yellowish - white into The New Testament is intended to be comprised
greenish-white and pale green, tincal and cela in our definition, for, besides scattered portions,
don-green. It may thus be difficult to determine disjecti membra poetae, which, under a prosaic
whether the pitdah in the high-priest's breast form, convey a poetic thought, the entire book of
plate was the yellow topaz ; but that it was a the Apocalypse abounds in poetry.
topaz there is little reason to doubt. The term ' Biblical poetry ' may find little
It is clear that the stone was highly prized by acceptance in the ears of those who hare identified
the Hebrews. Job declares that wisdom was poetry with fiction, fable, and profane delights,
more precious than the pitdali of Cush (Job Htider the impression that as such things are of
xxviii. 19) ; and as the name Cush includes the earth earthy, so religion is too high in its
Southern Arabia, and the Arabian Gulf, the in character, and too truthful in its spirit, to admit
timation coincides with the statement of Pliny into its province mere creations of the human
POETRY, HEBREW. POETRY. HEBREW. 53
fency. But whatever opinion may be entertained are we to conclude that the temperament of the
of the character and tendency of poetry in gene Israelites was so deeply poetic that Moses and
ral, the poetry of the Hebrews is, as we shall Joshua should find the excitement of this occasion
presently remark more at length, both deeply sufficient to strike improvisatore verses from their
truthful, and earnestly religious ; nor are we lips ? Or have we here a quotation from some
without a hope, that by the time the reader has still older song, which occurred to the minds of
arrived at the end of this article, he will then, the speakers by the force of resemblance? Other
if he is not before, be of the opinion that the instances of scattered poetic pieces may be found
poetry which we are about to consider was, and in Num. xxi. 14, Id; also v. 18; and v. 27 ;
is, an eminently worthy channel for expressing in which passages evidence may be found that
and conveying the loftiest and holiest feelings of we are not in possession of the entire mass of
the human heart. Meanwhile we direct attention Hebrew, or, at least, Shemitic literature. Fur
to a factthere is poetry in the Bible, in one ther specimens of very early poetry are found in
srae the Bible is full of poetry ; for very much of Num. xxiii. 7, sq. ; xviii. sq. ; xxiv. 3, 15.
its contents which is merely prosaic in form, rises, The preceding will suffice to satisfy the reader
by force of the noble sentiments which it enun that there is jxwtry in the Bible. With this as a
ciates, and the striking or splendid imagery with fact it is the business of the theologian to deal,
which these sentiments are adorned, into the whether the fact be or be not in accordance with
sphere of real poetry. Independently of this any preconceived ideas of fitness and propriety.
poetic prose, there is in the Bible much writing We must take the Bible as we find it; and to
which has all the ordinary characteristics of taking it, endeavour tu understand its claims,
poetry. This statement the present article will and form a just appreciation of its merits.
abundantly establish. But even the unlearned The ordinary train of thought and feeling pre
reader, when once his mind has been turned to sented in Hebrew poetry is entirely of a moral or
the subject, can hardly fail to recognise at once religious kind ; but there are occasions when other
the essence, if not somewhat of the form, of poetry topics are introduced. The entire Song of Solo
in various parts of the Bible. And it is no slight mon the present writer is disposed to regard, on
attestation to the essentially poetic character of high authority, as purely an erotic idyll, and con
Hebrew poetry that its poetical qualities shine sidered as such it possesses excellences of a very
through the distorting coverings of a prose trans high description. In Amos vi. 3, sq. may be seen
lation. If, however, the reader would at once a fine passage of satire in a denunciation of the
satisfy himself that there is poetry in the Bible, luxurious and oppressive aristocracy of Israel.
let him turn to the book of Job, ami after having Subjects of a similar secular kind may be found
examined its prose introduction, begin to read treated, yet never without a moral or religion!
the poetry itself, as it commences at the third aim, in Isa. ix. 3; Jer. xxv. 10; xlviii. 33;
Terse of the third chapter. Rev. xviii. 22, sq. But, independently of the
Much of the Biblical poetry is, indeed, hidden Song of Solomon, the most worldly ode is perhaps
from the ordinary reader by its prose accompani the forty-fifth Psalm, which Herder and Ewald
ments, standing, as it does, undistinguished in consider an epithalamium. The latter critic, in
the midst of historical narrations. This is the the account which he gives of it, states that it
case with some of the earliest specimens of He was sung during the time when the new queen
brew poetry. Snatches of poetry are discovered in was led in pomp to take her seat in her husband's
the oldest prose compositions. Even in Gen. iv. palace.
23, sq., are found a few lines of poetry, which The literature of the Bible, as such, is by no
Herder incorrectly terms * the song of the sword/ means adequately appreciated in the minds of
thinking it commemorative of the first formation many. Owing, in part, to the higher claims
of that weapon. To ns it appears to be a frag of inspiration, its literary merits have not re
ment of a longer poem, uttered in lamentation for ceived generally the attention which they deserve,
u homicide committed by Lamech, probably in while tiie critical world, whose office it is to take
self-defence. It has been already cited in this cognizance of literary productions, have nearly
work [Laiiech]. Herder finds in this piece all confined their attention to works of profane
the characteristics of Hebrew poetry. It is, he authors, and left the Biblical writings to the
thinks, lyrical, lias a proportion between its several exclusive possession of the religious public. This
lines, and even assonance; in the original the severance of interests is to be regretted as much
first four lines terminate with the same letter, for the sake of literature as of religion. The Bible
making a single or semi-rhyme. is a booka literary productionas well as a re
Another poetic scrap is found in Exod. xxxii. ligious repository and charter ; and ought, in con
18. Being told by Joshua, on occasion ofdescend sequence, to t.e regarded in its literary as well as
ing from the mount, when the people had matte in its religious bearings, alike by those who cul
the golden calf, and were tumultuously offering tivate literature and by those who study religion.
it their worship And when men regard and contemplate it as it
* The sound of war is in the camp is, rather than as fancy or ignorance makes it,
Moses said then will it l>e found to present the loftiest and
most precious truths enshrined in the noblest
1 Not the sound of a shout for victory, language. Its poetry is one continued illustra
Nor the sound of a shout for falling ; tion of this fact. Indeed, but for the vicious
The sound of a shout for rejoicing * education which the first and most influential
do I hear. minds in this country receive, Biblical literature
The correspondence in form in the original would long ere now have held the rank to which it
is here very exact and striking, so that it is is entitled. What is the course of reading through
difficult to deny that the piece is poetic. If so, which our divines, our lawyers, our statesmen, out
540' POETRY, HEBREW. POETRY, HEBREW.
philosopher*, are conducted? From early youth period of the Hebrew republic. Indeed, most of
up to manhood it is almost entirely of a heathen the great poets, even of modem days, from Tasso
complexion. Greek and Latin, not Hebrew, engage down to Byron, all the great musicians, and nearly
the attention ; Homer and Horace, not Mosts and all the great jiaititers, have drawn their best and
Isaiah, are our class-books, skill in understanding highest inspiration from the Bible. This is a fact
which is made the pass|wrt to wealth and dis as creditable to religion as it is important to
tinction. Hence Hebrew literature is little known, literature, of which he who is fully aware, will
and tails into a secondary position. Nor can a not easily be turned aside from faith to infidelity
due appreciation of this priceless book become by the shallow sarcasms of a Voltaire, or the low
prevalent until, with a revival and general spread ribaldry of a Paine. That book which has led
of Hebrew studies, the Bible sliall become to us, civilization, and formed the noblest minds of our
what it was originally among the Israelites, a race, is not destined to be disowned for a few real
literary treasure, as well as a religious guide. or apparent chronological inaccuracies ; or be
Nor, in our belief, can a higher service be ren cause it presents states of society and modes of
dered either to literature or religion than to thought, the very existence of which, however half
make the literary claims of the Bible understood witted unbelief may object, is the best pledge of
at the same time that its religious worth is duly its reality and truth. The complete establish
and impressively set forth. The union of litera ment of the moral and spiritual pre-eminence of
ture and religion is found in the Bible, and has, the Bible, considered merely as a book, would
therefore, a divine origin and sanction. Those require a volume, so abundant are the materials.
who love the Bible as a source of religious truth, It may have struck the reader as somewhat
should manifest their regard both towards the curious that the poetical pieces of which we
book and towards Him whose name and impress spoke above should, in the common version of the
it bears, by carefully preserving that union, and Bible, be scarcely, if at all, distinguishable from
causing its nature, requirements, and applications prose. We do not know whether there is any>-
to be generally understood. No better instrument thing extraordinary in this. Much of classical
can be chosen for this purpose than its rich, varied, poetry, if turned into English prose, would lose
and lofty poetry. most of its poetic characteristics ; but, in general,
There is no poetic cyclus that can be put into the Hebrew poetry suffers less than perhaps any
comparison with that of the Hebrews but the cyclus other by transfusion into a prosaic element : to
of the two classic nations, Greece and Rome, and which fact it is owing that the Book of Psalms,
that of India. In form and variety we grant that in the English version, is, notwithstanding its
the f KM-t i y of these nations surjuLsses that of the form, eminently poetic. There are, however,
Hebrews. Epic poetry and the drama, the two cases in which only the experienced eye can trace
highest styles so far as mere art is concerned, were the poetic in and under the prosaic attire in
cultivated successfully by them, whilst among the which it appears in the vulgar translation. Nor,
Israelites we find only their germs and first rudi until the subject of Hebrew poetry had been long
ments. So in execution we may also admit that, and well studied, did the learned succeed iu de
in the higher qualities of style, the Hebrew litera tecting many a poefic gem contained in the Bible.
ture is somewhat inferior. But the thought is more In truth, poetry and prose, from their very nature,
than the expression ; the kernel than the shell ; and stand near to each other, and, in the earlier stages
in substance, the Hebrew poetry far surpasses every of their existence, are discriminated only by faint
other. In truth, it dwells in a region to which other and vanishing lines. If we regard the thought,
ancient literatures did not, and could not, attain, prose sometimes even now rises to the loftiness
a pure, serene, moral, and religious atmosphere of poetry. If we regard the clothing, the simpler
thus dealing with man in his highest: relations, form of poetry is scarcely more than prose ; and
first anticipating, and then leading onwards, mere rhetorical or measured prose passes into the do
civilization. This, as we shall presently see more main of poetry, A sonnet of Wordsworth could
fully, is the great characteristic of Hebrew poetry ; be converted into prose with a very few changes ;
it is also the highest merit of any literature, a a fable of Krummacher requires only to be dis
merit in which that of the Hebrews is un. re tributed into lines iu order to make blank verse,
proached. To this high quality it is owing that which might be compared even with that of
the poetry of the Bible lias exerted on the loftiest Milton. Now in translations, the form is for the
interests and productions of the human mind, for most part lost ; there remains only the substance,
now aU)ve two thousand years, the most decided and poetic sentiment ranges from the humbles/
and the most beneficial influence. Moral and to the loftiest topics. So with the Hebrew poetry
religious truth is deathless and undecaying; and in its original and native slate. Whether in its
so the griefs and the joys of David, or the far- case poetry sprang from prose, or prose from
seeing warnings and brilliant pourtrayings of poetry, they are both brandies of one tree, and
Isaiah, repeat themselves in the heart of each bear in their earlier stages a very close resem
successive generation, and become coexistent wilh blance. The similarity is the greater iu the lite
the race of man. Thus of all moral treasuries rature of the Hebrews, because their poetic forms
the Bible is incomparably the richest. Even for arc less determinate than those of some other na
forms of poetry, in which it is defective, or al tions : they had, indeed, a rhythm ; but so had their
together fails, it presents the richest materials. ptose, and their poetic rhythm was mote like that
Moses has not, as some have dreamed, left us an of our blank verse than of our rhymed metre. Of
epic poem, but he has supplied the materials out poetical feet they appear to have known nothing,
of which the Paradise I*ott was created. The and, in consequence, their verse must be les*
sternly sublime drama of Samson Agonistes is measured and less strict. lis melody was rather
constructed from a few materials found in a that of thought than ofart and skillspontaneous,
chapter or two which relate to the least cultivated like their religious feelings, and therefore deep and
POETRY, HEBREW. POETRY, HEBREW. 541
impressive, but less subject to law, and escaping 1 His grave was appointed with the wicked,
from the bard limits of exact definition. Rhyme, And witli the rich man was his sepulchre.*
properly so called, is disowned as well as metre ha. liii. 9.
Vet Hebrew verse, as it bad a kind of measured (4J The last verbal peculiarity of Hebrew poetry
tread, so liad it a jingle in its feet, for several which we notice is, that its language betrays an
lines are sometimes found terminating with the archaical character, a licence, and, in general, a
same letter. In the main, however, its essential poetic hue and colouring which cannot be con
form was in the thought. Ideas are made to founded with the simple, lowly, and unrhyth
recur under such relations that the substance mical diction of prose. The formation of a |oetic
itself marks tiie form, and the two are so blended diction is, in any nation, dependent on the posses
into one that their union is essential to constitute sion, by that nation, of a poetical tem|>crament,
poetry. It is, indeed, incorrect to say that 'the as much as of a poetical history. Wherever these
Hebrew poetry is characterized by the recurrence two elements are found, the birth of poetry and
of similar ideas * (Latham's English Language^ the formation of a jxtetical language are certain.
p. 372), if by this it is intended to intimate that Great events give rise to stntng passions, and
such a peculiarity is the sole characteristic of strong passions are the parents of noble truths;
Hebrew poetry. One, and that the chief, charac which, when they spring from and nestle in a
teristic of that poetry, such recurrence is; but poetic temperament, cannot fail to create for
there are also characteristics in form as well as in themselves an appropriate phraseology, in which
thought. Of those it may be sufficient to mention the tame and quiet march of prose is avoided,
the following :,1) There is a veibal rhythm, in and all the loftier figures of Speech are put into
which a harmony is found beyond what prose requisition. For a time, indeed, the line of de-
ordinarily presents; but as the true pronunciation markation between the diction of pros*1 and that
of the Hebrew has l>een long lost, this quality of poetry will not be very strongly marked ; for
can (>e only imperfectly appreciated. (2) There poetry will predominate, as in men's deeds so in
is a correspondence of words, . e. the words in one their words, and, if they as yet have any, in their
verse, or member, answer to the words in another ; literature. Soon, however, the passions grow cool,
for as the sense in the one echoes the sense in the enthusiasm wanes, a great gulf opens lietween the
other, so also form corresponds with form, and actual anil the idealthe ideal having ceased to
word with word. This correspondence in form Ik* actual in ceasing to be possible,and a sepa
will fully appear when we give instances of the rate style of language for prose and poetry be
parallelism in sentiment ; meanwhile, an idea uf comes as inevitable as t he diversity of attire in
it may be formed from these specimens : which holy and ordinary days have their respective
1 Why art thou cast down, O my soul? duties discharged.
And why art thou disquieted in me?' In no nation was the union of the two requisites
Ps. xliii. 5. of which we have spoken fountI in fuller measure
The memory of the just is a blessing ; than among t lie Hebrews. Theirs was eminently
But the name of the wicked shall rot.1 a poetic temj^erament ; their earliest history was
an heroic without ceasing to he an historic a^e,
Prov. x. 7. whilst the loftiest of all truths circulated in their
1 He tnmeth rivers into a desert, souls, and glowed on and started from their lips.
And water-springs into dry ground.1 Hence their language, in its eai liest stages, is
Ps. cvii. 33. surjmssingly |H>etic. \jt\ the reader ]teniae, even
In the original this similarity in construction is in our translation, (he first chapters of Genesis, or
more exact and more apparent. At the same parts of the Hook of Job, and he cannot but per*
time it is a free, and not a strict correspondence ceive the jx>etic element in which these noble
that prevails ; a correspondence In he caught and compositions have almost their essence. And
recognised by the ear in the general progres* of hence the difficulty of detei mining, with accuracy,
the poem, or the general structure of a couplet or the time when a poetic dictio.i, strictly so termed,
a triplet, but which is not of a nature to \te exactly began to make its appearance. Partially, such a
measured or set forth by such aids as counting diction must be recognised in the earliest speci
with the fingers will afford. (3) Inversion holds mens we have of Hebrew poetry, nor is it hard to
a distinguished place in the structure of Hebrew trace, if not in words, yet in colouring and man*
poetry, as in that of every other; yet here again ' lier, signs of this imaginative dress ; but the \ ro-
the remark already made hold* good ; it is only cess was not completed, the diction was not
a modified inversion that prevails, by no means thoroughly formed, until the Hebrew bard had
(in geneialj emailing that of the Greeks and produced his highest strains, and tried his {Hiwers
Romans in boldness, decision, and prevalence. on various species of composition. The jteriod
Every one will, however, recognise this inversion when this excellence was reached was the age of
in the following instances, as distinguishing the Solomon, when the rext, jieace, opulence, and
passages from ordinary prose : culture which were the fruits of the lofty mind
* Amid thought in visions of the night, and proud achievements of David, had had time
When dee]) sleep falleth upon men. to bring their best fruits to maturitya ripeness
Fear and horror came upon me.' Job iv. 13. to which the Israelite history had in various ways
1 To me men gave ear and waited, contributed during many successive generations.
To my words they made no reply.* The chief characteristics, however, of Hebrew
poetry are found in the peculiar form in which it
Job xxix. 21. gives utterance to its ideas. This form has received
"For three transgressions of Damascus, the name of 'parallelism.' Ewald justly r re
And for four will I not turn away its punish fers the term * thought-rhythm,* since the rhythm,
ment.* Amos i. 3. the music, the peculiar flow and harmony of the
543 POETRY, HEBREW. POETRY, HEBREW.
verse and of the poem, lie in the distribution of The second kind is the antithetic, in which the
the sentiment in such a manner that the full im first member is illustrated by some opposition of
port does not come out in less than a distich. It thought contained in the second. This less cus
is to this peculiarity, which is obviously in the tomary kind of parallelism is found mo^lj in
substance and not the mere form of the poetry, the Proverbs
that the translation of the Psalms in our Biblet ' The full man treadeth the honeycomb under
owes much of its remarkable character, and is foot,
distinguished from prose by terms clearly and To the hungry every bitter thing is sweet.*
decidedly poetic ; and many though the im Prov. xxv ii. 7.
perfections are which attach, some almost neces- Under this head cornea the following, with other
sarily, to that version, still it retains so much of
the form and substance, of tlie simple beauty, and similar examples
fine harmony of the original Hebiew, that we give ' Day to day uttereth instruction.
it a preference over most poetic translations, and And night to night sheweth knowledge.'
always feel disposed to warn away from this The third kind is denominated the synthetic:
holy ground the rash bauds that often attempt, probably the term epithetic would be more appro
with no fit preparation, to touch the sacred harp priate, since the second member not being a mere
of Zion. echo of the first, subjoins something new to it,
Those who wish to enter thoroughly into the while the same structure of the verse is preserved ;
subject of Hebrew rhythm, are referred to the thus
most recent and best work on the subject, by the ' He aptxiinted the moon for seasons;
learned Hebrew scholar, Ewahl, who has trans The sun knoweth his going down.' Ps. civ. 19.
lated into German all the rioetical tiooks of the
Old Testament (Die Pact. Biicher dcs Alien ' The law of Jehovah is perfect, reviving the soul ;
Bundet, 1835-9, 4 vols. 8vo., vol. i. pp. 5792). The precepts of Jehovah are sure, instructing
A shorter and more simple account will lietter the simple.' Ps. xix. 7.
suit these pages ; which we take in substance This corresjiondence of thought is occasionally
from Gesemus (Hebriiisches Lesebuch, 17th edit, found in Greek and Latin poetry, particularly in
by De Wette, Leipzig, 1844). The leading prin the interlocutions of the eclogues of Theocritus
ciple is, that a simple verse or distich consists, and Virgil. The two following distichs are spe
both in regard to form and substance, of two cor cimens of the antithetic parallelism :
responding members : this lias been termed He
brew rhythm or Parallel ismus membrorum. ' Dam. Triste lupus Btabulis, maturis frugibus
Three kinds may lie 8|iecitieil. There is first the imlier,
synonymous parallelism ; which consists in this, Arboribusventi ; nobis Amaryllidis iras.
that the two members express the same thought in lien. Duke satis humor, depulsis arbutus
different words, so that sometimes word answers to hsBdis,
word : for example Lenta salix fceto pecori ; mihi solus
' What is man that thou art mindful of him, Amyntas.'
And the son of man that thou carest for him !' Pope's writings present specimens which may he
Ps. viii. 4. compared with the antithetical parallelism. In
There is in some cases an inversion in the second his Rape of the Lock, passages of the kind abound.
line We opened his Essay on Criticism, and the first
' The heavens relate the glory of God, lines our eye fell on were these
And the work of his hands the firmament de 1 A little learning is a dang'rons thing :
clares.' Ps. xix. 2. Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring :
( He maketh his messengers the winds, There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain,
His ministers the flaming lightning.1 Ps. civ. 4. And drinking largely sobers us again.'
Very often the second member rejieats only a part So in his Messiah, where he was likely to copy
of the first the form in imitating the spirit of the original
' Woe to them that join house to house, ' The lambs with wolves shall graze the verdant
That field to field unite.' Is. v. 8. mead,
Sometimes the verli which stands in the first mem And boys in (low'ry bands the tiger lead ;
The steer and lion at one crib shall meet,
ber is omitted in the second And harmless serpents lick the pilgrim's feel.'
' O God, thy justice give the king,
And thy righteousness to the king's son.' This correspondence in thought is not, however, of
Ps. lxxii. 1. universal occurrence. We find a merely rhyth
mical parallelism in which the thought is not re
Or the verb may be in tire second member peated, but goes forward, throughout the verse,
* With the jawbone of an ass heajis upon heaps, which is divided midway into two halves or a
With the jawbone of an ass have 1 slain a distich
thousand men.' Judg. xv. 10. ' The word is not upon the tongue,
The second member may contain an expansion of Jehovah thou knowest it altogether.'
the first Ps. exxxviii. 4.
' Give to Jehovah, ye sons of God, ' Gird as a man thy loins,
Give to Jehovah glory and praise.' Ps. xxix. 1. I will ask thee; inform thou me.' Jobxxxix. 3
Indeed the varieties are numerous, since the syno Here poetry distinguishes itself from prose chiefly
nymous parallelism is very frequent. by the division into two short equal parts. This
POETRY, HEBREW. POETRY, HEBREW. 948
peculiarity of poetic diction is expressed by the Tell it not in Gath, publish it not in the streets
word IDT, which properly denotes dividing the of Ascalon,
matter, and so shaking or singing in separated Lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice,
portions. Among the Arabians, who, however, Lest the daughters ofthe uncircumcised exult.
have syllabic measure, each verse is divided into Hills of Gilboa, no dew nor rain come upon
two hemistichs by a ceesura in the middle. you, devoted fields !
What is termed ' service metre' in English versi- For there is stained the heroes' bow,
6cation, is not unlike this in the main : it is the Saul's bow, never anointed with oil.
' common metre' of the Psalm-versions, and of or From the blood of the slain, from the fat of the
dinary hymn books, though iu the latter it is ar mighty,
ranged in four lines The bow of Jonathan turned not back,
' But one request I make to him | that sits the And the sword of Saul came not idly home.
skies above, Saul and Jonathan ! lovely and pleasant in life !
That 1 were fairly out of debt | as I were out And in death ye were not divided ;
of love.' Suckling. Swifter than eagles, stronger than lions!
The simple two-membered rhythm hitherto de Ye daughters of Isiael ! Weep for Saul ;
scribed prevails, especially in the book of Job, He clothed you delicately in purple,
the Proverbs, and a irtioii of the Psalms ; but He put ornaments of gold on your apparel.
in the last, and still more in the Prophets, there are
numerous verses with three, four, or yet more Chorus. How are the mighty fallen in the midst
members. of the battle !
In verses consisting of three members (tristicha) O Jonathan, slain in thy high places!
sometimes all three are parallel I am distressed for thee, brother Jonathan,
' Happy the man who walketh not in the paths Very pleasant wast thou to me,
of the unrighteous, Wonderful was thy love, more than the love
Nor standeth in the way of sinners, of woman.
Nor sitteth in the seat of scoffers.' P. i. 1. Chorut. How are the mighty fallen,
Sometimes two of the members stand opposed to And the weapons of war perished !
the third We have chosen this ode not only for its sin
' To all the world goes forth their sound, gular beauty, but also because it presents another
To the end of the world their words; quality of Hebrew poetrythe strophe. In this
For the sun he places a tabernacle in tbem.' lioem there are three strophes marked by the re
Ps. xix. 4. currence three times of the dirge sung by the
chorus. The chorus appears to have consisted of
Verses of four members contain either two simple three parts, corresponding with the jiarties more
jiarallels immediately addressed iu the three several lxir-
1 With righteousness shall he judge the poor, tions of the poem. The first choral song is sung
And decide with equity for the afflicted of the by the entire body of singers, representing Israel ;
people ; the second is sung by a chorus of maidens; the
He shall smite the earth with the rod of his third, by first a chorus of youths in a soil and
mouth ; mournful strain, and then by all the choir in full
With the breath of his lips shall he slay the and swelling chorus. But in order to the reader's
wicked.' Isa. xi. 4. fully understanding with what noble effect these
1 songs of /in' came on the souls of their hearers,
Or the first and third answer to each other ; also an accurate idea must lie formed of the music of
the second and fourth the Hebrews [MusicJ. Referring to the articles
' That smote the people in anger which lieur on the subject, we merely remark that
With a continual stroke; both music and dancing were connected with
That lorded it over the nations in wrath sacred song in its earliest manifestations, though
With unremitted oppression.' Isa. xiv. 6. it was only at a comjiaratively late period, when
David and Solomon hail given their master-powers
If the members are more numerous or dispropor to the grand jjerformances of the temple-service,
tionate (Isa. xi. 1 1\ or if the parallelism is imjier- that poetry came forth in' all its excellence, and
fect or irregular, the diction of poetry is lost anil music lent its full aid to its solemn and sublime
prose ensues ; as is the case in Isa. v. 1-6, and sentiments.
frequently in the later prophets, as Jeremiah and Lyrical poetry so abounds in the Bible, that
Ezekiel. we almost forget that it contains any other spe
It is not to be supposed that each poem consists cies. Doubtless lyrical poetry is the earliest, no
exclusively of one sort of verse ; for though this less than the most varied and most abundant.
feature does present itself, yet frequently several Yet the lyrical poetry of the Israelites contains
kinds are found together in one composition, so tokens of proceeding from an earlier kind. It
as to give great ease, freedom, and capability to is eminently sententiousbrief, pithy, and strik
the style. We select the following beautiful ing in the forms of language, and invariably
specimen, liecause a chorus is introduced moral or religious in its tone. Whence we
david's i.amknt oyrr saui, and Jonathan. infer that it had its rise in a species of poetry
The Gaxelle, 0 Israel, has been cut down on analogous to that which we find in the book
of Proverbs. Head the few lines addressed by
thy heights ! Lamech to his wives : do they not bear a corre
Chorus. How are the mighty fallen ! spondence with the general toue of the Proverbs 1
511 POETRY, HEBREW. POETRY, HEBREW
We do not by tins intend to intimate that the 1* n^iin, 'a hymn,' or * psalm of praise.'
book so called was the earliest poetic production The word is used as a title only to one psalm
of the Hebrew muse. In its actual form it is of (cxlv.), hut really describes the character of
a much later origin than many of the odes. Yet many, as may naturally be expected when we
the elements out of which it was formed may consider the origin of the ode as springing from
have existed at a very early day. Indeed the Ori victory, deliverance, the reception of bounties,
ental genius turns naturally to proverbs and sen and generally those events and occasions which
tentious sjieeches. In its earliest, its most purely excited joy and gladness in the soul, and were
native state, the jK>etry of the Easterns is a string celebrated with music, often accompanied by
of pearls. Every word has life; every propo dancing in the public assemblies of (lie people,
sition is condensed wisdom ; every thought is or after a mure sacred manner, in the solemn
striking and epigrammatic. The book of Pro courts of the temple. To this class of joyous
verbs argues the influence of philosophy. Early compositions belong the lofty hymns which com
poetry is too spontaneous to speak in this long memorated great national events, such as the de
retinue of glittering thoughts. But Eastern ima liverance from Pharaoh (Exod. xv., Judg. v.. Ps.
ginations may at first have poured forth their xviii., lxviii.), which were appointed for set holy-
creations, not in a continued strain, but in showers day seasons, and became a part at once of the
of broken light, on which the lyrist would seize national worship and of the best national property.
to be worked as sparkling gems into his odes. It Other songs of this kind were used on less distiii-
is however certain that a general name for poetic guished occasions, and by individuals on present
language, ^ES'O, signifies also a saying, a proverb, ing their thank-offerings, and were pitched at a
lower key, being expressive rather of personal
a comparison, a similitude. The last is indeed than general emotions (Ps. xxx., xxxii., xli.,
the primary signification, showing that Hebrew cxxxviii. ; Isa xxxviii.). There arc occasionally
poetry in its origin was a painting to the eye; in briefer songs of victory, sung by the general con
other words, a parable, a teaching by likenesses, gregation in the temple, as Ps. xlvi. and xlviii.
discovered by I he popular mind, expressed by 2. Hyp, dpijvos* ' a dirge,' or * song of sorrow,'
the popular tongue, and adopted and jxdished by compauied by exclamations of grief, as IK, **X.
the national poet. And as a sententious form or very often by HS'K, 0 how ! and distinguished
of speech may even by its very condensation lie- from songs of joy by mournful strains of music.
come dark, so that the wisdom which it contains The Hebrew heart was as much open to sorrow
may have to be patiently and carefully sought as to joy, tender and full as were its emotions
for, what was may become bidden know and simple as was trie ordinary mode of life.
ledge, and pass into iYVn, a secret or a riddle; Adversity and bereavement were therefore keenly
which, as being intended to bailie and so to de felt, and as warmly and strikingly expressed.
ride, may in its turn lie appropriately termed Indeed so gn at was the regard held due to the
dead, that mourners did not consider their own
derision, satire, or irony. sorrow sufficient, but used to engage others to
Lyrical poetry embraced a great variety of mourn for their lost fi tends, so that in process
topics, from the shortest and most fleeting- effusion, of time there arose a profession whose business
as found in specimens already given, and in Pp. it was to bewail the departed* In Amos v. !6,
xv., cxxxi., cxxxiii., to the loftiest'subjects treated these persons are named as \"0 those who
in a full and derailed manner ; for instance, De are skilful in wailing (Jer. ix. 17). Distin
borah's song(Judg. v.), and Ps. xviii. and lxviii. guished heroes, and persons who were tenderly
It ran equally through all the moods of the human beloved, fountl in the sorrowful accents of the
soul, nothing being too lowly, too deep, or too high Hebrew muse, the finest and most lasting memo
for the Hebrew lyre. It told how the horse and his rial (2 Sam. i. 17-28 ; iii. 33, 34). From 1 Sam.
Egyptian rider were sunk in the depths of the sea ; i. 18, it appears that these dirges (nenue) were
it softly anil sweetly sang of the benign effects of taught to the children of Israel ad pcrpetuam rci
brotherly love. It uttered its wail over the cort.se memoriam; and so heroic deeds lived through
of a friend, and threw its graceful imagery around successive generations on the lips of the people,
the royal nuptial couch. Song was its essence. whose hearts wen" thus warmed with emulation,
Whatever its subject, it forewent neither the lyre while they were softened with gentleness and love.
Hor the voice. Indeed its most general name, In litis class uf lamentations may be ranked the
*ViP, signifies *song;* song and poetry were the songs of sorrow over the misfortunes of Israel,
same. Another name for lyrical poetry is "I1DTD, such as Ps. xliv., lx., Ixxiii., which seem to have
which the Seventy render ^a\/io$, * psalm,' and borne the general name of* a weeping and wail
which from its etymology seems to have a refer ing' (Jer. vii. 29; ix. i). In the same class
ence not so much to song as to the numbers into stand lamentations poured forth on the desecration
which the poet by his art wrought bis thoughts or destruction of the holy city (Jer. ix. xix. ; K*ek.
and emotions. The latter word descril>es the xxvii. xxxii. . Isa. i. xxi.). Jeremiah has put toge
making of an ode, the former its performance on ther and united in one book, executed with great
the lyre. Another general name for lyrical poetry skill and presenting an altogether unique speci
which is applied to poems of a certain men of writing, which indeed could have had iti
birth nowhere but in a Hebrew soul, all possible
kind (Ps. xxxii., xlii.,xlv.,lii., lv.,lxxiv., lxxviii., lamentations and waitings on the ruin and fall
Ixxxviii., cxlii.), and appears to denote an ode of Jerusalem.
lofty in its sentiments and exquisite in its execu 3. jVitJ* is found only as the title of a poem
tion. Under these general heads there were seve (Ps. vii.), and once in the plural (Hab. iii. 1), aa
ral species, whose specific differences it is not easy a description of this species of poetry in general*
to determine. The word is not easy to understand. The Sep
POETRY, HEBREW. POETRY, HEBREW. 945
tuagint render it by ta\ u,U, a general term winch marked form, and a more decided degree. Here
seems to betray their own ignorance. It had the machinery and contrivances of the drama,
doubtless a specific meaning. The root de even to tire plot and the Dcta Vindcx, lie patent
notes bewilderment, so that the term may indicate to a reader of ordinary attention. For epic poetry
a sort of dithyrambic poetrypoetry in which the constituent elements do not appear to Itave
the emotions are put fortli in wild confusion be existed during the classic period of the Hebrew
tokening an agitated, confused, and worried state muse, since epic poetry requires an heroic age,
of mind. This description corresponds with the an age, that is, of fabulous wonders and falsely
character of the two comjiositions to which the so called divine interpositions. But among the
epithet is applied in Ps. vii. and Hab. iii. That Israelites the patriarchal, which might have been
the melody employed in singing these pieces an the heroic age, was an age of truth and reality ;
swered, in wild hurrying confusion, to the train of and it much raises the religious and historical
the thought may be conjectured naturally, and value of the biblical literature, that neither the
inferred with good reason, from the heading of singular events of the age of the patriarch*, nor
Habakkuk iii. the wonderful events of the age of Moses, nor the
confused and somewhat legendary events of the
4. n^DD, 1 prayer,' is the name of certain odes age of the Judges, ever degenerated into mytho
in the titles given to Ps. xvii., Ixxxvi., xc, cii., logy, nor jiassed from the reality which was their
cxlii. ; Uab. iii. In Psalm cii. and in Hab. essence, into the noble fictions into which the
iii. it seems not to denote the ode so much as imagiitation, if unchastened and unchecked by
the general tendency of the sentiment of the religion, might have wrought them ; but they re
poet, and in the other headings it may imjtort tained through all jteriods their own essential
merely the use to which these comjKwitions may character of earnest, lofty, and impressive realities.
be applied. It is not therefore so much a term At a later jwniod, when the religion of Moses had,
of art as a term of religion. Yet may it he ap during the Bahylonihh captivity, l*en lowered by
plied to compositions in general, designed for use the corruptions of the religion of Zoroaster, and an
n divine worship whatever their form or strain, entirely new world of thought introduced, based
"nasmuch as it regards in a general way the re not on reality but fancy, emanating not from the
ligious element which constituted their essence; pure light of heaven but from the mingled lights
and accordingly it is found in Ps. Ixxii. 20 ap and shadows of primitive tradition and human
plied as a general name to an entire collection speculation,then there came into existence
of the poems of David* the prayers of David, among the Jews tire elements necessary for epic
the son of Jesse, are ended.1 poetry ; but the days were gone in which the
In these four classes we have not pretended to mind of the nation had the requisite strength and
exliaust all the species and forms which lyric culture to fashion them into a great, uniform, and
poetry took, but merely to present the chief facts. noble structure; and if we can allow that the
Respecting other kinds, little need be said, as the Hebrews possessed the rudimental outlines of the
lyrical comprehends the greatest and best part of epic, we must seek for them not in the canonical
Hebrew poetry, nor are learned men so much of but the apoervnhal books ; and while we deny
one mind regarding the compositions to which we with emphasis that the term Epos can be applied,
allude. an Kome German critics have applied it, to ihe
Dramatic poetry in the sense in which the Pentateuch; we can find only in the U>ok of
phrase is applicable to productions such as those Judith, and will) rather more reason in that of
of Euripides, Shaksjieare, or Schiller, had no Tobit, anything which approaches to epic |K>etiy.
place in the literature of the Hebrews. This de Indeed fiction, which if it is not the essence, enters
fect may be owing to a want of the requisite lite for a very large share into both epic and dramatic
rary cultivation. Yet we are not willing to as poetry, was wholly alien from t he genius of the
sign this as the cause, when we call to mind the Hebrew muse, whose high and noble function was
high intellectual culture which the Hebrews not to invent but to celebrate ihe goodness of
evinced in lyric and didactic jxietry, out of which God, not to indulge the fancy but to express the
the drama seems naturally to spring. We rather deepest feelings of the soul, not to play with
look for the cause of this in the earnest nature of words and feign emotions, but to utter profound
the Hebrews, and in the solemnity of the subjects truth and commemorate real events, and |Kir
with which they had to do in their literary pro forth living sentiments.
ductions. Nor is it any objection to this hypo- These remarks imply that art, though subordi
thesis that the drama of modem times had its nate, was not neglected, as indeed is proved by
birth in the religious mysteries of the middle the noble lyrics which have comedown to us, and
ages, since those ages were only secondary in re in which the art is only relatively small and low,
gard to religious truth, stood at a distance from that is, the art is inconsiderable and secondary,
the great realities which they Ijelieved and dra merely because the topics are so august, the sen
matized; whereas the objects of faith with the timents so grand, the religious impression so pro
Israelites were held in all the fresh vividness of found and sacred. At larer periods, when the
primitive facts and newly-recognised truths. Ele first fresh gushing of the muse had ceased, art in
ments however for dramatic poetry and first rudi- Hebrew, as is the case in all other poetry, l/egan
mental efforts are found in Hebrew ; as in the to claim a larger share of attention, and slunds
Song of Solomon, in which several dramtis per in the poemi for a greater jKirtiun of their merit.
sons will be discovered shaking and acting, by Then the play of the imagination grew predomi
the diligent and unprejudiced reader. Ewald nant over the spontaneous outpourings of the soul,
asserts that the poem is divisible into four acts. and among other creations of the fancy alphabeti
In the book of Job, however, the dramatic element cal poems were produced, in which the matter is
of the Hebrew muse w developed in a more artistically distributed sometimes under two-and
2H
646 POETRY, HEBREW. POETRY, HEBKKW,
twenty heads or divisions, corresponding with the and more influential than what any other influ*
numiter of the Hebrew letters. This is of course ence has possessed, save only that which is and
a peculiarity which cannot tie preserv ed in any will ever lie exeicised by 4 David's greater son.'
ordinary prose translation; but it is indicated in Nor is the wonder at all diminished when we
Psalm cvix., as found in the common hihles ; learn that the Hebrew was an essentially national
and other specimens may be seen in Vs. ix., x., muse. There is no poetry which bears a deeper
xxv.t xxxiv., xxxvii., cxi., cx'u. or broader stamp of the peculiar influences under
If, now, from these details we consider for a which it was pioduced. It never ceases to be
moment what are the essential peculiarities of Hebrew in order to became universal, and yet it
Hebrew jjoetry, we find we have to oiler to the is universal while it is Hebrew. The country, the
reader's attentiun the following observations. clime, the institutions, the very peculiar religious
The source of all true poetry is in the human institutions, rites and observances, the very sin
mind. Even where there is a divine inspiration, gular religious history of the Israelites, are all
this higher element must enter into the soul of faithfully and vividly reflected in the Hebrew
man, and, blending with its workings, conform muse, so that no one song can ever I* mistaken
also to its laws, lint every thought is not poetical. for a poem of any other people. Still it remains
Thought and emotion become poelical only when true that the heart of man, at least the heart of all
they rise to the ideal Poetry, in its source, is the most civilized nations of the earth, has been
thought which ascends to a high if not perfect (rela moved and swayed, and is still pleasingly and
tively) conception of moral and spiritual realities. most beneficially moved and swayed by the strains
Mere intensity is not poetry, any more than of Biblical poesy. Others may, but we cannot,
strength of muscle is beauty. Still less is jiassion account fur this indubitable fact, without ad
either poetry or eloquence, as Blair teaches. mitting that some specially divine yifluence was
Passion is of a suspicious origin, aud represents in operation amidst the Jews.
the soul as being mastered ; whereas in all true Its originality is also a marked cttaracleristic of
poetry the soul is a sovereign. There may be in Hebrew poetry. Homer had Ins teachers, but
tensity in poetry, however, and the soul, when in who taught Moses? Yet 'the divine song of
a poetic state, may be impassioned ; but these Troy * is less divine than the ode of triumph over
are only accidentsresults, nut causes, ensuing Pharaoh. The Hebrew poetry is original in tins
(sometimes) from the ideal conceptions which for sense, that it is self-educed and self developed.
the time being constitute the soul, and make up It is an indigenous plant in Palestine. Like
consciousness. Hence all true ]>oetry is religions; Melchizedek, it is, in regard to an earlier culture,
for religion is the contemplation of the highest diraTcvpy dfiifTaip, ayfyfa\6yT]70S ; ami if we can
perfection as at once holy, lovely, honourable, not say that it lias strictly ,u7?t( dpxhy {>pwv,
formative and guiding, the object ofadoration, the there is no danger in predicting of it, ^e/)Te fewjs
fountain of law, the source ofobligation. But in the re\os Xai'j A**1'** tcpehs us rb SirjvtKes (Heb.
Hebrew poetry, the religion which constituted its vii. 3).
essence had attributes of truth and reality such as Connected with its originality, as, in part, its
no other poetry ever did or could possess. The cause, is the fact tiiat the Hebrew Muse stood
intimate relation in winch the nation of Israel, and nearer than any other to the first days and the
the still more intimate relation in which distin earliest asjiect* of creation, * when the morning
guished individuals of that nation, stood to the stars sang together, and all the sons of God
Deity, made the religious the predominant ele shouted for joy ' (Job xxxviii. 7). Those stars
ment, and gave to that element a living and that Muse saw in the maiden parity of their ear
quickening fire as from heaven, which burnt from liest radiance; that song the same Muse heard when
the first with the true vestal purity, and on to the first it struck the canopy of heaven aud was rever
last witli more than vestal constancy and dura berated to earth. The rose of Sharon blushed with
tion, A divine and imperishable jfower was thus its Hrst loveliness on her glad sight, aud the dews
the chief constituent of Hebrew poetry: divine of Heruion were first disturbed by her unsandalled
truth, divine energy, divine life, are all found in feet Thus there is a freshness as of morn ubout
the earliest productions of Hebrew song. Its all her imagery. In tier best days there were no
chief characteristicthat by which, more than stock figures of sjieecli, no loci communes, nor
any other thing, it is contradistinguished from the universal recipes for forming poetry. Not even
poetry of all other nationsis its pure aud rich at second hand did she receive her stores, but she
religious element. took what she had out of the great treasure-house
But this divine power lay not merely in the of nature, and out of the fulness of her own heart.
truths conveyed nor in the facts commemorated To l a master, therefore, to other poesies is the
by the songs of Zion, but equally in the strong, divine right and peculiar function of the Hebrew
deep, and overflowing emotions with which the muse. Other bards may borrow and imitate; the
Hebrew harp thrilled sometimes to ecstasy. The poetry of the Bible copies nature and creates.
origin of this religious sensibility is to be chiefly Hence there is a sjKmtaneousne&s in its ptetry.
looked for in the Hebrew temperament, which was Open the Psalter at any place; you find streams
and is peculiarly rich in all the sentiments of the pouring forth like the brooks and waterfalls that
heart, so that devotion was as naturalas much trickle and gush down the hills of Palestine after
a necessity of the character of the Israelitesas the latter rain. Nature you Miold at work. All
domestic affection. It is in the main owing to the therefore is ease, and, as ease, so grace. There is
religious and devotional qualities of Hebrew poetry no constraint, no effort, no affectation. The heart
that the Book of Psalms, still, after the lapse of so itself -X-. and it speaks because it is full and
many centuries, aud the rise and full of so many overflowing.
modes of thought, anil forms of social life, holds If we add that simplicity is another marked
an empire over the heart of man, far wider, deeper, character of Hebrew poetry, we do little more than
POETRY, HEBREW. POL. 547
itate that which is already implied. But such is referred to the following works : Carpzov, IntrotU
its simplicity that it seems never to have known, in V. T. ii. England has the credit of opening
in its age of purity, anything of the artificial new path in this branch by the publication of
distinctions by which critics and rhetoricians have aBishop
mapped out the domain of poesy and endea de SacraLowth's elegant and learned Pralectiones
Poesi Ilebreeorum, Oxon. 1753 ; which
voured to supply the deficiencies of fancy by the may be found also in Ugolini, Thesaur. xxxi. ;
laborious efforts of varied culture. Hebrew the editions having Michaelis's Notes et Epimetra
poetry was the voice of man communing with are
God, and thought as little of the one as of the workto was be preferred; that ofOxon. 1810, is good : the
translated into English by Gregory. On
other of the two purposes which Horace ascribes to the didactic poetry of the Hebrews the reader may
artistic poets consult Umbreit, Sprdche Sal. Einleitung ; Rhode,
*Aut prodesse volunt ant delecture poete.* De f'et. Poetar. isapientia Gnotn. Htbraror. imp.
It was, indeed, wholly unconscious of anything et Gr&cor. Havn. 1800; linger, De Parabolar.
but the satisfaction of a high and urgent want, Jesunatura, &c. Leips. 1S28. Le Clerc, in his
which made worship a necessity, and devotion a Biblioth. Univers. ix. 226, sq., has given what is
delight. A striking confirmation of these facts is worth attention ; see
found in the circumstance that among the earliest poesie chez Us Hebr. inalso Hist. Abrege'e de la
ofthe * sweet singers of Israel,' women are found. demy of Inscriptions, torn,thexxiii. History of the Aca
92, sq. But the
The great event which Moses, in his sublime tri work which has, next to that of Lowth,
umphal ode, had celebrated, wasforthv7ith taken up greatest influence, is a posthumous and exerted llie
unfinished
by Miriam, whose poetic skill could not be sin piece of the celebrated Herder, who has treated the
gular, as she is described by a general name, ami
was supported by other females; * And Miriam subject with extraordinary eloquence and learn
ing : Von Geist der Ebrtiischen Poeste, 1782, to
the projJietess, the sister of Aaron ' (a remarkable be found in his collected writings; also Tubing.
family was that of Amram. 'Aaron, and Moses, 1S05; and Carlsruhe, 1826; see also Giigler, Die
and Miriam their sister," Num. xxvi. 59), Hook Heil Kunst der Hebrdert Landshut, 1814 ; and
a timbrel in her hand; and all the women went B. F. Guttenstein,
out after her with timbrels, and with dances, and etii., Maunh. 1835.Die The Poet. Literar. alien Isra-
subject of metre has
Miriam answered them, Sing ye to the Lord,' &c. been skilfully handled by Bellermann,
(Exod. xv. 20, sq. ; see also Judg. v. 1 ; xi. 34 ; iiber d. Metrik der Heartier. Berl. 1813. Versuck Much
xxi. 21 ; 1 Sam. xviii. 7; Ps. lxviii. 25).
Were it a matter to be determined by autho useful information may be found in De Wette's
rity, we could easily prove that the Hebrew poetry Einleitung in d. A. Test., Berlin, 1840, translated
is written in hexameters and jwntameters. Jose- into English by Theodore Parker, Boston (U. S.),
phus more than once asserts that the triumphal the 1843. In Wellbeloved's Bible translations of
ode of Moses was written iti hexameter verse regard poetical portions may be found, in which
(Antig.W. 1G. 4.; iv. 8. 44); and in Antiq. vii. very valuable is paid to rhythm and poetical form; a
12. 3, he expressly says, * And now David, being form and substance, guide in Hebrew poetry, both for
freed from wars and dangers, composed songs and Translation of Job, Cambridge may l>e found in Noyes'a
hymns to God, of several sorts of metre; some of of the Psalms, Boston (U. S), 1831 (U. S.), 1827 ;
those which he made were trimeters and some ; and of the
Py'ophets, Boston (U. S.), 1833; but the best,
were pentameters ;' in which statement he is as fullest,
much in error in regard to the verse as he is in and most satisfactory work on the subject
regard to his implication that David wrote his is by Ewald, Die Poet. Biicher dts Alten Bundes,
Psalms at someone set period of his life. Not 4 vols. 8vo. Gottingen, 18*5-9.J. R. B.
improbably Josephus was influenced in this repre POL (VlD) occurs twice in Scripture, and no
sentation regarding the alleged metres by hisGrx- doubt signifies i beans,* as translated in the Auth.
cising propensities, by which be was led to assi Version. The first occasion is in 2 Sam. xvii.
milate the Hebrew laws and institutions to Gre 28, where (jeans are described as being brought
cian models, with a false view of thus gaining to David, as well as wheat, barley, lentils, &c,
honour to bis country, and by reflection, to him as is the custom at the present day in many parts
self as well. Even in his day the true pronun of the East when a traveller airives at a vil
ciation of the Hebrew was lost, so that it was easy lage. So in Ezekiel iv. 9, the prophet is directed
to make this or that assertion on the subject of its to take wheat, barley, beans, lentils, &c, and
versification. Certainly all the attempts to which make bread thereof. This meaning ofpol is con-
lljcs.? misstatements of .loscphns !see also Kuseb.
Prop. Ev. xi ; Hieron. Pretf. ad Chron. ; Eu- finned by the Arabic fool, which is the same
seb. ji. 1 ; Isidor. Orig. i. 38) chiefly led, have word (there being no/)ein Arabic), and is applied
utterly failed ; and whatever the fact may be, to the bean in modern times, as ascertained by
whether or not these poems were written in stricter Forskal in Egypt, and as we find in old Arabic
measure than the doctrine of this article supposes, works. The common l>ean, or at least one of its
we are little likely to form an exact idea of the varieties,
Hebrew measures unless we could raise David from the has been employed as an article of diet
most ancient times, since, besides the
from the sleep of centuries; and at a time when,
like the present, it is beginning to be felt that there mention of it in Scripture, we find it noticed by
Hippocrates and Theophrastus, under the names
has been far too much dogmatizing about even the of Kiio/Aoy cAATjiafcds, to distinguish it from Kva/xoi
l-wical versification, and that peculation ami
aly{rirrios,
cy nave outstripped knowledge, we do not ex- goras, which the Egyptian lean, or bean of Pytha
ct to find old attempts to discover the Hebrew seed of Nelumbium was no doubt the large farinaceous
hexameters and |ntumeters revived. Those who employed as articles ofspeciosum. Beans were
diet by the ancients, as
nay wish tu pursue the subject in its details are they are by the moderns; and are considered to give
548 PONTUS. POTSHERD.
rise to flatulence, but otherwise to be wholesome metropolis, and the birth-place of the geographer
and nutritious. * M61angle & la quantite d'une Strabo, Themiscyra, Cerasus, and Trapezus ;
livre sur dix a douze tie farine de froment, elle which last is still an important town under the
fournit un assez bon pain, et donne de la con- name of Trebizond (Ollarius, Notit, ii. 297;
sistance a la pate lorsqu'elle est trop molle/ So Mannert. vi. 350 ; Roseiimiiller, Bibl. Geoff,
Plitiy : * Inter legumina maximus honos faba? : iii. 3-9; Encyclop, Method. Sect. Geoff. Ancienne,
quippe ex qua tentatus etiam sit panis- Frumento art. * Pontus
etiam miscetur apud plerasque gentes.' Beans POPLAR. [Libneh.]
are cultivated over a great part of the old world, PORCIUS FESTUS. [Festus.]
from the north of Euro]* to the south of India; POSSESSION. [Demoniacs.]
in the latter, however, forming the cold-weather
cultivation, with wheat, peas, &c. They are ex POTIPHAR OPPID, contract, of jn ^B,
tensively cultivated in Egypt and Arabia. Mr. Potinherah, which see ; Sept. Xl*r*<pp4\s\ an officer
Kitto suites that the extent of their cultivation in of Pharaoh, probably the chief of his body-guard
Palestine he liad no means of knowing. In Egypt (Gen.-xxxix. 1). Of the Midianitish merchants
they are sown in November, and reaped in the he purchased Joseph, whose treatment by him is
middle of February (three and a half months in described under that head. The keeper of the
the ground); but that in Syria they may be had prison into which the son of Jacob was eventually
throughout the spring. The stalks are cut down cast treated him with kindness, and confided to
with the scythe; and these arc afterwards cut and him the management of the prison ; and tins
crushed, to fit them for the food of camels, oxen, confidence was afterwards sanctioned by the 'cup-
and goats. The beans themselves, when sent to a tain of the guard ' himself, as the officer respon
market, are often deprived of their skins. Basnage sible for the safe custody of prisoners of state.
reports it as the sentiment of some of the Kalinin, It is sometimes denied, but more usually main
that beans weie not lawful to the priests, on ac tained, that this 'captain of the guard * was the
count of their being considered the appropriate same with the Potiphar who is before designated
food of mourning and affliction ; but he does by the same title. We believe that this 'captain
not refer to the authority ; and neither in the of the guard * and Joseph's master were the same
acred books nor in the Mishna can be found any person. It would he in accordance with Oriental
traces of the notion to which lie alludes. So far usage that offenders against the court, and the
from attaching any sort of impurity to this legume, officers of the court, should \te in custody of
it is described as among the first-fruit offerings ; the captain of tlte guard ; and that Potiphar
and several other articles in the latter collection should have treated Joseph well after having cast
prove that the Hebrews had Iwrans largely in use, him into prison, is not irreconcilable with the
after they had passed them through the mill facts of the case. After having imprisoned
(Phys. Hist, of Palestine, cccxix.).J. F. R. Joseph in the first trans|>ort of his choler. lie
POLLUX. [Castor and Pollux.] might possibly discover circumstances which
POLYGAMY. [Mahkiaor.1 led him to doubt his guilt, if not to l>e convinced
POLYGLOTT. [Versions.] of his innocence. The mantle left in the hands
POMEGRANATE. [Hihilon.I of his mistress, and so triumphantly produced
PONTIUS PILATE. [Pilate.] against him. would, when calmly considered,
PONTUS (Jl6vroi), the north-eastern province seem a stronger proof of guilt against her than
of Asia Minor, which took its name from the sea against him : yet still, to avoid bringing dishonour
[Pontus EuxinusJ that formed its northern fron upon his wife, and ex|iosing her tu new tempta
tier. On the east it was Itounded by Colchis, on tion, be may have deemed it more prudent to I - -
the south by Cappadocia and ]>art of Armenia, stow upon his slave the command of the state pri
and on the west by Paphlagnnia and d'atatia. son, than to restore him to Ins former employment.
Ptolemy (Geoff, v. 5) and Pliny (Hist. Sat. POTIPHERAH ($n *piB), the priest of
vi. 4) regard Pontus and Cappadocia as one pro- On, or Heliopolis, whose daughter Azenath be
Tince; but Strabo (Geoff, xii. p. 541) rightly dis came the wile of Joseph [Azenath], The name
tinguishes them, seeing that each funned a dis is Egyptian, and is in the Septuagtnt accommo
tinct government with its own ruler or prince. dated to the analogy of the Egyptian language,
The family of Mithridates reigned in Pontus, being in the Cod. Vatican. TlfTttpp^ : Alex. nT-
and that of Ariarathes in Cappadocia. The two rttppri, al. Yltvrttppiii nir^pi; which corresponds
countries were also sejiarated naturally from each
other by the Lithrus and Ophliums mountains. to the Egyptian ItCT-*^pK t qui Solis est,
The kingdom of Pontus became celebrated under i. e. Soli proprius (Champollion, ]'recis, Tabi.
Mithridates the Great, who waged a long war with General, p. 23). The name is found written iu
the Romans, in which he was at length defeated, various forms on the monuments, which are copied
and his kingdom annexed to the Roman empire by (leseiiius iu his Thesaurus, p. JO'JI, from
by Pompey (Apnian, Mithrul. p. 121). That Rosellini, Monum. Storici, i. 117.
Jews had settled in Pontus, previous to the time POTSHERD. Potsherd is figuratively used
of Christ, is evident from the fact, that strangers in Scripture to denote a thing worthless and in
from Pontus were among those assembled at significant (Hs. xxii. 15; Prov. xxvi. 23; Isa.
Jerusalem at the Feast of Pentecost (Acts ii. 9). xlv. 9). It may illustrate some of these allosiong
Christianity also became early known in this to remind the reader of the fact, that the sites
country, as the strangers * in Pontus' are among of ancient towns are often covered at die surface
those to whom Peter addressed his Hrst epistle with great quantities of broken pottery. The pre
(I Pet. i. 1). Of this province Paul's friend, sent writer has usually found this pottery to be
Aquila, was a native (Acts xviii. 2). The prin of coarse texture, but coated and protected with
cipal towns of Pontus were Amasia, the ancient a strong and bright-coloured glaze, mostly bluish
POTTER. PRIEST.
green, and sometimes yellow. These fragments Egypt before the Israelites took refuge in that
give to some of the most venerable sites in the country (Wilkinson, Ane* Egypt.'ux. 165). The
world, the appearance of a deserted pottery rather processes employed by the Hebrews were pro-
than of a town. The fact is, however, that they hably not in any way dissimilar to those of the
occur only upon the sites of towns which were Egyptians, from whom the use of the wheel may
built with crude brick ; and this suggests that be supposed to have been adopted. There is the
the heaps of ruin into which these luul fallen greater probability in this, as the materials, forms,
lieing disintegrated, and worn at the surface by and manufacture of earthenware vessels are still
t he action of the weather, bring to view and very similar throughout Western Asiaand are
leave exposed the broken pottery, which is not also the same which were anciently in use. This
liable to be thus dissolved and washed away. we know from the comparison of ancient paint
This explanation was suggested by the actual ings and sculptures with modem manufactures, as
surrey of such ruins; and we know not that a well as from the vast quantities of broken pottery
hetter ha* yet been offered in any other quarter. Which are found upon the sites of ancient cities.
It is certainly remarkable that of the more mighty The ancient potters * frequently kneaded the clay
cities of old time, nothing hut potsherds now re with their feet, and after it had been properly
mains visible at the surface of the ground. worked up, they formed it into a mass of con
Towns built with stone, or kiln-burnt bricks, venient size with the hand, and placed it on the
do not exhibit this form of ruin, which is, there wheel, which, to judge from that represented in
fore, not usually met with in Palestine. the painlings, was of very simple construction,
POTTER. The potter, and the produce of and turned with the hand. The various forms
his labours, are often alluded to in the Scriptures. of the vases were made out by the linger during
The fragility of his wares, anil the ease with the revolution; the handles, if they bad any,
which they are destroyed, supply apt emblems of were afterwards affixed to them ; and the devices
the facility witli which human life and power and other ornamental ]iarts were traced with a
may be broken and destroyed. Jt is in this wooden or metal instrument, previously to their
figurative use that the potter's vessels are most being baked. They were then suffered to dry,
frequently noticed in Scripture(Ps.ii.9; Isa. xxx. and for this purpose were placed on planks of
14; Jer. xix.ll; Rev. ii. 27). In one place, the wood ; they were afterwards arranged with great
care on trays, and carried, by means of the
usual yoke, borne on men's shoulders, to the
oven* (Wilkinson, Anc. Egyptians, iii. 163-167).
POTTERS-FIELD. [Aceldama.]
PR/ETORITJM (UpairApiov). This word de
notes the general's tent in the field, and also the
house or palace of the governor of a province,
whether a praetor or not In the Gospels it is ap
plied to the palace built by Herod the Great, at
Jerusalem, and which eventually l>ecame the
residence of the Roman governors in that city
(Matt, xxvii. 27 ; Mark xv. 16 ; John xviii.
28, 38; xix. 9). In the two first of these texts
it may, however, denote the court in front of
the palace, where the procurator's guards were
stationed [Jerusalem], Herod built another
palace at Ctcsarea, and this also is called the Prse-
torium in Acts xxiii. 35, proltably liecause it had,
436. [Modem Egyptian Potter.] in like manner, become the residence of the
Roman governor, whose head-quarters were at
power of the potter to form with his clay, by the C*sarea. In Philipp. i. 13, the word denotes the
impulse of his will and hand, vessels either for Pnctorian camp at Rome, i. c. the camp or
honourable or fur mean uses, is employed with quarters of the Praetorian cohort at Rome.
great force by the apostle to illustrate the abso
lute power of God in moulding the destinies of PRIEST, HIGH PRIEST, &c. (fil. priest ;
men according to his pleasure (Rom. ix. 21). Sept. 'Itplus ; Vulg. saccrdos). The English
The first distinct mention of earthenware vessels word is generally derived from the New Testa
is in the case of the pitchers in which Gideon's ment term presbyter [elder], the meaning of
men concealed their lamps, and which they broke which, is, however, essentially different from that
iu pieces when they withdrew their lumps from which was intended by the ancient terms. Jt
them (Judg. vii. lft, 19). Pitchers and bottles would come nearer, if derived from trpotaritfii or
are indeed mentioned earlier; but the 'bottle' trpotaraptat, ' to preside,' &c. It would then cor
which contained Hagar's water (Gen. xxi. 11, respond to Aristotle's definition of a priest, twv
15) was undoubtedly of skin ; and although wpos tods Scobs Kvpios, ' presiding over things re
Rebekah's pitcher was possibly of earthenware lating to the gods' {Polit, iii. 14), and with the
(Gen. xxi v. 14, 15), we cannot be certain that it very similar one in Heb. v. 1 ; * every high-priest
was so. taken from among men, is constituted Oil the be
The potter's wheel is mentioned only once in half of men, with respect to their concerns with
the Bible (Jer. xviii. 2) ; but it must have been Gt;d ra irpbs rbv 0uV)i lna* he may present
in use among the Hebrews long before the time of both gifts and sacrifices for sins.' It would then
that allusion ; for we now know that it existed in adequately represent the icpcvr (6 Upa ptfav) **
l!i.lLf|pj.l^pi.i|| "
*' r /
PRIEST. PRIEST. 559
Zeph. i. 4), from the Syr. |; VH^, the idolatrous Some of the Fathers who returned presented a hun
dred priests' garments (Ezra ii. 69). The priests
priests of Palestine being, as might l*e expected, were restored to their cities (ver. 70); the service was
derive*! from Syria. The abandoned character of restored (iii. 3-5); and, under Joshua, the son of
the priests of Judah nearly at the same period is Josedech, the temple was rebuilt (Hagg. i. 1) and
described, Is. xxviii. 7, 8 ; Micah lit. 11. In the dedicated (b.c. 510). The priests who bad married
reign of Ahaz, king of Judah (b.c. 739), a flagrant strange wives were compelled to separate from
violation of divine commands is permitted hy them (Ksra x. 18-22). Ezra the scribe publicly
Urijah the high-priest, by the introduction into the reads the law (Neh. viii. 4), and the priests trans
temple of an altar similar to one which the king late the passages read into the Aramaean dialect
had seen at Damascus (2 Kings xvi. 10-16 ; comp. (ver. 7). They revive the Feast of Tal*ernacles
Kxod. xxvii. I, 2). The prophecy of Hnsca, ad (ver. 13-18), and the chief of them sign the
dressed to the priests (v. 1, &c), is referred to this covenant of the Lord as representatives of the rest
period. Better things marked the reign of Heze- (ix. 38, &c). At the distribution of the inha
ttiah, who reinstated the priests in their office bitants, 1760 priests remained at Jerusalem
(2 Chron. xxix. 4); they restore the Passuver (1 Chron. ix. 13). In Neh. xii. 10, 11, an ac
(xxx.), and are reinstated in their revenues (xxxi. count is given of the succession of the high-priests
4-10), are also projierly provided for in their own from the return of the captivity to Jaddua, or
cities (ver. 15), and have the care of their gene Jaddus, who held an interview with Alexander
alogies restored (ver. 16-21), b.c. 726. During the the Great. Thus, as Grotius olwerves, * the
captivity of the ten tribes, at least one priest was Scripture history ends where the very light of
sent back from Assyria to teach the Assyrian times, viz., tlie affairs of Alexander, begin,
colonists in Samaria * the manner of the God of from which time profane history tiecomes clear/
the land' (2 Kings xvii. 27); but the colonists Then follows a list of all those chief of the
themselves also appointed priests for this purpose priests who officiated in the lifetime of Jehoia-
(ver. 32). Josiah, king of Judah, degrades idol kim, son of Joshua, either as assistants or suc
atry by burning the bones of its priests upon their cessors of their fathers (ver. 12). Again, however,
altars (2 Chron. xxxiv. 5), expels some of the the negligence and wickedness of tlie restored
survivors (2 Kings xxiii. 8), yet affords some of priests are complained of by Malachi (i. 6-13).
ihem an allowance (ver. 9), hut puts others to A heavy threatening is denounced against them
death (ver. 20). Jeremiah, a sacerdotal prophet, (ii. 1-9). The fault of Eliashib, the high-priest, in
flourishes b.c. 630 ; he is informed t hat his commis the misappropriation of a sacred storehouse to the
sion was partly directed against the priests of use of one of his relations (Neh. xiii. 4-10), and
Judah (i. 18), whose degeneracy is adverted to whose family was much corrupted (ver. 28, 29),
(ii. 8), and even idolatry (ver. 26, 27). In his closes the information furnished by the canonical
time the office of second priest, or sagan^ as he is books of tlie Old Testament. The high-priesthood
called by the Jews in later times, is referred to and government of Jmhea continued in the lineage
(Jer. Iii. 24 ; 2 Kings xxv. 18). This was a sort of Eleazar, son of Aaron (subject, however, to the
of deputy, or vice high-priest, whose duty it was Persians), in the family of Josedech, by which it
to officiate for his superior in case of sudden ill was transmitted down to Onias III. He was
ness, &c. Many references to the depravity of supplanted by Jason, bis brother, as Jason was by
the priests mark this period (2 Chron. xxxvi. 14 ; his brother Menelaus ; at whose death Alcimus,
vi. 13 ; Ezek. xxii. 26), in which they were of a different family, wa* put into tlie office by
joined by the prophets (Jer. v. 31; viii. 10; the king of Syria, in tlie year b.c. 152, Alexan
xxvi. 8; Lam. iv. 13). Jeremiah records the der, king of Syria, bestowed it u[khi the heroic
attempt of a false propnef, Shemaiah, the Nehe- general Jonathan (1 Mace. x. 18-20), who be
lamite, to induce Zcphaniahy the second j/riest, longed to the class Jeboiarib (ii. 1), and in
to assume the office of high-priest at Jerusalem whose family it became settled, and continued for
during the captivity ofJudah (b.c. 597). He pre several descents till the time of Herod, who took
dicts the restoration of the sacerdotal office the liberty to change the incumbents of the office
fxxxiii. 18, 21). About this time Seraiah, the at bis pleasure,a liberty which tlie Romans ex
high-priest, and hissagan Zephaniah, were carried ercised without restraint, so that at last tlie office
to Babylon, and put to death (2 Kings xxv. was often little moie than annual. At the entrauce
18, 20). Jeremiah descrilies the miseries of the of the Christian history, we are met witli the
priests at this period (Lam. i. 4, 19). At the decree priest Zacharias, the father of the Baptist, of the
of Cyrus to rebuild Jerusalem (b.c. 536), soma course of Abia,and married to a daughter of Aaron
of the priests in exile at Babylon, witti the Fathers (Luke i. 5). * The chief priests,' mentioned in
and Levilea, avail themselves of the royal permis- Matt. ii. 4, and elsewhere, so frequently, included,
sion to return (Ezra i. 5). These belonged to beside the high-priest properly so called and then
four of the courses which retained the names of in office, all that had already held it, who, for tlie
their original heads (comp. ii. 36-39; I Chron. reason just mentioned, were numerous, and the
xxiv. 7, 18, 14; 1 Chron. ix. 12), amounting in chiefs of the twenty-four courses, who alto enjoyed
all to 4289 priests, besides others who could not this title. The acting high-priest also usually
produce their genealogy, and whom ' the governor ' had for his coadjutor some influential senior who
would not allow to eat the priests' portion till had previously filled the station. Hence the asso
their claim should be verified by a priest with ciation of Annas and Caiaphas (Luke iii. 2).
Unm and Thummim (ver. 61-64). These were Josephus sjieaks of many contemporary high-
followed by a second company (vii. 7). The priests ( Vita, $38) ; and alludes to the influence
proportion of the priests who returned seems large they possessed (L>c Bell. Jud. iv. 3, 0, 7, 9) ; and
tn comparison witli the number of the people who as even wearing the archieratical r<l>e (10). By
returned, and who scarcely amounted to 50,000. virtue of bis office, the high-priest Caiaphas u
MO PRIMOGENITURE. PROCHORUS.
said to have prophesied (John xi. 51). He ap xxi. 17; 1 Chron. v. 1) [see Birthright].
pears as chairman of the Sanhedrim at our Lord's It occurs in the New Testament only in Heb.
trial (Matt xxvi. 57). The chief priests appear xii. 16. Tlpoyr6roKos^ always rendered * first
as assessors in the court (ver. 59). The common born* in the English version, is found in the Sept,
priests still retain tbe exercise of their ancient in Gen. tv. 4, Deut. xxi. 17, and several other
functions, in judging of the leprosy, &c. (Mark i. passages of the Old Testament, as the representa
44). Christians are figuratively called priests tive of the Hebrew signifying 'one who
(Rev. i. 6 ; xx. 6). The student will observe the openeth the womb,* whether an only child, or
important distinction, that the term Uptfo is whether other children follow. 4 Primogenitus
never applied to the pastor of the Christian est, non jwst quem alii, sed ante quern nullus
church; with which term the idea of a sacrifice alius geuitus* (Parens). X\ptar6roKO$ is found
was always connected in ancient time*. Thus nine times in the New Testamentvis. Matt. i.
i, o-<pdci. 'Upevs, 6 8j& 25 (if the passage l genuine, and not introduced
uarrtu6ftcwos. We submit the foilowii
following inferences from the f>arallel passage in Luke); Luke ii. 7;
from the foregoing particulars to the judgment of Horn. viii. 29; Col. i. 15, 18; Heb. i. 6 : xi.28;
the reader. The patriarchal form of the priest xii. 23; Rev. i. 5. Except in the Gospels, and
hood was of divine origin, and the purest. Thh Heb. xi. 28, the word always bears a metaphor
was carried at the dispersion of the nations into ical sense in the New Testament, being generally
every part of the globe, and became everywhere synonymous with heir or lord, and having, in
corrupted in some degree, and ultimately even Heb. i. 6, an especial reference to our Lord's
among the ancient Canaanites. Hence ihe un Messianic dignity. In Heb. xii. 23, * the assem
questionable resemblances to it traceable in the bly of the first-lioni,' it seems to be synonymous
religions of all nations. The legation of Moses with 'elect,' or 'dearly beloved,1 in which sense
was directed to the revival of all the imiK>rtant it is also used on one occasion in the Old Testa
truths comprised in the early revelations, and ment (JeT. xxxi. 9). In the fourth century,
which were shrouded under the system of Egypt. Helvidius, among the Latins, and Eunomius
Hence it was proper that lie should become among the Greeks, wished to attach a significa
* learned in all the wisdom * of that country. In tion to vpan6roKoi in Matt. j. and Luke ii.,
the accomplishment of tiiis mission, Moses re different from the Old Testament usage, main
tained also such innocent adaptations to the old taining, in order to support fheir novel hypo
system as were required by the fixed associations thesis(viz. that Joseph and Mary had children
of the people whom he was destined to deliver. after the birth of our Lord) [Judk], that the
Among these adaptations we incline to consider word itpwtStokos, by reason of its etymology,
the peculiar oflice of the high-priest, of which we could not be applied to an only child. Jerome
find no rudiments in the patriarchal church. Nor replied to the former by appealing to the usage of
;loes the use and itlustration marie of that office the word in the GUI Testament (adv. Ilclvtd. in
>n the Epistle to the Hebrews disturb our view, Matt. i. 9), The assertion of Eunomius was
.jecause the same writer linds more points of re* equally refuted by the Greek fathers, Basil (Horn,
semblance bttwven the performances of Christ in Nat.), Theophylact (in Luc, ii.), and Damas-
and the priesthood of the patriarchal Melchizedek cenus (De fid. Orthod. 1. iv.). In reference to
than between the office of Auron and that of this controversy, Drusius (Ad diffieiltora looa
Christ (ch. vii.; see Jer. vii. 21-23). Tlie resem Num. cap. 6) observes: 1 Sic sane Christus vocatur
blances between the religious customs of the UptariroKos, licet mater ejus nullos alios postea
ancient Egyptians and those of the Jews are liberos habnerit. Notet hoc juveutus propter
numerous, decided, lwculiar, and most imjHirtant. Helvidium, qui ex ea voce inferebat Murium ex
Besides those laid before the reader in this article, Josepho post Christum natnm plures Alios sus-
we refer him to the articles Ahk, Ciiehuuim, &c, cepisse.* 'Those entitled to the prerogative'
but especially to Kitto's Pictorial History of [viz. of birthright], observes Campltfll (On tJie
Palestine, Loudon, 1844* which contains all the Gospels), 'were invariably denominated the first
most valuable illustrations of this nature derived born, whether the parents had issue afterwards or
from the best and most modern works on Egypt. not.' Eunomius further maintains, from Col. i. 15,
To this work the reader is indebted for the valu that our Lord was 'a creature;' but his argu
able cuts which have been now submitted to his ments were replied to by Basil and Theophylact.
consideration. For the similarity in the religion Some of the Fathers referred this passage to
of ancient Greece, see Putter's Archtrologia, vol. Christ's pre-existence, others to his baptism. In
i. p. 202, I.-t. i. 1775; of ancient Home, Adam's Isa. xiv. 30, the 'first-born of the poor1 dignities
Antiquities, p. 293. $ tninistrt sacrorum, Ediu. the poorest of all; and in Job xviii. 13, the * first-
1791. Fur particular topics, Kiesling, De Le born of death' in ;ms the most terrible of deaths.
gions Mas. circa Saccrd. Vitio Corporis labo- See Suicer's Thesaurus ; Leigh's Critica Sacra;
rantes ; T. C. Kail, De Morbis Sacerdot V. T. W.ihTs Claris Philolog. ; Hose's edition of
cjt ministerii cor. conditione oriundt's, Hafn. Parkhurst's Lexicon ; and Cruden's Concordance.
1745; Jabloiiskii Pantheon, proleg. 29,41,43; W. V/.
Munch, De Matrimonio Sacerd. V, T. cum filiab. PRISCA. [Priscim.a.]
Saccr. Norimb. 1747; Krumhholz, Sacer. Heb. PRISCILLA (npfffxtAXo), or Prisca (np/<r-
ebendas. For the theology of the subject. Dr. J. ko), wife of Aquila, and probably, like Phoebe, a
P. Smith's Discourses on the Sacrifice and Priest deaconess. She shared the travels, laljours, and
hood of Christ, London, 1842; Wilson on the dangers of her husband, and is always
same subject.J. F. D. along with him (Rom. xvi. 3 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 19 ; 3
Thn.iT. 19) [Aquila].
PRIMOGENITURE (Hnbn ; Sept. Up*. PRISON. [PUNISHMBKT.]
roroVcfOy Gen. xxv. 31, 34; xxvii. 36; Deut. PRIZE. [Games.]
PROCHORUS. PROPHECY. 561
PROCHORUS (Xlp6xopos\ one of the seven our old almanac-makers. Some carry the analogy
first deacons of the Christian chtirch (Acts vL 5). further, and suppose that they also gave monthly
Nothing is known of him. tables of the weather ; but such prognostications
PROCONSUL, a Roman officer appointed to are only cared for in climates where the weather is
the government of a province with consular au uncertain and variable ; while in Chaldaea, where
thority. He was chosen out of the body of the (as we know from actual experience) the seasons
senate : ami it was customary, when any one's are remarkably regular in their duration and
consulate expired, to send him as a proconsul into recurrence, and where variations of the usual
some province. He enjoyed the same honour with course of the weather are all but unknown, no
the consuls, hut was allowed only six lictors with prognosticator would gain much honour by fore
the fasces before him. telling what every peasant knows.
The proconsuls decided cases of equity and PROPHECY. The priuciital considerations
justice, either privately in their palaces, where involved in this important subject may be ar
they received petitions, heard complaints, and ranged under the following heads:
granted writs under their seals; or publicly in I. The nature of Prophecy, and its position
the common hull, witli the formalities generally in, the economy of the Old Testament.The
observed in the courts at Rome. These duties view commonly taken of the prophets is, that they
were, however, more frequently delegated to their were mere predictors of future events ; but this
assessors, or other judges of their own appointment. view is one-sided and too narrow, though, on the
As the proconsuls had also the d uet-lion of justice, other hand, we must beware of ex}ianding too
of war, and of the revenues, these detriments much the acceptation of the term prophet. Not
were administered by their lieutenants, or tegatiy to mention those who, like Hendewerk, in the
who ueie usually nominated by the senate. The introduction to his Commentary on the Prophet
office of the proconsuls lasted generally for one Isaiah, identify the notion of a prophet with that
year only, and the expense of their journeys to of an honest and pious man, the conception of
and from their provinces was defrayed by the those is likewise too wide who place the essential
public. After the partition of the provinces be feature of a prophet in his divine inspiration.
tween Augustus and the |>eople, those who pre That this dues not meet the whole subject, appears
sided over the provinces of the latter were espe from Num. xii. fi, sq., where Moses, who enjoyed
cially designated proconsuls, for whom it apj>ears divine inspiration in its highest grade, is repre
to have been customary to decree temples (Suet. sented as differing from those called prophets in
Aug.). Livy (viii. and xxvi.) mentions two otlier a stricter sense, and as standing in contrast with
classes of proconsuls: those who, being consuls, them. Divine inspiration is only the general
had their office continued beyond the time ap- basis of the prophetic office, to which two more
jxiinted by law ; and those who, t>eiug previously elements must l>e added :
in u private statu n, were invested with this honour, 1. Inspiration was imparted to the prophets in
either for the government of provinces, or to com a peculiar form. This appears decisively from
mand in war. Some were created proconsuls by the passage in Numbers above cited, which Btates
the senate without being app >inted to any province, it as characteristic of the prophet, that he obtained
merely to command in the army, and to take divine inspiration in insions and dreams, conse
charge of the military discipline; others were quently in a state extraordinary and distinguished
allowed to enter u|>u their proconsular office from the general one. This mode was different
Itefure l>eiug admitted to the consulship, but from that in which inspirations were conveyed to
having that honour in reserve. Moses and the apostles. The same thing is shown
When the Apostle Paul was at Corinth, lie was by the names usually given to the prophets, viz.,
brought before Ciallio, the proconsul of Achaia, D^Xl and D^ffl, seerSy and from this that all pro
one of the provinces of Greece, of which Corinth phecies which have come down to us have a |>oeti-
was tlie chief city, and arraigned by the Jews as cal character, which points to an intimate affinity
one who * persuadeth men to worship God contrary between prophecy and poetry ; a subject further
to the law' (Acts xviii. hJ); but fcallio refused illustrated bySteinberk, in his work, Dcr Dichtcr
to act as a judge of such matters, and ' drave them cm Setter, Leipzig, 1S36; though the materials
from the judgment-seat ' (ver. 16).G. M. li. which he gives are not sufficiently digested. The
prophetical style differs from that of books pro
PROGNOSTICATORS. The phrase 'monthly perly called poetical, whose sublimity it all but
prognosttcators 1 occurs in the Authorized Version outvies, only in being less restrained by those ex
of J -a. xlvii. 13, where the prophet is enumerating ternal forms which distinguish poetical language
the astrological superstitious of the Chaldeeans. from prose, and in introducing more frequently
In the later Hebrew, HTn denotes n ' seer/ or than prose does plays upon words and thoughts.
'prophet;' and to express the sense in which This peculiarity may t>e explained by the practi
it is employed in this text, a better word than cal tendency of prophetical addresses, which
prognosticator could not well be chosen. The avoid all that is unintelligible, and studiously
original, D*3D1D2 D*tn, might perhaps be more introduce what is liest calculated for the moment
exactly rendered, an by Dr. Henderson, * prognos to strike the hearers. The same appears from
ticates at the new moons.' It is known that the many other circumstances, e. g. the union of
Chaldsean astrologers professed to divine future music with prophesying, the demeanour of Saul
events by the positions, aspects, and appearances when among the prophets ( 1 Sam. x. 5), Balaam's
of the stars, which they regarded as having great description of himself (Num. xxiv. 3) as a
influence on the affairs of men and kingdoms; man whose eyes were opened, who saw the vision
and it would seem, from (lie present text, that of the Almighty, and heard the words of God,
they put forth accounts of the events which might the established phraseology to denote the inspiring
be expected to occur from month to month, like impulse, vix., * the hand of the Lord was strong
Vol. it.
562 PROPHECY. PROPHECY.
upon him1 (Ezek. iii. 14, corap.Isa.viiI.il.; % was added ; the prophetic, gift was after thai
Kings iii. 15). &c. All tliese facia prove that time regularly connected with the prophetic office,
there essentially belonged to prophecy a slate of so that the latter came to form part of the idea of
mind worked upa state ot l>eiiig betide one's a prophet. Thus Daniel's work was not placed
selfan ecstatic transport, in which ideas were in the collection of prophetical books, because,
immediately imparted from Heaven. Acute re though eminently endowed with prophetic gifts,
marks on the subject will bo found in the works he still had not filled the prophetic office. Speak
of Novalis (vol. ii. p. 172, sq.), (rum which we ing of office, we do not of course mean one con
give the following passage : * It is a most ar ferred by men, but by God ; the mission to Israel,
bitrary prejudice to suppose that to man is denied with which the certainty of a continued, not tem-
the power ofgoing out of himself, of being endued jwrary, grant of the donum propketicum was con
with a consciousness beyond the sphere of sense : nected.
he may at any moment place himself beyond the That the Lord would send such prophets was
reach of sense (tin iibersinnlichts W'esen seyn), promised to the people by Moses, who by a special
else he would l>e a mere brute, not a rational free law (Deut. xviii. 1) secured them authority and
man of the universe. There are, indeed, degrees safety. As his ordiniry servants and teachers,
in the aptitude for revelations ; one is more qua God appointed the Priests : the characteristic
lified for them than another, and certain disposi mark which distinguished the prophets from them
tions are particularly capable of receiving such was inspiration; and this explains the circum
revelations ; besides, on account of the pressure of stance that, in times of great moral and religioui
sensible objects on the mind, it is in this state corruption, when the ordinary means no longer
difficult to preserve self-jx>sftession. Neverthe sufficed lo reclaim the people, the number of pro
less there are such states of mind, in which its phets increased. The regular religious instruction
jMwers are strengthened, and, so to speak, armed.' of the iieople was no part of the business of the
The state of ecstacy, though ranking high above prophet! ; their proper duty was only to rouse and
the ordinary sensual existence, is still not the excite. The contrary, viz., that part of the regular
highest, as appears from Num. xii., and the ex duty of the prophets was to instruct the |>euple, is
ample of Christ, whom we never tiud in an ecsta- often argued from 2 Kings iv. 23, where it is said
tical state. To the prophets, however, it was in- thai the Shunamite on the sabbaths and days of I
di*|>ensable, on account of the frailty of them new moon used to go to the prophet Klisha ; but
selves and the people. The forcible working upon this parage applies only to the kingdom of Israel,
them by the Spirit of God would not have been and admits ot no inference with respect to the' i
required, if their general life had already been kingdom of Judah. As regards the latter, there
altogether holy; for which reason we also find is no proof that prophets held meetings for in
ecstacy to manifest itself the stronger the more the struction and edification on sacred days. Their
general life was ungodly; as, for instance, in position was here quite different from that of the
Balaam, when the Spirit of God came u[>on him prophets in the kingdom of Israel. The agency
(Num. xxiv. 4, 16), and in Saul, who throws of (he prophets in the kingdom of Judah was only
himself on the ground, tearing bis clothes from of a sutisidiary kind; these extraordinary mes
bis body. With a prophet whose spiritual at sengers of the Lord only tilled there the gaps left
tainments were those of an Isaiah, such results by the tegular servants of God, the priests and
are not to be expected. As regards the |>eople, the Invites; the priesthood ne\er became there
their spiritual obtuseness must be considered as utterly degenerate, and each lajtse was followed
very great, to have rendered necessary such vehe* by a revival of which the prophets were the vi
meut excitations as the addresses of the prophets gorous agents ; the divine election always vindi
caused. Thus it appears that prophecy has a cated itself, and in the purity of the origin of
predominant place in t he Old Testament. Under the priesthood lay the certainty of its continued
the New Testament it could take only a sulnirdi- renewal. On the contrary, the priesthood in the
nate place; although even then it could not be kingdom of Israel had no divine sanction, no pro
dispensed with, ami hence we tind it in the apt-- mise ; it was corrupt in its very source : to lelorm
olic age. It hail to prepare the soil on which itself would have been to dissolve itself; ihe
the peculiar gifts of the New Testament might priests there were the mercenary sonants of the
flourish, and the lower the church's state, the more king, ami had a brand upon their own consciences.
it resembled that of the Old Testament, the greater Hence in the kingdom of Israel the prophets were
the need of this. It had also to counteract the the regular ministers of God ; with their office all
risk of barrenness and inefficiency to which the stood or fell, ami hence they were required to du
unexciting form of the New Testament system many things besides what the original conception
was exposed. To the church in the present day one of the office of a prophet implieda circumstance
could wish a copious supply of the prophetic gilts! from the oversight of which many erroneous no
2. Generally shaking, every one wa3 a prophet tions on the nature of prophecy have sprung.
to whom God communicated his mind in this This hd to another difference, to which we shall
peculiar manner. Thus, e. g. Abraham is called revert below, viz., that in the kingdom of Judah
a prophet (Gen. xx. 7), not, as is commonly the prophetic office did not, as in Israel, possess a
thought, tin account of general revelations granted fixed organization and complete construction.
him by God. but because such as he received were In their laUiurs, as respected their own times,
in the special form described; as indeed in chap, the prophets were strictly bound to the Mosaic
xv. it is expressly stated that divine communica law, and not allowed to add to it or to
tions were made to him in visions and dreams. diminish ought from it; what was said in litis
The body of the patriarchs are in the same manner respect to the whole people (Deut. iv. 2; xiii. 1)
called prophets (Ps. cv. 13). When the Mosaic applied also to them. We find, therefore, pro
economy had been established, a new element phecy always takes its ground on the Mosaic
PROPHECY. PROPHECY. 563
aw, to which it refers, from which it derives its volunteered or granted. These also were requisite
sanction, anil with which it is fully impressed and to confirm the feeble faith of the people; but
saturated. There is no chapter in the prophets in Ewald justly remarks, that with the true prophets
which there are not several references tu the law. they never appear as the chief point; they only
The business of the prophets was to explain it, to assist and accompany prophecy, but are not its
lay it to tlie hearts of the people, anil to preserve object, not the truth itself, which supersedes them as
vital its spirit. It was, indeed, also their duty to soon as it gains sufficient strength and influence.
point to future reforms, when the ever-living spirit Some interpreters, misunderstanding passages
of the law would break its hitherto imperfect form, like Jer. xviii. 8 ; xxvi. 13, have asserted, with Dr.
and make for itself another : thus Jeremiah (iii. Koster (p. 226, sq.), that. ah prophecies were con^
16) foretells days when the ark of the covenant dilional ; and have even maintained that their
shall be no more, aud (ch. xxxi. 31) days when a revocability distinguished the true predictions
new covenant will be made with the house of (Weiasagung) from soothsaying (Wahrsagung).
Israel and with the house of Judah. Out for But beyond all doubt, when the prophet denounces
Iheir own times they never once dreamt of alter the divine judgments, he rwoceedson the assump
ing any, even the minutest and least essential pre tion that the people will not repent, an assumption
cept, even as to its form ; how much less as to its which he knows from God to be true. Were the
spirit, which even the Lord himself declares people to repent, the prediction would fail; but
(Matt. v. Is fc to be immutable and eternal. The because they will not, it is uttered absolutely. It
passages which some interpreters have alleged as does not follow, however, that the prophet's warn
opposed to sacrifices as instituted by the Mosaic ings and exhortations are useless. These serve
law, have been misunderstood ; they do not de 4 for a witness against them ;' and besides, amid
nounce sacrifices generally, but only those of the the ruin of the mass, individuals might be saved.
Canaanites, with whom sacrifice was not even a Viewing prophecies as conditional predictions
form of true worship, but opjiosed to the genuine nullifies them. The Mosaic criterion (^Deut.
and spiritual service of God. xviii. 22), that he was a false prophet who pre
As to prophecy in its circumscribed sense, or the dicted * things winch followed not nor came to
foretelling of future events by the prophets, some pass,' would then be of no value, since recourse
expositors would explain all prediction; ofspecial might always be had to the excuse, that the case
events ; while otliers assert that no prediction con had been altered by the fulfilling of the condition.
tains anything but general promises or llirealeji- The fear of introducing fatalism, if the pro
ings, and that the prophets knew nothing of the phecies are not taken in a conditional sense, is
particular manner in Wnicll their predictions might unfounded ; for God's omniscience, his foreknow
lie realised. Both these classes deviate from the ledge, does not establish fatalism, and from divine
correct view of prophecy ; the former resort often omniscience simply is the prescience of the pro
to the most arbitrary interpretations, and the lat phets to be derived. The prophets feel themselves
ter are op|K>sed by a mass of facts against which so closely united to God, that the words of Je
they are unable successfully to contend ; e. g.y hovah are given as their own, and that to them
wlten Ezekiel foretells (ch. xii. 12) that Zedrkiah is often ascribed what God does, as slaying and
would try to break through the walls of the city reviving (Hos. vi. 5^), rooting out nations and re
and to escape, but that he would be seized, storing them (Jer. i. 10; xviii. 7; Kzek. xxxii.
blinded, and taken to Babylon. The frailty of 18 ; xliii. 3); which proves their own consciousness
the jjeople, under the Old Testament, required to have been entirely absorbed into that of God.
external evidence of the real connection of the The sphere of action of the prophets was ato- *
prophets with God, and the predictions of parti lutely limited to Israel, and there is only one case
cular forthcoming events were to them o-tyieto, ol"~ a prophet going to the heathen to preach
signs. These were the more indispensable to them, among them, that of Jonah sent to Nineveh. He
because the ancients generally, and the Orientals goes, however, to Nineveh to shame the Hebrews
in particulnr, showed tLie greatest tendency to by the reception winch he meets with there, and
wards the exploration of futurity, which tended acting upon his own nation was thus even in this
to foster fuptrttition and forward idolatry. All case the prophet's ultimate object. Many pre
other methods of knowing future events by necro dictions of the Old Testament concern, indeed,
mancy, conjuration, passing through the lire, \ .. the events of foreign nations, but they are always
having been strictly forbidden (Deut xviii. 10, uttered and written with reference to Israel, and
It), it might be exneeted that the deep-rooted the prophets thought not of publishing them,
craving for the knowledge of forthcoming events among the heathens themselves. The conversion
would lie gratified in some other and nolilei of the pagans to the worship of the true God was
manner. The success of a prophet deiiended on indeed a favourite idea of the prophets; but the
the gift of special knowledge of futurity ; this it is Divine Spirit told them, that it was not to be
true was granted comparatively to only few, but effected by their exertions, as it was connected
in the authority thus obtained all those shared with extensive future changes, which they might
who were likewise invested with the prophetic not forestall.
character. It was the seal impressed on true It needs hardly to be mentioned that before a
prophecy, as opposed to the false. From 1 Sam. man could be a prophet he must be converted.
ix. 6, it appears that, to inspire uncultivated This clearly appears iu the case of Isaiah, ' whose
minds with the sense of divine truths, the pro iniquity was taken away, and his sin purged,'
phets stooped occasionally to disclose things of previous to his entering on his mission to the
common life, using this as the means to reach a people of the covenant. For a single momentary
Digher mark. On the same footing with definite inspiration, however, the mere beginning of spiri
predictions stand miracles and tokens, which pro- tual life sufficed, as instanced in Balaam and
Tjbets of the highest rank, as Klijah aud Isaiah, Saul.
Sol
564 PROPHECY. PROPHECY. *
The most usual ampliation of a prophet i* and the prophets* schools which he founded.
and Exod. iv/l-l7 is the classical passage From this time to the Babylonian exile, tltere
us to the meaning of this word. There God says happened hardly any important event in which
to Moses, * Aaron, shall he thy fcC*33 unto the the prophets did not appear as performing the
people, and thou shalt he unto him instead of leading [tart. But although the influential ope
God.' The sense is: Aaron shall speak what ration of the prophets begins with Samuel, none
thou shalt communicate t.i him. This appella- of the prophets up to the year b.c. 800 ten: any
lion implies, then, the prophet's relation to God : written prophecies. This was certainly not a
he speaks not of his own accord, hut what the mere accident. Only when the more important
Spirit puts into his mouth. This accords also and extensive divine judgments approached, it be
with the etymology of the word, as signifies came necessary, by their announcement, to arouse
in the Arabic produrit, and next, protulit verba, the impious from their slumber of listlessness, and
nunciavit, indicavit. Thus N*33 is an adjective to open to the faithful the stores of consolation and
of passive signification ; he who has been divinely hojie. Before this time, the living oral speech of
inspired, who has received from God the revela the prophets was the most important tiling ; but
now, when the Lord revealed to them more exten
tions which he proclaims : it is of the form sive prospects, when their calling was uot restricted
which cannot he proved ever to have an active to present events merely, but forthcoming mo
signification ; and hence the common opinion that mentous changes were conveyed to llieir notice
K*33 signifies originally a speaker, which has and consideration, their written words became
recently been again set up by J)r. Kwabl (p. 6), equally important. About a hundred years ufter
cannot be maintained. While this name refers the return from the Babylonian exile, the pro
to divine inspiration, the others are derived from phetic profession ceased. The Jewish tradition
the particular form in which this was communi uniformly states that Haggai, Zechariah, and
cated to the prophets. These names are n?n and Malachi were the last prophets. In the first book
nXH, ditiering only in the former being more of the Maccabees (ch. ix. 17) the discontinuance
poetical and solemn. From 1 Sam. ix. \\ some of the prophetic calling is considered as forming
expositors have inferred that the name 6033 sprang an imj>ortant era in Jewish history ; while at the
up after the age of Samuel, and that before this same time an expectation of the renewal in future
in- name had Iwen exclusively in use. But ages of prophetic gifts is avowed (iv. 46 ; xiv. 41).
that this view is wrong has been proved in Hengs- After the Babylonian exile the sacred writings were
tenlierg's Contributions towards an Introduction collected, which enabled every one to find the way
to the Old Testament' (Beitrage zur Einleitung of salvation; but the immediate revelations to
ins A. T.t vol. iii. p. 335). Oilier names, as the tieople of Israel were to cease for awhile, in
4 man of God,' &c, do not belong to the prophets order to raise a stronger longing for the apjiear-
as such, but only in so far as they are of the ance of the Messiah, and to prepare for him a wel
number of servants and instruments of God. come reception. For the same reason the ark of
II. Duration of the Prophetic office.Al t'oe covenant had been taken away from the people.
though we meet with cases of prophesying as The danger of a complete ajxistacy, which in
early as the age of the jwtiiarchs, still the roots of earlier times might have been incurred by this
prophetism among Israel are properly fixed in the withdrawal, was not now to l>e apprehended. The
Mosaic economy. Moses instilled into the con external worship of the Lord w;is so firmly esta
gregation of Israel those truths which form the blished, that no extraordinary helps were wanted.
foundation of prophecy, and thus prejiared the Taking also into consideration the altered cha
ground from which it could spring up. In (he racter of the people, we may add that the time
time of Moses himself we find prophesying after the exile was more lit to produce men learned
growing out of those things which through him in the law than prophets. Before this period, the
were conveyed to the minds of the people. faithful and the unl>elieving were strongly opposed
The main business of Moses was not that of a to each other, which excited the former to great
prophet ; but sometimes he wa* in the state of exertions. These relaxed when the Opposition
prophetic elevation. In such a state originated ceased, and pious priests now t<wk the place of
his celebrated song (I)eut. xxxii.). which Eich- prophets. The time after the exile is characterized
Uom justly calls the Magna Charta of prophecy ; by weakness and dependauce; the people looked
and his blessings (Deut. xxxiii.). Miriam, the up to the past as to a height which they could
sister of Aaron, is called a prophetess (Exod. xv. not gain ; the earlier writings obtained uncon
20; enmp. Num. xii. 2, 6), when she took a ditional authority, and the disposition for receiving
timbrel and sang to the Lord, who had over prophetic gifts was lost.
thrown the enemy of the children of Israel. The III. Manner of Life of the Prophets.The
seventy elders are expressly stated to have been prophets went alnmt poorly and coarsely dressed
impelled by the spirit of God to prophesy. In (2 Kings i. 8), not as a mere piece of asceticism,
the age of the Judges, prophecy, though existing but that their very apparel might teach what the
.inly in scattered instances, exerted a powerful jieoplc ought to do; it was a 'sermo propheticus
influence. Those who would deny this, in spite realis.' Compare 1 Kings xxi. 27, where Ahab
of the plain evidence of history, do not consider does penance in the manner figured by the pro
that the influential operation of prophets, nourish phet : * And it came to pass, when Ahab heard
ing in later times, requires preparatory steps. these words, that he rent his clothes, and put sack
' Now only,' says Kwald justly, 1 we are able to cloth upon his flesh, and fasted.' Generally the
perceive how full of strength and life was the prophets were not anxious of attracting notice by
ground in which prophecy, to attain such an ostentatious display; nor did they seek worldly
eminence, must hare sprung up.' The more con wealth, most of them living in poverty and
spicuous prophetic agency begins with Samuel, even want (I Kings xiv. 3; 2 Kings iv. 1,
PROPHECY. PROPHECY. W6
38, 42; vi. 5). The decay of the congregation forward as prophetesses, as instanced in Miriam,
of God deeply chagrined them (comp. Micah vii. Deborah, and Huldah, though such cases axe of
1, and many passages in Jeremiah). Insult, comparatively rare occurrence. We should also
persecution, imprisonment, aud death, were often observe, that only as regards the kingdom of *
the reward of their godly life. The author of Israel we have express accounts of the continu
the KpisiV to the Hebrews says (ch. xi. 37): ance of the schools of prophets. What is re
* They were stoned, they were sawn asunder, were corded of them is not directly applicable to the
tempted, were slain with the sword : they wandered kingdom of Judah, especially since, as stated
about in sheep-skins and goat skins, being desti above, prophecy had in it an essentially different
tute, afflicted, tormented' (comp. Christ's speed), position. We cannot assume that the organiia-
Matt, xxiii. 29, sq. ; 2 Chroii. xxiv. 17, sq.). The t ion atid regulations of the schools of tlte prophets
condition of the prophets, in their temporal humi in the kingdom of Judah should have been as
liation, is vividly represented in the lives of Elijah settled aud established as in the kingdom of
and Elisha in the books of the Kings; and Jere Israel. In the latter, the schools of the prophets
miah concludes the description of his sufferings in had a kind of monaslic constitution : they were not
I he 20th chapter, by cursing the day of his birth. institutions of general education, but missionary
Repudiated by the world in which they were stations; which explains the circumstance that they
aliens, tliey typified the life of Him whose ap were established exactly in places which were the
pearance they announced, and whose spirit dwelt chief seats of superstition. The spiritual fathers
in them. They figured him, however, not only travelled about to visit the training schools ; the
in his lowuess, but in his elevation. Tlte Lord pupils had their common board and dwelling,
stood hy them, gave evidence in their favour by and those who married aud left, ceased not on
fulfilling their predictions, frequently proved by that account to be connected with their col
miracles that they were his own messengers, or leges, but remained members of them. The
retaliated on their enemies the injury done them. widow of such a pupil of the schools of prophets,
The prophets addressed the jieople of both king who is mentioned in 2 Kings iv. 1, sq., considered
doms : they were not confined to particular Elisha as the person bound to care for her. The
places, but prophesied where it was required. offerings which, by the Mosaic law, were to lie
For this reason they were most numerous in given to the Levites, were by the pious of the
capital towns, especially in Jerusalem, where kingdom of Israel brought to the schools of the
they generally spoke in the temple. Sometimes prophets (2 Kings iv. 42). The prophets of the
their advice was asked, and then their prophecies kingdom of Israel stood in a hostile position to
take the form of answers to questions submitted the priests. These points of diflerence in the
to them (Isa. xxxvii., Ez. xx.. Zccli. viiA Hut situation of the prophets of the two kingdoms
much more frequently they felt themselves in must not be lost sight of; and we further add,
wardly moved to address the people without their that prophecy in the kingdom of Israel was much
advice having been asked, and they were not more connected with extraordinary events than in
afraid to stand forward in places where their ap the kingdom of Judah: the history of the latter
pearance, perhaps, produced indignation and offers no prophetical deeds equalling those of
terror. Whatever lay within or around the sphere of Elijah and Elisha. Prophecy in the kingdom
religion and morals, formed the object of their care. of Israel not being grounded on a hierarchy
They strenuously opposed the worship of false gods venerable for its antiquity, consecrated by divine
(Isa. i. 10, sq.), as well as the finery of women miracles, and constantly favoured with divine
(isa. iii. IG, sq.). Priests, princes, kings, all protection, it needed to be supported more power
must hear them must, however reluctantly, fully, and to be legitimized more evidently. In )
allow them to perform their calling as long as conclusion, it may be otwei ved, that the expression >
they spoke in the name of the true God, and as 'schools of the prophets1 is not exactly suited
long as the result did not disprove their pretensions to their nature, as general instruction was not 2^
to lie the servants of the invisible King of Israel. their object. The so-called prophets' schools were
(Jer. xxxvii. 15-21). There were institutions for associations of men endowed with the spirit of
training prophets ; the senior members instructed God, for the purpose of carrying on their work,
a numt>er of pupils and directed I hem. These the feeble ]owers of junior members being di
schools had been first established by Samuel (1 rected and strengthened, by those of a higher class.
Sam. x. 8; xix. 19); and at a later time there To those who entered these unions the Divine
were such institutions in different places, as Spirit had Ik en already imparted, which was the |
Bethel and Gilgal (2 Kings ii.3; iv. 38; vi. 1). imperative condition of t heir reception.
Tle pupils of the prophets lived in fellowship I V. Symbolic Actions of t/ie Prophets.
united, aud were called 4 sons of the prophets;' In the midst of the prophetic declarations sym
whilst the senior or experienced prophets were bolic actions are often mentioned, which the pro
considered as their spiritual parents, and were phets had to perform. The opinions of interpreters
styled fathers (comp 2 Kings ii. 12; vi. 21). on these are divided. Some assert that they
Samuel. Elijah, and Elisha, are mentioned as prin always, at least generally, were really done;
cipals of such institutions. From them the Lord others assert that they had existence only in the
generally chose his instruments. Amos relates mind of 1 he prophets, and formed part of their
of himself (vii. 14, 15), as a thing uncommon, visions. The latter view, which was espoused
that he had been trained in no school of pro by Calvin, is proved to be correct by a considerable
phets, but was a herdsman, when ihe Lord took number of such syuiUdic actions as are either
him to prophesy unto the jwople of Israel. At impossible, or inconsistent with decorum. Thus
the same time, this example shows that the l>e- Hosea relates (i. 2-11) of himself ' that the Lord
stowal of prophetic gifts was not limited to the had ordered him to take a wife of whoredoms,
ocbui/* the prophets. Women also might come for the land had committed great whoredom, de-
<J
1"
I
576 PROVIDENCE. PROVIDENCE.
mercy ami justice, wlilch are the arms of it; the righteous are trodden under foot, and the
power, which is its life and motion; wisdom, vilest men exalted ; that the race is not to the
which the rudder whereby Providence is steered ; swift, nor the battle to the strong; that virtue
and holiness, which is the compass and rule of starves, while vice is fed; and that schemes for
its motion,* This argument for a Providence doing good are frustrated, while evil plots suc
might he made much more impressive, did our ceed. But we may reply, 1. The prosperity of
limits allow us to expand it, so as to show, step the wicked is often apparent, and well styled a
by step, how almost every attribute, if not di shining misery. Who believes that Nero en
rectly, yet by implication, demands that God throned was trappier than Paul in chains ?
put forth an unceasing sovereignty over all his 2. We are often mistaken in calling such orsucii
works. an afflicted man good, and such or such a prosper
A fourtJi proof of God's P.ovid^nce appears ous man bad. 3. The miseries of good men are
in the order which prevails in the universe. We generally occasioned by their own fault, since they
say the order which prevails, aware cf the occa have been so fool-hardy as to run counter to the
sional apparent disorder that extsU. which we laws by which God acts, or have aimed at cer
have already noticed, and shall soon treat of tain ends while neglecting the appropriate means.
again. That summer and winter, seed-time and 4. Many virtues are proved and augmented by
harvest, cold and heat, day and night, are fixed trials, and not only proved, but produced, so that
by a law, was obvious even to men who never they would have had no existence without them.
heard of God's covenant with Noah. Accord Many of David's noblest qualities would never
ingly the ancient Greeks designated the creation have been developed but for the impious attempts
by a word which means order (k^t/aoi). But of Saul. Job's integrity was not only tested, but
our sense of order is keenest where we discern it strengthened, by Satan's being permitted to sift
in apparent confusion. The motions of the hea him as wheat. Patience. exj>erience, and hope
venly bodies are eccentric and intervolved, yet were brought as ministering angels to men, of
are most regular when they seem most lawless. whom the world was not worthy, through trials
They were therefore compared by the earliest of cruel mockings and scourgings. 5. The un
astronomers to the discords which blend in a equal distribution of good and evil, so far as it
harmony, and to the wild starts which often exists, carries our thoughts forward to the last
heighten the graces of a dance. Modern astro judgment, and a retribution according to the
nomy has revealed to us so much miraculous deeds done in the body, and can hardly fail of
symmetry in celestial phenomena, that it shows throwing round the idea of eternity a stronger air
ii3 far more decisive proofs of a Ruler seated on of reality than it might otherwise wear. All per
the circle of the heavens, than were vouchsafed plexity vanishes as we reflect that, k He cometh to
to the ancients. Moreover, many discover proofs judge the earth.' 6. Even if we limit our views
of a Providence in such tacts as the prnjjortion to this world, but extend them to all our ac
between the two sexes, the diversities of the coun quaintance, we cannot doubt that the tendencies,
tenance, as well as human nature and the nature though not always the effects, of vice are to
of all things continuing always the same; since misery, and those of virtue to happiness. These
such facts show that all things are controlled by tendencies are especially clear if our view em
an unchanging power. braces a whole lifetime, anil the clearer the lunger
An objection to proofs of Providence, derived the period we embrace. The Psalmist (Ps. Ixxiii.)
from the order of the universe, is thought to spring was at first envious at the foolish, when he saw
from the seeming disorders to which we cannot the prosperity of the wicked; but as his views
shut our eyes. Much is said of plagues and earth l>ecame more comprehensive, and he understood
quakes, of drought, Hood, frost, ami famine, with their end, his language was, * How are they
a thousand more natural evils. But it deserves brought into desolation as in a moment ! they
consideration whether, if there were no Provi are utterly consumed witli terrors!' The pro
dence, these anomalies would not be the rule gressive tendency of vice and virtue to reap each
instead of the exception ;whether they do not its appropriate harvest is finely illustrated by
feelingly persuade us that the course of nature is Bishop Butlerbest of all perhaps in his picture
upheld by a power above nature, and without of an imaginary kingdom of the good, which
which it would fall to nothing ;whether they would peacefully subvert all others, and fill the
may not l>e otherwise necessary for more im earth. Indeed, as soon as we leave what is im
portant ends than fall within the scope of our mediately before our eyes, and glance at the
knowledge, annals of the world, we behold so many mani
A fifth proof of a Providence is furnished by festations of God, that we may adduce as
the fact that so many men are here rewarded and A sixth proof of Providence the facts of his
punished according to a righteous law. The tory. The giving and transmission of a revela
wicked often feel compunctious visiting! in the tion, it has been justly said,the founding of
midst of their sins, or smart under the rod of religious institutions, as the Mosaic and the Chris
civil justice, or are tortured with natural evils. tian,the raising up of prophet*, apostles, and
With the righteous all things are in general re defenders of the faith,the ordering of particular
versed. The miser and envious are punished as events, such as the Reformation,the more re
soon as they begin to commit their respective markable deliverances noticed in the lives of
sins ; ami some virtues are their own present those devoted to the good of the world, &c.all
reward. But we would not dissemble that we indicate the wise and benevolent care of God
are here met with important objections, although over die human family. But the historical proof
infinitely less, even though they were unanswer of a Providence is perhaps strongest where the
able, than beset such as would reject the doctrine wrath of man has been made to praise God, or
f Providence. It it said, and we g*ant, that where efforts to dishonour God have been con
PROVIDENCE. PSALMS, BOOK OF. 671
trained to do him honour. Testimony in favour a fortiori, from his care for inferior creatures.
of piety has fallen from the impious, and has had One Psalm (xci.) is devoted to show the provi
a double value, as coming from die unwilling. dential security of the godly : another (xciii.)
They who have fought against the truth have shows the frailty of man ; and a third (civ.) the
been used by God as instruments of spreading dependence of all orders in creation on Gods
the knowledge of it, awakening an interest in it, Providence for food and breath. In him, it is
or stimulating Christians to purify it from human elsewhere added, we live, and move, and have
additions, and to exhibit its power. The sci our lieiug. He, in the person of Christ, sustaineth
entific researches also with which infidels have all things by the word of his power, and from
wearied themselves to overthrow a revelation have him comelh down every good and perfect gift.
5roved at last fatal to their darling scepticism. But nowhere perhaps is a Providence so pointedly
*oo many histories, like Gibbon's, have been writ asserted and so sublimely set forth as in some of
ten as if there were no God in the heavens, sway the last chapters of Job; and nowhere so va
ing the sceptre of the earth. But a Iwtter day is riously, winningly, and admirably exhibited as
approaching; and it is exhilarating to observe in the history of Joseph.
that Alison, the first British historian of the agr, The princi|>al writers on this important subject
writes in the spirit which breathes in the histo are: Gomarus, Explicatio Doct. Orthod. de
rical Itooks of the Bible, where the free actions Procidentia, 1 597 ; Sander, Ueber die Vorse*
of man are represented as inseparably connected hung, 17^0; Bormann, Die Christl. Lehre rf.
with the agency of God. If we may judge of the Vorsehung, 1820; Feldmann, Moira, oder . d,
future by tlie past, as the scroll of time unrolls, Gottl. Vursehung, 1830; Leibnitz, Essais de
we, or our posterity, and some think glorified Thvodicte, 1840; Rougemont, l)u Monde dans
spirits in a yet higher degree, shall see more and ses Rapjwrts avec Dieu, 1811 ; and the Treatises
more plainly the hand of CtihI operating, till and Discourses on Providence by Charnock,
every k:iee shall bow. Judgments, now a great Flavel, Hopkins, Hunter, Sherlock, and Fawcett.
deep, shall become as the light that goeth forth. J. I). B.
Hie tides of ambition and avarice will all be PRUNING-HOOK. [Vine.]
seen to roll in sulwervieucy to the designs of God.
To borrow the illustration of another, 1 We shall PSALMS, BOOK OF. This collection of
behold the bow of God encircling the darkest sacred poetry received its name, YaAuof, in con
storms of wickedness, and forcing them to mani sequence of the lyrical character of the pieces of
fest his glory to the universe.* which it consists, as intended to besting to stringed
As a seventh ground for bettering in Provi and other instruments of music. The word (from
dence, it may be said that Providence is the ne iJ/aAAw, to touch or strike a chord) is thus aptly de
cessary basis of all religion. For what is religion ? fined by Gregory of Nyssa(7'racf. ii. in Psalmos,
One of the best definitions calls it the belief in a cap. 3) : tya\fj.6s Ivtw 7} 8to too opydvov tov
superhuman Power, which has great influence in povaiKOv /ifAojSfa. Another name, Psalter, was
human affairs, and ought therefore to be wor given to this book from the Greek tyaXT-fipiov, the
shipped. But take away this influence in human stringed instrument to which its contents were
affairs, and you cut off all motive to worship. originally sung. The Hebrew title D^HPl (Rab
To tlie same purpose is the text in Hebrews : ' He
that cometh to God must believe that he is, and binic form, with H elided, D^JJl or vhl)) signifies
that he is a rewarder of such as diligently seek hymns or praises, and was probably adopted on
him.* if then the religious sentiments thrill us account of the use made of the collection in divine
not in vain, if all attempts of all men to com service, though only a part can be strictly called
mune with God have not always and everywhere songs of praise, not a lew l#ing lamentations and
been idle,there must be a Providence. prayers. There is evidently no proper correspond
In the eighth place, we may atUert for a mo ence between the titles in the two languages,
ment to the proof of Providence from the com tin.ugh each is suitable. The word answering to
mon consent, of mankind, with the single ex vuvoi* and not \l.a.\uo'i, which rather
ception of atheists. The Epicureans may be corresponds to D^DTp, lyrical odes,a name
classed with atheists, as they are generally thought wliich, though so plainly appropriate, does not
to have been atheists iit disguise, and a god after appear to have been generally given to the book,
their imaginations would lie, to all intents and at least so far as the Hebrew usage can now be
purj>oses, no god. The Stoics were also atheists, ascertained. This is the more singular, inasmuch
believing only in a blind fate arising from a per- a* no fewer than sixty-live of the songs distinctly
jietual concatenation of causes contained in na bear the title of11DTD,while only one (l's. cxlv. 1)
ture. The piissaires acknowledging a Providence
in Cicero, Seneca, Plutarch, and ill] the ancient is styled n^nn. That the name DniDTD did,
moralists, are numerous and decisive, but too however, obtain in ancient times, rather than the
accessible or well known to need l>eing quoted. present title , may l>e presumed from the
In the tost place, the doctrine of Providence use of tyaXu '( in the Septuagint and the New
is abundantly proved by the Scriptures. Some Testament, and of JjQ^OpO in thePeshito.
times it is declared that the Most High ruleth in
the kingdom of men, and giveth it to whomsoever In Ps. lxxii. 20 we find all the preceding com
be will; as much as to say that nothing can positions (Ps. i. -lxxii.) styled Prayers of David.
withstand his power. Again, lest we may think because many of them are strictly prayer?, and
some things beneath his notice, we read that he all are pervaded by the spirit and tone of suppli
numbereth the hairs of our heads, careth for cation.
lilies, and disposeth all the lots which are cast. All the bestjudges, as Lowth, Herder, He YVette,
The care of God for man is generally argued, Ewald, Tholuck, and others, pronounce the jwetry
TOL. II. 2p
573 PSALMS, BOOK OF, PSALMS, BOOK OF.
of the Psalms to lw of the lyric order. * They proof of ihe usage, if, with Tholuck, we take th
are.' says Do Wette (Einleitung in die Psalmeny* verses as inscriptions, and not as integral parts of
p. 2), * lyric in the proper sense ; fur amoiif; the the songs, which most hold them justly to be from
Hebrews, as among the ancients generally, poetry, their poetical form.
singing, and music were united, and the inscrip The fallowing considerations militate against
tions to most of the Psalms determine their con the authority of the titles. 1. The analogy be
nection with music, though in a way nut always tween them and the subscriptions to the Ajk)s-
intelligible to us. Also as works of taste these tolical Epistles. The latter are now universally
compositions deserve to be called lyric. The rejected: why not the former? 2. The Greek
essence of lyric poetry is the immediate expres and Syriac versions exhibit them with great and
sion of feeling ; and feeling is the sphere in which numerous variations, often altering the Hebrew
most of the Psalms move. Pain, grief, fear, hope, (as in Ps. xxvii.), and sometimes giving a head
joy, trust, gratitude, submission to God, every ing where the Hebrew has none (as in Ps. xciii.-
thing that moves and elevates the heart, is ex xcvii.). Would the ancient translators have
pressed in these songs. Must of them are the taken such liberties, or could such variations
lively effusions of the excited susceptible heart, have arisen, if the titles had been considered
the freh offspring of inspiration and elevation of sacred like the Psalms themselves? At any
thought; while oidy a few are spiritless imita rate the existence of these glaring variations is
tions and compilations, or nnpoetic forms of sufficient to induce a distrust of the titles in their
prayer, temple hymns, and collections of pro present form, even though they had been once
verbs.' For fuller information on this subject see sanctioned by implied authority. If ever Kzra
Poetry. settled them, the variations in versions and ma
Titles. All the Psalms, except thirty-four, nuscripts (Kichhorn's Einleitung, iii,, pp. 490,
hear superscriptions. According to some there 495) have tended since to make them doubtful.
are .only twenty-five exceptions, as they reckon 3. The inscriptions are occasionally at variance
n*V?^J1 a title in all the Psalms which com with the contents of the Psalms. Sometimes the
mence with it. To each of these exceptions the author is incorrectly given, as when David is
Talmud (Babyl. Cod. Avoda Sarah, fob 24, named over Psalms referring to the captivity, as
col. 2) gives the uame NDOT fcmDTD, Orphan in Ps. xiv. 7 ; xxv. 22 ; li. 20, 21 ; lxix. 36. It
Psalm. is not unlikely, however, as Tholuck thinks,
The authority of the titles is a matter of doubt. that these references to the exile were added
By most of the ancient critics they were considered during that period to the genuine text of the
genuine, ami of equal authorit y with the Psalms royal singer. Others, as Calvin and Heng-
themselves, while most of the modems reject them stenberg. with far less probability take these
wholly or in part. They were wholly rejected at passages in a figurative or spiritual sense. Also
the close of the fourth century by Theodore of Ps. exxxix. cannot well be David's, for its style
Mopsuestia} one of the ablest and most Judicious is not free from Chaldaisms. Then sometime!
of ancient interpreters (Kosenmiiller, Hist. Inter- the occasion is incorrectly specified, as in Ps.
pretationis Librorwn Sacrontm, P. iii., p. 256). xxx , unless indeed this refers to the dedication
On the other hand it deserves to be noticed that of the site of the Temple (1 Chroii. xxii. 1), as
they are received by Tholuck and Hengstenberg Rosenmiiller, Tholuck, and Hengstenberg, think
in their works on the Psalms. Of the antiquity of after Venetna.
the inscriptions there can be no question, for they On the whole, as the result of this investiga
are found in the Sept. They are supjtosed to be tion, it seems the part of sober criticism to receive
even much older than this version, since they were the titles as historically valid, except when we
no longer intelligible to the translator, who often find strong internal evidence against them.
makes no sense of them. Their obscurity might, The design of these inscriptions is to specify
however, have l>een owing not so much to their an either the author, or the chief singer {^never the
tiquity as to the translator's residence in Egypt, latter by name, except in Ps. xxxix.), or the his
and consequent iguorance of the Psalmody of the torical subject or occasion, or the use, or the style
Temple service in Jerusalem. At any rate the ap of jKietry, or the instrument and style of music.
pearance of the titles in the Sept. can only prove Some titles simply designate the author, as in Ps.
them to be about as ancient as the days of Kzra. xxv., while others specify several of the almve
Then it is argued by many that they must be as particular*. , i- in Ps. li. The longest and fullest
old as the Psalms themselves, since it is customary title of all is prelixed to Ps. lx., where we have
for Oriental poets to pretix titles to their songs. the author, the chief musician (not by name),
Instances are found in Arabic poems, hut these the historical occasion (comp. 2 Sam. viii.\ the
are very unlike the Hebrew inscriptions. Much use or design, the style of poetry, and t he instru
more important traces of the custom appear in Isa. ment or style of music. It is confessedly very
xxxviii. 9, in Hab. iii. 1, and in 2 Sam. i. difficult, if not impossible, to explain all the
17, 18 (Tholuck's Psalmen, p. xxiv.). The terms employed in the inscriptions ; and hence
other instances commonly appealed to in Exod. critics have differed exceedingly in their conjec
xv. 1, Deut. xxxi. 30, Judg. v. I, 2 Sain. xxii. 1, tures. The difficulty, arising no doubt from
furnish no evidence, since they are not proper ignorance of the Temple music, was felt, it
titles of the songs so much as brief statements would seem, as early as the age of the Sept. ; ami
connecting them with the narrative. But in it was felt so much by the translators of our
2 Sam. xxiii. 1, and Num. xxiv. 3, there is strong Authorized Version, that they generally retained
the Hebrew words, even though Luther had set
Of this valuable Einteitung a translation, the example of translating them to. the best of his
rather too free to l>e faithful, is given in the ability. It is worth observing that the difficulty
American Biblical Repository, vol. iii. appears to have determined Coverdale, 1 535, tc
PSALMS, BOOK OF. PSALMS, BOOK OP. 579
r>mit nearly all except names of author* ; thus, 8. Jehovah will keep thy going out and thy com
in Ps. lx., which is lix. in his version, he gives ing in.
onlya Psalme of David. From this time even for evermore.
Of the terms left untranslated or obscure in To this very ingenious and not improbable ex
our Bible, it may be well to offer some explana planation it is objected, that this rhythm by gra
tion in this place, taking them in alphabetical dation (as l)e Wette calls it) is not obvious in
order for the sake of convenience. On this m t L- the structure of all these songs, and therefore
ject most commentators offer instruction, but the could hardly suggest the name. 4. According
reader may es]>ecially consult Rnscnmuller, to the most prevalent and probable opinion, the
Scholia in Camp. Hedacta, vol. iii. 14-22; I)e title signifies song of the ascents, or pilgrim song,
Wette, Commentar uber die Psalmen, pp. 27-37, meaning a song cnm|Hi$ed fur, or sung during the
and Ewald, Poet. Bdcher, i. 160-1 SO, 195. journeyings of the people up to Jerusalem, whether
Ayelcth shahar, V0T\ H^K, hind of the as they returned from Babylon, or as they statedly
morning, i. e. the sun, or the dawn of day. This rejaired to the national solemnities. So Herder
occurs only in Hs. xxii., where we may best take (Geist der Ebr. Poesie, ii. 353-357) and Ewald
it to designate a song, perhaps commencing with {Poet, lliicher, i. 195). Journeys to Jerusalem
ttiese words, or bearing this name, to the melody are generally spoken of as ascents, on account of
of which the psalm was to he sung. So most of the elevated situation of the city and temple
he ablest critics after Abcn-Kira. Yet Tholuck (see Kira vii. 9, and especially Ps. exxii. 4).
and Hengstenberg, after Luther, suppose it to This explanation of the name is favoured by the
denote the subject of the [aalm, meaning David brevity and the contents of these songs, and by
himself, or typically the Messiah. the versions of Aqu'ila, Symmachus, and Theo-
Alamoth, Ps. xlvi., probably signifies dotton, who render fil^JJD by dva&dacts.
virgins* and hence denotes music for female Gittith, IVrOn, appears over Ps. till., lxxxi.,
voices, or the treble. So Gesenius, Tholuck, and lxxxiv., and is of very uncertain meaning, though
Hengstenberg, after Gusset, who, in Comment. nut improbably it signifies an instrument or tune
brought from the city of Gath. So Rosenmtiller,
Ling. Hebr. sub voce D?V, explains itvox De Wette, Ewald, Hengstenberg, and Tholuck.
c/ara et acuta, quasi virqinum (see below under In the opinion of not a few the word comes from
Sheminitk). > . tcine-press, and denotes either an instrument
Al~taschith, nntTlTvK, destroy tfiou not, is or a melody used in the vintage. So the Sept.
found over Ps. lvii., lviii., lix., lxxv., and sig renders it inrip twc krjvwv. The new Lexicons
nifies, by general consent, some well-known ode of Geseuius and Furst give other explanations
beginning with the expression, to the tune of [Musical Instruments].
which these compositions were to be sung. Higgaion, |V3H, is found over Ps. ix. lb", and
Degrees, mbjJDn, appears over fifteen Psalms probably means either musical sound, according
(cxx.-cxxx.iv.J, called Songs of Degrees, and to theopiniou of most, and the Sept. qJ5^ ; or medi
has been explained in various ways, of which the tation according to Tholuck and Hengstenberg
fallowing are the chief. 1. The ancients under- (see more below under Selah).
stoud by it stairs or steps, as appears from the Jeduthun, |mTi% is found over Ps. xxxix.,
Sept. version of tiie title. qJ5>? rwv ava&aOftwr, and lxii., lxxvii., and is generally taken fur the name
tlic Vulgate, carmen graduum, sung of the steps ; of choristers descended from Jeduthun, of whom
and in accordance with this, Jewish writers n - we read in 1 Chron. xxv. 1, 3, as one of David's
late (Mishna, Sucah, cap. v. 4), that these Psalms three chief musicians or leaders of the Temple
were sung on jifteen steps, leading from the court music. This use of the name Jeduthun for
of Israel to the court of the women. This ex Jeduthunites is just like the well-known use of
planation is now exploded, though Furst, in hit Israel for the Israelites. It. is most probable that
Concordance, sanctions it. 2. Luther, whom in Ps. xxxix. Jeduthun himself is meant, and not
Tholuck is inclined to follow, renders the title a his family. So Roseunitiller and Hengstenberg
song in the higher choir, supposing the Psalms [Jeduthun].
to have l*en sung from an elevated place or as- Jonath-elem-rec/wkim, O^pVH D^N r01\ the
rent, or with elevated voice, 3. Gesenius and mute dove among strangers, found only over
De Wette think the name refers to a peculiar Ps. Ivi., may well denote the subject of the song,
rhythm in these Jongs, by which the sense viz., Daviil himself, * when the Philistines took
udvances by degrees, and so ascends from clause him in Gath ;* or it is the name or commence
to clause. Thus in Ps. exxi. : ment of an ode to the air of which this psalm was
1. I will lift up my eyes to the hills, sung. .
From whence cometh my help. Leannoth, m3JO. in the title of Ps. lxxxviii.
2. My help cometh from the Lord, means to sing, denoting that it was to be sung in
The maker of heaven and earth. the way described.
3. He will not suffer thy foot to be moved, Mahalath, occurs in Ps. liii. and
Thy keeper will not slumber: lxxxviii., and denotes, according to some, a sort
A. Behold, he will neither slumber nor sleep, offlute, according to Gesenius in his last edition
The keeper of Israel. of his Thesaurus, a lute, but in the opinion of
5. Jehovah is thy keeper, Furst, a tune, named from the first word of some
Jehovah, thv shade on thy right hand. fiopular song. Upon Mahalath Leannoth, Ps.
* * * * xxxviii.. is accordingly a direction to rhaunt it
7. Jehovah will keep thee from all evil, to the instrument or tune called mahalath.
He will keep thy soul : Maschil, is foimil in the title of thirteen
2r 2
580 PSALMS. BOOK OF. PSALMS, BOOK OF.
psalms. According to Gesenius, De Wette, and Hengstenlwrg, however, the two words are ren
others, it means a poem, so called either for its dered meditation, pause, i. e. let the singer medi
skilful composition or for its wise and pious strain. tate or reflect while the music stops.
The common interpretation, which Thohick and Sheminith, JV3*D? (Ps. vi. and xii.), means
Hengstenberg follow, makes it a didactic poem, pronerly eighth, and denotes either, as some think,
from to teach or make wise. There seems an instrument with eight chords, or, more likely,
very little to choose hetween the two opinions. music in the lower notes, or bass. So Gesenius,
Michtam, DriDD, is prefixed to Ps. xvi., lvi.- De Wette, Tholuck, and Hengstenberg. This is
lx., and is subject to many conjectures. Many, strongly favoured by 1 Chron. xv. 20, 21, where
after Aben-Ezra, derive it from D1"D, gold, and the terms alamoth and sheminith clearly denote
understand a golden psalm, so culled either on different parts of music: the former answering to
account of its excellence, or because written our treble, and the latter to the bass, an octave
in golden letters. Hengstenberg understands below,
mystery, and supposes that these Psalms, more Shiggaion, H*3t? *'P*. vii.), denotes, according
than others, have a deep or occult sense. Others, to Gesenius and Furst, a song or hymn ; but
after the Sept., which gives ori\Koypa<pla, fancy Kwald and Hengstenberg derive it from to
that the woid means a poem engraved on a pillar err or wander ; and hence the former understands
or monument. But the true explanation is most a song uttered in the greatest excitement, but tl
likely that offered by Gesenius, De Wette, Roseu- latter, error or wandering, supposing that the
miiller, and Tholuck, who hold DHDO to be only aberrations of the wicked are the subject of the
another form of by the familiar interchange Psalm. According to Rosenmuller, De Wette,
of the kindred letters and 3, and to signify a and Tholuck, it means a plaintive song or elegy.
writing or poem. Ir is actually found in this form Shushan, p'lt? (Ps. Ix.), and in plural s/to-
over Hezekiah's song in Isa. xxxviii. 9. shannim (Ps. xlv., lxix., Ixxx.). This word com
Mulh-labben (Ps. ix.) presents a perfect riddle, monly signifies lily, and probably denotes either
owing to the various readings of MSS., and an instrument bearing some resemblance to a lily
the contradictory conjectures of the learned. Be (perhaps cymbal), or a melody named lily for its
sides the common reading upon pleasantness. Hengstenberg contends that it ex
presses the subject, i.e. some delightful theme.
death to the son, we have fl-loVl^ and n'lD^J|, the Eduth, nnj?, is joined to it in Ps. Ix. and Ixxx.,
same word that is used in Ps. xlvi. (see above giving the sense lily of testimony, the name of a
Alamoth). Some explain it as the subject or tune, according to Tholuck ; or lily of song, ac
occasion of the song, but most refer it to the music. cording to Gesenius, who understands a lyric
Gesenius, in his last edition, renders itwith vir pipe.
gins' voice for the boys, i. e. to be sung by a choir Authors.Many of the ancients, both Jews
of boys in the treble. and Christians, maintained that all the Psalms
Ncginoth, rW3J, Ps. iv. ami four others; over were written by David : which is one of the
Pa. Ixi. neginah in the singular, though some most striking proofs of their uncritical judg
MSS. give neginoth here also.. This name, from ment. So the Talmudists (Cod. Pcsachim, c. x.
J33, to strike a chord, like i^aAAw, clearly denotes p. 117); Augustine, who is never a good critic
stringed instruments in general. (De Civ. Dei, xvii. 14); and Chrysostom (Prol.
Xehihth, rn^*ri3 (Ps. v.), comes most likely ad J'salmos). But Jerome, as might be ex
pected, held the opinion which now universally
from hhft, to perforate, and denotes pipes or prevails ( Epist. ad Sophronium). The titles
flutes. Hengstenberg, however, fancies it means and the contents of the Psalms most clearly show
lots or heritages, from , to possess, and {joints that they were composed at different and remote
out the subject of the Psalm. periods, by several poets, of whom David was only
the largest and most eminent contributor. In
Selah, i~6D, is found seventy-three times in the
Psalms, generally at the end of a sentence or pa the t itles the author is indicated by ^, to, i. e. * be
ragraph ; but in Ps. lv. 19 and lvii. 3 it stands in longing to,' prefixed to his name, hence called
the middle of the verse. While most authors lamed auctoris. Some suppose, without good
have agreed in considering this word as somehow reason, that ^ prefixed to a musician's name, e. ^.
relating to the music, their conjectures about its Asaph, indicates, not the author, but simply the
precise meaning have varied greatly. But at pre head singer. According to the inscriptions we
sent these two opinions chiefly obtain. Some, have the following list of authors :
including Herder, De Wette, and Kwald (Poet. I. David, 'the sweet Psalmist of Israel*
BUcher, i. 17'J), derive it from H^D or ^D, to (2 Sam. xxiii. 1). To him are ascribed seventy-
raise, and understand a raisijig of the voice or three Psalms in the Hebrew text (not seventy-
music ; others, after Gesenius, in Thesaurus, de four, aa De Wette and Tholuck state; noraeventy-
one, as most others have counted) ; and at least
rive it from rho, to be still or silent, and under eleven others in the Sept., namely, xxxiii., xliii.,
stand a pause in the singing. So Roseumiiller, xci., xciv.-xcix., civ., exxxvii. ; to which may
Hengstenberg, and Tholuck. Probably selah was be added Ps. x.. as it forms part of Ps. ix. in that
used to direct the singer to be silent, or to pause a version. From what has been advanced above
little, while the instruments played an interlude respecting the authority of the titles, it is obviously
or symphony. Jn Ps. ix. 1C it occurs in the injudicious to maintain that David composed all
expression higgaion selah, which Gesenius, with that have his name prefixed in the Hebrew, or to
much probability, renders instrumeyttal music, suppi.se that he did not comjtose some of the eleven
pause, i. e. let the instruments strike up a sym ascribed to him in the Sept., and of the other*
phony, and let the singer pause. By Tholuck and which stand without any author's narre at alL
PSALMS, BOOK OF. PSALMS, BOOK OF. 581
We cannot feel sure that Ps. cxxxix. is David's, in Ps. xviii. And the celebrated singers of his
for its Chaldaisms (ver. 2, 8, 16, 17) betray a day were men, like himself, moved by the divine
later age; and Ps. cxxii. can scarcely be his, for afflatus not only to excel in music but also to
its style resembles the later Hebrew, and its de indite hallowed poetry. Of these Psalmists the
scription ofJerusalem can hardly apply to David s names of several are preserved in the titles.
time. Besides, it is worthy of notice that the 2. Asaph is named as the author of twelve
Sept. gives this and the other Songs of Degrees Psalms, viz. 1., Kxiii.-lxxxiii. He was oue
without specifying the author. Of those which of David's chief musicians [Asaph]. All the
the Sept, ascribes to David, it is not improbable poems bearing his name cannot be his ; for in Ps.
that Ps. xcix. and civ. are really his ; and of those lxxtv., lxxix.,aud lxxx. there are manifest allu
which bear no name in either text, at least Ps. ii. sions to very late events in the history of Israel.
appears to be David's. Either, then, the titles of these three Psalms must
When we consider David's eminence as a poet, he wholly rejected, or the name must be here
and the delight he took in sacved song, we cannot taken for the 'sons of Asaph f which is not impro
wonder tliat lie should be tlie author of so many bable, as the family continued for many genera
of the Psalms, no fewer, in all likelihood, than tions in the choral service of the Temple. Asaph
half the collection : the wonder rather should be, apjwars from Ps. 1., Ixxiii., and lxxviii., to have
that we do not find more of his fine odes, for it been the greatest master of didactic poetry, excel
is certain he wrote some which are not in this ling alike in sentiment and in diction.
book; see, in 2 Sam. i. 19-27, his lament over 3. The sons of Korah was another family of cho
Saul and Jonathan, and in 2 Sam. xxiii. 1-7, his risters (see Kokah, at the end), to whom eleven
last inspired effusion. of the most beautiful Psalms are ascribed. The
H is character and merit as the father of Hebrew authorship is assigned to the Korah ites in general,
melody and musicfor it was in his hands and not because many of them could have l>een eu-
under his auspices that these flourished most*are gaged iu composing oue and the same song, but
thus set forth by the Son of Sirach (ch. xlvii. 8-10), because the name of the particular writer was
* In all his work he gave thanks. To the Holy unknown or omitted. However, iu Ps. lxxxviii.
and Most High he sang songs with all his heart, we lind, besides the family designation, the name
in word* of praise (/H^ari 5d{rjs), and he loved of the individual who wrote it, viz.
his Maker. He set singers also before the altar, 4. IIeman was another of David's chief singers
and from their music (4fxow) 5weet melody re (1 Chron. xv. 19): he is called the Kzrahite, as
sounded. He gave splendour to the feasts, and being descended from some Kzrah, whoap|)ears to
adorned the solemn times unto perfection (fi^xP1 have been a descendant of Korah ; at least Hcnian
irvyrf\(las), in that they praised His holy name, is reckoned a Kohathite (1 Chron. vi. 33-38), and
and the sanctuary pealed with music from early was therefore probably a Korah ite ; for the Kohath-
morn/ ites were continued and counted in the line cf
David's comjx)sitions are generally distin Korah; see 1 Chron. vi. 22, 37, 38 [Hkman].
guished by sweetness, softness, and grace; but Thus Ileman was both anKzrahite and of the sous
sometimes, as in Ps. xviii., they exhibit the sub of Korah. That Ps. lxxxviii. was written by him
lime. His prevailing strain is plaintive, owing to is not unlikely, though many question it.
his multiplied and sore trials, both before and 5. Ethan is reputed the author of Ps. lxxxix.
after his occupation of the throne. How often was He also is called the Ezrahite, but this is either a
he beset with dangers, harassed by foes, and chas mistake, or he as well as Heman had an ancestor
tised of God! And, under these circumstances, named Kzrah, of whom nothing is known. The
how was his spirit bowed down, and gave vent Ethan intended in the title is doubtless the Levite
1.i its plaints and sorrows on the saddened chords of Merari's family whom David made chief mu
of the lyre ! But in the midst of all he generally sician along with Asaph and Heman (1 Chron. vi.
found relief, and his sot row gave place to calm con 44 ; xxv. 1, 6). The Psalm could not, however,
fidence and joy in God, What wonder, that a Km] be composed by him, for it plainly alludes (ver.
so susceptible and devout as his .should manifest 38-44) to the downfall of the kingdom.
emotions so strong, so chanceful, and so various, 6. Solomon is given as the author of Ps. lxxii.
seeing that he passed through the greatest vicissi and exxvii., and there is no decided internal evi
tudes of life. God took him from the shcepfolds dence to the contrary, though most consider him
la feed Jacob his people, and Israel his inheritance to be the subject, and not the author, of Ps.
( Ps. lxxviii. 70, 7i). See Herder's Grist der lxxii.
Ebr. Poetic, ii. 297-301 ; and especially Tholuck 7. Moses is reputed the writer of Ps. xc, and
{Paaltncn, Einleitung. 3), who gives a most there is no strong reason to doubt the tradition.
admirable exhibition of the Psalmist's history and But the Talmudists, whom Origen, and even Je
services. rome, follow, ascribe to him also tlie ten succeed
Ttte example and countenance of the king na- ing Psalms (xci.-c), on the principle that the ano
lurally led others to cultivate poetry and music. nymous productions belonged to the last-named
It apiwars from Amos vi. ft, that lovers of pleasure; autlior. This principle is manifestly false, since
took David's compositions as a model for their in several of these Psalms we find evidence that
worldly songs: how much more would the lovers Moses uas not the autlior. In Ps. xcv. the forty
r.*f piety be induced to follow him by producing years' wandering in the wilderness is referred to
aered songs and hymns! The tine jisalm in as past ; in Ps. xcvii. 8, mention is made of Z ion
Hah iii. is an exact imitation of his style as seen and Judali, which proves tliat it cannot lie dated
earlier than the time of David ; and iu Ps. xcix. 6.
* II was he, as Herder observes, that collected the prophet Samuel is named, which alsc proves
the scattered wild field-flowers and planted them that Moses could not be llie writer.
u a royal parterre on Mount Zioiu Jeduthun is lotretimes, without just ground,
,VJ3 PSALMS, BOOK OF. PSALMS, BOOK OF.
held to be named as the author of Ps. xxxix. (see certain that the hook, as it now stands, could not
above, under that head). Many conjectures have have been formed before the building of the second
been formed respecting other writers, especially of temple, for Ps. exxvi. wasevidently cumposed at
the anonymous psalms. The Sept. seemingly that period. In all prubability it was formed
gives, as authors, Jeremiah (Ps. exxxvii.), and by Ezra and his contemporaries, about bx. 450
Haggai and Zechariah (Ps. exxxviii.).* But these (Ewald's Poet. Buchcr, ii. 205). But in the
conjectures are too uncertain to call for further arrangement of the book, there is manifest proofof
notice in this place. its gradual formation out of several smaller collec
The dates ofthe Psal ms, as must he obvious from tions, each ending with a kind of doxology.
what has been stated resjweting the authors, are The Psalter is divided m the Hebrew into five
very various, ranging from the time of Moses to books, and also in the Sept. version, which proves
that of the Captivitya jieriod of nearly 1000 the division to be older than n.c. 200. Some have
years. In the time of king Jehoshaphat (about fancied that this live-fold division did not origi
u.c. 896) Ps Ixxxiii., setting forth the dangers nally exist, hut that it arose simply from a desire
of the nation, as we read in 2 Chron. xx. 1-25, was to have as many parts in the Psalms as there are
composed either by himself, as some suppose, or in the law of Moses. But strong reasons demand
most likely, according to the title, by Jaliaziel, the rejection of such a fancy. Why should this
'a Levite of the sons of Asaph,' who was then an conformity to the Pentateuch be desired and
inspired teacher (see 2 Chron. xx. 14). In the effected in the Psalms, and not also in Proverbs
days of Hezekiah, who was himself a poet (Isa. or in the Prophets'? The five bonks bear decided
xxxviii. 9-20), we may date, with great proba marks of being not arbitrary divisions, but dis
bility, the Korahitic Psalms xlvi. and xlviii., tinct and independent collections by various
which seem tocelehrate the deliverance from Sen hands.
nacherib (2 Kings xix. 35). In the period of the The first book (i.-xli.) consists wholly of
Captivity were evidently written such laments as David's songs, bis name being prefixed to all ex
Ps. xliv., Ixxix., cii., and exxxvii. ; and after its cept i., ii., x., and xxxiii. ; and it is evidently
close, when (he captives returned, we must mani trie first collection, having l>eeu possibly made in
festly dale tV lxxxv. and exxvi. Some have the time of Hezekiah, who is known to have
maintained that several psalms, especially lxxiv., ordered a collection of Solomon's proveibs (Prov.
were written even in the days of the Maccabees ; xxv. 1), and to have commanded the Levites to
but this is contrary to every prolubility, for, ac sing the words of David (2 Chron. xxix. 30).
cording to all accounts, the Canon had been closed The second book (xlii.-lxxii.) consists mainly
before that time [Canon]. of pieces by the sons of Korali (xlii^xlix.), and by
COLLECTION AND AuBANORlIENT. As the David (li.-lxv.), which may have been separate
Psalms are productions of different authors in minor collections. At the end of this book is
different ages, we an? led to inquire how and found the notice* The prayers of David the son
when they were collected. The Iwok lias been of Jesse are ended and hence some have thought
styled by some moderns the Anthology of Hebrew that this was originally the close of a large collec
lyric poetry, as if it consisted of a selection of the tion comprising Ps. i.-lxxii. (Carpzov, Intro*
most admired productions of the sacred muse ; but ductio, &e. ii. 107). But that the second was
the name is not altogether appropriate, since seve originally distinct from the first book, is proved
ral pieces of the highest poetic merit are, to our by the repetition of one or two pieces ; thus Ps.
knowledge, not included, namely, the songs of liii. is plainly the same as Ps. xiv., with only a
Moses in Kxod. xv. and Deur. xxxii.; the song notable variation in the Divinename,
of Deborah in Judg. v.; the prayer of Hannah
in 1 Sam. ii. 1-10; and even David's lament over being used in the former wherever Lord, flW, i
Saul and Jonathan in 2 Sam. i. 18-27. To these found in the latter. So also Ps. lxx. is but a re
may be added the song of Hezekiah in ha. petition of Ps. xl. 13-17, with the same singular
xxxviii. 9-20 ; and the prayer of Hahakkuk in variation in the Divine name. It is not likely
Hah. iii. The truth seems to be, a* Kwald and that this collection was made till the period of die
Tholuck maintain, that the collection teas made Captivity, if interpreters are right in referring Ps.
not $o much with reference to the beauty of the xliv. to the days of Jeremiah.
pieces as to their adaptation for devotional use tn The third oooA (lxxiii. lxxxrx.) consists chiefly
public worship. Tin's view aurrieieiitly accounts of Asaph s psalms, but comprises apparently two
for omitting most of tlie above piece*, and many mailer collections, the one Asaphitic (lxxiih-
others, us being either too individual or loo secu lxxxiii.), the other mostly Korahitic (Ixxxiv.-
lar in their application. It may account for lxxxix.). The collector of this book had no in
not including the lament over Jonathan, and for tention to bring together songs written by David,
the fact that only two of Solomon's compositions aud therefore he put the above notice at the end
(Ps. lxxii. and exxvii.) are professedly given, of the second book (see De Wette's Psalmen,
though * his songs were a thousand and tive'(] Einleittoig, p. 21). The date of this collection
Kings iv. 32, 33V His themes were secular, and must l>e as late as the return from Babylon, for
therefore not suitable for this collection. Ps. lxxxv. implies as much.
When the Psalms were collected and by whom, T\w fourth book (xc.-cvi.) and the fifth (cvii.-
are questions that cannot he confidently answered. cl.) are made up chiefly of anonymous liturgie
The Talmudists most absurdly consideied David pieces, many of which were comjx*ed lor the ser
the collector (Corf. Beracoth, c. i. p. 9). It is vice of the second temple. In the kist book we
lave the Songs of Degrees (cxjt.-cxxxiv.V^whicb
* Hitzig (Comment, iiber die Psalmen) ascribes seem to have been originally a separate collection.
to Jeremiah a large number of the elegiac or The live hooks may, with some propriety, be thus
plaintive psalms distinguished: the first Davtdic, the second A'o
PSALMS, BOOK OF. PSALMS, BOOK OF. 583
rahttic, the third Asaphitic, and the two Even in the New Testament there is scarcely a
ing Litutgic. work of equal practical utility. Basil the Great
In the mode of dividing and numbering the and Chrysostom, in their homilies (see Suiceri
Psalms, some Hebrew MSS. vary from the printed Thes. Eccles. sub tya\tx6s), expatiate most elo
text. In some, Pa. i. and it. are given as one, quently, and yet judiciously, on its excellence.
the first being reckoned as only introductory ; The close of Basil's eulogy is to this effect : 1 In
which accounts for the various reading in Acts it is found a ]>erfeet theology (4vrav0a tvt QtoXoyia
xiii. 33. So also Ps. xlii. and xliii. are some T*\*i'a) ; prophecy of Christ's sojourn in the flesh,
times joined into one, as they evidently ought to threatening of judgment, hope of resurrection,
be. In the Septuagint also, which the Vulgate fear of retribution, promises of glory, revelation*
follows, the arrangement varies from the common of mysteries,all things are treasured in the book
order, for it joins Ps. \x. and x. together, and of Psalms, as in some great and common store
thus its numbering falls one behind the Hebrew house.' Among the early Christians it was cus
as far as P. cxlvii., which it cuts into two at tomary to learn the Ixxik by heart, that psalmody
ver. 12, and thus returns to the common enumera might enliven their social hours, and soften the
tion. There is also in the Sept. an ajwcryphal fatigues and soothe the sorrows of life. They em
Psalm, numbered. clL, on David's victory over ployed the Psalms not only in their religious as-
Goliath. sem lilies, of which use we find probable mention in
Various classifications of the Psalms have been 1 Cor. xiv. 26, but also at their meals and before
proposed (Carpzov, Introduction ike, ii. 132-134). retiring to rest, as Clement of Alexandria testifies :
Tholuck would divide them, according to the Qvaia Ttf Ofip ipa\po\ teal vuvot iraph t^v iffria/Ttv,
matter, into songs of praise, of thanksgiving, of vpo tc TTjt Koirrjs. Of their use at meals we find
complaint, and of instruction. J)e Welte suggests an example also in the institution of tlie Lord's
auuther method of sorting them {Einleitung, p. 3), supper (Matt. xxvi. 30).
into1. Hymns (uh\\T\ in the proper sense), as The great doctrines and precept* embodied in
the Psalms, what views they give of God and hi*
viii. xviii. ; 2. National Psalms, as lxxviii. cv. ; government, of man ami his sinfulness, of piety
3. Psalms of Zion and the Temple, as xv. xxiv. ; and morals, of a future state, ami of the Messiah,
4. Psalms respecting the King, as ii. ex. ; 5. are most ably set forth by Tholuck in his Einlei-
Psalms of complaint, as t it. xxii. ; and n*. Re tung, $ 4.
ligious Psalms, as xxiii., xci. It is obvious, It may l>e well here to notice what are called the
however, that no very accurate classification can vindictive Psalms, namely, those which contain
be made, since many are of diversified contents expressions of wrath and imprecations against the
enemies of God and his people, such as Ps. lix.,
Canonicity and TJsk.The inspiration and lxix., lxxix., and which in consequence are apt
canonical authority of the Psalms are esta to shock the feelings of some Christian reader*.
blished hy tlie most abundant and convincing In order to obviate this offence, most of our pious
evidence. They never were, and never can be, commentators insist tliat the expressions are not
rejected, except by impious impugners of all maledictions or imprecations, but simple declara
divine revelation. Not to mention other ancient tions of what will or may take place. But this
testimonies [Canon], we find complete evidence is utterly inadmissible; for in several of the most
In the New Testament, where the bixik is quoted startling passages the language in the original is
or referred to as divine by Christ and his ajxtstles plainly imjierative, and not indicative (see Ps.
at least seventy times. No other writing is so fix. 14 ; lxix. 35, 28; lxxix. 6). The truth is,
frequently cited; Isaiah, the next in the scale of that only a morbid benevolence, a mistaken phil
quotation, being cited only about fifty-five times. anthropy, takes offence at these Psalms; for in
Twice (Luke xx. 42 and Acts i, 20) we find dis reality tliey are not opposed to the spirit of the
tinct mention of the Book of Psalms ($i0\os (iospel, or to that love of enemies which Christ
y^aKpQv). Once, however (Luke xxiv. 44), the enjoined. Resentment against evil-doers is so
name Psalms is used not simply for this liook, far from being sinful, that we find it exemplified
but for the Hagiographa, or the whole of the third in the meek and spotless Redeemer himself (see
division of tlie Hebrew Scriptures [Haoio- Mark iii. 5). If the emotion and its utterance
qrapiia], because in it the Psalm* are tlie first were essentially sinful, how could Paul (1 Cor.
and chief part ; or ]>ussibly, as Havernick suggests xvi. 22) wish the enemy of Christ to le accursed
(Einleitung, o xiv. p. 7s*), because the division (dv&dtpa), or pay of his own enemy, Alexander
consists mainly of poetry. It deserves notice tlie coppersmith, * the Lord reward him according
that in Heb. iv. 7, where lite quotation is taken to his works' (2 Tim. iv. 14); and, especially,
from the anonymous Ps. xcv., the book is indi how could the spirits of the just in heaven call on
cated by I)acids most likely l>ecame be was the God for vengeance (Rev. vi. 10) i See a good
largest and most eminent contributor, and also article on this subject ( The Imprecations in the
the patron and model of the other Psalmists. For Scriptures) in the American Bibliotheca Sacra
the mine reasons many ancient and modern for February, 1844.
autht>rs often ifieak of tlie book as the Psalms of Tlie following are among the chief and best
David (Carpzov, Introd. ii. 98), without intend exegetical helps for explaining this book;Poll
ing to ascribe all tlie productions to him. Synopsis ; Venema, Comment, in Psalmos ; I)e
In every age of the church the Psalms have Wette s Commentar lifter die Ptalmen, 1S36;
been extolled for their excellence anil 1 heir use hVttenmuUeri Scholia in Epit, Iiedacta, vol. iii.;
for godly edifying (Carpzov, I. c. pp. 10D-1 I6>. Maureri Comment. Crit. Grammatical, vol. iii.;
Indeed, if Paul's estimate of ancient inspired Hitzig i Comment, mid Uebersetzttng i Kwald s
Scripture (2 Tim. iii. \Sh\7) can le justly applied Poet. liucher, vol. ii. ; Tholuck s l eheisctzung
to any single book, that book must be (lie Palm. und Auslegung der Psalmen; and Hengsten
584 PUBLICAN. PUBLICAN.
berg's Commentar ueber die Psalmen. The having a share in the farm of the tribute, as
works of Tholuck and Hengstenberg form to they were thus tempted to oppress the people with
gether the very best helps, leaving nothing to be illegal exactions, that they might the more
desired by the critical and devout student of the speedily enrich themselves. Theocritus consi
Psalms. dered the bear and the lion the most cruel
The principal English works on the Book of among the beasts of the wilderness ; and among
Psalms are the translations (mustlv with notes) the beasts of the city the publican and the para
ofMadge, 1744 ; Edwards, 175") ; Fenwick, 1759; site. Those Jews who accented the office of putn
Green, 1762; Street, 1790; Wake, 1793; Geddes, lican were execrated by their own nation equally
1807; Horslev, 1815; Fry, 1819; French and with heathens: 'Let him be unto thee as an
Skinner, 1830 ; Noyes, 1831 (Boston.U.S ) ; Wal- heathen man and a publican * (Matt, xviii. 17).
ford, 1837; Bush, 1838 (New York): and the It is said they were not allowed to enter the
Commentaries of Ainsworth, 11)39; Hammond, temple or synagogues, to engage in the public
1659 j Merrick, 1768; Home, 1771; and Dimock, prayers, fill offices of judicature, or even give tes
1791.B. D. timony in courts of justice. According to the
PSALTERY. [Musical Instruments, j Rabbin*, it was a maxim that a religious man
PTOLEMAIS. [Accho.] who became a publican was to be driven out of
PTOLEMY. This common name of the the religious society (Grotius, ad Matt xviii. ;
Greek kings of Egypt does not occur in the ca Lightfoot, Hot. Heb. ad Matt, xviii.). They
nonical Scripture, but is frequent in the books would not receive their presents at the temple any
of Maccabees and in Josephus (see the article more than the price of prostitution, of blood, or of
Egypt). anything wicked and offensive.
PUBLICAN (Gr. reAwrijs ; among the Ro There were many publicans in Juda?a in the
mans publica-mts), a jierson who farmed the time of our Saviour, of whom Zacclurns was pro
taxes and public revenues. This office was bably one of the principal, as he is called 4 chief
usually held by Roman knights, an order instituted among the publicans' (Luke xix. 2), a phrase sup-
as early as the time of Romulus, and composed posed to be equivalent to our Commissioner of the
of men of great consideration with the govern Customs. Matthew appears to have been an in
ment, ' the principal men of dignity in their ferior publican, and is described as * sitting at
several countries,' who occupied a kind of middle the receipt of custom * (Luke v. 27). Jesus was
rank between the senators and the people (Joseph. reproached by the Jews as the friend of publicans
Antif/. xii. 4). Although these otlicers were, and sinners, and for eating with them (Luke vii.
according to Cicero, the ornament of the city and 34); but such was his opinion of the unl>elieving
the strength of the commonwealth, they did not and self-righteous chief-priests and elders who
attain to great offices, nor enter the senate, so brought these accusations, that he replied unto
long as they continued in the order of knights. them, ' The publicans and the harlots go into the
They were thus more capable of devoting their kingdom of God before yon' (Matt. xxi. 31).
attention to the collection of the public revenue. The parable of the Pharisee and the Publican who
The i i . 1 were distributed into three went up in to the temple to pray (Luke xviii. 10)
classes : the farmers of the revenue, their partners, is a beautiful illustration of the distinct ion between
and their securities, corresponding to the Man- hypocrisy and true piety. When Jesus visited
cijtes, Socii, and Prsedes. They were all under the house of Zacchxus, who apjwars to have leen
the Qtiffistores v$!rarii, who presided over the eminently honest and upright, he was assured by
finances at Rome. Strictly sj>eaking, there were him that lie was ready to give one half of his
only two sorts of publicans, t lie Maucijies and goods to the poor ; and if he had taken anything
the Socii. The former, who were generally of from any man by fcilse accusation, to ' restore
the equestrian order, and much superior to the him fourfold' (Luke xix. 8 }, This was in refer
latter in rank and character, are mentioned by ence to the Roman law, which required that when
Cicero with great honour and res|ect (Orat. pro any farmer was convicted of extortion, lie should
PlancWy 9); but the common publicans, the col return four times the value of what be hail frau
lectors or receivers of the tribute, as many of the dulently obtained. There is no reason to suppose
Socii were, are covered both by heathens and that either Zacch&us or Matthew had Iwen guilty
Jews with opprobrium and contempt. of unjust practices, or that there was any exception
The name and profession of a publican were, to their chanicters l>eyoiid that of lieing engaged
indeed, extremely odious among t he Jews, who in an odious employment. Some other exam-
submitted with much reluctance to the taxes pies pf tiiis occur. Suetonius ( I'esp.) mentions
levied by the Romans. The Galileans or He- the case of Sabinus, a collector of the fortieth
rodians, the disciples of Judas the Gaulonite, penny in Asia, who Itad several statues erected to
were the most turbulent and relxdlious (Acts v. him by the cities of the province, with litis in
37). They thought i* unlawful to pay tribute, scription, ' To (lie honest tax farmer.*
and founded their refusal to do so on their It has been imagined by some commentators
being the jieople of the Lord, because a true that, by the Jewish laws, it was forbidden to pay
Israelite was not permitted to acknowledge any tribute to foreigners, or to be employed as pub
other sovereign than God (Joseph. Antiq. xviii. 2). licans under them (Dent. xvii. 15); bat publicans
The publicans were hated as the instruments by that were Jews are so often mentioned in the New
which the subjection of the Jews to the Roman Testament, that Dr. Larduer inclines to think the
emperor was perpetuated ; and the paying of Roman tribute was collected chiefly by Jews. He
tribute was regarded as a virtual acknowledgment conceives that in most provinces the natives were
of his sovereignty. They were also noted for employed in the towns as under-collectnrs, and
their imposition, rapine, and extortion, to which that the receivers-general, or superior officers,
they were, perhaps, more especially prompted by only were Romans. As the office was so ex
PUBUUS. PUNISHMENTS. 585
tremely odious, the Romans might deem it prudent ing this precept, as intended to encourage them to
to employ come natives in collecting the taxes; re-people the earth, by promises, &c, correspond
and there is little douht that in every district they ing to the misgivings which were naturally
would find Jews willing to profit by the subjec created by the catastrophe they had just escaped ;
tion of their country, ami to accept appointments such as a continuation of the dread of man in the
from their conquerors.G. M. B. inferior creatures, a reinstatement of man in do
PUBUUS (ILfirAioO. governor of Melita at minion over them (comp. i. 28), an assurance of
the time of Paul's shipwreck en that island (Acts God's high regard ibr human life, notwithstand
xxviii. 7, 8). Paul having healed his father, pro- ing his late destruction of all but themselves,
i i ly enjoyed his hospitality during the three and the institution of the most natural and
months of his stay in the island. An inscription efficient mode of preserving it, by assigning the
found in Malta designate the governor of the punishment of homicide to the nearest of kin, no
island by the same title (wpwros, ' first' or 1 chief"), doubt, however, under the sii[>erintendenee of the
which Luke gives to Puhlius [Memta]. head of every family, who appears to have been
PUDRNS (IlovSifr), one of the persons whose the legislator till the reconstitution of things, spi
salutations Paul, writing from Home, sends to ritual and civil, at Sinai, when this among other
Timothy (2 Tim. iv. 21). Nothing is really ancient laws was retained, perhaps unavoidably,
kuown of him ; hut the martyrologies make him but at the same time regulated (Num. xxxv.
to have been a person of figure at Rome, of the 9-34). This interpretation would account for
senatorial order, and father of two pious virgins, the custom of blood-revenge among all the an
Praxis and Pudentia. Vet, by a strange incon cient and Asiatic nations. Certainly those who
gruity, he is also deemed to have been one of the generalize this precept into an authority for ca
seventy disciples. A female disci pie, of the name pital punishment by courts of law in Christian
of Claudia (KAauJia), is mentioned in the same nations, ought, by jwirily of reason, to regard the
verse ; and as a poet of the time, Martial, speaks prohibition of blood (Gen. ix. 4) of equal obliga
of the marriage of a Pudens and Claudia, the tion. The punishment of death appears among the
same jtersons are supposed to be intended. But legal powers of Judah, as the head of his family,
this sort of identification requires little notice; and he ordered his daughter-in-law, Tamar, to be
and if Pudens and Claudia were husband and burnt (xxxviii. 24). It is denounced by the king
wife, it is unlikely that the apostle would have of the Philistines, Abimelech, against those of his
interposed another name between theirs. people who should injure or insult Isaac or his
PUL, king of Assyria [Assyria]. wife (xxvi. 11,29). Similar power seems to have
PULSE. [Pol] been possessed by the reigning Pharaoh in the
PUNISHMENTS. This subject is properly time of Joseph (xli. 13).
restricted to the penalty imposed on the commis In proceeding to consider the punishments
sion of some crime or offence against law. It enacted by Moses, reference will l>e made to the
is thus distinguished from private retaliation or Scriptures only, because, as Michaelis observes,
revenge, cruelty, torture, popular violence, cer the explanation of the laws of Moses is not to
tain customs of war, &c. Human punishments be sought in the Jewish commentators. Nor
are such as are inflicted immediately on the will it be necessary to specify the punishments
person of the offender, ur indirectly upon his ordered by him for different offences, which
goods, &c. For the leading points in the litera will be found under their respective names
ture of the question concerning future and divine [Adultery, Idolatry, &c.]. The extensive
puuishmeiit see Solx. Capital punishment is prescription of capital punishment by the Mosaic
usually supposed to have been instituted at the law, which we cannot consider as a dead letter,
deluge (Gen. ix. 5, 6): * At the hand of every may l>e accounted for by the peculiar circum
mans brother will I require the life of man: stances of the people. They were a nation of
wlwso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his newly-emancipated slaves, and were by nature
blood 1* shed ; for in the image of God made he pcrhajw more than commonly intractable ; and if
man.' Arnheim, however, contends that the, we may judge by the laws enjoined on them,
words VrlK C*t<, must he rendered his kinsman, which Mr. Hume well remarks are a safe index
or near relative (compare xiii. 8, D*I""X D^N, to the manners and dis]>ositinn of any people, we
or margin), and thus explains the precept ; if must infer that they had imbibed ail the dege
ClXn, one stranger slay another, the kinsmen of nerating influences of slavery among heathens.
the murdered man are the avengers of blood ; but Their wanderings and isolation did not admit of
if he ix slain by VHN B^K, one of his own kin I < 'i . ! settlements or remedial punishments. They
dred, the other kinsmen must not spare the mur were placed under immediate divine government
derer, for if they do, then divine providence will and surveillance. Hence, wilful offences evinced
require the bloodthat is, will avenge it. Cer an incorrigibleness, which rendered death the only
tainly capital punishment for murder was not means of ridding the community of such trans
inflicted ou Cain, who was pur(>osely preserved gressors ; and which was ultimately resorted to
from death by divine interposition (iv. 14, 15 , in regard to all individuals above a certain
and was simply doomed to banishment from age, in order that a better class might enter
the scene of his crime to a distant country, to a Canaan (Num. xiv. 29, 32, 35). If capital
total disappointment in agricultural labour, and to punishment in Christian nations be defended
the life of a fugitive and a vagaUmd, far from the from the Mosaic law, it ought in fairness to be
manifested presence of the Lord (1 1, 14); although extended to all the cases sanctioned by that
the same reason existed in equal force in his case, law, and among the rest, as Paley argues, to the
namely, the creation of man in the image of God. doing of any work on the Sabbath-day {Mor.
We are inclined to regard the whole of the PhiLf h. v. ch. 7). We have the highest au
1 blessing' pronounced upon the Noachufa, includ thority for saying, that the Mosaic law of divorce
386 PUNISHMENTS. PUNISHMENTS,
was a condescension to circumstances (Matt, that of involving the family of the offender in hif
xix. 8)a condescension which may have ex punishment. He did not allow parents to be put
tended somewhat further. to death for their children, nor children for their
The mode of capital punishment, which con parents (Deut. xxiv. 16\ as did the Chaldaeans
stitutes a material element in the character of any (Dan. vi. 24), and the kings of Israel (comp. 1
law, was probably as humane as the circum Kings xxi. ; 2 Kings ix. 26). Various punish
stance* of Moses admitted. It was probably re ments were introduced among the Jews, or became
stricted to lapidation or stoning, which, by skil known to them by their intercourse with other
ful management, might produce instantaneous nations,viz., precipitation, or throwing, or caus
death. It was an Egyptian custom (Exod. viii. ing to leap, from the top of a rock ; to which teu
26). The public effusion of blood by decapitation thousand Idumaeans were condemned by Ama-
cannot be proved to have been a Mosaic punish ziah, king of Judah (2 Chron. xxv. 12). The
ment, nor even an Egyptian; for, in the instance inhabitants of Nazareth intended a similar fate
of Pharaoh's chief baker (Gen. xl. 19), 1 Pharaoh for our Lord (Luke iv. 29). This punishment
shall lift up thine head from off thee,' the mar resembles that of the Tarjwiau rock among the
ginal rendering seems preferable, 'shall reckon Romans. Dichotomy, or cutting asunder, appears
thee and take thine oiiice from thee/ He is said to have been a Babylonian custom (Dan. ii. 5;
to have been 'hanged' (xli. J3); wliich may pos iii. 29; Luke xii. -10; Matt. xxiv. 51); but
sibly mean posthumous exposure, though no in the passages in the Gospels admit of the milder
dependent evidence appears of this custom in interpretation of scourging with severity, discard
ancient Egypt (Wilkinson's Manners and Ctis- ing from office, &c. Beating to death, rvutra-
toms. vol. ii. p. 45). The appearance of deca vi(ru6s, was a Greek punishment for slaves. It was
pitation, 'slaying by the sword,' in later times (2 inflicted on a wooden frame, which probably de
Sam. iv. 8, 20, 21, 22 ; 2 Kings x. 6-R) lias no rived its name from resembling a drum or tim
more relation to the Mosaic law than the decapi brel in form, on which the criminal was bound
tation of John the Baptist by Herod (Malt. xiv. and beaten to death (2 Mace. vi. 19, 28; comp.
8-12) ; or than the hewing to pieces of Agag before v. 30). In Josephus (de Mace.) the same in
the Lord by Samuel, as a punishment in kind (I strument is called rpox^s, or 'wheel 1 ($$ 5, 9).
Sam. xv. 33) ; or than the office of the Chereth- Hence to beat upon the tympanum, to drum to
ites, *n"D (2 Sam. viii. 18 ; xv. 18 ; xx. 7, 23), or deatn, is similar to ' breaking on the wheel' (Heb.
headsmen, us Gesenius understands by the word, xi. 35). David inflicted this among other cruel
from TVO, * 1o chop off' or ' hew down ' (execu ties upon the inhabitants of Rabbath-ammon
tioners belonging to the body-guard of the king) ; (1 Chron. xx. 3). Fighting icith wild beasts
whereas execution was ordered by Moses, probably was a Roman punishment, to which criminals
adopting an ancient custom, to be begun first by and captives in war were sometimes condemned
the witnesses, a regulation which constituted a tre (Adam, Roman Antiq., p. 341; 2 Tim. iv. 17;
mendous appeal to their moral feelings, and after comp. 1 Cor. xv. 32). Drouming with a heavy
wards to be completed by the people (Deut. xiii. weight around the neck, was a Syrian, Greek,
10 ; xvii. 7 ; Josh. vii. 25 ; John viii. 7). It was a and Roman punishment. This, therefore, being
later innovation that immediate execution should the custom of the enemies of the Jews, was
be done by some personal attendant, by whom the introduced by our Lord to heighten his ad
office was probably considered as an honour (2 monitions (Matt XTiii. 6). Josephus records
Sam. i. 15; iv. 12). Stoning therefore was, pro that the Galileans, revolting from their com
bably, the only capital punishment ordered by manders, drowned the partizans of Herod {Antiq.
Moses. It is observable that neither this nor any xiv. 15. 20). The Persians had a singular punish
other punishment was, according to his law, at ment for great criminals. A high tower was
tended with insult or torture (comp. 2 Mace. vii.). filled a great way up with ashes, the criminal
Nor did his laws admit of those horrible mutila was thrown into it, and the ashes by means of
tions practised by other nations. For instance, he a wheel were continually stirred up and raised
prescribed stoning for adulterers (comp. Lev. xx. about him till he was suffocated (2 Mace. xiii.
10 ; Ezek. xxiii. 25 ; xvi. 38, 40 ; John viii. 5) ; 4-6. The lions den was a Babylonian punish
but the Chaldaeans cut off the noses ofsuch offend ment (Dan. vi.), and is still customary in Fez
ers (Ezek. xxiii. 25). According to Diodorus, the and Morocco (see accounts of by Hoest. c. ii.
Egyptian monarch, Actisanes, punished robbers p. 77). Bruising and pounding to death in a
in like manner, and banished them to the confines mortar is alluded to in Prov. xxvii. 22. For
of the desert, where a town was built called Rhi- crucifixion, see the Article.
nocolura, from the peculiar nature of their punish Posthumous insults offered to the dead bodies
ment, und where they were compelled to live by of criminals, though common in other nations,
their industry in a barren and inhospitable region were very sparingly allowed by Moses. He
(i. 60). Mutilation of such a nature amounts to a petvnitted only hanging on a tree or gibbet;
perpetual condemnation to infamy and crime. It but the exposure was limited to a day, and burial
will shortly be seen that the lex talionis, * an eye for of the body at night was commanded (Dent,
an eye," &c, was adopted by Moses as t\\e jn'inciple, xxi. 22). Such persons were esteemed ' cursed
but not the mode of punishment. He seems also of God' (comp. Josh, viii. 29; x. 26 ; 2 Sam.
to haye understood t he true end of punishment, iv. 12)a law which the later Jews extended
which is not to gratify the antipathy of society to crucifixion (John xix. 31, &c. ; Gal. iii.
agaiuit crime, nor moral vengeance, which belongs 13). Hanging alive may have been a Canaan-
toGod alone, but prevention. ' All the people shall itish punishment, since it was practised by the
hear and fear, and do no more so presumptuously' Gibeoniies on the sons of Saul (2 Sam. xxi. 9).
(Dent. xvii. 13 ; xxix. 20). His laws are equally Another posthumous insult in later times con
free from the characteristic of savage legislation, sisted in heaping stones on the body or grave
PUNISHMENTS. PUNISHMENTS. 587
of the executed criminal (Josh. vii. 25, 26). To Retaliation, the lex talionis of the Latins, and
* make heaps* of houses or cities is a phrase tie- the avriirtirovBhs of the Greeks, is doubtless the
noting; complete antl ignominious destruction most natural of all kinds of punishment, and
(Isa. xxv. 2; Jer. ix. W). Burning the dead would be the most just of all, if it could be in
body seems to have leen a very ancient posthu stantaneously and universally inflicted. Rut
mous insult : it was denounced by Judah against when delayed it is apf to degenerate into revenge.
his daughter-in-law, Tamar, when informed that Hence the desirableness that it should be regu
she was witli child (Gen, xxxvni. 24). Selden lated and modified by law. The one-eyed
thinks that this means merely branding on the fore man. mentioned by DiodontsSiculus (xii.), com
head (De Jure N. et G., vii. 5). Moses retained plained that if he lost his remaining eye, he
this ancient ignominy for two offences only, which would then suffer more than his victim, who
from the nature of things must have been com would still have one left. Phavorinus argues
paratively rare, viz., for bigamy with a mother against this law, which was one of the twelve
and her daughter (Lev. xx. 4), and for tiie case tables, as not admitting literal execution, because
of a priest's daughter who committed whoredom the same member was more valuable to one man
(xxi. 9). Though * burning' only be specified than another; for instance, tlte right hand of a
in these cases, it may be safely inferred that the scribe or painter could not be so well spared as
previous death of the criminals, probably by that of a singer. Hence that law, in later times,
lapidation, is to l>e understood (comp. Josh. vii. was administered with the modification, ' Ni cum
25 ). Among the heathens this merciful prelimi eo pacet,' except the aggressor came to an agree
nary was not always observed, as for instance in ment with the mutilated person, de talione redi-
the case of Shadrach, Meshach, and Alvednego menda, redeem the punishment by making com
(Dan. iii.). pensation. Moses accordingly adopted the prin
Among the minor corporal punishments or ciple, but lodged the application of it in the
dered by Mdses, was scourging; or the inflic judge. * If a man blemish his neighbour, as he
tion of blows on the back of an offender with hath done, so shall it be done to him. Life
a rod. It was limited by him to forty stripes, for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, wound for
a number which the Jews in later times were wound, strrpc for stri]>e, breach for breach' (Exod.
so careful not to exceed, that they inflicted xxi. 23-25; Lev. xxiv. 19-22). His system of
but thirty-nine (2 Cor. xi. 24). It was to 1k compensations, &c, occurs in Exod. xxi. He, how
inflicted on the offender lying on the ground, in ever, makes wilful murder, even of a slave, always
the presence of a judge (Lev. xix. 20 ; Dent capital, as did the Egyptians. Roman masters
xxii. IB; xxv. 2, 3). We have abundant evi had an absolute right over the life of their slaves
dence that it was an ancient Egyptian punish (Juvenal, vi. 219). The Egyptians doomed the
ment. Nor was it unusual for Egyptian su]>er- false accuser to the same punishment which he en
intendents to stimulate lalnmrers to their work deavoured to bring on his victim, as did Moses
by the persuasive powers of the stick. Women (Dent. xix. 19). Imprisonment, not as a punish
received the stripes on the back, while sitting, from ment, but custody, till the royal pleasure was
the hand of a man ; and l>oys also, sometimes known, appears among the Egyptians (Gen. xxxix.
with their hands tied behind them. The modern 20, 21 ). Moses adopted it for like purposes (Lev.
inhabitants of the valley of the Nile retain the xxvi. 12). In later times, it appeals as a punish
predilection of their forefathers for this punish ment inflicted by the kings of Judah and Israel
ment. The Moslem say * Nezel min e'semma (2 Chron. xvi. 10 ; 1 Kings xxii. 27; Jer. xxxvii.
e'neboot haraka min Allah:' * The stick came 21); and during the Christian era, as in the in
down from heaven a blessing from God.' Cor stance of John (Matt. iv. 12), and Peter (Acts
pora) punishment tof this kind was allowed by xii. 4). Murderers and debtors were also com
Moses, by masters to servant* or slaves of both mitted to prison; and the latter 4 tormented* till
exe* (Exod. xxi. 20). Scourging was common in they paid (Matt xviii. 30; Luke xxiii. 19). A
after times among the Jews, who associated with common prison is mentioned (Acts v. lb); and also
it no disgrace or inconvenience beyond the phy an inner prison or dungeon, which was sometimes a
sical pain it occasioned, and from which no pit (Jer. xxxviii. G), in which were 'stocks' (Jer.
station was exempt (Prov. xvii. 26 ; comp. x. 13 ; xx. 2; xxix. 26; Acts xvi. 24). Prisoners are
Jer. xxxvii. 15-20). Hence it became the sym- alluded to (Job iii. 18), and stocks (xtii. 27).
IkjI for correction in general (Ps. lxxxix. 32). Banishment was impracticable among the Jews.
Solomon is a zealous advocate for its use in edu It was inflicted by the Romans on John (Rev. i.
cation (Prov. xiii. 24; xxiii. 13, 14; comp. 9). Cuttwg or plucking off the hair is alluded
Kccles. xxx. 1). In his opinion ' the blueness of to (Isa. 1. 6 ; Nehem. xiii. 25). Excisiony or
a wound cleanseth away evil, and strips the * cutting off from his j>eople,' is denounced against
inward parts of the belly' (Prov. xx. 30). Il was the uncircumcised as early as the covenant with
inflicted for ecclesiastical offences in the syna Abraham (Gen. xvii. 14). This punishment is
gogue (Mart. x. 17; Actsxxvi. 11). The Mosaic expressed in the Mosaic law by the formulas
law, however, respecting it, affords a pleasing *that soul shall l>e destroyed from its people*
contrast to the extreme and unlimited scourging (Lev. xvii. 20, 21); * from Israel' (Exod. xii.
known among the Romans, but which, according 15); 'from the midst of the congregation' (Num.
to the Porcian law, could not be inflicted upon a xix. 20); ' it shall be destroyed* (Lev. xvii. 14 ;
Roman citizen (Cicero, Pro Rabirio, 3 ; ad xx. 17); which terms sometimes denote capital
Famil, x. 32 ; in Verrem, v. 53 ; comp. Acts xvi. punishment (Exod. xxxi. 14; comp. xxxv. 2;
22-37 ; xxii. 25). Reference to the scourge with Num. xv. 32, &c.) [Anathema].
scorpions, i. e. a whip or scourge armed with knots Ecclesiastical punishments are prescribed, as
or thorns, occurs in 1 Kings xiL 11. So in La might be expected, under a theocracy, but tkiese
tin, scorpio means ' virga nodosa vel aculeata.' were moderate. Involuntary transgressions of the
568 PUNON. PURIM.
Levitical law, whether of omission or commission, article is wanting in several manuscripts. It ha*
were atoned for by a sin-offering (Lev. iv. 2, been held by Out rein, Lamy, and Hug, and still
&c. ; v. 1, 4-7). This head embraced a rash or more recently by Tholuck and Liicke, that the
neglected oath, keeping hack evidence in court feast of Purim is here meant. The reasons on
(Lev. iv, 2, &c. ; v. 1; iv. 7), breach of trust, which this opinion is grounded will Ik? found
concealment of projierty when found, or theft, fully detailed in Hug's Introd. (part ii. $ G4), and
even when the offender hail already cleared him in Lucke's Comment, on St. Johns Gospel (see
self by oath, hut was now moved by conscience tne English translation of Liicke's Dissertation
to make restitution. By these means, and by the in the apjiendix to Tittmaun s Meletemata SacrOy
payment of twenty per cnt. l>eyoud the amount or a Commentary on St. John*8 Gospel* in Bib.
uf his trespass, the offender might cancel the crime Cabinet., vol. xlv. Hengstenlierg, on the other
as far as the church was concerned (Lev. vi. 1-7 ; hand {Christology, vol. ii., * On the Seventy
Num. v. 6-10). Adultery with a slave was com W eeks of Daniel,' pp. 408-414, Kngl. transl.,
muted from death to stripes and a trespass offering Washington (U. S.), 1839), opjwses this hypothesis
(Lev. xix. 20-22). All these oases involved public by many ingenious arguments, and holds it to be
confession, and the ex|>enses of the offering. inconceivable that our Lord, ' who never men
Future punishmentThough the doctrine of tions the book of Esther, whose apostles nowhere
a future state was known to the ancient Hebrews, appeal to it, should have sought this feast conse
yet temporal punishment and reward were the crated to the remembrance of an event described
immediate motives held out to obedience. Hence in this book.' Not that he wishes to ' impugn the
the references in the Old Testament to punish authority of the book of Esther, but because, in
ment in a future state are obscure and scanty. regard to the true standard, its reference to Christ,
See Hadks; Heaven; Hei.l.J. F. D. it undoubtedly holds the lowest place among all
PUNON, one of the stations of the Israelites the Injoks in the Old Testament.' It would apjiear
in the desert [Wandering]. from this, that Professor Hengstenberg follows
PURIFICATIONS [Ablutions, Unclean- Luther's ' touchstone ' of canonicity [Dblteuo-
NESsl. canonicai.]. Those who do not consider Purim
PURIM (EPpfi, Esther iii. 7; ix. 24, sq., to Ik* the feast referred to in John v. 1, are di
from "VIQ, supposed to be the Persic for a ' lot '), a vided between the Passover, the Feast of Dedi
celebrated Jewish festival instituted by Mordecai, cation, and that of Pentecost : Hengstenberg,
at the suggestion of Ksther, in the reign of Aha- with the majority of commentators, supjiorts the
suerus, king of Persia, to commemorate the deli last. Liicke concludes his able dissertation
verance of the Jews from the designs of Human by olerving that all sure grounds of deciding
[Ksther; Haman; Mordecai], It derived its between Purim and the Passover are wanting.
name from the lots cast every day for twelve The particulars of the mode in which ihe Jews
months in presence of Haman, with the view of observe this festival will be found detailed, by
discovering an auspicious day for the destruction Bnxtorf (Synag. Jud.) and Schikfurd (De Sya-
of all the Jews in the Persian dominions ; when gogat in the Critici Sacri, vol. ii. p. 1185). We
the lot fell on the 13th day of Adar (February and shall select a few of the most striking. The Iwok
part of March) [Festivals]. of Esther, written on a separate roll of parchment,
The celebration of this festival is next referred called on this account Megillab Esther, or simply
to in 2 Mace. IT. 36, where it is denominated Megillah, is read from lieginiiing to end ; and
Moniecai's day (rj MapSoxo-'i^h Tj/xtpa) [Macca even the reading of the law is on this day pOJt-
bees]. It is also mentioned by Josephus (Antiq. poned to it. It may be also read in any language
xi. 6), who, having observed that the Jews in which the reader understands. When Moniecai's
Shushan feasted on the fourteenth day (of Ailar), name occurs, the whole congregation exclaim.
and that which followed it, says, 4 Even now all Blessed be Mordecai! and, on mention of that of
the Jews in the habitable world keep these days Haman, they say, May his name perish t and
festival, and send portions one to another and it is usual for the children to hiss, sptiug tattles,
after referring to the deliverance of the Jews by strike the walls with hammers, and make all
Divine protection, lie adds, * fur which cause the sorts of noises. These noisy portions of the ce
Jews keep the forementinned days, calling them remony have, however, l>een long discontinued
Phruraean days (rjntpat (ppovpaiat).* It is dis in England, except in the synagogues of some
puted whether the word employed by Josephus foreign Jews. The remainder of the day is *\>ent
(<f>povpalat) arose from an error of transcription, in festivity, in commemoration of Esther's feast;
or whether the historian may not have confounded upon which occasion the Jews send presents to
the name Purim with D^THD. which, according each other, the men to the men, and the women
to some, implies protection. The Talmud makes to the women. They also bestow alms on the
frequent mention of this feast. In the Jerusalem poor, from the benefit of which Christians and
Megillah (p. 704) it is observed that * there were other Gentiles are not excluded. Plays and
seventy-five elders, above thirty of whom were masquerades follow ; nor is it considered a breach
prophets, who made exceptions against the feast of of Ihe law of Moses on this occasion, fur men and
Purim ordained by Ksther and Mordecai, as some women to assume the garb of the other sex. It
k in: I of innovation iigainst the law ' (see Lightfoot, is even written in the Talmud [Tract. Megill.
on John x. 22). Maimouides remarks that it is vii. 2), that a man should drink until lie cannot
forbidden to weep or fast on this day. discern the words * Cursed be Haman ' from
It has been sharply contested whether there is * Blessed l>e Mordecai.' But these injunctions are
any reference in the New Testament to this feast. certainly not considered as binding; and the
It is recorded in St. John's Gomel (v. I), that modern Jews, both at the feast of Purim and in
* after these things was the feast of the Jews (ij koprf) their general habits, are remarkable fur their
twv 'Iou5aW)', or rather, perhai, a feast, as the tenqterance and sobriety. Hatach (Esther iv.
PURPLE. PURPLE. 589
ami v.) Is considered by the Jews to lie the same wool by the neighbouring nomads. The dye
with IXtniel. Purim is the last festival in the called purple by the ancients, and its various
Jewish ecclesiastical year, being succeeded by the shades, were obtained from many kinds of shell
next Passover.W. W. fish, all of which are, however, ranged by Pliny
PURPLK. BLUE, CRIMSON, SCARLET. under two clashes : one called * buccinum,* be
1. Purple (JDJ1N) occurs in Exod. xxv. 1 ; xxvi. cause shaped like a horn, found, lie says, in cliffs
1,31,36; xxvii. 16; xxviii. 5, 6, 8, 15, 33; xxxv. and nicks, and yielding a sullen blue dye, which
6, 23,25,35; xxxvi. 8, 35, 37 ; xxxviii. 18,23; tie compares to the colour of the angry raging
xxxix. 1. 2, 3, 5, 8, 24, 29; Num. iv. 13; sea in a tempest; I lie other called 'purpura,' or
Jmlg. viii. 26; 2 Chron. ii. 7, 14; iii. 14; 'pelagia,* the proper purple shell, taken by fishing
Est. i. (i; viii. 15; Prov. xxxi. 22; Catif. iii. in the sea, anil yielding tlft deep red colour
10 ; vil. 5 ; Jer. x. 9 ; Ezek. xxvii. 7, 16 ; Ecclus. which he compares to the rich, fresh, and bright
xlv. 10; Bar. vi. 12.72; 1 Mace. iv. 23; viii. colour of deejj-red purple roses1 nigrantis rosae
14; x. 20, 62; 2 Mace. iv. 38; Mark xv. 17. colore sublucen*'and to coagulated blood, and
20; Luke xvi. 19 ; John xix. 2.5; Acta xvi. which was chiefly valued. ' Laus ei summa in
14; Rev. xvii. 4; xviii. 12, 16. Chald. colore sanguinis concreti' (Ibid. cap. 61,62). It
occurs in 2 Chron. ii. 7 ; K31J1N, Ban. v. 7, 16, is the Murex trunculus of Linna?us and Lamarck
29 ; Sept. anil Greek Test., TTopcpvpct ; A ulg. pur fsee Syst. Nat. p. 1215, and Animaux sans Ver-
pura. In many of these passages, the word trans tebres, Paris, 1822, t. vii. p. 170). Both sorts
lated 'purple' means * purple cloth,' or some oilier
material dyed purple, as wool, thread, &c. ; but
no reference occurs to the means by which the
ilye was obtained, except in I Mace. iv. 23, where
we haie irop<pvpa daWatraia, 1 purple of the sea'
(comp Diod. Sic. iii. 68 ; Joseph. De Bell. Jud.
v. 5. 4). There is, however, no reason to
doubt that it was obtained, like the far-famed
Tynan purple, from the juice of certain species
of shell-fish. Different accounts are given by the
ancients rwitwtiw the date and origin of this
invention. Some place it in the reign of Pbcrnix,
second king of Tyre, b.c. 500. Others at the
time that Minos the First reigned in Crete, b.c.
1439, and consequently before the Exodus (Sui-
das, s. v. 'HpajcKrjs, torn. ii. p. 73). But the 464. [Murex ti unculus.]
DftnoD to whom the majority ascril>e it, is the
Tyrian Hercules, whose dog. it is said, instigated were supposed to l as many years old as they
by hunger, broke a certain kind of shell-fish on had spirals round. Michaelis thinks that So
the coast of Tyre, and his mouth becoming lomon alludes to their shape, when he says (Cant,
s'amed of a beautiful colour, his master was in vii. 5), ' The hair of thine head is like purple;'
duced to try its properties on wool, and gave his meaning that the Iresses (tt\6kiov Kt<pa\rjs, Sept. ;
lirt specimens to the king of Tyre, who admired coma* capitis, Yulg.) were tied up in a spiral or
the colour so much that he restricted the use of it pyramidal form on the top. Others say that the
by law to the royal garments (Pollux, Onom. i. 4 ; word * purple ' is here used like the Latin pur-
Achilles Tatius, DcClitoph.; Paleephal. in Chron. purcus, for beautiful, &c, and instance the * pur-
Paschal., p. 43). It is remarkable, tiiat though purei olores," * beautiful swans* of Horace {Carm.
I lie Israelites, as early as the first construction of iv. 1. 10), and the 'purpureas capillus' of Virgil
the tabernacle in the wilderness, appear to have had (Georg. i 405) ; but these phrases are not jta-
purple stort* in profusion (Exod. xxv. 1-1), which ralltl. The juice of ihe whole shell-lish was
they had most likely hnmght with them out of not used, but only a tittle thin liquor called the
Egypt, yet no instance occurs in the pictorial llower, contained in a white vein or vessel in the
language of tire Egyptians, nor in Wilkinson's neck. The larger purples were broken at the top
Ancient Manner! and Customs, of the actual to get at this vein without injuring if, but the
manufacture of dyeing either linen or woollen, smaller were pressed in mills (Aristot. Hist. An.,
although dyes similar to the Tyrian were found v. 13. 75 ; Pliny, Hist. Nat. ix. 60). The Murex
among them. These facts agree, at least, with trunculus has been demonstrated to be the species
the uccouuts which ascribe the invention to the used by the ancient Tyrians, by Wilde, who
earliest of these two periods, and the pre-eminent found a concrete mass of the shells in some of the
trade in it to the Tynans. The (iteeks attributed ancient dve-pots sunk in the rocks of Tyre (Nar
its first introduction among themselves to .the rative, Dublin, IS JO, vol. ii. p. 482). It is of
Phoenicians (Eurip. Pfurn. 1497). Their word common occurrence now on the same coasts
<polvi means both a ' Phoenician* and * purple.' (Kitto's Physical History of Palestine, p. 418),
The word irop<pvpa is, according to Martiuius, of and throughout the whole of the Mediterranean,
Tyrian origin. Though purple dyes were by no and even of the Atlantic. In the Mediterranean,
means confined to the Phoenicians fcomp. Ezek. the countries mi>st celebrated for purples were
xxvii. 7, ' purple from the isles of Elisba,' supfiosed the shores of Pelojxinnesus and Sicily, and in
to mean Elis, ' and from Syria,' ver. 16), yet violet the Atlantic, the coasts of Britain, Ireland,
purples and scarlet were nowhere dyed so well and France. Horace alludes fo the African
us at Tvre, whose shores abounded with the best (Carm. ii. 16. 35). There is, indeed, on es
kind of"purples (Pliny, Hist. Nat. ix. 60, p. 521, sential difference in the colour obtained from
ed. Harduin), and who were supplied with the best the purples of dillercut ccasts. Thus the shells
090 PURPLE. PURPLE.
from the Atlantic are said to give the darkest
juice; those of the Italian and Sicilian coasts, a
violet or purple j and those of the Phoenician, a
crimson. It appears from the experiments of Mordecai (Esth. viii. 15) ; to Daniel by Belshazzar
Reaumur and Duhamel, that the tinging juice (Dan. v. 7, 16, 29). It w;is the dress of an ethnarch
is perfectly white while in the vein; but upon or prince, and as such given by Alexander to Jo
being laid on linen, it soon appears first of a light nathan (1 Mace. x. 20, 62, 64, 65 ; comp. 2 Mace,
green colour, and if ex|osed to the air and iv. 38). In the last chapter of the Proverbs it is
sun, soon after changes into a deep green, in a represented as the dress of a matron ( ver. 22). It
few mitiutes into a |ea green, and in a few more was at one time worn by Roman ladies and rich
into a Mot; thence it fptt&Uj becomes of a men (Livy, xxxiv. 7, and Valerius Max. ii.
purple red, and in an hour more of a deep purple 1). See also the parable of the rich man and
red, which, upon being washed in scalding water Lazarus (Luke xvi. 19). In Esther i. 6, it ap
and soap, ripens into a must bright and beautiful pears as part of the royal furniture of Ahasuerus;
crimson, which is permanent. The ancients ap and in Cant, iii. 10, as the covering of the royal
plied the word translated 'purple," not to one chario*; and Pliny refers to its general use, not
colour only, but to the whole class of dyes manu only for clothes, but carpets, cushions, &c. (3D).
factured from the juices of shell-fish, as distin The rolw in which the Praetorian guaid arrayed
guished from the vegetable dyes (colores herbacei), the Saviour, called ^Ao/xyj kokkIvtj by Maithew
and comprehending not only what is commonly (xxvii. 28), and wofxpvpa by Mark (xv. 17,20),
called purple, but also light and dark purple, and and ifxiriov noptyvpovv by John (xix. 2), and which
almost every shade between. Various methods appears to have been the cast-off sagum of one of
were adopted to produce these different colours. their officers, was no doubt scarlet that is, proper
Thus, a Bullen blue was obtained from the crim.ioi}, as will hereafter appearof a deejjer
juice of the buccinum alone ; a plain red, yet hue and finer texture than the sagum or chhimys
too deep and brown, from the ]>elagia; a dark of the common soldier, but inferior in both respects
red by dipping the wool, &c, Hrst in the juice to that of the em|eror, which was also of this
of the purpura, and then in that of t lie buc colour in the time of war, though purple during
cinum ; a violet (which Ml the amethyst colour peace. The adjectives used by the Evangelists
so much valued by the Romans) by reversing are, however, often interchanged. Thus a vest,
the process ; and another, t lie most valued winch Horace (Sat. ii. 6. 1U2) calls * rubra
and admired of all, the Tyriamethystus, by cocco tiucta,' ill 1. 100, he styles * purpurea.*
again dipping the amethyst in the juice of the Braunius shows that the Romans gave this name
pelagia. This Pliny calls dibapha Ti/ria; so to any colour that had a mixture of red (l)e
named he says, because * bis tincfa ' {Hist. Xat. Vestitu Sacerdotum, i. 14, Ludg. But. 1080).
ix. 39). No reference to this pruceu occurs in Ovid applies the term purpureus to the cheeks
the Scriptures, but it U often alluded to in Ro and lips {Amor. i. 3). In Acts x. 14, refer
man authors. 1 bus Horace (Epod. xi'i. 21 ) ; Mu- ence is found to Lydia, of tlie city of Thy-
ricibus Tyriis iteratae vellera lana*. * The wools atira, a seller of purple cloth. The manufac
with Tyrian purple double dyed.' Other Varieties ture seems to have decayed with its native
of colour may have been produced by the use of city. A colony of Jews, which was established
various species of mollnsca, anil of those from at Thebes in Greece in the twelfth century,
different coasts. The Phoenicians also understood curried on an extensive manufactory for dyeing
the art of throwing a peculiar lustre into this purple. It ultimately became superseded by the
colour, by making other tints play over if, and use of indigo, cochineal, &c, whence a cheaper
producing what we call a shot colour, which and Oner purple was obtained, and free from
seems to have been wonderfully attractive (Pliny, the disagreeable odour which attended that de
"ix. 11). Purple was employed in religious wor rived from shell-fish (Martial, i. 50. 32). The
ship both among Jews and Gentiles. It wns method of the ancients in preparing and ap-
one of the colours of the cuitains of the tabernacle lying it? and other particulars resulting its
(Exod. xxvi. 1); of the vail (31); of tlie curtain listory, uses, and estimation, are most fully given
over the grand entrance (3fi) ; of the eplmd of the by Pliny (Ilist.Nat. ix. 36-42). The best modem
high priest (xxviii. 5, 0), and of its girdle (8); of books are Amati, Dc liestitiitionc Purpurarumy
the breast-plate ( 15) ; of t he hem of the robe of 3rd ed., Cesena, 1784; the treatise by Capelli,
theephod (33) ; (comp. Ecclus. xlv. 10) ; of cloths l)e Antiqua et Supera Purpuray with notes;
for divine service (Exod. xxxix. 1 ; comp. Num. ami Don Michaele Rosa, Visscrtazione det/e
iv. 13); resumed when the temple was built (2 parpen, fcc. 176S. See also Dtctionnaire des
Chruu. ii. 7, 14; iii. 14). Pliny records a similar Sciences Naturelies^ torn, xliii. p. 219, Sec. ; Bo-
use of it among the Romans : * Otis advocatur chart, edit. Rasenm tiller, torn. iii. p. 675, &c. ;
placandis' (Hist. Nut. ix. 60; Cicero, Eptst. ad Heeren'l Historical liesearckcSj translated, Ox
Atticum, ii. 9). The Babylonians arrayed their ford, 1833, vol. ii. p. R5, &c.
idols in it (Jer, x. 9; Baruch xii. 72). It was
at an early period worn by kings (Judg. viii. 2. Blue (n^DH), almost constantly associated
20). Homer speaks as if it were almost peculiar with purple, occurs in Exod. xxv. 4; xxvi. 1, 4,
to them (1L iv. 144; 1 Mace. viii. 14). Pliny 31.36; xxvii. 16; xxviii. 5-8. 15, 33, 37 ; xxxv.
says it was worn by Romulus and the succeeding 25; xxxvi. 11; xxxix. 1-5, 22, 31; Num. iv.
kings of Rome, and by the consuls and first 6, 7, 9. II, 12; xv. 38; 2 Chron. ii. 7, 14 ; Esth.
magistrates under the republic. Suetonius re i. 6 ; viii. 15; Jer. x. 9; Ezek. xxiii. 0; xxvii.
lates that Julius Caesar prohibited its use by 7, 24; Sept. generally vokiyOos, vaKivB'tvos ,
Roman subjects, except tin certain days; and and in Kcclui. xl. 4 ; xlv. 10; 1 Mace. iv. 23;
that Nero forbade it altogether, upon pain of death. and so Josephus, Philo, Aquila, Syinmachus,
PURPLE. PURPLE. 091
Theodotion, Vulgate, and Jerome. This colour It This word is by some supposed to signify another
supposed to have l>eeii obtained from another kind of shell-fish, yielding a crimson dye, so
purple shell-fish of the Mediterranean, the conchy- called because found on the shore near Mount
hum of the ancients, the Helix ianthina of Lin- Carmel. If so, those words (Cant. vii. 5), ' thine
nus (Syst. Nat. torn. i. part 7, p. 3643 ; and head upon thee is like Carmel,' may contain an
see Forskal's Descriptio Animal, p. 127), called other reference to the shape of some sort of pur
llpn by the ancient Jews. Thus the pseudo- pura (Bochart, vol. iii. p. 661, tec.). Gesenius
Jonathan, in Dent, xxxiii. 19, speaks of the Ze- says it is a word belonging to later Hebrew, and
bulonites, who dwelt at the shore of the great sea, must probably of Persian or Armenian origin.
and caught chilzon, with whose juice they dye 4. Scarlet, often associated with purple and
thread of a hyaciuthitie colour. The Scriptures blue. The words so translated occur in the fol
lowing forms:1. MS> and D'JE', alone, Geu.
xxxviii. 28-30; Josh. ii. 18-21; 2 Sam. i. 24)
Prov. xxxi. 21 ; Cant. iv. 3; Jer. iv. 30; Sept.
Kixttivmi ; Vulg. coccinum ; Isa. i. 1 8, fyoiviKavv,
coccinum. 2. nj6in ,36J', Exod. xxv. 4 ; xxvi.
1, 31,36; xxvii. 16; xxviii. 0,6,8, 15; xxxv.
6, 23, 25; xxxviii. 18, 23; xxix. 3 ; Num. iv.
8 ; k6kkivov and k6kkwov with SurAoOV, kckAhxt-
fijyoy, xKtaroy, Staytirqa^ivoy ; Vulg. bis tinctus,
coccus bis tinctus, and vermiculus. 3. JlJJJin
41b. [Helix Ianthina.] JE>, Lev. xiv. 4, 6, 49, 51, 52; Num. xix. 6;
kffc/d no clue to this colour ; for the only pass Sept. KoKitlvoy, with \tKkuepivov, and K\ain6y ;
ages in which it seems, in the English version, to vermiculus, coccus, and with bis tinctus. 4
be applied to something that might assist our alone, Isa. j. 8, k6kkivov, vermiculus ;
conceptions, are mistranslated, namely, 4 The Lam. iv. 5; Vulg. croceis ; Nah. ii. 3, coccineis.
blueness of a wound ' (Prov. xx. 30), and ' A In the New Testament, Matt, xxvii. 28; Heb.
blue mark upon him that is beaten ' (Ecclus. ix. 19; Rev. xvii. 3, 4; xviii. 12, 16; k6kkivos,
xxiii. 10), there being no reference to colour in coccineus. The first of these words, *Jf>, is by
the original of either. The word in the Sept. some derived from r\)W, ' to repeat,* and is thus
and Apocrypha refers to the hyacinth j but both interpreted to mean 1 double dyed/ SfjBatfxjc, but
the flower and stone, so named by the ancients, which Gesenius observes is applicable only to the
are disputed, especially the former. Yet it is used Tyrian purple (see Braunius, De Vest. i. 15,
to denote dark-coloured and deep purple. Virgil { 214, p. 237 ; Bochart, Hieroz. i. 3, p. 525-7).
speaks otferrugineos hyacinthos, and Columella
cumpares the colour of the flower to that of Gesenius prefers the Arabic root splenduit,
clotted blood, or deep, dusky red, like rust (De because scarlet garments were admired for their
Re Rust, x. 305). Hesychius defines imtlySiyoy brightness : but Jerome asserts that the word
farojucAaWfoy, voppvplfay. It is plainly used in means coccinum (Epist. ad Fabiolam). It is
tlie Greek of Ecclus. xl. 4 for the royal purple. certain that xh)T) denotes a worm, grub, or insect,
Josephus evidently takes the Hebrew word to and the Sept. and Vulg. plainly understood by it
mean 'sky-colour;' for in explaining the colours
of the vail of the temple, und referring to the blue the coccus^ from which the ancients procured a
(Exod. xxvi. 31), he says that it represented the blood red crimson dye, the coccus iiicis of Linnaeus,
air or sky (De Bell. Jud. v. 4) : he similarly class iv., tetragynia, tlie kermez of the
explains the vestment of the high-priest (Antiq. Arabians, whence used to be derived the French
iii. 7. 7; and see Philo, Vita Mosis, iii. p. 148, word cramoist\ and our crimson ; but Kilian gives
torn ii. ed. Mangey). These statements may be carmensinitm, because made from a worm, which,
reconciled by the fact, that in proportion as the in the Phoenician tongue, is called carmen. He
sky is clear and serene, it assumes a dark ap sychius defines k6kkos' 4 ou tyoiviKovv fSdirrerai rb
pearance, which is still more observable in an Xfitvfia. It was the female of this remarkable in
eastern climate. The chief references to this colour sect that was employed; and though supplanted
in Scripture are as follows ;The robe of the by tlie cochineal (coccus cacti), it is still used for
high-priest's cphod was to lie all of blue (Exod. the | urpose in India and Persia. It attains the
xxviii. 31) ; so the loops of the curtains to the size and form of a pea, is of a violet black colour,
tal>emacle (xxvi. 4) ; the riband for the breast covered with a whitish powder, adhering to plants,
plate (xxviii. 28), and for the plate for the mitre chiefly various species of oak, and so closely re
(rex. 37 ; camp. Ecclus. xlv. 10) ; blue cloths sembling grains, that its insect nature was not
for various sacred uses (Num. iv. 6, 7, 9, 11, 12) ; generally known for many centuries. According
the people commanded to wear a riband of blue to Beckman. the epithet vermiculatus was ap
above the fringeoftheir garments (Num. xv. 38) j plied to it during the middle ages, when this fact
it appears as a colour of furniture in the ]>alace became generally understood, and that hence is
of Ahosuerus (Esth. i. 6), and pari of rite royal derived tlie word vermilion. Hence the Hebrew
apparel (viii. 15) ; array of the idols of liahviori words mean both the coccus itself, and the deep
(Jer. X. 9) ; of the Assyrian nobles, &c. (Ezra red or bright rich crimson which was derived
xxiii. 6 ; see Braunius, De Vcsti'.u, &c, I. 9 and from it (as in Cant. iv. 3, * thy lips are like a
13; Bochort, torn. iii. p. 670). thread of scarlet'); and so tlie word ' scarlet* sig
3. Crimson, occurs in 2 Chron. ii. 7- nified in the time of our translators, rather tlian
11; iii. 14; Sept. mjiwiros; Vulg. coccinum. the colour now called by that name, and which tea*
592 PURPLE. PUTEOLI.
unknown in the time of James I. This insect ig the snow for her household ; for all her household
widely distributed over many of the south-eastern are clothed with scarlet ' (Prov. xxxi. 21). Since
countries of the ancient world. It occurs abun there is no connection between the colour and a
dantly in Spain (Kirby and S|**nce, Introduction defence from the cold, it would be better ren
to EntomjUyy, 1828, vol. L pp. 31 !>-20 ). It is dered, as in the margin, 'double garments;' Sept.
found on the quercus coccifera. or kermes oak. in dvfitSvfu rot ; Vulg. vestiti duplicibus. The next
Palestine (Kitto's Physical History, p. 219). verse of the Sept. logins Biaaas xAatVa* ^Tro'njo*
Pliny a|>eaks of tlie cocctts as a red colour much t dvBpl avTijs. In Isa. i. 18, and .ler. iv. 30,
esteemed, which lie distinguishes from purple the word should be rendered 'scarlet* and not
{Hist. Nat. ix. 65), and dcscrit>es as a gay, red, 'crimson.' The final reference to scarlet, is in
regard to Pagan Rome, which, like all cities,
is represented as a female; and since every
body wore scarlet in Rome, and especially dur
ing war, she is described as being arrayed in
that colour. In Kxod. xxxix. 3, it is said, ' tiiey
did beat gold into their plates, and cut into
wires, to work in the blue, and in the purple, and
in the scarlet, and in the fine linen;' wliich is
explained to mean that these five kinds, blue,
purple, scarlet, fine linen, and gold, were twisted
into one thread ; thus, a thread of gold with six
threads of blue, and so witli the rest, alter which
they twisted ull these threads into one (Braunius,
i. 17. 2fi). It seems plain from Exod. xxxv.
25, that the blue, and purple, and scarlet, and
fine linen were spun by hand from wool al
ready dyed of these colours. Wilkinson re
marks that the colour w^is in like manner im
parted by the Egyptians to the thread, \ <\, that
is, cloth was not dyed after being wove (Manners
and Customs, vol. iii. p. 125). It will have been
perceived that great difficulty attends the attempt
to determine the precise distinctions of colours
known to the ancients by the various preceding
names. The only possible method whereby they
could have conveyed them to our minds, would
have been by comj>aring them to the colours of
natural objects, whose ap]>earauce was immutable,
46tl. [Coccus llicis, on a branch.] and whose identity was beyond question. Sucb
lively bright, approaching t lie colour of fire (ibid. an attempt has been made by Bishop WUkinsin
and xxi. 22). All the ancients concur in say his Real Character. We may illustrate the utility
ing that this dye was made from u sort of little of these requisites by the colour blue, which is
grains which were gathered from the holm-oak defined to mean ' the colour produced or exjwsed
Tbeophr.ist. Hist. Plant, iii. 16 ; Pliny, xvi. 12; to the view by the blowing away, or clearing
J )ioscorabs, iv. 48 ; Pausau- x. 30). They not away or dispersing of the clouds' (Enc. Metro-
only call them grains but ijieak of them as the politana). But, as is welt known, the shades
vegetable productions of the oak itself, -xpivov of ethereal blue vary in different countries, and
Kapir&v (Plot. Thes. p. 7); and Pliny (Hist. Aat. even in different altitudes of the same coun
xvi. 12) calls them cusculiaf from the Greek ko<t- try. Hence the word blue, if illustrated by this
KvWtiv, wliich signifies ' to cut little excrescences,' standard, would convey a different idea to the in
because they cut or scra|>e olVtliese small grains habitants of different regions. It is most likely
of the oak. Yet he was not entirely ignorant of that all our ideas of sensible impressions are liable
their insert character, for he says, 'coccum ilicis to errors of association. It is, however, satisfactory
celerrimeiu vermiculuin se mutatis' (xxiv. 4). It to know, that like alt other dubious matters, these
seems, however, that the DoluUr, thus obtained, are of minor importance. We add a further re
was not durable (xxiL 3). It was known at a ference to Guiruet** Origin of I^aws. Arts, and
very early |ieriod in Canaan (Gen. xxxviii. 28) ; Sciences, vol. ii. p. 95, &c. Edin. 1764.J. F. D.
it was one of die colours of the high-priest s ephod PUTEOl 1 TlorioKoi). a maritime town of
(Kxod. xxviii. 6), and of its girdle ( ver. 8), of the Campania, in Italy, on the north shore of the
breastplate ( ver. 15), and of eld - for sacred uses bay of Naples, and about eight miles north-west
(Num. iv. Sj ; it was used in cleansing the leper from the city of that name, where it still exists
(Lev. xiv. 4). to indicate, as Abarbanel thinks, under the name of Possuoli. It derived its name
that a healthy complexion was restored to him. from its tepid baths, whence the district in which
It was the dress of females in the time of Saul it exists is now called Terra di Lavoro. The
(2 Sam. i 24); of opulent persons in later times ancient Greek name of the place was Atxcudpx*"*-
(Lam. iv, 5)j of the Babylonian and Median It was a favourite watering-place of the Romans,
soldiers, who also wore red shields ( Nalnim ii. 4 ; as its numerous hot-springs werejudged efficacious
comp. Scuta lectissimis colaribus distinguunty for the cure of various diseases. It was also the
Tacit. De Mor. Germ. c. 6 ; and Phihwtratus, Epist, port where ships usually discharged their pas
de Lacedtrmoniis. Three mistranslations of the sengers and cargoes, partly to avoid doubting
word occur in our version, 'She is not afraid of the promontory of Circeium, and partly because
QUAIL QUEEN. 93
there was no commcxlions harbour nearer to Rome. breadth, and alight on the southern shore to feed
Hence the ship in which Paul was conveyed from and repose. In the vernal season the direction
Melita, landed the prisoners at this place, where of the flight is reversed, and they arrive in similar
the apostle staid for a week (Acts xxviii. 13). condition on the Russian coast. The same phe
The harbour was protected by a celebrated mule, nomena occur at Malta, &c. ; and as gregarious
the remains of which are still to be seeu. birds of passage are known to guide their course
by given landmarks, which they distinguish with
unerring precision, and which, unless tliey have
been driven out of their usual direction by storms
Q. of wind, they invariably arrive at or over, before
they take a new flight, so also quails congregate
quail ebb Sclav ; Sept. oprvyo^rpa ; in Arabia in numl>ers proportionate to the surface
Vulg., cotumix) occurs in Kxod. xvi. 13 ; Num. of Western Asia, whither they are proceeding.
x\. 31, 32; Ps. cv. 40. Quails form a subdivi The providential nature of their arrival within
sion of the Tetraonid<B, or grouse family, being and around the camp of the Israelites, in order
distinguished from partridges by their smaller that they might furnish meat to a murmuring
size, finer bill, shorter tail, and ihe want of a red people, appears from the fact of its taking place
naked eyebrow and of spur* on the legs. There where it was not to be exjtected ; the localities,
are several species, whereof the common, now we presume, being out of the direction of the
distinguished by the name of Colurnix dactyli- ordinary passage; for, had this not lieen the case,
sonans, is abundant in all the temperate regions the dwellers iu that region, and the Israelites
of Europe and Western Asia, migrating to and themselves, accustomed to tend their (locks at no
from Africa in the projwr season. Thus it crosses great distance from the sjxit, would have regarded
the Mediterranean and Black Seas twice a-year the phenomenon as a well-known periodical occur
in vast multitudes ; but being by nature a bird rence. C. H. S.
of heavy flight, the passage is partially conducted QUARTUS (Ko&apros), a Christian, resident
by way of intermediate islands, or through Spain ; at Corinth, and, from his name, apparently a
and in the Kast, in still greater numbers, along Roman, whose salutations Paul communicated to
the Syrian desert into Arabia, forming, especially the Church of Rome in his epistle thereto (Horn,
at the spring season, innumerable flocks. They xvi. 23). In the old church books he is alleged
alight exhatisted with fatigue, and are then easily to have been one of the seventy disciples, which
caught. Guided by these facts, commentators is altogether unlikely; and it is on the same
have been led to identify the Hebrew *|^t"? with authority stated that he was eventually bishop of
the quail ; although other species of partridges, the church at Berytus.
and still more of PterocCss (' sand grouse '), QUATERNION (rerptoiop), <a quaternion
abound in Western Asia; in particular Pterocles of soldiers' (Acts xii. -1), was a detachment of
Alchata, or Attagen, which is found, if i>ossible, four men, which was the usual number of a Ro
in still greater numlMTs on the deseits, and has man night watch. Peter, therefore, was guarded
been claimed by Hassclquist as the selav of Ex- by four soldiers, two within the prison, and two
odus. lint the present Arabic name of the quail outside the doors; and as the watch was usually
is selita ; and the circumstances connected with changed every ihree hours, it was necessary that
the bird in questionfound on two occasions by the 'four quaternions ' mentioned in the text
the people of Israel in and around the cam]) so should be Appointed for tiie purpose fVeget. De
abundantly as to feed ihe whole jx>pulatiou in the lie Milit. iii. 8 ; Philo. hi Place, p. 98).
desert (Exod. xvi. 3-13), and at Kibroth-Hat- QUEEN. The Hebrews had no word projwrly
taavah, both times in the springare much more answering to our term 'queen,* which is the femi
applicable to flights of quail alighting in an ex nine of* king ;' neither had they the dignity which
hausted state during their periodical migration, that word denotes. The Hebrew word usually
than to ihe pterodes, which dites not proceed to translated * queen * is m*03 gebirah, which means
so great a distance, has very powerful wings, is ' mistress,* or * lady,' being the feminine of
never seen fatigued by migration, is at all times
a tenant of the wilderness far from water, and gebir, ' master,' or ' lord.* The feminine is to be
understood by its relation to the masculine;
which, strictly taken, is perhaps not a clean bird, which
all the species subsisting for the most part on kings, isbutnotto general applied to kingly power, or to
la; we, beetles, and insects. We regard these con It is in fact the word authority and dominion.
which occurs twice with
siderations as sufficient to establish the accuracy reference to Isaac's blessing of Jacob: 'Be
of the Authorized Version. lord over thy brethren ;* and, ' I have made him
Of a bird so well known no figure or further thy lord' (Gen. xxvii. 2937).
particular description appears to l>e necessary, The limited use which is made even of the
beyond mentioning the enormous flights which, restricted
after crossing an immense surface of sea, are It is only term gebirah, is somewhat remarkable.
annually observed at the spring and fall to take a wife of a employed twice with reference to the
brief repose in the islands of Malta, Sicily, Sar applied to king : iu one of these two cases it is
the wife of the king of Egypt, where
dinia, Crete, in the kingdom of Naples, and about
Constantinople, where on those occasions there is the condition of the royal consort was more
a general shooting-match, which lasts two or queenly thanA.inEgypt, Palestine (1 Kings xi. 19; comp.
three days. This occurs always in the autumn. Wilkinson, ii. 59 ; iii. 64; v. 28); and
in the other to Jezebel, the wife of Ahah, who, as
The birds, starting from the Crimea about seven the
at night, and with a northerly wind, before dawn enjoyed peculiar privilegesking,
daughter of a powerful appears to have
in her matrimouial
accomplish a passage of above sixty leagues in state (2 Kings x. 13). In two other places, it is
TOL. IL
3<J
m QUEEN. QUEEN.
not clear whether the king's wife or mother is in European queen of any with which the East if
tended (Jer. xiii. 18 ; xxix. 2) ; and in the remain acquainted. It is founded on that essential prin*
ing passages it is pointedly referred to the king's ciple of Oriental manners which in all cases con
mother, in such terms as clearly show that the siders the mother of the husliaud as a far superior
state which she held was one of positive dignity person to Ins wife, and as entitled to more resjx*ct
and rank (1 Kings xv. 13; 2 Chron. xv. 16). and attention. This principle should be clearly
understood ; for it extends throughout the HiUe,
There is another word, shcgol, also trans and is yet entirely different from our own social
lated 'queen/ which simply denotes the king's arrangements, under which the mother, aaaocfl as
wife or (in t he plural) his wives, as distinguished she becomes widowed, abandons her place as
from his concubines. It occurs in Ps. xlv. 9; head of the family to the daughter in-law. Mr.
Neh. ii. 6 ; Dan. v. 2 ; iii. 23. TJrquhart has admirably illustrated and deve
The result of all inquiry into the subject seems loped this principle in his Spirit of the East ^ii.
to show that among the Jewish kings t he usages 587) sq.), and bis remaiks, although primarily
bearing on this point were not different from illustrative of Turkish manners, are, with some
those which are still exhibited in Western Asiatic unessential limitations, applicable to thp ancient
courts. Where woman never becomes the head and modern East. In p. 389 there is an anec
of the state, there can be no queen regnant ; and dote of the present Ibrahim Pasha, who is repre
where polygamy is allowed or practised, there sented as staying a whole week in the harem of
can he no queen consort. There will, however, Ids mother, waiting to tind a favourable opportu
be a chief wife in the harem; and this is no nity of pressing a request upon her; anil when
doubt the rank indicated in the Bible by the admitted, kissing her feet, refusing to lie seated,
words which we render 'queen.* This rank may and standing an hour and a half before her with
be variously acquired. Thefirst wife of the king, his arms Craned, without after all succeeding
or the tirst whom lie took after his accession, usu in the suit which hethe conqueror of Syria and
ally obtained it; and if she is both of high birth the victor of Konieh preferred to an aged
and becomes the mother of the iirst son, her*po*i- woman.
tion is tolerably secure : but if she possesses neither The arrangement in the seraglios of the more
of these advantages, she may be superseded in her magnificent Hebrew monarchs was probably si
position as head of the harem by a wife of higher milar to that of Turkey, with this difference,
birth and connections, subsequently espoused ; or that the chief women in the harems of the Jewish
by one who becomes the mother of the heir ap]>a- sovereigns entered it as wives, and not as slaves.
rent. The king, however, will sometimes act The grand signior, from an indeterminate number
according to his own pleasure in this matter, pro of female slaves, selects his favourites, who are
mote any favourite lady to this dignity, and also distinguished by the title of carftm, which, as it
remove her from it at his pleasure; but more means 'lady nf the house,* seems nearly equiva
generally he rinds it convenient to follow the lent to the Hebrew gebir/th. The number of
established routine. The king of Egypt's daugh these w- said to be limited to seven, and their
ter was, doubtless, from her high rank, the chief rank seems to correspond to that of the 'wives'
wife of Solomon ; as was Jezebel, for the same of the Hebrew seraglio, whose number was un
reason, the chief wife of Ahab. In like manner limited. The mother of a boy is called ha- -
the high-born mother of Absalom was probably seky, unless the boy die* ill which rase she de
the chief wife of David, although it is possible scends to her former rank The caduns or wives
that the mother of the eldest son Amiion at iirst of a deceased or dejiosed sultan are all removed
enjoyed that distinction, which, we may safely from the imjjerial harem to a separate palare,
presume, eventually devolved on Bathsheba, with the single exception of the validc saltan,
after her son Solomon had been recognised as the the mother of the reigning sultan, who has her
heir. liberty, a palace, and revenues to support a
In one of Mr. Morier's amusing books (Uajji suitable establishment. Hut the basset:ret, or
Baba in England) there is a passage which those who have a son living, are treated with
strikingly illustrates this matter. The court of marked respect, as in the natural course of events
Persia is there represented as lieing perplexed they may become valide The title of nt/tan
how to answer a letter which, in ignorance of (for the Turkish has no distinction of (rentierJ,
Kastem customs, had been addressed by the though from courtesy it may be given to the
queen consort of England ' to the queen of Persia.' hassekies, is, strictly speaking, appropriate onl v
The cause of the dilemma tints created was that to the sovereign's mother, and to tire sons and
'Although the shah's principal wife is called daughters of the imperial family (Thornton, ii.
the bauou harem, or head of the seraglio, yet her 27<> ; Urquhart, ii. 433). This statement, espe
situation in the state bears as little affinity to that cially the last point of it. strikingly illustrates the
of tiie queen of England as one may say the she view we have taken as to the more queenly position
buffalo kept in the enclosure for food and milk of the king's mother than of his wife in the Je ish
has to the cow fed and worshipped by the Hin and other Asiatic courts. It must be clearly
doo as his god. Our shah can kill and create understood that this position is by no means
banous at pleasure, whereas the queen of Eng peculiar to the modern east, or to the Jews among
land maintains her post till the hand of fate lays the ancient Orientals. Heeren, indeed, thinks
her in the grave ' (Comp. Chardin, Voyages, that the power of 'the queen-mother' was even
edit. Langles, vi. ch. xti. ; Thornton's Turkey9 more considerable among the ancient Persians
ii. 264-286.) than among the modern Turks (Hist. Researches*
Very different was, and is to this day, in i, 400); and the narratives of Herodotus and
Western Asia, the position of the king's mother, Ctesias respecting the tyrannical influence ex
whose state is much the nearest to that of an ercised by Parysatis, Ameatris, and others, beat
QUICKSAND. KABBAH. 595
* ample testimony to this fact. The careful reader natic is taken, as Dr. Falconer himself takes it
of Scripture will easily be able to trace the same
ideas respecting the position of the king's mother for the toMelita of Scripture. It may therefore be
among the Israelites. In how marked a manner added the arguments in favour of Malta, that
does the mother of Solomon come forward at the tear entertained bywith
its identification Melita gives reality to the
the mariners, which under the
end of her husband's and the beginning of her other alternative must be supposed to have been
ton's reign ! She takes an active part in securing imaginary [Malta],
her son'b succession; it is in the conviction of her
commanding influence that Adonijah engages QUIVER. [Armour,
QUIRINUS. Arms.1J
[Cyrenius.]
her to promote his suit, alleging 'he will not
say thee nay and then, when Bathsheba ap|>ears
before her son, the monarch rises from his place,
advances to meet her, bows himself before her,
and seats her on the right hand of his throne
(1 Kings i., ii.). That the king's mother possessed
high dignity is further evinced by the fact that
Asa found it necessary to remove hie mother RAAMAH (HOjn; Sept *Pey^a), a city of
Maachah 'from being queen/ on account of tier
abuse of the power which that character conferred the Cushites, or of Cushite origin (Gen. x. 7 ;
[t Kings xv. 13). Jezebel was, as already 1 Chron. i. 9 ; Ezek. xxvii. 22). Its situation
ttated, very powerful in the life-time of her hus is not clearly known, but the "Ptyfia. witli which
band; but it is only under her son that she is the Sept. identities it was a city ou the Persian
called 'the queen* (gtbirah) ; and the whole Gulf, mentioned by Ptolemy (Gcog. vi> 7), and
fcisiory of his reign evinces the important part Stephan. Byzant. (See Bochart, Vhaleg. iv. 5.)
a Inch she took in public affairs (2 Kings ix. RAAMSES. [Rambsbs.]
22, 30, 37; x. 13). Still more marked was the
influence which her daughter Athaliah exercised which properly(T\T\
RABBAH ; Sept. 'PaffidB). This name,
denotes a great city or metro
in Judah during the reign of her son Ahaziah, polis, is given in Scripture to the capital of the
which was indeed such as enabled her at his Ammonites (Josh. xiii. 25 ; 2 Sam. xi. 1 ; xii.
leath to set the crown on her own head, and to
present the anomaly in Jewish history of a reg- name 27; 1 Chron.. xx. 1] Jer. xlix. 3); the full
jant queen (2 Kings xi,). of which, however, as given in Deut. Hi,
QUEEN OF HEAVEN. [Ashtoreth.] II, apjwars to have been Rabbath-beni-Ammon.
QUEEN OF SHKBA. [Sheba.] It was in this place that the great iron Ijedstead
QUICKSAND (tftVrtt> In Acts xxvii. 17, of Og king of Baslmu was preserved (Deut. iii.
it is mentioned that when the ship in which Paul 11). hub,
Here also, during the siege of the place by
the unsuspecting Uriah was slain, through
was embarked was driven past the Isle of Clamia the contrivance of David, that he might possess
t>n (he south, the mariners, as would now U- said, himself of his wife Bathsheba; after which the
struck the sails and scudded under bare jioles, king went in person and took the city, the im-
lest they 'should fall into the quicksands.' The jtortance of which is shown by the solicitude
original word sgrtt's denotes a sandtnuik or shoal of tiie monarch thus to appropriate to himself
dangerous to navigation, dratoti, or supposed to be the glory of its subjugation (2 Sam. xi., xii.).
ira%cn (from ovpo, ' to draw ') together by the cur After this Rabl)ah was included in the tribe of
rents of the sea. Two syrtes, or gulfs with quick Gad. After the separation of the ten tribes,
sands, were particularly famous among the an Rabbah, with the whole territory beyond the
cients; one called Syrtis Major, Iretween Cyrene Jordan, adhered to the kingdom of Israel^ till
and Leptis, and the other, Syrtis Minor, near Car- it was ravaged by the Assyrians under Tiglath-
'liage. Both then lay nearly to the south-west pileser, and the inhabitants expatriated to
of the west end of Cyprus, adjoining which, on Media. The Ammonites then recovered posses
the south, lay the isle of Clauda. These Syrtes
were the great dread of those who navigated the sion of Rabbah and the other cities and territories
teas in which the vessel was driven, and one of which had in former times been taken from them
them was probably in this case the object of by the Israelites (Jer. xlix. 3; Ezek. xxv. 2-5)
[ Ammonites]. Some centuries later, when these
alarm to (lie mariners. The danger was not so ]iarts were subject to Egypt, Rabbah was restored
imaginary in this case, we apprehend, as Dr. or
Falconer (Dissert, on St. VatiVs Voyage, p. 13) by rebuilt by Ptolemy Philadelphia, and called
conceives. For the apprehension does not audd andPhiladelphia him (Euseb. Onomast. s. v.
'A^ua*;, and under this name it is
appear to have l>een entertained till the ship often mentioned
Had been driven past the isle of Clauda; which, fPlin. Hist. Nat. by Greek and Roman writers
v. 16; Ptol. Geog. v. 15), by
as we take it, is mentioned merely as the Josenhus
hist point of land which had been seen till the IS. I), and(De Bell. Jud. i. 6. 3; i. 19. 5; ii.
upon Roman coins (Eckhel, iii. 351 ;
ship was wrecked on the isle of Melita. The Mionnet, v. 335), as a city of Arabia, Coele-
jKJsitiou of that island must he regarded as in
dicating the course in which they were driven ; syria, or Decapolis. The old name was not,
and if that were Malta, it is clear that, had that however, altogether superseded, for Polybius
list. v. 7, 4) calls it 'PaftSaTcEporo.
course not been arrested, by the intermediate Rabbah appears to have consisted, like Aroer,
shipwreck, they would in all probability have of two parts ; the city itself, and * the city of
been driven upon the Syrtis Minor, which we waters,*
may therefore conclude to have been the subject detachedorportion royal city, which was probably a
of their apprehension. That apprehension aSj by the stream on of the city itself, insulated
becomes imaginary ' when Meleda in the Ad- 1 city of waters ' waswhich it was situated. The
taken by Joab ; but a
32
596 RABBI. RAB-SHAKEH.
s
the city itself he was obliged to call for the assis people and by their own disciples (Matt, xxiii. 7).
tance of David with a reinforcement (2 Sam. Jesus was so called by his disciples (Matt. xxvi.
xii. 29). 25-49; Mark ix. 5; xi. 2; John i. 38; iv. 31)
The ancient name has been preserved among as well as by the people (Matt. x. 51 ; John
the natives of the country. Abulfeda calls it xx. 16).
Amman, and by that name it is stilt known. RABBINICAL LITERATURE. [Kab
It was in ruins in his time (Tab, Syr, p. 19). balah, Talmud.]
The ruins stand about 19 miles south-east of
Szalt, in a long valley traversed by a stream, RABBONI CPoAbW or TciflflrmrQ, the title
the Moiet Amman, which at this place is arched of highest honour applied by the Jews to the
over, the bed as well as the banks being paved. teachers of the law [Rabbi]. In Mark x. 51
The ruins are extensive, but there remains no (translated ' Lord '), Johu xx. 16, it is applied
thing of much interest, excepting the theatre, to Christ; but, as it seems to us, rather in iu
which is very large and perfect, and a small literal acceptation, than with reference to the
odeum close to it. There are also an ancient conventional distinction which it implied (if such
castle and some vestiges of Roman buildings and distinction theti existed) in the Jewish schools.
of Christian churches. The Prophet K/ekiel There were but seven great professors, all of the
foretold that Rabbah should become 'a stable school of H il lei, to whom the title was publicly
for camels,' and the country 4 a couching place given. There is some difference as to tlieir names,
for flocks' (Ezek. xxv. 5). This has been lite and even the Talmud varies iu its statements.
rally fulfilled, and Burckliardt actually found But the otdy one there whose name occurs in
that a party of Arabs had stabled tlieir camels Scripture is Gamaliel, unless, indeed, as some
among the ruins of Kabbah. Too much stress suppose, the aged Simeon, who blessed the infant
has however been laid ujxm titis minute point by Saviour (Luke ii. 25), was the same as the Rab-
Dr. Keith and others (Evidence from Prophecy, ban Simeon of the Talmud [Simeon].
p. 150). What the prophet meant to say was that RAB SARIS (Cnp-ll ; Sept. 'Pa<f>fr), one of
Ammon and its chief city should be desolate; the three Assyrian generals in command of the
and he expressed it by reference to facts which army which apjx?ared before Jerusalem (2 Kings
would certainly occur in any forsaken site in xviii, [Rab-SHAKBh], The word means 'chief
the borders of Arabia; and which are now con of the eunuchs ;' which could scarcely have been a
stantly occuring not in Rabbah only, but in proper name ; but whether his office was really
many other places. Seetzen, in Zach's Monat. that which the title imports, or some other great
Corresp, xviii. p. 428 ; Burckhardt's Syria, court office, must l>e determined by the consi
p. 356, sq. ; Irby and Mangles, Iravels, p. derations which have t>een offered under the article
474. Eunuch. The chief of the eunuchs is an officer
The Rabbah of Josh. xv. 60 was in the tribe of high rank and dignity in the Oriental courts:
of Judah. and his cares are not confined to the harem, but
RABBATH-AMMON. [Rabbah.] many high public functions devolve upon him.
RABBATH-MOAB. [Ah.] In the Ottoman Porte the Kislar Aga, or chief of
RABBI (*Po0O> a title of honour given to the the black eunuchs, is one of the principal ]ier-
teachers of the law in tlte time of Christ, and for sonages in the empire, and in an official paper of
which there is no exact equivalent in our language, great solemnity is styled by the sultan, the most
illustrious of the officers who approach bis august
though perhaps in purport And usage it comes person, and worthy of the confidence of mouarchs
near to * doctor' or 'master:' a word combining and of sovereigns* (D'Ohsson, Tab. Gen. iii. 308).
both these significations would fairly represent it. It is, therefore, by no means improbable that such
In Matt, xxiii. 8, 'PajSjSf is explained by Kafhj- an office should be associated with a military
yrrrfjs, a leader, or guide (in the sense ofa teacher commission; perhaps not for directly military
or master), and in John i. 39, by o'iSdVwaA.or, a duties, but to take charge of the treasure, and to
teacher, or master. This, however, seems to have select from the female captives such as might
been the acquired or conventional usage of the seem worthy of the royal harem.
term. The actual signification of 31 rob in
Hebrew is *a great one,' a. *. a chief, a master; RAB-SHAKEH (npBOl; Sept 'PafyUni.
and would as a title be proluhly represented by This name is Aramaic, and signifies chief-cup-
the 'Excellenza' of southern Europe, which is bearer. Notwithstanding its seemingly official
perhaps as common as Rabbi was among the Jews. significance, it appears to have been used as a
It was there employed as a title in the Jewish proper name, as Butler with us ; for the person
schools in a threefold form, indicating as many who bore it was a military chief in high com
degrees, which might without much impropriety mand, under Sennacherib king of Assyria. Yet it
be compared, in the stricter sense, to the progres is not impossible, according to Oriental usages,
sive academical degrees of Bachelor, Master, and that a royal cup-bearer should hold a military
Doctor. The lowest of these degrees of honour command ; and the office itself was one of high
was 31 rob. This with the relative suffix became distinction. He is the last named of three
'21, *Paf, Rabbi, 'my master,' which was of Assyrian generals who appeared lefore Jeru
higher dignity ; and beyond that was J31 Rtrban, salem ; and was the uMerer of the insulting
'great master;' or with the suffix 'Pafi&ovl, Rab- speeches addressed to the besieged. ' He stood
boni, 'my great master,' which was the highest and cried with a loud voice in the Jews* lan
of all. It is not certain, however, that this gra guage ;' perhaps because he was the only one of
duation of terms existed in the time of Christ. the three who could speak that language freely.
The teachers and professors of the law were 2 Kings xviii. 17, 19, 26, 28, 37 ; xix. 4, 8 ; Is*,
distinguished by the title of Rabbi both by the xxxvi. % 4, 12, 13, 22 ; xxxvii. 4, 8.
RACA. RACHAM. 597
RACA ('Pax), a word which occurs in Matt, the rest, that in Horus Apollo, representing the
v. 22, and which remain* untranslated in the Racham tearing the flesh of her thighs to feed her
Authorized Version. It is expressive of contempt, young, is evidently an invention of the Egyptian
from the Chaldee NpH, and means an empty, priesthood, fabricated in order to enhance the cha
worthless fellow. Jesus, contrasting the law of racter of a useful bird, which, notwithstanding
Moses, which could only take notice of overt acts, that it was sanctified in their mystical supersti
with his own, which renders man amenable for tions, and protected by the king as 4 Pharaoh's
his motives and feelings, says in effect ; ' Whoso fowl' (an ancient appellation), isjierhaps tiie most
ever is rashly angry with his brother is liable to revoltingly filthy bird in existence. With respect
the judgment of God; whosoever calls hit brother to the original imposition of the name Racham,
Raca, is liable to the judgment of the Sanhedrim ; as connected with any unusual affection for its
but whosoever calls him fnol (Majpe) becomes young, there is no modern ornithologist who assigns
liable to the judgment of Gehenna.* To appre such a quality to Percnopteri mure than to other
hend tlie higher criminality here attached to the birds, although it is likely that as the pelican
term fool, which may not at lirst seem very empties its bag of fish, so this bird may void the
obvious, it is necessary to observe that while crop to feed her brood. Gesuer had already
*raca' denotes a certain looseness of life and figured (De Arjuila quern Percnopterum vacant,
manners, * fool * denotes a wicked and repudiate p. 109) the Barbary variety, and ]>ointed out the
person : foolishness being in Scripture opposed to Racham of Scripture as the identical species, but
spiritual wisdom. Bruce first clearly established the fact. The
RACE. [Games.] Uachama of that writer is apparently the Ak-
RACHAM (QjrTji Sept. kvkvov\ Vulg. por bobha (' white father*) of the Turks, and forms
phyria; Lev. xi. 18; Deut. xiv. 17) isnowadmit- one of a small group of Yulturida?, suhgcnerically
ted to be the white carrion vulture of Egypt, Perc dist iiigu ished by the name of Percnopterus
and Neophron, differing from the other vultures
nopterus Neophron ALgyptiacus. It would lead us iu the bill being longer, straight, more attenuated,
beyond the limits prescribed to this article to enter and then uncinated, and iu the back of the head
into a disquisition on the manners of cranes, storks, and neck lieing furnished with longish, narrow,
swans, and jielicans, all in some degree confounded suberectile feathers, but. like true vultures, having
in the mind of Orientals when they describe the the pouch on the breast exposed, and the sides uf
marvellous love, parental affection, and filial gra the head and ttiroat bare and livid. The great
titude of birds : consequently they have names for wing-coverts are partly, and the quill- feathers en
certain secies which are claimed as derivatives tirely, of a black and blackish ash-colour; those
from roots expressive of the affections. For al of the head, nape, smaller wing-coverts, body,
though the incessant warfare of man upon brute and tail, hi general white, with tinges of bull' and
animals in their native haunts has, at least in the rufous; the legs are flesh-colour, and rather long;
populous west, well nigh obliterated all their and the toes are armed with sharp claws. Tlie
females are Wownish. In size tlie species is
little Imlkier than a raven, but it stands high on
the legs. Always soiled with blood and garbage,
offensive to the eye and nose, it yet is protected
in Egypt both by law and public opinion, for
tlie services it renders in clearing the soil of
dead carcases putrefying in the sun, and the
cultivated fields of innumerable rats, mice, and
other vermin. Pious Moslems at Cairo and
other places, bestow a daily portion of food upon
them, and upon their associates the kites, who are
seen hovering conjointly in great numbers about
the city. Tlie Racham extends to Palestine in
the summer season, but Itecomes scarce towards
tlie north, where it is not specially protected ; and
it accompanies caravans, feasting on their leavings
ami (Hi dead camels, &c.
Gesner's figure represents the Barbary variety ;
but there are two other species besides, via., the
Percnopterus An>jolensisy and Percnopterus lly-
polcucus, both similarly characterized by their
white livery, aud distinguished from the Egyptian
by a different arrangement of culour, a shorter
4S7. [Vultur percoopterns.] bill, and more cleanly habits.
In our version the name of Gier-eagle is cer
more generous instincts, and we are consequently tainly most improper, as such a denomination
not well acquainted with tlie natural attributes can apply only to a large species, and is most
of their character, the swan alone can claim pre appro] xiate to tlie beardtxj vulture of the Alps.
tension to an ultra-maternal feeling, from her The Lumrner-geyer of the Swiss (Gypaettis Bar*
practice of supporting her young brood l>etween batus)% which in the shape of varieties, or dis
her wings when she gives them their first lesson tinct B|>ecies, frequents also the nigh snowy ranges
in swimming. All other tales of that nature of Spain, Macedonia, Asia Minor, Crete, Abys
recorded in the poets and historians of antiquity sinia, CatTraria, Barbary, and most likely of
may be regarded as absolute fictions ; and among Libanus, was no doubt the bird intended by our
59S RACHEL. RAMAH.
translators to represent the Racham ; nor was tlie their great undertaking, chose to interpret the
application unreasonable, as will be shown in word 4 hostess,' one who keeps a public house, as
Yultuhr. Tlie Percnopterus is somewhat sin if from pT, * to nourish 1 (Joseph. Antiq. v. 1 ; ii.
gularly classed both in Lev. and Deut, along and vii. ; comp. the Targum, and Kimchi and
with aquatic liirds; and it may be questioned Jarchi on the text). Christian interpreters also
whether any animal will eat it, since, in the are inclined to adopt this interpretation for the
parallel case of Vultur aura, the turkey-buzzard sake of the character of a woman of whom the
or carrion-crow of America, we have found even A|x>stle speaks well, and who would apjtear from
the ants attaining from its carcase, and leaving Matt. i. 4 to have become by a sulise^uent mar
it to dry up in tlie sun, though swarming around riage with Salmon prince of Judah, an ancestress
and greedy of every other animal substance of Jesus. But we must be content to take facts
[Vulture].C. H. S. as they stand, and not strain them to meet dim*
culties ; ami it is now universally admitted by
RACHEL (blTT, a ewe ; Sept. *PaxtfA), one every sound Hebrew scholar that. means
and the most beloved of the two daughters of 'harlot/ and not * hostess/ It signifies harlot
LaUin, whom Jacob married (Gen. xxix. 16, in every other text where it occurs, the idea
seq.), and who became the mother of Joseph and of * hostess' not lie'ing represented by this or
Benjamin, in giving birth to the latter of whom any other word En Hebrew, as the function
she died near Bethlehem, where her sepulchre is represented by it did not exist. There were
shown to this day (Gen. xxx. 22; xxxv. 16). no inns; and when certain substitutes for inns
For more minute particulars see Jacob, with eventually came into use, they were never, in
whose history Rachel's is closely involved. any Eastern country, kept by women. On the
other hand, strangers from beyond the river might
RAGUEL, or Rkuei. {b^Vl, friend cf God; have repaired to the house of a harlot with
Sept. 'PayovT}\). I. A son of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. out suspicion or remark. The Bedouins from
4, 10). 2. The father of Jethro (Kxod. ii. 18; the desert constantly do so at this day in their
Num. x. 29). Some confound him with Jethro; visits to Cairo and Baghdad. The house of
but in the text last cited, he is called tlie fit her such a woman was also the only one to which
of Hobah, who seems to have been the same as they, as jierfect strangers, could have had access,
Jethro. In the same passage, indeed, the daugh and certuinly the only one in which they could
ters of tlie * priest of Midial i 1 relate to * Iteuel their calculate on obtaining the information they re
father * their adventure with Moses : which might quired without danger from male inmates. This
seem to support his identity with Jethro; but it concurrence of analogies in the wortI, in the
is quite a Scriptural usage to call a grandfather thing, and in the probability of circumstances,
' father,' and a granddaughter, ' daughter ' (Gen. ought to settle the question. Jf we are concerned
xxxi. 43; 2 Sam. xix. 25; 1 Kings xiv. 3; for the morality of Rahab, the best proof of her
xvi. 2; xviii. 3). The Targum in this place reformation is found in the fact of her subse
reads, 'They came to Reuel their father's father.' quent marriage to Salmon : this implies her pre
THohab ] 3. Another person of this name vious conversion to Judaism, for which indeed
occurs in 1 Chrou. ix. 8. her discourse with tlie spies evinces that she was
1. RAHAB piTl; Sept. 'Pad0), a name, prepared. The Jewish writers abound in praises
signifying 1 sea-monster,* which is applied as an of Kahab, on account of the great service she ren
appellation to Egypt in Pa. lxxiv. 13,. 14; dered their ancestors. Even 'hose wlw do not deny
lxxxvii. 4 ; lxxxix. 10 ; Isa. li. 9 (and some that she was a harlot, admit that she eventually
times to its king, Ezek. xxix. 3; xxxiii.3. comp. became tlie wife of a prince of Israel, and that
Ps. Ixviii. 31); which metaphorical designation many great persons of their nation sprang from
probably involves an illation to tlie crocodiles, this union. The general statement is, that she
fiip(x>]K)tami, ami other aquatic creatures of the was ten years of age at the time the Hebrews
Nile. quitted Egypt, that she played the harlot during
all the forty years they were in the wilderness,
2. RAHAB, properly Raciiab (3(77' * that she became a proselyte when tlie spies were
Sept. 'Paxc03), a woman of Jericho who received receive*! by her, and that after tlie fall of Jericho
into her house the two spies who were sent by no \r~ - a personage than Joshua himself made Iter
Joshua into that city; concealed them under the his wife. She is also counted as an ancestress of
flax laid out U|xni tlie house-to]), when they were Jeremiah, Maaseiah, Hanameel, Shall urn, Ba-
sought after ; and, having given them important ruch, Etekiel, Neriah, Seriah, ami Huldah the
information, which showed that the inhabitants prophetess. (See T. BabyI. tit. Megilla, fol. 14,
were mucli disheartened at the miracles which col. 2 j Juchasin, x. 1 ; Shatshalet Ilakabala*
had attended tlie march of the Israelites, enabled vii. 2; Aharbauel, Kimchi, &C, on Josh. vi. 2-"> ;
them to escape over the wall of the town, upon Mttzvoth Torch, p. 112; Lightfoot. Hor. Heb.
which her dwelling was situated. For tins im atl Matt. i. J ; Meuschen, N. T. Talmud, p. 40.)
portant service Rahah and her kindred were RAIN. See under the head Climate, in art.
saved by the Hebrews from the general massacre Palestine.
which followed the taking of Jericho (Josh. ii. RAM. [Skrrp.]
1-21 ; vi. 17; comp. Heb. xi. 31). HAM AH (HDn, a high place, height ; Sept-
In the narrative of these transactions Kahab is
called H31T zonaA, which our own. after the *PajA&\ tlie name of several towns and village*
ancient versions, rentiers ' harlot.* The Jewish in Palestine, which it is not in all cases easy to
writers, however, being unwilling to entertain the distinguish from one another.
idea of their ancestors being involved in a dis 1. RAMAH, a town of Benjamin (Josh, xviii.
reputable association at tlie commencement of 25), in the vicinity of Gibeah and Geba (Judg,
RAMAH. RAMESES. 999
x\\. 13 ; Isa. x. 29 ; Hos. v. 8 ; Ezra ii. 26 ; The city in which Saul found Samuel is not
Neh. vii. 30, xi. 33) ; on the way from Jerusalem named, but is said to have been 1 in the land of
to Bethel (Judg. iv. 5), and not far from the con Zupir (1 Sam. ix. 5), and is assumed to have
fines of the two kingdoms (1 Kings xr, 17; xxi. been Ramah-Zoprtim. In dismissing him from
22). It is also mentioned in Jer. xxxi. 15 ; xl. 1. this place, Samuel foretells an adventure that
Jerome places it six Roman miles north of Jeru should liefal him near Rachel's sepulchre. Now,
salem, and Josephus, who calls it * Pafia9u>yf as this sepulchre was near Bethlehem, and as
places it forty 6tadia from Jerusalem (Antiq. viii. Saul's abode was in Benjamin, the southern border
12. 3). In accordance with all these intimations, of which is several miles to the north thereof, it
at the distance of two hours" journey north of is manifest that if Saul in going home was to
Jerusalem, upon a hill a 1 il tie to the east of the pass near Rachel's sepulchre, the place where
great northern road, a village still exists under Samuel was must have lieen to the south of it.
the name of Er-Ram^ in which we cannot hesi Geseuius contends that if we allow weight to the
tate to recognise the representative of the ancient mention of Rachel, we can only seek for this
Ramali. This is one of the valuable identifica Ramah in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem;
tions for which Biblical geography is indebted to where also Eusebius speaks of a Ramah. Not
Dr. Robinson (Hesearc/us, ii. 3*15-317). The far south-east of Bethlehem is the Jebel Fureidis,
difficult text (Jer. xxxi. 15), 'A voice was heard or Frank Mount, which Robinson has identified
in Ramali . . . Rachel weeping for her children,* as the site of the ancient city and fortress of
which the Evangelist (Matt. ii. 8) transfers to Herod, called Herodium ; and Geseuius contends
the massacre at liethlehem, has been thought to that if we fix here the site of Ramah, all the cir
require a southern Ramali not fir from that cumstances mentioned in 1 Sam. ix. 10 are
place, near which indeed is Rachel's sepulchre. sufficiently explained. But then the Ramah-
But no such Ramah has been found; and Dr. Zophim of 1 Sam. i. 1 must have lieen a din"emit
Robinson thinks that the allusion of the prophet place (Thesaujus, p. 1276). To this Dr. Robin-
was originally applicable to this Ramali. The son himself, in his edition of Geseuius, objects
context refers to the exiles carried away captive that the difference assumed iu the last sentence b>
by Nebuzar-adan to Babylon, who passed by inadmissible. 1 Besides, no one who had seen
way of Ramah, which was [lerhaps their rendez the Frank mountain would suprose for a moment
vous (Jer. xl. 1). As Ramah was in Benjamin, that a city ever lay upon it. It was indeed occu
the prophet introduces Rachel, the mother of that pied by Herod's fortress; but the city Herodium
tribe, bewailing the captivity of her descend lay at ii s foot.1 He adds that Eusebius, iu the
ants. passage referred to, obviously places Ramah of
2. RAMAH, of Samuel, so called, where the Benjamin near Bethlehem, for the purpose of
prophet lived and was buried (1 Sam. i. 19; helping out a wrong interpretation of Matt. ii. 18.
ii. 11; vii. 17; viii. 1; xv. 34; xvi. 13, 19; Aaulher, and the most recent hypothesis in this
xviii. 19, 22, 23; xxv. 1 ; xxviii. 3). It is vaxed question, would place this Ramah at a site
probably the same with the Rnmathaim-Zophim of mins now called er-Rameh, two miles north
to which his father Elkauah belonged (I Sam. of Hebron (Biblioth. Sacra, No. I. pp. 46-51).
i. 1, 19). The position of this Ramali was early But this also assumes that t lie Ramalhaim-Zo-
Inst sight of by tradition, and a variety of opinions phim, the place of the prophet's birth, was diflerent
have prevailed since the time of Etisebius and Je from the place of his residence and burial, con
rome, who regard it as the Arimaihea of the New trary t.i the lestinrt.ny of Josephus (Antiq. vi.
Testament, and place it near Lydda, where a Ha 4, u* ; vi. 13, 5), and to ihe conclusion ileducible
mad anciently existed. Hence some have held from a comparison of 1 Sam. i. 1 witli verses
the site to lie that, of the present Ramleh, which 3. 19. In the midst of all this uncertainty, Dr.
is itself a modern town [Arimatkka]. Many Robinson thinks that interpreters may yet be
writers have, however, been disposed to seek driven to the conclusion that the city where Saul
Samuel's Ramah in the Ramah of Benjamin found Samuel (1 Sain. ix. 10), was not Ramah
(Pncocke, ii. 71, 72; Bachiene, i. 155 ; Raumer, his home.
Paliist. p. 146; Winer, s. v.) ; hut this was only 3. RAMAH, a city of Naphtali (Josh. xix.
half an hour distant from the Gibeah where Saul 36).
resided, which does not agree with the historical 4. RAMAH, a town of Gilead (2 Kings viii.
intimation (comp. 1 Sam. ix. 10). Again, gene 20), the name of which is given more fully iu
ral opinion lias pointed to a place called Nehy Josh. xiii. 26, as llamoth-Mizpch.
Samuel, a village upon a high point two hums
north-west of Jerusalem, and which was, indeed, RAMESES (DpPJH; Sept. 'VafAtiririj), an
ulso usually supposed to be the Hamuli of Ben Egyptian city in the land of Goshen, built, or at
jamin, till Dr. Robinson established the separate least fortified, by the labour of the Israelites (Gen.
claims of er-Ram to that distinction. But this xlvii. 11 ; Exod. i. 11 ; xii. 37; Num. xxxiii.
appropriation does not agree with Hie mention of 3-5). The name of the city seems to have Iteen
Rachel's sepulchre in I Sam. x. 2, for that is sometimts given to the whole province (Gen.
about as far to the south of Jerusalem as Neby xlvii. 11), by which it would appear to have
Samuel is to the north-west. The like objection been the chief city of the district. It was pro
applies though in a somewhat less degree, to bably situated on the water-shed between the
the modem Soba, wet of Jerusalem, which Hitter Lakes and the Valley of the Seven Wells,
Robinson points out as possibly the site of Ka- not far from Heroopolis, but not identical with
matbaim-Zop/iim and Ramali (/Researches, ii. that city (See Robinson's Bibl. Researches^ i. 70,
330-331). The chief difficulties in connection 547-550). In Exod. i. 11, the name is by a
with this matter arise of course out of the account di (Terence in the jK)ints spelt Raamses. The
given of Saul's journey after his father's asses. name means 'son of the sun,' and was borne by
600 RAMOTH. RAVEN.
several of the ancient kings of Egypt, one of whom si rens, and incipient tear-pits. Its normal colour
was probably the founder of the city. is red, from bright chestnut to rufous chocolate ;
RAMOTH (DID! or tABLf] ; heights, pi. of which last is the cause of the epithet purple luing
Ramab). There were several places of this given to it by the poets. Far to the south, or with
name, usually with some addition to distinguish in the tropics, the siwcies is densely clotlied with
them from one another. coarse short hair, but longer on the neck, and
1. RAMOTH-(iILEAD, called also Ramoth- pendant in great abundance beneath the throat.
Mizpeh, or simply IUudth, a town in Gilead, itFrom a s]>ecimeii now living in our ]K><sessiouJ
within the borders of Gad (Josh. xiii. 2G), which has been observed that on the first approach o(
belonged to the Levites (Josh. xxi. 38 ; 1 Chrou. autumn a very fine grey wool crops out everywhere
from beneath the hair. In Spain, and in the
vi. 65, 80). It was one of the cities of refuge islands of Sardinia. Corsica, Sicily, and Crete,
(Deut. IT. 43; Josh. xx. 8), and one of the the most ancient zoology seems to have had
towns in which an inteudant was stationed by greater affinity to that of Africa than of Europe.
Solomon (I Kings iv. 13). It was the last of Hence the Homeric purple sheep, and the A/us-
their conquests which the Syrians held ; and Aiiab mon
was killed (1 Kings xxii. 1-37 ; 2 CIiron, xviii.), tionedand Cervus Barbaras of the two first-men
and fourteen years after, his son Jorum was that theislands. We agree with Dr. Mason Harris,
skins in question were most likely tanned
wounded (2 Kings viii. 28), in the attempt to and coloured crimson; for it is well known lhat
recover it. The strength of the place is attested what is now termed red morocco was manufac
by the length of time the Syrians were enabled tured
to hold it, and by Ahab and Joram having both about inthetheTritonian remotest ages in Libya, especially
Lake, where the jriginal
been solicitous to obtain the aid of the kings of
Judah when al>out to attack it -, these being two of regis,
nerva,
or goat-skin breastplate of Jupiter ami Mi
was dyed bright red; and the Egyptians
the only three expeditions in which the kings of had most certainly red leather in use, lor their
Judah and Israel ever co-otxrated. It was here antique
also that Jehu wai proclaimed and anointed into slipspaintings show harnessmakers cutting it
for the collars of horses and furniture
king (2 Kings ix. 1-6); but it is not very clear
whether the army was then still before the town, of chariots.C. H. S
or in actual possession of it. Ensebius (Oho- RAVEN (yfyoreb; Chald. ; Syr.
mast. s. v.) places Hamoth-Gilead on the river
Jabbok, tifteen Komau miles west of Philadel xii. 21, only). The Hebrew word occurs in Luke
Latin, Sept. n6pa ; also
Gen.
phia (Rabbah). At about this distance, W.N.W. viii. 7 ; Lev. xi. 15 ; Deut. xiv. 14 ; 1 Kings xvii
from Philadelphia, and about eight miles south
of the Jabbok, are 1 be ruins of a town, bearing 4-11 j Job xxxviii. 41, &c. The raven is so gene
tin' name of Jelaad, which is merely a different rally confounded with the carrion crow, that even
in the works of naturalists the figure of the latter
orthography of the Hebrew Gilead (Burck- has been sometimes substituted for that of the for
harrtt, Syria, p. 318). Buckingham is, however, mer, and the manners of both have been mixed up
more disposed to seek the site of Ramoth-GHead together. They are, it is true, very similar, be
in a place now called Ramtha, or Rameza, longing to the same Linna*au genus, Corvns, and
which is about twenty-three miles N.W.N, from having the same intensely black colour ; but the
Philadelphia, and about four miles north of the raven is the larger, weighing about three pounds;
Jab>K>k, where be noticed some ruins which he has proportionality a smaller head, and a bill
could not examine. As Rainoth in Gilead is fuller and stouter at the point. Its black colour
called sometimes Hamoth alone, but never Gilead is more iridescent, with gleams of purple passing
alone, the analogy of name is perhaps in favour of into green, while that of the crow is more steel-
the latter conclusion ; but the bearing and dis blue; the raven is also gifted with greater sagacity ;
tance from Philadelphia are both in favour of the may be taught to articulate words ; is naturally
other. We are not disjiosed to rely apoo either oIservant and solitary; lives in pairs; has a most
of these alternatives, although nothing better has acute scent ; and Hies to a great height. Unlike
yet l>een offered. the crow, which is gregarious in its habits, the
RAMATH-LKHI. This name, which means raven will not even sutler its young, from the
height of thejawbone, belonged to a place on the moment they can shift for themselves, to remain
borders of Philtstia, and is referred by the sacred Within its haunt; and therefore, though a bird
writer to the jaw-bone with which Samson found nearly in all countries, it is nowhere
slaughtered the Philistines (Judg. xv. 17). abundant.
RAMOTH-NKGEB {Ramoth or the south), Whether the raven of Palestine is the common
a city in the tribe of Simeon (Josh. xix. 8 ; species, or the Cvrvus Moutanus of Temmiuck,
1 Sam. xxx. 27). is not quite determined ; for there is of the ravens,
RAMS' HORNS. [Musical Instruments.] or greater form of crows, a smaller group in
cluding two or three others, all sitmlar in man
RAMS' SKINS, RED, as Dr. M. Harris quotes ners, and unlike the carrion crows (OsfTMf
it (D^DIKD D^K my, oroth eylim meadda- Corone,identical Linn.), which are gregarious, and seem
mitn), occurs in Exod. xxv. 5, and XXXV. 7. aingly in both hemispheres. Sometimes
There is little doubt that the red rams* skins here a pair of ravens will descend without fear among
noticed are to be understood as the produce of flight of crows, take possession of the carrion
the African Aoudad, the Ovis trvyelaphus of na atthata distance
may haveattracted them, and keep the crows
till they themselves are gorged. The
turalists, whereof the bearded sheep are a domes
ticated race. The tragelaphus is a distinct species habits of the whole genus, typilied by the name
oreb, render it unclean in the Hebrew law ; and
of sheep, having a shorter form than the common the malignant, ominous expression of the raven,
t
REBEKAH. RECENSION. 601
together with the colour of its plumage, powers of class, or order, would have been much more ap
voice, and solitary habits, are the causes of that propriate. Recension ordinarily suggests the idea
universal and often superstitious attention with of an actual revision of the text; but this is inap
which mankind have ever rewarded it. This bird is plicable to the greater part of Griesbach's own
the first mentioned in the Bible, as being sent forth system. If, however, it be remembered that re
by Noah out of the ark on the subsiding of the cension simply denotes a certain class of critical
waters; and in 1 Kings xvii. 4, ravens bring flesh testimonies characterized by distinctive pecu
and bread at morning and eve to the prophet liarities, it matters little what designation be em
Elijah. Here the orebim are manifestly true ployed ; though family is less likely to originate
ravens, whereof a pair would be sufficient to carry misconception.
the scanty meal of an Oriental abstemious man ; We shull first state the recension-systems of
for, independently of the different mode of writing Griesbach, Hug, Eichhorn, and Scholz: then
the name, if the word had implied persons re the chief objections to which they are exjwsed;
siding at a village called Aorabi or Orbo, as pre concluding with some observations on the real
sumed by some critics, there would have been no state of the question. As to the systems of Mi-
miraculous interposition of the Lord to feed the chaelis and Nolan, it is unnecessary to allude to
concealed prophet, but a common, and on this them, since they are obviously incorrect. The
occasion merely a secpgt resolution on the part of latter, indeed, never attracted notice in this or
a few pious men, to give tbod to a proscribed any other country, haviug soon fallen into merited
person. neglect.
In the mythological history of the Gentiles, we In Griesbach's system there are three recensions :
find the appellation of Ravens bestowed upon an 1. The Occidental ; 2. The Alexandrine, or Ori
oracular order of priesthood. In Egypt, it seems, ental ; 3. The Constantinopolitan, or Byzantine.
the temples of Ammou were served by such The first two are the most ancient, und are assigned
perhaps those priests that occur in the catacombs by him to the time in which the two collections
playing on harps, and clothed in black. More ebayy^Xiov and 6 aT^trroAoy, were made. The
than one temple in Greece had similar raven Oriental, springing from the edition, as we should
priests. It was the usual symbol of slaughter say in regard to a printed book, of the 6 air6<rro\o$,
among the Scandinavians ; and a raven banner selected readings most conformable to pure Greek,
belonged to the Danes, atid also to the Saxons : and made slight alterations in the text where the
one occurs among the ensigns of the Normans in language did not appear to be classical. The
the Bayeux tapestry ; and it was formerly a custom Occidental, based on the most ancient MSS., viz.
in the Benedictine abbeys on the continent to such as were made before the epistles had L<*en
maintain in a very large cage a couple of ravens, collected together, preserved with greater care than
where several are recorded to have lived above the Oriental the Hebraisms of the New Testa
fitly years. The Raven of the Sea, that ominous ment, but made explanatory additions, aud fre
bird in northern mythology, is properly the cor quently preferred a more perspicuous and easy
morantthe morvran of the Celtic.C. H. S. reading to another less facile. The Constantino
REBKKAH (ngTl, a noosed cord; Sept. politan arose from the intermingling of the other
two. A senior and a junior Constantiuo|>olitati
"Pc/S&Ka), daughter of Bethuel, and sister of La- are distinguished. The former belongs to the
ban, who became the wife of Isaac, and the fourth century, and is marked, to a still greater
mother of Jacob and Esau. Th particulars of extent than the Alexandrine, by its rejection of
her history and conduct, as giveu in Scripture, readings that seemed less classical, as well as by
chiefly illustrate her preference of Jacob over its reception of glosses; the latter originated in the
Esau, and have been related in the article fifth and sixth centuries, in consequence of the
Jacob ; see also Isaac. labours of the learned men belonging to the Syrian
RECENSION. After the critical materials church. According to this system, the leading
lying at the basis of the New Testament text had characteristic of the Occidental recension is its
accumulated in the hands of Mill aud Wetstein, exegeticalj that of the Oriental its grammatical
they began to be surveyed with philosophic eye. tendency ; while the Constantinopolitan bears a
Important readings in different documents were fflossarial as])ect.
seen to possess resemblances more or less striking. The Occidental recension is exhibited by eight
Passages were found to present the same form, Greek MSS. of the Gospels, 1). E. F. G. of the
though the testimonies from which they were Pauline epistles, the Latin versions made before
singled out belonged to various times and coun Jerome, the Sahidic aud Jerusalem-Syriac ver
tries. The thought suggested itself to Bengel, sions, and by the quotations of Tertullian, of
that the mass of materials might be divided and Irenaeus as translated into Latin, of Cyprian,
classified in conformity with such peculiarities. Ambrose, and Augustine.
The same idea also occurred to Semler. Both, The Alexandrine recension is found in the do
however, had but a feeble and dim apprehension of cuments B. C. L. in the Gospels, with three others,
the entire subject as it was afterwards disposed. in A. B. C. in the epistles, with three codices be
But, by the consummate learning and skill of sides ; in the Memphitic,Harclean or Philoxeniau,
Griesbach, it was highly elaborated, so as to ex Ethiopic and Armenian versions ; and in the
hibit a new topic for the philosophical acumen writings of the fathers belonging to the Alexan
and the historic researches of the erudite inquirer. drian school, especially those of Clement, Origen,
To the different phases of the text existing in the Eusebius, Athonasius, Cyril of Alexandria, and
MSS., quotations made by the fathers, and in the Isidore of Pelusium.
ancient versions, the name recension was given by The senior Constantinopolitan is found in
Griesbach and Semler. Yet the appellation was A. E. F. G. H. S. of the Gospels, and in the
not happily chosen. Family (which Bengel used), Moscow codices of Paul's epistles, in the Gothic
RECENSION. RECENSION.
and Sclavonic versions, in the quotations of the a mixed form composed of the other two. Eichhoro
fathers that lived during the fourth, fifth, and denies that Origen made a new recension.
sixth centuries in Greece, Asia Minor, and the Scholz makes only two chisses or families of
neighbouring countries ; while the junior Con- documents, the Alexandrian, which he also ab
8tantino|>o]itan is exhibited by the greater num surdly calls the Occidental, and the Coustantino-
ber of those MSS. which were written since the jmlitan, which, with equal ]>erversity,he designates
seventli century. the Oriental. The Occidental class of Gneslach
Somewhat different from Griesbach's system is is thus merged into the Alexandrian. The Alex
that of Hug, first projxued in his Introduction to andrian embraces the MSS. that were made in
the New Testament. Egypt and Western Europe, most of the Coptic
I. The Koiv^i kootis, k e. the most ancient and Latin versions, the Ethiopic, and the eccle
text, unrevised, conformed to no recension, exhi- siastical writers l>elnuging to Egypt and Western
liitiii.- fliversities of readings of mixed origin, but Europe. To the Constautinopolitan he refers the
containing particular glosses and inter|olatious codices belonging to Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine,
intended to explain the sense. This text is found Eastern Europe, especially Constantinople, with
in five MSS. of the Gospels, in four of Paul's the Harclean or Philoxenian, the Gothic, Georgian,
epistles, in the most ancient Latin versions and and Sclavonic versions; as also the ecclesiastical
in the Sabidic, in the oldest of the fathers down fathers of these regions. To the latter documents
to the time of Origen, and in Origcn himself. he gives a decided preference, because of their
Such a phase of the text is seen till the middle mutual agreement, and Ik1cause they were written
of the third century, and agrees with the Occi with great care agreeably to the most arcirnt
dental recension of Griesbach. In reference to exemplurs ; whereas the Alexandrian were arbi
the old Syriac, Griesliacli afterwards conceded to trarily altered by officious grammarians. Indeed,
Hug that it approached nearer the Occidental he truces the Constantinopoliton codices directly
than the Alexandrian. to (lie autographs of the original writers of the
2. About the middle of the third century, New Testament.
Hesychius, an Egyptian bishop, undertook a re Kinck agrees with Schola in assuming two
vision of the koiv$) tttHotrts. But he was too fond classes of MSS., the Occidental and the Oriental ;
of such readings as contained purer and more the former exhibited by A. . C. I). &F. G. in
elegant Greek. To this Hesychian revision, which the epistles; the latter, by MSS. written in the
obtained ecclesiastical authority only in Egypt, cursive character. The occidental be subdivides
belong B. C. L. of the Gospels, and A. B. C. of into two families, the African (A. B. C.) and the
the Epistles, the Memphitic version, with the Latin codices (D. E. F. G.).
quotations of Athanasius, Macarius, and Cyril of Mutthaei, as is well known, rejected (lie entire
Alexandria. Thus the Hesychian recension of theory of recensions ; and Lachmann, the latest
Hug coincides with the Alexandrian ofGriesbach. editor of the Greek Testament, has no regard to
3. About the same time, Lucian, a presbyter of such a basis for Ids new text.
Antioch in Syria, revised the koiv^j bcSoats as it It remains for us to make a few remarks on the
appeared in thePeshito, comparing different MSS. systems thus briefly stated. To GriesUich all
current in Syria. In this way he produced a text concede the praise of ingenuity and acuteness.
(hut did not wholly harmonize with the Hesychian, His system was built up with great tact and
because he was less studious of elegant Latinity. ability. However rigidly scrutinized, it exhibits
This third form of the text is found in codd. evidences of a most sagacious mind. But it was
E. F. G. H. S. V. of the Gospels, in G. of Paul's assailed by a host of writers, whose combined
epistles, in the Moscow MSS., the Sclavonic and attacks it could not sustain. In this country,
Gothic versions, and the ecclesiastical writers of Dr Laurence shook its credit. In Germany,
those countries that adopted it, from the middle Michaelis, Matthsei, Kichhorn, Bertholdt, Hug,
of the third century. Schulz, Scholz, Gabler, Schott, and others, have
4. A fourth form of the text he attributes to more or less made objection to it. The venerable
Origen during his residence at Tyre. This revi scholar in his old age himself modified it to some
sion was based ou the Vulgate edition current in extent, chiefly in consequence of Hug's investi
Palestine, and in many places differs both from gations. By far the ablest opponent of it is
the Hesychian and Lucianian. It is found in Mr. Norton, who, after it had been assailed br
the codd. A. K. M. of the Gospels, in the Phi- others, finally stepjied forth to demolish it Iwyomt
loxenian or Harclean Syriac, and in the writings the ]K>ssibility of revival. Bold indeed must be
ofChrysostom and Theodoret. Here Hug and the man who shall undertake to defend it after
Griesbach are at variance, the latter Iwlieving such a refutation. The great point in which it
the alleged Origenian recension to be nothing fails is, that the line of distinction between the
more than a branch of the Constantinopolitart or Alexandrian and Western classes cannot be
Lucianian. proved. Origen and Clement of Alexandria are
Eichhom's system is substantially the same as the principal evidences fur the Alexandrian form
that of Hug, with one important exception. That of the text, yet they coincide with the Western
distinguished critic admitted a twofold form of recension. Griesbach's allegations as to the origin
the text before it bad received any revision ; the of the Eastern and Western recensions are also
one peculiar to Asia, the other to Africa. This visionary ; while it is not difficult to see that the
unrevised text may be traced in its two forms as text followed by the old Syriac presents a formi
early as the second century. Hesychius revised dable objection to the whole scheme.
the first ; Luciau, the second. Accordingly, from The system of Hug, in so for as it materially
the conclusion of the third century, there was a differs from its predecessor, is as faulty as that of
threefold phase of the text ; the African or Alex Griesbach. It puts Clement and Origen in the
andrian; the Asiatic or Constantinopolitan ; and Kunvfj <ic8o<m. But Origen employed on Ocoi
RECENSION. RECENSION. 603
dental MS. only in his commentary on Matthew ; stant, was collated with the Alexandrian, which
in his commentary on Mark he uniformly quotes would naturally give rise to a commingling of
an Alexandrian codex ; and his usual text cer readings belonging to both. Eusebius states that,
tainly agrees with the Alexandrian recension. As at the request of Constantine, he made out fifty
to Clement, he frequently agrees with the Alexan copies of the New Testament for the use of the
drian in opposition to the Western recension, and churches at Constantinople; and as we know that
therefore he cannot he properly reckoned as be lie gave a decided preference to Alexandrian
longing to the latter, in a system where there are copies, it cannot he doubled that he followed those
two distinct recensions agreeing with the Occi sanctioned by Origen's authority. On the whole,
dental and the Alexandrian. The Hesychian re it can never be made out on historic grounds, ihat
vision does not seem to have had much authority, the Constantiuo}Militan codices have descended
or to have been widely circulated even in the from the autographs in a pure state. They differ,
country where it was made. Besides, the form of indeed, in characteristic readings from the Alex
the text ascribed to Hesychius appears to he older, andrian, hot that the preference should I* given
even as old as Clement's time. Hesychius, there to the former is a most questionable position.
fore, proljably did nothing more than revise the Why should junior Ik' set in value above much
Alexandrian recension. The historical basis on older documents ? What good reason can be as
which Lucian's recension of the text rests is also signed for the predilection of Matthaei and Scholz?
insecure. The MSS. which he revised were not None truly. Antiquity may be outweighed by
numerous ; neither did they obtain authority. other considerations, and certainly the Alexan
The testimony of Jerome, so far from supporting- drine MSS. are neither faultless nor perfect; but
Hug's view, goes indirectly to refute it. Again, in the case of the Byzantine family there is no
it is very improbable that Origan undertook to sufficient ground for arbitrarily placing it above
revise the koiv^i fcSocm. The passage in Jerome the other. In the present day, numbers will not
on which Hug founds this opinion does not really be considered as decisive of genuine readings, in
support it. The Alexandrian father used copies opposition to weighty considerations founded on
of the New Testament selected with care and antiquity ; and yet it is jtossible that numbers
I1uiged from errors ; but he did not attempt in may have had an undue influence on the mind
h is old age the laborious task of making a peculiar of'Scholz. Such as desire to see a thorough re
revision. Such are the chief objections that may futation of the system may read Rinck 'i Luctt~
be urged against the recension-system of this bratio Cn'rico, &c, but es|ecially Tischendorf's
learned critic. Unsustained by historical data, Preface to his edition of the Greek Testament,
subsequent critics have refused to yield it their where it is dissected with great ability, and the
approbation. Griesttach, De Wette, Schotf, and foundation on which it professedly rests demon
Rinck, especially the last, have assailed it with strated to be feeble and futile. In fact, the his
more or lessability ; while, in America, Mr. Nor torical proofs of the industrious Scholz are no
ton has also opposed it with great plausibility. better than fictions, which genuine ecclesiastical
In short, it cannot stand the test of an enlight history will never sanction.
ened, impartial examination. Perhaps the data are not sufficient to warrant or
With regard to Scholz's system, it commends support any one system of recensions. Our know
itself to our approbat ion only in so far as it insists ledge of the manner in which the text was early
upon two families of documents, the Alexandrine corrupted, of the innumerable influences to which
and the Coustantinopol'itan. There is no definite it was exposed, the revisions it underwent in differ
line of demarcation between the Alexandrian ent countries at different times, the modes in which
and the Western, as was long since Bhown by transcribers dealt with it, and of the principles, if
Laurence; although Tischendorl* has recently any such there were, on which they proceeded, is
rc-asseited it. Egypt and the Western world too scanty to allow of any definite suj>erstructure.
were supplied with Biblical MSS. from Alex The subject must, therefore, be necessarily in
andria, ome of them revised, others untouched volved in obscurity. Its genius is such as to
and iinpurged by the hand of a corrector. Thus give rise to endless speculation, without affording
the Alexandrian and Occidental MSS. of Gries- solid satisfaction. It is vague and undefined,
bach were the productions of one country and awakening curiosity, but not appeasing it with
one age ; differing, indeed, from one another conviction. Vet we are not disposed to reject the
in many respects, but that discrejiancy owing to entire system of classification as visionary and
the caprice of transcriber, and to the varying fanciful. It is highly useful thus to arrange the
tastes which they found it advantageous to please. materials; it saves a world of labour after the
But although we look upon Scholz's system as distribution lias once been made. The existence
simpler and better supported than any ether, in so of certain characteristic readings may be clearly
far as it asserts no more (ban two families, yet it is traced as pervading various memorials of the
otherwise pressed by fatal objections. It is based on text, however much we may speculate on their
asserliotis, instead of arguments solid and suffi causes. It is quite true, that in several cases it
cient. The framer of it has failed to prove that is very difficult to distinguish the family to which
the particular form of the text current during the a particular reading belongs, because its charac
fiist three centuries in Asia Minor and Greece was teristics may be almost equally divided lietween
the same as that exhibited by the Constantino- two classes. Or, they may be so slightly marked,
politan manuscripts of a much later date. He that it is almost irnjxjssible to detect the family
has failed to show that the Byzantine family was with which it should be united. The evidences
derived in a very pure state from the autographs of it3 relationship may be so obscure as to render
of the inspired writers. Besides, he is obliged to the determination of its appropriate recension a
admit, that the text which obtained at Constan subtle problem. It is also unquestionable, that
tinople in the reigns of Constantine and Con no one MS., version, or father, exhibits a recension
604 RECENSION. RECHABITES.
in a pure state ; but that eacli form of the text ap zur Hermenetitlk, Halle, 1760-69, Rvo. ; Grie*
pears more or less corrupted. Add to these cir bach's Opuscula, as edited by Gabler, with the
cumstances the frequent commixture of readings Preface of the latter, Jena, 1821, 2 vols. 8vo. ;
from causes accidental or designed. Hence the Griesbach's Commentarius Criticus in Textum
various attempts that have been made to rear up Grcecum, &c. Jena, 1811, 8vo. ; Griesbach's Pro-
systems have been unsatisfactory and unsuccess legomena to the second edition of his Greek Tes
ful ; so much so, that we should not [ye surprised tament ; Eichhom's Einleitung, vol. iv., Got-
to find the majority of the learned, at no great tingen, 1827, 8vo. ; Bertholdt's Einleitung, vol. i.
distance of time, regarding them as airy and un Erlangen, 8vo. ; Schulz's Prolegomena to the
substantial speculations 1 signifying nothing.' The third edition of Griesbach, Berlin. 1827, 8vo ;
intricacy of the subject may hereafter induce Hug's Einleit. vol. i. Stuttgart, 1826, Rvo. ; l)e
critics to say in their haste that it is unworthy of Wettes Einleit. in das Xeues Testament. Berlin,
their serious attention. We have seen that Mat- 1812, 8vo. ; Schott's Isagoge Ilistorico Critica,
thaei cast aside the whole thing as a useless and Jena, 1830, 8\ o. ; Maltha:!, Veber die Sogcnann-
silly speculation. Professor Lee has employed tern Recensionen, u.s. w. Leipzig, 180 J, 8vo. ;
language equally strong, though not equally Scholz's Biblisch-Kritische Heise,\\.%. W. Leipzig,
scurrilous as that of MattJuxi language of the 1823, 8vo. ; Sertoli's Pro/egomena to the New
same import, and tending to the same result. So Testament; Laurence's remarks on Griesbach's
too, Granville Penn. We doubt, however, if the Systematic Classification of J/SS., Oxford, 1 SI 4,
learning or the sagacity of these English scholars 8vo. j Rinck's Lucubratio Critica in Acta Apost.
is of such a kind as to warrant in them the em Epp. Vathol.j et Paulin., u.s. w. Basel, 1830,
ployment of terms so vehement. It is more 8vo. ; Tischendorfs Prolegomena to his edition
ominous for the fate of the recension-system to of the Greek Testament, Hpsire, 1841, 8vo. ;
find it discarded in practice by Lachmann ; yet Reuss's Gesckichte der Heiligen Schriften Ncuen
when we consider that he has gone to the extreme Testaments, Halle, 1842, 8vo. ; Guerike's Uis-
of resting on mere antiquity, sometimes on a tingle torisch-Kritische Einleit. Leipzig, 1843, 8vo. ;
testimony, he will not be thought competent to do Norton's Genuineness of Ote Gospelsy vol. i. Bos
away with the labours of so many eminent crilics ton, 1R37, 8vo. ; Davidson's Lectures on Biblical
who have preceded. In short, the theme is such as Criticism, Edinb. 1839, 8vo.)S. D.
to disallow a rigid division of the critical materials RECHAB (131, rider; Sept. 'Ptjx^ son of
into peculiar families, or even a geographical dis Hemath the Kenite, and probably a descendant of
tribution of them. The MSS., numerous though Jethro [Kenitbs] : lie is only known as the
they he, are not sufficiently so to warrant safe father of Jonadab, the founder of the sect of
results, with the exception of a single class. As Rechabites which took from him its name (2 Kings
regards versions, their testimony is rather indi~ x. 15 ; I Chron. ii. 55 ; Jer. xxxv. 6).
rect ; and in the Scripture quotations made by
the fathers there is a fragmentary aspect. Both RECHABITES. The tribe or family of
these circumstances counterbalance most of the Keuites, whom Jonadab, the son of Rechab, sub
advantages resulting from our ability to identify jected to a new rule of life ; or rather bound to
versions and quotations, a priori, with some local the continued observance of ancient usages which
text. were essential to their separate existence, but
The preceding observations may serve to account which the progress of their intercourse witli towns
for the varying, and, in some cases, contradictory Reemed likely stum to extinguish. By thus main
schemes of different critics. Some are inclined to taining their independent existence as a pastoral
look for greater nicety and distinctness than others; j>eople, they would keep themselves from lieing
and it may be presumed that they will find more involved in the distractions and internal wars of
families in consequence of their mental bias ; the country, would be in no danger of becoming
others, with less delicate perceptibility, will be objects of jealousy and suspicion to the Israelites,
ditpottd to rest satisfied with classes more strongly and would be able at all times to remove from a
marked by the number of single documents they country in which they were strangers. The
embrace, or by the breadth of territory over which Rechabites found so much advantage in these
they circulated. Thus there is no possibility of rules, that they observed them with great strict
arriving at mathematical precision or demonstra ness for about 300 years, when we first become
tive evidence, because the historic furniture is so aware of their existence. Jeremiah brings some
meagre as to afford room for almost boundless Rechabites into one of the chamlnrs of the
speculation ; while the commingling of all read Temple, and sets tafoic them pots full of wine,
ings in the progress of time has obliterated many and cups, saying, 1 Drink ye wine on which it
well-defined landmarks. is well observed by Gataker and others that the
The term recension is sometimes applied to the prophet omits the usual formula, 'Thus saitli
Old Testament as well as the New. There, all the Lord,1 which would have constrained obe
the materials hitherto collated belong to one dience in men so pious as the Rechabites, even
recension or family, viz., the Masoretic. Some, at the expense of infringing their rule of life.
indeed, have divided them into Masoretic and But now they answer, * We will drink no wine ;
Ante-Masoretic ; but the existence of the latter is for Jonadab. the son of Rechab, our father, com
fictitious. At present we know of no more than manded us, saying, Ye shall drink no wine,
one great family, though it is probable that par neither ye nor your sons for ever. Neither shall
tial recensions of several portions of the Old Tes ye build house, nor sow seed, nor plant, vineyard,
tament preceded the labours of the Masoretic nor have any : but all your days ye shall dwell
doctors. (Bengel's Introduetio in Crisin N. T., in tents, that ye may live many days in the land
prefixed to his edition of the Greek Testament, where ye be strangers' (Jer. xxxv. 6, 7). Thev
Tiibingen, 1734, 4to.; Semler's VoibereiUtngen added that to the present time they had obtemd
RECHABITES. RKEM.
these injunctions, although they had been con observable in them except that of refraining from
strained to take refuse in Jerusalem when the winean abstinence which ceases to U' remark
Chahlfeaii armies swept the face of the land. able in Arabia, where no one does drink wine,
Tl:e Vulgate, by translating all the proper names and where, among the strongholds of Islam, it
in 1 Chron. ii. 35, has given currency to an im could probably not lie obtained without danger
pression that the Rechabites were employed in and difficulty. Theie were large numliers of
some of the inferior offices of the temple; and has Talmudical Jews in Arabia in the time of Mo
led to the inference that tliey were taken as cap hammed, and these supixwed Rechabites are pro
tives to Babylon, from which they returned, and bably descended from a t>t>dy of them. Jt is to
resumed their duties under the second temple, be hoped that some comment traveller will jiene-
Jabesli in Gilead tieing the chief place of their trate to the sjxit which they are said to inhabit,
residence. There is no siiade of authority, beyond and bring back some more satisfactory accounts
this assumption of proper names as apjiellatives, for than we yet tjossess. (See Witsius, Dissert, de
a statement every point in which is contrary to the Rechabitis, in Miscetl. Sacraj ii. 1 7b\ sqq. ;
probabilities or the case. The Septuagint, though Carpzov, Apparat., p. 148 ; Calmet, Dissert,
Gone to regard Hebrew proper names as ap}>el- sur les Rechabites, in Commentaire Litttral, vi.
tives. tUtea not do so in this text, witli the ex 18-21.)
ception ofSopherites, winch it renders by ' serines/ RECORDER ("V?T*? ; Sept. btviftfaum or
in which it is followed by the Auth. Version.
But there is no apparent ground for thus taking uTrofivrinaroypdf-os), 1 he title of a high officer in
one only as an appellative in a list of projier (he 1
court of the kings of .Tndah (2 Sam. viii. 16 ;
Kings iv. 3 ; 2 Kings xviii. IS). As the idea
names unless an intelligible sense could not
be otherwise obtained. Butx the sense is lietter of memory, memori.il>, is prevalent in the etymo
with this also as a proper name than as an appel logy of the word, ' remembrancer* would ]>erhaps
lative. We may then read, much as in Geddes* l>e a more exact translation of it. We have no
version, 'But the Sophente families who inha office willi which it c;ui le compared; for the
bited Jabesh, the Tirathites, the Shimathites, and functions of the Master of the Rolls do not suffi
the Suchathites, were Kenite3 who came from ciently correspond witli the title to warrant the
Hemath Abi-Beth-Rechab." The translator re parallel which it might suggest. The Hebrew
marks on the last words, * 1 do not translate these mazkir seems to have been not only the grand
word?, because 1 do not understand them.' There custodier of the public tecords, but to have kept
is probably some corruption of the text. The the res]xmsib]e registry of the cuirent transactions
literal version would be, ' Hemath, father of the of the government. This was an employment of
house nf Rechah.1 This Rechab was doubtless the the very first rank and dignity in the courts of
same from whom the , took their name; the ancient East.
and it appears to us that the text is far from RKD SKA. [Sea.]
meaning to say that the families at Jabesli (whether RK1) SEA, PASSAGE OF. [Exodls.J
'scribes' or not) were Rechabites in the limited HEED. [Kankh.]
tense; their residence at Jabesh being indeed con REEM (DIO ; Sept. povoHtptos ; Vulg. rhino
clusive against that notion: but that these fa ceros ; anil in several versions of the Bible, uni-
milies were Kenites descended from the Hemath corn. The radical meaning of the Hebrew word
who was also the progenitor of that Rechab bum
whom the Rechabites took their name. We doubt
if a clearer explanation of this difficult text can
be obtained : and if so, it conveys no other in
formation concerning the Rechabites than that
their progenitor was a descendant of Hemath,
who wits likewise the founder of other Keuile
families.
What eventually became of the Rechabites is
not known. The probability is that, when they
found themselves no longer safe among the
Hebrews, they withdrew into the desert from
which they at first came, and which was peopled
by men of similar habits of life, among whom, in
the course of time, they lst their separate exist 469. [tlibos cavifrons ]
ence. The various attempts to identify them
with the Assideans, mentioned in the Ixwks of furnishes no evidence that an animal such as is
Maccal*ees (1 Mace. ii. 42; vii. 17; 2 Mace, now understood by * unicorn' was known toexi*f,
xiv. 6 i. and with the later Jewish sect of Essenes or that a rhinoccnw is thereby absolutely indicated ;
vill not l>ear examination. We can as little
recognise as Rechabites the ImmIv of (eople in
Arabia of whom Benjamin of Tudela {Itinerary,
i. 1 12-1 14, ed. Asher), Niebuhr, Wolf ( Journals,
ii. 276, 3U 334; iit. 17), and others, have given
hearsay accounts. The details, however, whether 469. [Horn of the unknown species of R!iino<vro*.j
correct or not, apply to Talmudical Jews more
than to Rechabites. They are described as living and there is no authority whatever for the infer
in caverns and low houses, not in tentsand this ence that either was at any time resident in
in Arabra, where Bedouin habits would cease to Western Asia. The general structure and figura
be lingular ; nor are any of the Rechabite rules tive and symbolical character of the Hebrew, in
REKM. RKEM,
common with all the Semitic languages, seem adorned with two horns; among others the bead of
more naturally to suggest that the word reem con Seleucus 1. (Nicator) appears thus on Ins coina:
veys an image of loftiness, exaltation, power, ami the practice extended to metal horns Iteing affixed
pre-eminencea form ofexpression of which there to the masks or chaffruns of war-horses (see coin
are many parallel instances; nor is the root con of Seleucus Nicator), and of elephants (Ant iochus
fined to the Hebrew, but is found in the Sanscrit, Soter) ; and they form still, or did lately, a part
Ktrusco-Latin, Erse, and Teothisc dialects. It of the barbed horse-armour in Uajahstan. Triple-
can be traced in the names Abram, Abraham, and horned and bicorned helmets are found on parly
Kamah, in Rom and Roma: all bearing the Gallic and Ilterian coins; they were again in use
meaning of Hobur, Valcutia, &c. Ram, in Indian during the chivalrous ages; but the most remark
mythology, one of the titles of Mahaden, apj)ears able, the horn of strength and dominion, is seen
in the compounds Itama-deva, Rama-Chandra, elevated on the front of the helmet, impre-sed on
und numerous other titles. It is found again in the reverse of the coins of the tyrant Tiyphon,
the Teothistlc Ram; the Ram being tlie opener of who, in his endeavours to obtain Syria, was at
the solar year, or first sign of the zodiac. These war with Antiochus Sideles, during the a?ni of
figures, metaphorical and pictorial, while phonetic the Maccabees, and was not likely to omit any
writing was as yet unknown or im[ierfect, were attribute tii.it once belonged to its ancient kings
abundantly used in early antiquity, and often [HounJ. These examples, together with the cor*
represented very definite ideas in bath cases; but nuted crown of Abyssinian chiels, and the homed
more particularly when they were eml>odied in female head-attire prized by the present genera
sculptural forms, and were emltfllishcd with co tion in Lilmnus and Palestine, are snhV ent to
lours; for then a complex definition was attainable show the extent and duration of a symbol, which,
by the assemblage of heterogeneous meml>eis and it is evident, is implied in the word recm, in
lints to form one body ; such as serpents with several places of the Bible, notwithstanding that
wings, with four legs a row of teats, winged literally it signifies also a real or fictitious crea
quadrupeds, beasts with human heads, winged ture, at one time alluded to as possessed of a
globes entwined by seri>ents, &c, constituting by single horn, while in other instances this charac
their unnatural juxta-position complex, yet per teristic is scarcely, or not at all, admissible.
fectly intelligible, abstractions. The ruin* of Now this may be regarded as the natural con
Persepolis, Nineveh, and the so-called Baby sequence ofassuming as a typical form an animal
lonian cylinders, as well as the figures published of a remote country, or a generic term for several
by Sir J. G. Wilkinson in bis works on Kgypt more or less different in their characters. In
offer numerous examples. So deeply rooted weie profane history, from the time of Ctesia* (u.c.
these notions in the Oriental mind, that we find 4l)!>) to (he present day, India, the Himalayas, anil
them spoken of as visible bodies in t lie prophetic, Tibet, are rejHtrted to have pmduced uuhnins;
and other parts of Scripture; anil they even whereof the most recently pointed out was the
occur among other symbols of the Evangelists. Ciiiru of llootan, a sjtecies of antelope with twa
In the poetical language of the Bible some of boms : ami anciently vKlian s Cartazon was simi
these images stand at one time as typical of reali larly designated, though with a slight change of
ties in nature, at others as symbolical of abstrac letters, carcand, cmcaddan (in Bochart); karya*
tions, and DXT may be fbond in holh characters. f/fi/i, kargazan (in Wilton) ; al-cherched n in lie-
Although the medallic history of the kings of lunensis); and all related to the Sanskrit hharq<t%
Macedou (Havercampius, den. Hut- in the Dutch * a horn 1 (7), being the Persian and Arabic names
language) furnishes no coins IHearing u single- fur the true A/cmoceros, or Indian rhinoceros, winch,
horned goat, it is still asserted by Maillot and others like the rest ot the genus, is essentially a tropical
that such was to l>e found among their ensigns : animal. For the Asiatic Ilhinoctrutes, constt*
but this was most probably after the Macedonian tutiug three species, belong ail to the south-eastern
conquest; for a single-homed Utex appears on the states of the continent and the Great Austral
has-reliefs of Che el-Miuar; another occurs on a Inlands; and there is no indication extant that in
cylinder; and one cast in brass, supposed to have a wild state they ever extended to the we-t of the
lieen the head of a Macedonian standard, was Indus. Karly colonies and caravans from the
found in Asia Minor, and presented to the Anti Kast most probably brought rumours of the pown
quarian Society of Loudon. If mysterious names and ol>stinacy of these animals to Western Asia,
were resolvable by the canons of pictorial defini and it might have been remarked that under ex
tion, the practice of imagining horns to be ailixed citement the rhinoceros raises its head and horn 011
to the most sublime and sacred objects would be high, as it were in exultation, though it is most
most evident from the radical meaning of the word likely Itecause the sense of smelling is more |K>teiifl
cherub, where the notion of noma is everywhere in it than that of sight, which is only lateral,
blended with that of * power and greatness' and confined by the thickness of the folds of A'in
[Cherubim], There were also horns at the projecting beyond the eye-bails. The rhiiioceros
corners of altarsthe beast with ten horns in is not absolutely unlameable-a fact implied even
Daniel, &c. (chap. vii.). In profane history we in Job. Thus we take this species us the ori
have the goat-head ornament on the helmet of the ginal type of the unicorn; but the active invent1141
kings of Persia, according to Ammianus, more of Arabic minds, accidentally, perhaps, in tire first
pruliably Amnion horns : such Alexander the instance, discovered a species of Oryx (geneti
Great had assumed; and bis successors in Egypt cally l>old and pugnacious ruminants), with the
and in Persia continued a custom, even now ob loss of one of its long, slender, and destructive
served by the chief cabossiers of Ashantee, who horns. In this animal the DSO of the He*
have a similar ram- head of solid gold on the front brews and the far East became personified ; ^jj
of their plumy war-caps. Indeed, from early an
tiquity, Greek and Ionian helmets were often rim, being most probably an- Oryx Leucoryx
REEM. REHOBOAM, M7
since individual* of that species have been knowledge respecting a physical unicorn, together
repeatedly exhibited in subsequent ages as uni with the symbols that have emanated from one or
corns, when accident or artilice had deprived them more of the foregoing sources, we trust are suffi
of one of their frontil weapons, notwithstanding cient to explain the poetical bearings of most of
that the rim is well known to Arabian hunters the Scriptural texts where the word DfiO is intro
as a two-homed animal. The spirit of appro duced: it shows when the texts clearly point to
priation in Persia and Macedonia, as we have a single-homed species; indicates when by a po
before noticed, was similarly engaged, and for t lie etical figure human power and violence may be
came purjmse an Ibex, Bouguetin-, or mountain personified under the character of an unicorn;
goat was taken, but showing only one horn [Goat]. and, lastly, when the same word appears to denote
In Africa, however, among three or four known huge horned animals, as in the cose of the hulls of
species of rhinoceros, and vague rumours of a Bi- Boshan, where it is fair to presume that not only
aulcate species of unicorn, probal.ily only the repe ^/e/Yi/ species of greatllercenesswouldexist, but that
tition of Arabian reports, there appears to exist most likely an urus or a bison still resided 10 the
between Congo, Abyssinia, and tlu Cape, pre forests bordering on Libanus, while the lion was
cisely the terra incognita of Africa, a real pachy- abundant in the same locality ; for, notwith
dermous animal, which seems to jnmess the cha standing assertions to the contrary, the urus and
racteristics of the poetical unicorn. It is known in (he bison were spread anciently from the Rhine to
Congo, according to Cavassi, quoted by Labat, China, and existed in Thrace and in Asia Minor;
by the name of Abada ; it is the Nillckma and while they, or allied species, are still fmind in
Arose, that is, unicorn, in Kordofan, mentioned Siberia, and the forests both of northern and
by Riippell ; and appears again to be the South southern Persia. Finally, though the buffalo
African Ndzoo-dzooy a one-horned horse-like beast was not found anciently farther west than Ara-
of considerable speed, and very destructive pro chosia, the gigantic gaur. and several congeners,
pensities, which Mr. Freeman was informed is by are spread over all the mountain wildernesses of
no means rare about Makova. In the narratives India, and the Sherilf-aMVady ; and a further
of the natives of the different regions in question colossal species roams with other wild bulls in
there is certaiidy both exaggeration and error ; the valleys of Atlas. We figure Bibos cavifronsy
but they all incline to a description which would a species which is believed to be still found south
make the animal indicated a pachyderm of the west, of the Indus, and is not remote from that
rhinoceros group, with a long and slender horn of the Atlas valleys.C. H. S.
proceeding from the forehead, perhaps with an REFINER. [Metals.]
other incipient behind it, and in general structure REFUGE, CITIES OF. [Cities of Rk-
so much lighter than other rhinocerotes, that it may KUOK.]
possibly be the link or intermediate form be
tween these and the Equine genera. Sir J. Barrow, REHOB (3mT}; Sept. Torfft 'Pao/3), called
in his Travels, has figured the head of such an also BktU-Rkjiou, a town on the northern border
animal, copied by the urtist Daniell from a Caffre of Palestine (Num. xiii. 22). not far fiom D.in
drawing, sketched with coal on the surface of a (Judg. xviti. 27-29). Jt was assigned to the
rock within a cave. Similar drawings are not un- tribe of Asher (Josh. xix. 28), and was a Levitical
frequent, and we remember to have seen among the city (Josh. xxi. 31 ; 1 Chron. vi. 73). It does
papers of the same artist, in the hands ofhis late hro- not, however, ap]ear that the Israelites ever had
ther, another drawing, likewise copied from a cave it in actual possession (com p. Judg, i. 31; 2
in the interior of South Africa, and representing, Sam. x. G, 8).
with exceedingly characteristic fidelity, a group of REHOB, the father of Hadadezer, king of
Elands, Boseiaphus Oreas, Harlelieest, Acronotus Zobah, in Syria (2 Sain. viii. 3).
Caama, and Spring liock, Antilope Kuchore , RKHOBOAM (Dpir), he enlarges the
among which was placed, with head and shnuldeis
towering above the rest, a Rhinoceroiine animal, people; Sept. 'PnfWrfji). nnlj sou of Solomon,
in form lighter than a wild bull, having an arched born of an Ammonites*, called Naamah(l Kings
neck and a long nasal horn protruding in the form xiv. 21, 31). His reign commenced B.C. 975,
when lie u as at the age of forty-one, and lasted
of a sabre. This drawing is no doubt still ex seventeen years. This reign was chiefly re
tant, and should he published; hut in continua
tion of the opinion that truth exists to a certain markable for the political crisis which gave
extent in the foregoing remarks, it may he ob rise to it, and which resulted in the separation
served that we have seen, we believe in the British of the previously single monarchy into two king
Museum, a horn brought from Africa, unlike doms, of which the smaller, which to.-k the
those of any known sjjecies of rhinoceros : it is name of Judah, adhered to the house of David.
perfectly smooth ami hard, alxiut thirty inches in All the points involved in this imjiortant event,
length, almost equally thick throughout, not three and its immediate lesults, have leen considered
inches in its greatest diameter, nor less than two in the articles Ishabl, Jbhouoam, Judah, and
in its smaller, and rather sliarp-jfointed at top : little remains to lie added in this place. It is
from the narrowness of the base, its great length highly probable, from the considerations adduced
and weight, the horn must evidently stand move- in those articles, that the imprudent and imptrinus
ably on the nasal bones, until excitement renders auswer of the misguided sou of Solomon to the
the muscular action more rigid, and the coriaceous tatedpublic cry for redress of grievances, only precipi
sole which sustains it more firmcircumstances occurred, a separation which would in any cue have
which may explain the repeated assertion of The envy and could nut have been long delayed.
of Kphraim at the sceptre being in tha
natives, that the born, or rather the Agglutinated house of Judah naturally led to this result ; and
hair winch forms that instrument, is flexible.
This short review of the present state of our the popular voice was, moreover, represented by
608 REIIOBOTH. REPHIDIM.
a man whose presence was an insult to Rehoboam, changing the letter 3 into \, the Sept. held the
and whose interest and safety lay in widening the original to be a proper name, in which interpreta
difference, and in producing tlie separation. Al tion our own and most other versions have con
though this consideration may relieve Rehoboam curred. But this is by no means clear; for, ac
from the sole responsibility of the separation, it cording to the received pointing, it would better
cannot excuse the unwise and foolish answer read, ? Ye hove the taU*ruacle of your king (idol),
which threatened a heavier yoke to those who and the statue (or statues) of your idols, the star
nought to have their existing burdens lightened ( 1 of your god, which ye make to yourselves;' and
Kings xii. 1-16). Rehoboam at tirst. thought of so the Vulgate, which has 'Imaginein ido'orum
nothing less than of bringing back the revolted vestromm.' According to this reading, the
tribes to their obedience by force of arms; but tlie name of the idol bo worshipped by tl e Is
disastrous war thus impending was arrested by raelites is, in fact, not given, although the men
the interference of a prophet (1 Kings xii. 21-21); tion of a star still suggests that some planet is
and the ample occupation which Jeroboam found intended. Jerome supposes it may be Lucifer or
in settling nil own power* left ihe king, of Judah Venus. But the Svriac renders the Hebiew by
some years of peace, which he employed in forti 1 Saturn your idol,'' who was
fying his weakened kingdom. Concerning this,
and tlie invasion of tlie land in the fifth year of worshipped by the Semitic nations along with Mars
Rehoboam's reign, by Shishak, king of Egypt, see as an evil demon to he propitiated with sacrifices.
.h o ui. KinudoM of. Jeroboam, king of Israel, This now seems to l>e the general conclusion,
being in alliance with Kgypt, not only escajied and Winer, indeed, treats the subject under
this storm, but may possibly have instigated the the head Saturn. It has been alleged, but not
invasion as the most effectual means of weakening satisfactorily proved, that Remphan and Htphan
bis adversary. The treasures which David and were Egyptian names of the planet Saturn.
Solomon had laid up in, or lavished on, the They, indeed, occur as such in the Coptic-Arahic
temple of God and the royal palaces, offered an Lexicon of Kircher {Ling. Jfcgypt. Restit., p.
adequate temptation to tlie Egyptian king, and 40; (Edip. s-Egypti, i. 386); but JutuWKy has
they became his prey. The brass with which long since shown that this and other names of
RehoUtam replaced the plundered gold of Solo planets in these lexicons are of Greek origin, and
mon, furnished no inapt emblem of the difference drawn from the Coptic versions of Amos and
between his own |>ower and that of his glorious the Acts (Jablonsky, Remphan sEgyptior., in
predecessors (1 Kings xiv. 27). Idolatry, and the Opusc, ii. 1, sq. ; Schrceder, De Tabentac. Mo-
worshipping in high places, which had grown up lochi et Stella Dei Remph.t 1745; Mains. Dis
in the last years of Solomon, gained strength in sert, de Kiitm et Remphan, 1763; Haienberg,
the early years of his Bon's reign, and were not De Idolis Chiutn et Remphan. 1723; Wolf,
discouraged by tlie example or measures of tlie Dissert, de Chiutn et Remph., 1741, Gesenius,
king (1 Kings xiv. 22-24); and it is probably Thesaurus, pp. 609, G70).
for the sake of indicating the influence of early RKPHAIM (DW1; Sept. ylyamcs), an
education, in producing this culjiable indifference,
that it is so pointedly recorded in connection with ancient people of unusual stature, who, in the
these circumstances, that his mother was Nuamah, time of Abraham, dwelt in the country beyond
an Ammonitess (2 Chron. xii. 13), Tlie inva the Jordan, in and about Ashtoreth-Karnaim
sion of the land by Shishak seems to have been (Gen. xiv. 5). Subsequently, however, two of
intended as a punishment for these offences, and their southern tribes, the Emim and Zainium-
to have operated for their correction ; which may mim, were repressed and nearly annihilated by the
account fur the paaoe in which the subsequent years Moabites and Ammonites ; so that at l he time of
of this king's reign appear to have been passed. the ingress of the Israelites under Joshua, now* of
the Rephaim were left save in the dominion of
REHOBOTH (nnh"] ; Sept. EhPvXo}pia\ a Og, king of Basltan, who was himself of this race
name meaning * wide places,' or * ample room,' (Deut. iii. 11 j Josh. xii. 4; xiii. 12). There
as is indicated by Isaac in giving ir to some of seems reason to think that the Rephaim weie
the wells which he dug in the south of Palestine the most ancient or aboriginal inhabitants of
(Gen. xxv i. 22). Palestine prior to the Canaanites, by whom they
REHOBOTH-IR Cflfriah']; Sept 'Pdok were gradually disjH>ssessed of the regions west of
&cl}0 tt6\is, Rehohoth-city\ a town of ancient the Jordan, and driven beyond that river. Some
Assyria (Gen. x. 11), the site of which has not of the race remained in Palestine Projwr so
been ascertained. as the invasion of the land by the Hebrews, and
aie re[>eatedly mentioned as * the sous of Anak,
RKHOBOTH-HANNAHAROmn Ttaft); and "the remnant of the Rephaim' (Num. xm.
Sept. 'PouifiajQ rijs irapa ttotcumJi'), or, liehoboth 28 : Deut. ix. 2 ; Josh. xv. 14), and a few fami
of the river, the birth-place of one of the Edom- lies existed in the land so late as the time of
itish kings, named Said (Gen. xxxvi. .17). The David (2 Sam. xxi. 16). [Giants.]
river is, doubtless, the Euphrates, and the place REPHAIM, VALLEY OF. a valley be
is probably represented by the modern er-Itahabeh, ginning adjacent to the valley of Hinnom, south
upon the west bank of that river, between Rakkah west of Jerusalem, and stretching away iOti'h-
and Anah (Rosenmiiller, Geog. ii. 365; Winer, west on the right of the road to Bethlehem (Josh,
B. Real-worterb., s.v.), xv. 8; xvii. 5; xviii. 6; 2 Sam. v. 18, 22).
REMPHAN, or Rephan ("Pcfupdv, 'Pf<f>dV), a This name corroborates the presumption that the
name quoted in Acts vii. 43, from Amos v. 26, Rephaim were originally west of the Jordan.
where tlie Septuagint has '?ai(pdv, for the Hebrew REPHIDIM, a station of the Israelites in pro
fVD Chiun. It is clear that, although thus ceeding to Sinai. [Sinai.j
RESEN. RESURRECTION OF CHRIST. 609
RESEN (tQT ; Sept. Aeurij), an ancient town over the whole of this portion ofGospel history. A
of Assyria, described as a great city lying be numerous host of theologians, however, ruse to com
tween Nineveh and Calah (Gen. x. 12). Biblical bat and refute this writer's positions; amongwhom
geographers have been disposed to follow Bochart we find the names ofDoderlein, Less, Semler.Teller,
(Phaicg. iv. 23) in finding a trace of the Hebrew Maschius, Michaelis, Pleasing, Eichhorn, Herder,
name in Larissa, which is mentioned by Xenoption and others. Among those who have more recently
(Anab. iii. 4. 9) as a desolate city on the Tigris, attempted to reconcile the different accounts is
several miles north of the Lycus. The resem Griesliach, who, in his excellent Prolusio dc Fon-
blance of the names is too faint to supjmrt the tibus unde EvangelisUe suas de Resurrection*
inference of identity ; but the situation is not irre Domini narrationes haitscrunt, 1793, remarks
concilable with the Scriptural intimation. Ephrem tliat all the discrepancies are trilling, and not
of such moment as to render the narrative
Syrus {Comment, in loc.) says that )-CO* Kossa, uncertain and suspected, or to destroy or even
which lie substitutes for Resen (the Peshito has diminish the credibility of the Evangelists ; but
rather serve to show how extremely sjudious they
^CC* Ressin), was the same as ^N were of truth, 'and how closely and even scru
Rish-Ain (fountain-head)) by which Assemanni pulously they followed their documents.' Gries-
understands him to mean, not the place in Me bach then attempts to show how these diacre-
sopotamia so called, but another Rish-Ain in [fancies may have arisen ; and admits that,
Assyria, near Saphsaphie, in the province of although uunnpurtanf, they are hard to reconcile,
Marga, which he finds noticed in a Syrian as is indeed evinced by the amount of contro
monastic history of the middle age (Assemanni, versy they have excited.
Bibltoth. Orient, iii. 2. p. 709). It is, however, Lately, Professor Bush has ingeniously main
still uncertain if Rassa is the same witli Rish- tained the opinion, that the body of Christ which
Ain ; and whether it is so or not, a name so was raised was not the identical body which
exceedingly common (corresponding to the Arabic was crucified, but another and spiritual body.
Ras-el-Ain) affords a precarious basis for the This view was forced ujjon him by the gene
identification of a site so ancient. ral argument of his book (Anastasis ; orf the
Doctrine of the Resurrection of the Body ra
RESURRECTION OF CHRIST. After our tionally and scripturatlg considered, 1845); but
Lord had completed the work of redemption by it will not \*e leadily admitted by those who
his death ujxm the cross, be rose victorious from remember the fresh prints of the nails, and the
the grave, and to those who through faith in him wound in the side of the risen Saviour, coupled
should become mem bets of his body, he became with his manifest anxiety to impress the fact of
apxnyos ttjs (oris, 1 the prince of life.' Since this his personal identity upon the minds of his dis
event, however, independently of its importance in ciples. It may indeed be asked, 1 In what does
respect to the internal connection of the Christian personal identity consist?* but that is a question
doctrine, was manifestly a miraculous occur we cannot here argue.
rence, the credibility of the narrative has from The three first Gospels agree in this, that the
the earliest times been brought into question women who went to the'grave saw angels, by
(Celsus, apud Origen. cont. Celt. i. 2 ; Woolston, whom they were informed that Jesus had risen,
Discourses on the Miracles, disc. vi. ; Chubb, and who commanded them to give the ajtostlea
Posth. Works, i. 330 ; Morgan, The Resurrection immediate information of the fact. But as Mary
Considered, 1744). Others who have admitted Magdalene was among those women according
tle facts as recorded to be beyond dispute, yet to these Gospels, there seems a striking contra
have attempted to show that Christ was not really diction to John s narrative, which $|>eaks of her
dead ; but that, being stunned and palsied, he wore alone. The writers above named, however, har
for a lime the appearance of death, and was after monise these accounts by sup|>osing that Mary
wards restored to consciousness by the cool grave did indeed set out for the sepulchre with the
and the spices. The refutation of these views may other women; but that running before them, and
he seen in detail in such works as Less, L eber die finding the stone rolled away, she was overcome
/' (/(' ii. 372; Less, Auferstehunysgeschichte, by a sudden impulse of feeling, and hastened back
nebst Anhang, 1799; Doderlein, Fragmentc und to communicate the intelligence to the apostles,
Antifragmente, 1782. The chiefadvocates of these as related by John. In the meantime the other
views are Paulus (Hist. Resurrect. Jes. 1795), women had arrived at the sepulchre, and there
ami, more recently. Henneberg (Philot. ffistor. witnessed what is recorded by the other evangelists.
Krit. Commentar. ub. d. Gesch. d. Begrahn. d. Mary Magdalene returns to the grave with Peter
Auferstehung u. Himmelfahrt Jesu, 1826). and John ; and after they had gone away hope
Objections of this nature do not require notice less, she continued to stand weeping in the same
here; but a few words upon the apparent discre place; and while thus engaged, perceived the
pancies of the Gospel narratives will not tw mis angels, and immediately after our Lord himself.
placed. These discrepancies were early perceived ; From Him she receives the same commission
and a view of what the fathers have done in tiie which the angels had previously given to the
attempt to reconcile them has been given by Nie- other women, namely, to inform the apostles of his
meyer (De Evangelistarum in Aarrando Christi resurrection. Matthew (xxviii. 9, 10) seems to
in Vitam reditu dissensione, 1824). They were relate of all the women what strictly belongs to
first collocated with much acuteuess by Morgan, Mary alone; while Mark (xvi. 9) is more precise in
in the work already cited ; and at a later date, by his account. According to this mode of reconciling
an anonymous writer, whose fragments were edited the Gospel narratives, we are to suppose that the
and supported by Lessing ; the object of which other women were prevented from communicating
seems to have been to throw uncertainty and doubt to the apostles what the angels had given them in
VOL. II.
610 RESURRKCTION OF THE BODY. RESURRECTION OF XHK *>OUt.
charge; and Hess renders it probahle, on topo discourse ; the reply of Zophar agreeing, not with
graphical grounds, that tiiuse who were returning the popular interpretation, but with the other.
from the grave may have missed the aposlles, who 3. It is inconsistent with many passages in which
were hastily approaching iL the same person (Job) longs tor death as the end of
If this explanation he admitted, the only re his miseries, and not as the. introduction to a I>etter
maining difficulty is that which arises from the life (iii.; vii. 7, 8 ; x. 20-22; xiv. ; xvii. 11-
Gospel of Luke, which appears to stale that the 16". 4. It is not proposed as a topic of conso
apostles did not visit the sepulchre till all the lation by any of the friends of Job ; nor by
intelligence had l)een communicated to them bj Klihu, who acts as a sort of umpire ; nor by the
tlie women (Luke xxiv. 9-12). We will not at Almighty himself in the decision of the contro
tempt to get over this difficulty by rejecting the versy. 5. The later Jews, who eagerly sought
verse which creates it (xxiv. 12), on the ground for every intimation bearing on a future life
of its leing wanting in one Greek and some an which their Scriptures might contain, never re
cient Latin manuscripts ; but would rather sup garded this as such ; nor is it once referred to
pose that iiMlns, as in some other passages, Luke by Christ or his apostles.
has neglected the order of time, and inserted the Isaiah may be regarded as the first Scripture
incident somewhat out of place. Besides the writer in whom such an allusion can l>e traced. He
works already referred to, see Sherlock, Trial of compares the restoration of the Jewish people and
the Witnesses of the Resurrection of Jesus, 172!*; state to a resurrection from the dead (ch. xxvi.
Benson's Life of Christ, p. 520, sq. ; West, On 19, 20); ami in this he is followed by Ezekiel at
the Resurrection ; Mack night's Harmony of the the time of (he exile (ch. xxxvii.). From these
Gospels ; Lardner, Observations on Dr. Mack- passages, which are, however, not very clear in
night's Harmony, 1764; Newcome's Harmony their iutimalions. it may seemthut in this, as in
of the Gospels, 1778; Tlioluck, Comment, ztt other matters, the twilight of spiritual manifesta
Johatiy xx. ; Neander, Das Leben Jesu, 1 839 ; tions brightened as the day-spring from on high
Hase, Das Leben Jesu. 1840. Since the above approached; and in Dan. xii. 2, we at length
was in type we have seen an excellent pajier by arrive at a clear and unequivocal declaration,
Professor Robinson, in the Bibliothcca Sacra for that * Those who lie sleeping under the earth shall
Feb. 1845, in which the writer, with his usual awake, some to eternal life, and others to ever
perspicuity, discusses the alleged discre|>ancies in lasting shame and contempt.*
the Gosjiel narratives of ' The Resurrection and In the time of Christ, the belief of a resurrec
Ascension of our Lord.' tion, in connection with a state of future retribu
RESURRECTION OF THE BODY. This tion, was held by the Pharisees and the great body
expression is used to denote the revivification of of the Jewish people, and was only disputed by the
the human body after it has been forsaken by the Sadducees. Indeed, they seem to have regarded
pal, or the re-union of the soul hereafter to the the future life as incomplete without the body ;
body which it had occupied in the present and so intimately were the two thingsthe future
world. It is admitted that there are no traces of existence of the soul and the resurrection of the
such a doctrine in the earlier Hebrew Scripture. bodyconnected in their minds, that any argu
It is not to be found' in the Pentateuch, in the ment winch proved the former, they considered as
historical books, or in tfie Psalms; for Ps. xlix. proving the latter also (see Matt xxii. 31 ; 1 Cor.
15, does not relate to this subject; neither does xv. 32j. This l>elief, however, led their coarse
Ps. civ. 29, 30. although so cited by Theodoret minds into gross and sensuous conceptions of the
and others. The celebrated passage of Job xix. future state, although there were many among
25, sq., lias, indeed, been strongly insisted upon the Pharisees who taught that the future body
in proof of the early belief in this doctrine; would be so refined as not to need the indulgences
hut the most learned commentators are agreed, which weie necessary in the present life: and
and scarcely any one at the present day dis they assented to our Lord's assertion, that the
putes, that such a view of the text arises either risen saints would not many, but would be as
from mistranslation or misapprehension, and that the angels of God (Matt. xxii. 30; comp. Luke
Job means no more than to express a confident xx, 39). So Paid, in 1 Cor. vi. 13, is conceived
conviction that his then diseased and dreadfully to intimate that the necessity of food for subsistence
corrupted body should be restored to it* former will be abolished in the world to come.
soundness; that he should rise from the depressed In further proof of the commonness of a belief
state in which he lay to Ids former prosperity; in the resurrection among the Jews of the time of
and that God would manifestly appear (as was Christ, see Matt, xxii., Luke xx., John xi. 24,
the case) to vindicate his uprightness. That no Acts xxiii. 6-8, Jnsephus is not to !<* relied
meaning more recondite is to be found in the upon inthe account which he gives of the belief of
text, is agreed by Calvin, Mercier, Grotius, Le his countrymen (Antia. xviii. 2; De Bell. Jud.,
Cierc, Patrick, Warburton, Durell, Heath, Ken- ii. 7), as he appears to use terms which might
nicott, Doderlein, Dathe, Eichhorn, Jahn, De suggest one thing to his Jewish readers, and ano
Welte, and a host of others. That it alludes to ther to the Greeks and Romans, who scouted the
a resurrection is disproved thus :1. The supposi idea of a resurrection. Many Jews believed that
tion is inconsistent with the design of the poem the wicked would not be raised from the dead ;
and the course of the argument, since the belief but the contrary was the more prevailing opinion,
which it has been supposed to express, as con in which Si. Paul once took occasion toexpress hig
nected with a future state of retribution, would concurrence with the Pharisees (Acts xxiv. 15).
in a great degree have solved the difficulty on But although the doctrine of the resurrection
which the whole dispute turns, anil could not was thus prevalent among the Jews in the time
but have been often alluded to by the speakers. of Christ, it might stilt have been doubtful and
2. It is inconsistent with the connection of the obscure to us, had not Christ given to it the sane
RESURRECTION OF THE BODY. REUBEN. 611
tion of his authority, and declared, it a constituent an argument in which he has failed (Knapp,
part of his religion (e. a.. Matt. xxii. ; John v., Christian Theology, translated bv Leonard
viii., xi.). He and his apostles also were careful Woods, D.D., 151-153; Hotly, On the Resur
to correct the erroueous notions which the Jews rection; Drew, Essay on the Resurrection of
entertained on this head, and to make the sub the Human Body; Burnet, State of the Dead;
ject more obvious and intelligible than it had Schott, Dissert, de liesurrect. Corporis, adv.
ever been before. A special interest is also im $. liurnetum, 1763; Teller, Fides Dogmat.
parted to the subject from the manner in which de Resurr. Carnis, 1766; Mosheim, De Christ.
the New Testament represents Christ as the person Resurr. Mort.f &c. in Dissertatt., \\. 520, sq. ;
to whom we are indebted fur this benefit, which, Dassov., Diatr. qua Jxtdtcvr. de Resurr. Mort*
by every variety of argument and illustration, scntent. ex plur. Rabbinis, 1675 ; Neander, All*
the apostles connect with him, and make to K. Geschichte. i. 3, pp. 1086, 10%; ii. 3, pp.
rest upon him (Acts iv. 2; xxvi. 3; 1 Cor. xv. ; 1404 1410; Zehrt, Ueber d. Aufcrstchung d.
1 Thess. iv. 14, &c). Todten, 1835).
The princij>al points which can be collected
from the New Testament on this subject are the REUBEN (]2^r\,beholdason; Sept. Towns'),
following: I. The raising of the dead is every eldest son of Jacob by Leah (Gen. xxix. 32;
where ascribed to Christ, and is represented as xxxv. 23; xlvi. 8). His improper intercourse
the last work to Ite undertaken by him for the with Billiah, his father's concubine wife, was an
salvation of man (John v. 21 ; xi. 25 ; 1 Cor. xv. enormity too great for Jacob ever to forget, and
22, sq. ; 1 Thess. iv. 15; Hev. i. 18). All the he spoke of it with abhorrence even on his dying
dead will be raised, without respect to age, rank, bed (Gen. xxxii. 22; xlix. 4). Vet the part taken
or character in this world (John v. 28, 29 ; Acts by him in the case of Joseph, whom he intended
xxiv. 15; 1 Cor. xv. 22). 3. Tins event is to to rescue from the hands of his brothers and re
take place not before the end of the world, or the store to his father, and whose supjmsed death he so
general judgment (John v. 21 ; vi. 39, 40 ; xi. sincerely lamented, exhibits his character in an
21 ; 1 Cor. xv. 22-28 ; I Thess. iv. 15 ; Rev. xx. amiable point of view (Gen. xxxvii. 21, 22, 29,
11). 4. The manner in which this marvellous 30). We are, however, to rememlvr, that he, as
change shall be accomplished is necessarily le- the eldest son, was more resjxjnsible for the safety
yond our present comprehension; and, therefore, of Joseph than were the others ; and it would
the Scripture is content to illustrate it by figura seem that he eventually acquiesced in the decep
tive representations, or by proving the possibility tion practised upon his father. Subsequently,
and intelligibility of the leading facts. Some of Reuben offered to make the lives of his own sons
the figurative descriptions occur in John v.; Matt, responsible for that of Benjamin, when it was
xxiv.; 1 Cor. 15. 52; 1 Thess. iv. 16 ; Phil. iii. necessary to prevail on Jacob to let him go down
21. The image of a trumpet-call, which is re to Egypt i Gen. xlii. 37, 38), The fine conduct
peated in some of these texts, is derived from the of Judah in afterwards undertaking the same re
Jewish custom of convening assemblies by sound sponsibility, is in advantageous contrast with this
of trumpet. 5. The possibility of a resurrection coarse, although well-meant, proposal. For his
it powerfully argued by Paul in 1 Cor. xv. 32, conduct in the matter of Bilhuh, Jacob, in his
sq., by comparing it with events of common oc last blessing, deprived him of the pre-emiuence
currence in the natural world. (See also ver. 12- and double portion which belonged to his birth
14. and compare Acts iv. 2.) right, assigning the former to Judah, and the
Hut although this body shall he so raised as to latter to Joseph (Gen. xlix. 3, 4 ; cump. ver. 8-10 ;
preserve its identity, it must yet undergo certain xlviii. 5). The doom, * Thou shalt not excel/
purifying changes to fit it for the kingdom of was exactly fulfilled in the destinies of the tribe
heaven, and to render it ca|tahle of immortality descended from Reuben, which makes no figure
(1 Cor. xv. 35, sq.), so that it shall become a in the Hebrew history, and never produced any
glorified body lilce that of Christ (ver. 49 ; eminent person. At the time of the Exodus,
Horn. vi. 9; Phil. iii. 21); and the bodies of this trilm numbered 46,500 adult males, which
those whom the last day finds alive, will undergo ranked it as the seventh in population ; but at the
a similar change without tasting death (I Cor. later census before entering Canaan, its numbers
xv. 51, 53; 2 Cor. v. 4 ; 1 Thess. iv. 15, sq. ; had decreased to 43,730, which rendered it the
Phil. iii. 21). ninth in population (Num. i. 21 ; xxvi. 5). The
The extent of change consistent with per Reulienites received for their inheritance the fine
sonal identity is so great, that its limits have pasture land (the present Belka) on the east of
been variously estimated, and can never be in the Jordan, which to a cattle-breeding people, as
tlits life clearly defined. We are, therefore, not they were, must have been very desirable (Num.
disposed to enter into the subject here. The plain xxxii. 1 sq. ; xxxiv. 1^1; Josh. i. 14; xv. 17).
language of Scripture seems to suggest that it This lay south of the territories of Gad (Dent. iii.
will be so great, that the old body will have little 12, 16), and north of the river Anion. Although
more relation to the new one than the seed has to thus settled earlier than the other tribes, excepting
the plant. Hut that there is no analogythat Gad and half Manasseh, who shared with them
the new body will have no connection with, and the territory beyond the Jordan, the Reubenites
no relation to the old ; and that, in fact, the re willingly assisted their brethren in the wars of
surrection of the body is not a doctrine of Scrip Canaan (Num. xxxii. 27, 29; Josh. iv. 12);
ture,does not appear to us to have been satis alter which they returned to their own lands
factorily proved by the latest writer on the sub- (Josh. xxii. 15); and we hear little more of
{'ect (Bush, Anastasis, 1945); and we think so them till the time of Hazael, king of Syria,
.liglily of his ingenuity and talent, as to be who ravaged and for a time held possession of
lieve that no one else is likely to succeed in their country (2 Kings x. 33). The Reubenites,
6*12 REVELATION, BOOK OF. REVELATION, BOOK OF.
and the other tribes beyond the river, were natu epistles of John the Apostle. It is characterized
rally the first to give way before the invaders from by strong Hebraisms and ruggednesses, by negli
the East, and were the first of all the Israelites gences of expression and grammatical inaccura
sent into exile by Tiglath-pileser, king ofAssyria, cies ; while it exhibits trie absence of pure Greek
B.c. 773 (1 Chron.v. 26). words, and of the apostle's favourite expressions.
REVELATION, BOOK OF. The follow So De Wette.
ing topics in relation to this book demand ex 3. The style is unlike that which appears in
amination : the Gosjwl and epistles. In the latter, there is
I. The person by whom it was written. calm, deep feeling; in the Apocalypse, a lively,
II. Its canonical authority, genuineness, and creative power of fancy. In connection with this
authenticity. it lias been asserted, tliat the mode of representing
III. The time and place at which it was objects and images is artificial and Jewish. On
written. the contrary, John the son of Zebedee was an
IV. Its unity. illiterate man in the Jewish sense of that epithet ;
V. The class of writings to which it belongs. a man whose mental habits and education were
VI. The object for which it was originally Greek rather than Jewish, and who, in conse
written. quence of this character, makes little or no use of
VII. Its contents. the Old Testament or of Hebrew learning. So
VIII. Some errors into whicb the interpreters De Wette.
of it have fallen. 4. It is alleged that the doctrinal aspect of tlie
I. The author styles himself John, but not an Apocalypse is different from that of the apostle's
apostle (i. 4, 9 ; xxii. 6). Hence some have acknowledged writings. In the latter we rind
attributed the book to another John, usually nothing of the sensuous expectations of the Mes
designated the presbyter. Formerly, indeed, the siah and the establishment of his kingdom on
existence of such a person was unknown or earth, which are so prominent in the former.
doubted, the historic grounds adduced in proof Besides, the views inculcated or implied resect
of his separate individuality being impugned or ing spirits, demons, and angels, are foreign to
otherwise explained. (So Guerike in his Bei- John. A certain spirit of revenge, too, flows and
tr&ge zur Historisch-kritischen Einleit., 1831, burns throughout the Apocalypse, a spirit incon
tiro.) But this writer has recently revoked his sistent with the mild and amiable disposition of
doubts, contented with affirming that the historic the beloved disciple.
basis on which the existence of the Ephesian Such are the arguments advanced by De Wette.
presbyter rests, is assuredly feeble. The chief They are chiefly based on the investigations of
argument for believing that there was another Etvald and Liicke. Credner, who speaks with the
John besides the apostle, exists in a passage from same confidence respecting the non-apostolic origin
Papiasof Hierapolis, preserved in Eusebius (Hist. of the book, has repeated, enlarged, and confirmed
Eccles. iii. 39). In this fragment, several of the them. It will be observed, however, that they are
apostles, among whom is John, are mentioned ; all internal^ and do no more than prepare the
while, immediately after, the presbyter John is way for proving that John the Presbyter was the
specified along with Aristion. Thus the presbyter writer. Let us glance at the external evidence
is clearly distinguished from the apostle (see adduced for the same purpose.
Wieseler, in the TheoL MUarbeitcn* iii. 4. 113, In the third century, Dionysius of Alexandria
$q.). In addition to Papias, Dionysius of ascribed the book to John the Presbyter, not tn
Alexandria (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. vii. 25), Euse John the Apostle (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. vii. 25).
bius himself (Hist. Eccles. iii. 39), and Jerome The testimony of this writer has been so often and
(Catal. i>criptor. Ecclesiast.), allude to the pres so much insisted on, that it is necessary to adduce
byter. We must therefore believe, with Liicke, it at length. * Some who were before us have
Bleek, Credner, Neander, Hitzig, and, indeed, all utterly rejected and confuted this book, criticising
the ablest critics who have had occasion to speak every chapter, showing it to be throughout unin
of this point, that there were two Johns : oue the telligible and inconsistent; adding, moreover,
apostle, the other the presbyter. that the inscription is false, forasmuch as it is
It has been much debated which of the two nut John's; nor is it a revelation which is hidden
wrote the book before us. On the continent the under so obscure and thick a veil of ignorance ;
prevailing current of opinion, if not in favour of and that not only no apostle, but not so much as
the presbyter, is at least against ttie apostle. In any holy or ecclesiastical man was the author of
England the latter is still regarded as the writer, this writing; but that Certnthus, fouuder of the
more perhaps by a kind of traditional lielief, than hertsy called after him Cerinthian, the better to
as the result of enlightened examination. recommend his own forgery, prefixed to it an
The arguments against assigning the author honourable name. For this (Uiey say) was one of
ship to the apostle John are the following. his particular notions, that the kingdom of Christ
1. The Apocalyptic writer calls himself John, should he earthly ; consisting of those things
while the Evangelist never does so. So Dionysius which he himself, a carnal and sensual man,
of Alexandria, as related by Eusebius (Hist. most admired,the pleasures of the belly anil of
Eccles. vii. 25). De Wette repeats the observa concupiscence; that is, eating and drinking and
tion as deserving at least of attention. In addition marriage; and for the more decent procurement
to this circumstance, it has been affirmed by of these, feastings and sacrifices, and slaughters
Ewald, Credner, and Hitzig, that in chaps, xviii. of victims. But for my part, I dare not reject
20, and xxi. 14, the apostle expressly excludes the book, since many of the brethren have it in
himself from the number of the apostles. high esteem : but allowing it to be above my
2. The language of the book is entirely dif understanding, I suppose it to contain throughout
ferent from that of the fourth Gospel and the three some latent and wonderful meaning; for though
REVELATION, BOOK OF. REVELATION, BOOK OF. 613
I do not understand it, I suspect there must be calls himself our '* brother and companion, and
some profound sense in the words; not measuring witness of Jesus," and " blessed," because he saw
and judging these things by my own reason, but and heard those revelations. And I suppose
ascribing more to faith, I esteem them too sublime there were many of the same name with John the
to be comprehended by me. Nor do I condemn apostle, who for the love they l>ure to him, and
what I hive not l>een able to understand; but I because they admired and emulated him, and
admire the more, because they are above my reach. were ambitious of being beloved of the Lord like
And having finished in a manner his him, were desirous of having the same name :
prophecy, the prophet pronounceth those blessed even as many also of the children of the faithful
that keep it, and also himself. For ** blessed is are called by the names of Paul and Peter. There
every one," says lie, " that keepeth the words of is another John in the Acts of the Apostles, sur-
the prophecy of this book ; and I John, who saw named Mark, whom Paul and Barnabas took for
and heard these things'' (Rev. xxii. 7, 8). I do their companion : concerning whom it is again
not deny then that his name is John, and that said, "and they had John for their minister" (Acts
this is John's book, for I acknowledge it to be the xiii. 5). But that he is the person who wrote
work of some holy and divinely inspired person. this book, I would not affirm. But I think that
Nevertheless I cannot easily grant him to be the he is another, one of them that belong to Asia;
apostle the son of Zebedee, brother of James, since it is said that there are two tombs at Ephesus,
whose is the Gospel inscribed according to John each of them called John's tomb. And from the
and the Catholic epistle; for I conclude, from sentiments and words, and disposition of them, it
the manner of each, and the turn of expression, is likely that he is different (from him that wrote
and from the conduct (or disposition) of the book, the Gospel and Epistle). For the Gospel and
as we call it, that he is not tiie same person. For Epistle nave a mutual agreement, and begin
the Evangelist nowhere ptits down his name, nor alike. The one says, " In the beginning was the
does he speak of himself either in the Gospel or word;" the other, '* That which was from the be
in the epistle.' Then a little after he says again, ginning." The former says, "And the word was
* John nowhere speaks as concerning himself nor made flesh, and dwelt among us, and we beheld
as couceniing another. But lie who wrote the his glory, the glory as of the only-begotten of the
Revelation, immediately at the very beginning Father." The latter has the same with a slight
prefixeth his name : the Revelation of Jesus variation : ** That which we have heard, which we
Christ, which God gave unto him to show unto have seen with our eyes, which we have looked
his servants things which must shortly come to upon, and our hands have handled, of the word
pass. And he sent and signified it by his angel of life. For the life was manifested." He is uni
unto his servant John, who bare record of the form throughout, and wanders not in the least
word of God, and his testimony, the things which from the points he proposed to himself, but prose
he saw " (Rev. i. 1, 2). And then he writes an cutes them in the same chapters and words, some
epistle, " John unto the seven churches in Asia. of which we shall briefly observe : for whoever
Grace be unto you and peace" (ver. 4). But the reads witli attention will olten find in both ' life ;"
Evangelist lias not prefixed his name, no, not to frequently " light,"' the ''avoiding of darkness;"
his Catholic epistle; but without any circum oftentimes " truth, grace, joy, the flesh and the
locution begins with the mystery itself of the blood of the Lord ; judgment, forgiveness of sins,
divine revelation, 14 that which was from the be the love of God toward us, the commandment of *
ginning, which we have heard, which we have love one toward another ; the judgment of this
eeen with our eyes" (1 John i. 1). And for the world, of the devil, of anti-christ ; the promise of
like revelation the Lord pronounced Peter blessed, the Holy Spirit, the adoption of the sons of God,
saying, '* Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-jona ; for the faith constantly required of us, the Father
flesh and blood has not revealed it unto thee, but and the Sou," everywhere. And, in short, through
my Father which is in heaven" (Matt, xvi, 17). out the Gospel and Epistle it is easy to observe
Nor yet in the second or third epistle ascribed to one and the same character. But the Revelation
John, though, indeed, they are but short epistles, is quite different and foreign from these, without
is the name of John prefixed ; for without any any affinity or resemblance, not having so much
name Tie is called the elder. But this other as a syllable in common with them. Nor does
person thought it not sufficient to name himself the Epistle (for I do not here insist on the Gospel)
once and then proceed, but he rejieats it again, mention or give any hint of the Revelation, nor the
*' I, John, who am your brother and companion in Revelation of the Epistle. And yet Paul, in his
tribulation, and in the kingdom and patience of Epistles, has made some mention of his Revela
Jesus Christ, was in the isle called Patmos for tions, though he never wrote them in a separate
the testimony of Jesus" (Rev. i. 9). And at the book. Besides, it is easy to observe the difference
end he says, M Blessed is he that keepeth the say of the style of the Gospel and the Epistle from
ings of the prophecy of this book ; and I, John, that of the Revelation; for they are not only
who saw and heard these things" (ch. xxii. 7, 8). written correctly, according to the propriety of
Therefore, that it was John who wrote these things, the Greek tongue, but with great elegance of
ought to be believed l>ecause he says so. But phrase and argument, and the whole contexture
who he was is uncertain ; for he Lis not said, as of the discourse. So far are they from all bar
in the Gospel often, that he is " the disciple whom barism or solecism, or idiotism of language, that
the Lord loved;"' nor thai he is lie w who leaned nothing of the kind is to be found in them; for
on his breast ;" nor the brother of James ; nor that he, as it seems, had each of those gilts, the Lord
he is one of them who saw and heard the Lord : having bestowed ujwm him both these, knowledge
whereas he would have mentioned some of these and eloquence. As to the other, I will not deny
things if he had intended plainly to discover him- that he saw the Revelation, or that he had received
elf. Of these things he says not a word : but he the gift of knowledge and prophecy. But I do
614 REVELATION, BOOK OP. REVELATION, BOOK OF.
not perceive in him an accurate acquaintance written by John the disciple of the lord, it ia
with the Greek language : on the contrary, he uncertaiu whether he meant the apostle or tb*r
uses barbarous idioms, anil some solecisms, which presbyter, although the former is far more pro
it is necessary that I should now show par- bable.
ticularly, for I do not write by way of ridicule; Let us now consider the internal evidence in
let none think so. I simply intend to represent in favour of John the Apostle, beginning with am
a critical manner the difference of these pieces." examination of the arguments adduced on the
Here are critical arguments which the mo- other side by De Wette. These do not posses*
dents have not failed to adduce and enlarge. Eu- all the weight that many assign to them. W*
sehius expresses himself in an undecided way shall follow the order in which they have beex-
respecting the Apocalypse (Hist. Eccles. iii. 21, already stated.
25), for which it is difficult to account, on the 1. We attach no importance to this circum
supposition that prevalent tradition attributed it stance. Why should not a writer beat tibCrtj
to the Apostle John. to name himself or not as he pleases ; above all,
Thus all the exlernal evidence directly in why should not a writer, under the immediate)
favour of John tlie Presbyter resolves itself into inspiration of the Almighty, omit the particulars
the authority of Diouysius, who rested his proofs which he was not prompted to record ? How
not on the testimony of his predecessors, but on could he refrain from doing so? The Holy-
internal argument. Etisebius speaks so hesi Spirit must have had some good reason for lead
tatingly, that nothing can be determined with ing the writer to set forth his name, although
respect to his real opinion. curiosity is not gratified by assigning the reason.
On the whole, there is no direct evidence in The Old Testament prophets usually prefixed
favour of the opinion that John the Presbyter wrote their names to the visions and predictions which
the Apocalypse. Many internal considerations they were prompted to record ; and John does
have been adduced to show that John the Apostle the same. But instead of styling himself ait
was not the author; but no direct argu ment lias apostle, which carries witli it an idea of dignity
been advanced to prove that John the Presbyter and ofiicial authority, he modestly takes to him
was the writer. Indeed, our existing accounts of self the appellation of a servant of Christy the
the presbyter are so brief, as to afford no data for brotiier and companion of the faithful in tribu
associating the writing of this book with his name. lation. This corresponds with the relation which
All that we know from antiquity is, that both he sustained to Christ in the receiving of such
Johns were contemporary, that they are called visions, as also with the condition of the Redeemer
disciples of the Lord, that they resided in Asia himself. In the Gospel, John is mentioned as the
Minor, and that their tombs were shown at Rphe- disciple whom Jesus loved, for then he stood in an
sus. It is vain to appeal to the second and third intimate relation to Christ, as the Son of man aji-
epistles of John for comparing the Apocalypse pearing in the form of a servant ; but in the book
wiili them, with Creduer ami Jachmono (Pelt's before us, Christ is announced as the glorified
Mitarbeiten, 1839), who think that they proceeded Redeemer who should quickly come to judgment,
from the presbyter; since, to say the least, the and John is his servant, entrusted with the secrets
hypothesis that these epistles were written by of liis house. Well did it become the apostle to
John the Presbyter has not yet been established. forget all the honour of his apostolic office, and
Still, however, notwithstanding this deficiency of to be abased Iwfore the Lord of glory. The re
evidence, Bleek, Creduer, and Jachmann, follow splendent vision of the Saviour bad such an effect
ing Dionysius, attribute the book to John the upon the seer, that he fell at his feet as dead ; and
Presbyter. therefore it was quite natural for him to be clothed
Others think that a disciple of John undertook with profound humility, to designate himself the
to write on a subject which he had received from servant of Jesus Christ, the brother and companion
the apostle ; and that he thought himself justified of the faithful in tribulation. Again, in ch. XTiii.
in introducing his instructor as the speaker, be 20, tlte prophets are said to be represented as
cause he wrote in his manner. So Ewald, Lucke, already in heaven in their glorified condition, and
Schott, and Neander. therefore the writer could not have belthiged tt>
Hiuig has lately written a treatise to prove their number. But this jjassage neither affirms
that the writer is John Mark, the same from nor necessarily implies that the saints and ajiostles
whom the second Gospel proceeded. Bis argu and prophets were at that time in heaven. Neither
ments are mainly based on parallelisms of lan is it stated that all the apostles had then been glo
guage and construction ( Ueber Johannes Marcus rified. Chapter xxi. 14 is alleged to lie inconsis
vnd seine Schriften, oder tcelcher Johannes hat tent with the modesty and humility of John. This
die Offvnbarwuj rcrfasstf Zurich, 8vo. 1813^. is a questionable assumption. The official honour
In stating the evidence in fav our of the apostle inseparable from the person of an aposlle was
as the writer, we begin with the external. surely compatible with profound humility. It
Justin Martyr is tlte earliest writer who attri was so with Paul; and we may safely draw the
butes it to John the Apostle (Dial, cum Tnjph.). same conclusion in regard to John. In describing-
Rettig, indeed, has endeavoured to impugn the the heavenly Jerusalem it was necessary to intro
genuineness of the passage containing this testi duce the twelve ajwstles. The writer could not
mony, but he lias been well answered by Lucke, exclude himself (see Lucke, \u 389 ; and Gut>
and by Guerike (Tholuck'i Litevarischcr Anzei- rike's IJeitrage, p. 37. sq.).
gery 1830). Tertulliau, Clement of Alexandria, 2. To enter fully into this argument would re
and Origen, ascribe it to the apostle; and, as De quire a lengthened treatise. Let us briefly notice
Wette candidly remarks, the testimony of the the particular words, phrases, and expressions, to
last two is the more important, as they were not which Ewald, LUcke, De Wette, and Credner
millennarians. When Irenaeus says that it was specially allude. Much has been written by
REVELATION, BOOK OF. REVELATION, BOOK OF. 61*
Bwald concerning the Hebraistic character of than John ; fitifav, so frequent in the Gospel, is
the language. The writer, it is alleged, strongly not found in the Revelation ; and, on the contrary,
imbued with Hebrew modes of thought, frequently fg%uyrf| which occurs seven times in the Apoca
inserts Hebrew words,as in iii. 14 ; ix. 11 ; xii. 9, lypse, is foreign to the Gospel.
10 ; xix. 1, 3, 4, 6 ; xx. 2 ; xxii. 20 ; while the The following discrepancies between the lan
influence of cabbalistic artificiality is obvious guage of the Gospel and that of the epistles have
throughout the entire book, and particularly in been noticed : d\ri0^6s is used of God both in
i. 4, b ; iv. 2; xiii. 18 ; xvi. 14. The mode of the Gospel and Apocalypse, but in different senses ;
employing the tenses is foreign to the Greek lan so also icvpios, and ipydfypai; instead of tHe the
guage, and moulded after the Hebrew (i. 7 ; ii. 5, Apocalypse lias only iBov ; instead of 'Upocr6\vfj,a
16, 22, 23, 27 ; iii. 9; iv. 9-11 ; xii. 2-4 ; xvi. only 'UpovffaArfu ; instead of idv rtr, as in the
15,21; xvii. 13, 14; xviii. 11,15; xxii. 7, 12). Gospel, ef ris ; so often used by John, occurs
So also the use of the participle (i. 16 ; iv. I, 5, only once in the Apocalypse, and that too in rela
8; v. 6, 13; vi. 2, 5 ; vii. 9, 10; ix. 11 ; x. 2; tion to place ; ux^or is used in the plural. Words
xiv. 1, 14; xix. 12, 13; xxi. 14); and of the denoting seeing are differently used in the Gospel
infinitive (xii. 7). The awkward disposition of and Apocalypse : thus, for the present we rind in
words is also said to be Hebraistic ; such as a the latter (iKf-mtv, Btcopuv, 6pav ; for the aorist of
genitive appended like the construct state ; the the active euW, /3AfV*o, and Otoipuv, for the
stringing together of several genitives (xiv. 8, 10, future ftxreo-Oeu, and for the aorist of the passive
19 ; xvi. 19; xviii. 3, 14 ; xix. 15 ; xxi. 6 ; xxii. also $WTta6at ; ficwtiv has a different meaning
18, 19); and the use of the Greek cases, which from that which it bears in the Gosj>el ; instead
are frequently changed for prepositions (ii. 10 ; of 6 &pxtav tov k6<t/j.qv, and 6 irop^pdV, we find 6
iii. 9 ; vi. 1, 8 ; viii. 7 ; ix. 19 ; xi. 6, 9 ; xii. 5 ; (Tototoj, 6 $id$o\.os. & opaxocv 6 ptyas.
xiv. 2. 7) ; incorrectness in apjioaitiom (i. 5 ; ii. Such is a summary statement of an argument
20 ; iii. 12; iv. 2-4 ; vi. 1 ; vii. 9 ; viii. 9 ; ix. (irawn out at great length by Liicke, l)e Wette,
14; xiii. 1-3; xiv. 2, 12, 14,20, &c.) ; a con Ewatd, and Credner.
struction formed of an avr6s put after the relative Some have attempted to turn aside its force by
pronoun (iii. 8; vii. 2, 0; xiii. 12; xx. 8); resorting to the hypothesis that the book was
frequent anomalies in regard to number and originally written in Hebrew, and then translated
gender (ii, 27 ; iii. 4, 5 ; iv. 8 ; vi. 9, 10 ; ix. 13, into Greek. This, however, is contradicted by
14; xi. 15; xiv. 1,3; xvii. 16; xix. 14 ; and the most decisive internal evidence, and is in
riii. 11; xi. 18; xv. 4; xvii. 12, 15; xviii. 14; itself highly improbable. The Apocalyse was
xix. 21 ; xx. 12 ; xxi. 4, 24 ; also xvi. 10 ; xix. written in the Greek language, as all antiquity
1, 8, 9. In addition to this it is alleged by attests. How then are we to account for its
Credner, that the use made of the Old Testament Hebraistic idioms and solecisms of language, its
betrays an acquaintance on the purt of the writer negligences of diction, and ungrammatical con
with the Hebrew text (comp. vi. 13, 14 with Isa. structions? One circumstance to be taken into
xxxiv. 4; xviii. 2 with lsa. xiii. 21, xxi. 9, account is, that the nature of the Gospel is widely
xxxiv. 14, Jer. 1. 39; xviii. 4, 5 with Jer. Ii. 6, different from that of the Apocalypse. The latter
9, 45 ; xviii. 7 with Isa. xlvii. 7, 8 ; xviii. 21 -23 is a prophetic booka poetical composition
with Jer. xxv. 10, li. 63, 64). In contrast with while tlie former is a simple record in prose, of
all this, we are reminded of the fact that, ac the discourses of Jesus in the days of his flesh.
cording to Acts iv. 13, John was an unlearned It is apparent, too, that John in the Apocalypse
and ignorant man. imitates die manner of Kzekiel and Daniel. The
The book is deficient in words and turns of ex New Testament ]>ropliet conforms to the diction
pression purely Greek, such as jroWoTf, irwirtfT*, and symbolic features of the former peers. * If
ovoVitqt*; compound verbs, as warfyfkhttv, tcapa- the question should be urged, why John chose
Kan&dyai', etrt^aWtiv ; the double negation ; the these models? the obvious answer is, that he
genitive absolute; the attraction of the relative conformed to the taste of the times in which he
pronoun ; the regular construction of the neuter lived. The numerous apocryphal works of an
plural with the verb singular (except viii. 3; ix. Apocalyptic nature, which were composed nearly
20; xir. 13; xviii. 24; xix. 14; xxi. 12); at tlie same time with the Apocalypse, such as the
dtcovtir with the genitive. Favourite expressions, book of Knoch, the ascension of Isaiah, the Testa
such as occur in the Gosr,tel and epistles, are sel ment of the twelve patriarchs, many of the sibyl
dom found, as Otdouai, dtwpew, pydop.at. prjfiara, line oracles, the fourth book of Ezra, the Pastor
ToAif, <pwvv, fitytiv, Kadws, ws (an adverb of of Hennas, and many others which are lostall
time), oZv, aV, fi4yrot, tcfopios, ffKorla^ testify to the taste and feelings of the times when,
or near which, Hie Ajx*calyse was written. If this
bZtqs (tovto) tva ; the historic present. Tltere method of writing was more grateful to the time
are also favourite expressions of the writer of this in which John lived, it is a good reason for his
hook, such as do not occur in John's authentic preferring it."* In consequence of such imitation,
writings : socos^ktj, wtiuioktJ, Kpartip tJ) fiVo/xo, the diction has an Orieutal character; and the
r$fv IltaxVf irat'TOKpaTup, 0*i<s ko! Trar^p, SiVcuiis, figures are in the highest style of imagery pecu
KpdroSj urx^y, tux^j, irpurdroKos tk vtupwv, ij liar to tlie East. Hut it is said that John was an
illiterate man. Illiterate, doubtless, !>e was as com
r^jygs, w5e in the beginning of a sentence. The pared with Paul, who was brought up at tlie feet
conjunction , so common in the Gospel, does not of Gamaliel; yet he may have been capable of
occur in the Apocalypse ; but only ti jit), a 5i; ju?;, reading the Old Testament tionks ; and be was cer
and ef Tts. The frequent joining of a substantive tainly inspired. Rapt in ecstasy, he saw wuudruui
with /j-eyas-, as <ptavrj 0Atyts p.tyd\^ $6&os
tuyas, cuajibs /"yas, rather reminds one of Luke * Stuart, in the Bibliotheca Sacra, pp. 353, 354.
16 REVELATION, BOOK OF. REVELATION, BOOK OF.
visions. He was in the Spirit. And when writing the other. Surely this must lead to new investi
the things be beheld, his language was to be con gations of the Apocalyptic diction, and possibly
formed to the nature ofsuch marvellous revelations. to a renunciation of those extravagaut assertions
It was to l>e adapted to the mysterious disclosures, so often made in regard to the harsh, rugged,
the vivid pictures, the moving scenes, the celestial Hebraized Greek of the Apocalypse. Who ever
beings and scenery of which he was privileged dreamed liefore of the numerous solecisms of
to tell. Hence it was to be lifted up far abuve Mark's language? and yet Hitzig has demon
the level of simple prose or biographic history, so strated its similarity to the Apocalyptic as plau
as to corresiHind with the suMime visions ol' the sibly as Ewald, Liicke, and others have proved
eer. Nor should it be forgotten that lie was not the total dissimilarity hetween 1lie diction of the
in the circumstances of an ordinary writer. He Apocalypse and that of John's Gosj>el.
was inspired. How often is this fact lost sight The length allotted to this article will not
of by the (jerman critics! It is therefore need allow the writer to notice every term and phrase
less to inquire into his education in the Hebrew supposed to lie peculiar. This can only he done
languatre, or his mental culture while residing in with success by him who takes a concordance to
Asia Minor, or the smoothness of ihe Greek lan the Greek Testament in his hand, with the deter
guage as current in the place where he lived, mination to test each example ; along with a
before and alter he wrote ihe Apocalypse. The good syntax of classical Greek, such as Bem-
Holy Spirit qualified him beyond and irrespec hardy's. In this way lie may see whether the
tive of ordinary means, fat the work of writing. alleged Hebraisms and anomalies have not their
However elevated the thetne lie undertook, lie was parallels in classical Greek. Some of the alle
assisted in employing diction as elevated as gations already quoted are manifestly incorrect,
the nature of the subject demanded. We place, c. g. that axovw with the genitive is not found in
therefore, little reliance upon the argument de the Ajiocalypse. On the contrary, it occurs eight
rived from the time of life at whidi the A|hi- times with the genitive. Other words are ad
calypse was comjxised, though Olshausen and duced on the principle of their not occurring so
Guerike insist upon it. Written, as they think, frequently in the book before us as in the Gospel
twenty years before the Gospel or epistles, the and epistle*. But by this mode of reasoning it
A]joi'aIynse exhibits marks of inex|>erieuce in might be shown, that the other acknowledged
writing, of youthful the, and of an anient tem writings of the Ajmstle Juhu, for instance his first
perament. It exhibits the lirst essays of one ex- epistle, are not authentic. Thus y-^uara, one of
piWsing his ideas in a language to which he was the words quoted, though frequently found in the
unaccustomed. To is may Ik* true j but we lay Gospel, is not in any of the three epistles; there
far leal stress upon it than these authors seem fore, these epistles were not written by John. It
inclined to do. The strong Hebraized diction of is found once in the Apocaly|e. Again, fpyd*
the book we account for on the ground that the {opai, which is found seven times in the Gospel,
writer was a Jew ; and, as such, expressed bis and once in the Apocalypse, as also once in each
Jewish conceptions in Greek , that lie imitated of the second and third epistles, is not in the first
the later Old Testament prophets, especially the epistle; therefore the first epistle proceeded from
manner of Daniel ; and that the only prophetic another writer than the author of the second and
writing in the New Testament uatuially ap third. The same reasoning may tie applied In
proaches nearer the Old Testament, if not in Oiwpfa. Again, it is alleged that the regular
subject, at least in colouring and linguistic constmetion of neuters pluml with singular verbs
features. is not found, with the exception of six instances.
These considerations may serve to throw light To say nothing of the large list of exceptions, let
upon the language of the book, after all the it be considered, that the plural verb is joined
extravagances of assertion in regard to anoma with plural nouns where animate beings, esjie-
lies, solecisms, and ruggednesscs, have been fairly cially penona, are designated. Apply now this
estimated. For it cannot he denied that many rash principle, which regularly holds good in classical
and unwarrantable assumptions have been made (ireek, to the A] >< al \ pv\ and nothing jieculiar
by I)e Wette ami others relative to the impure will ap]M*ar in the latter. Should there still re
Greek said to be contained in the A|iocalypse. main examples of neuters plural designating
Winer has done much to check such bold asser things without life, we shall lind similar ones in
tions, but with little success in the case of those the Greek writers. Another mode in which the
who are resolved to abide by a strong and pre leasouiug founded ujxtn the use of peculiar terms
valent current of opinion. We venture to affirm, and expressions may be tested, is the following.
without fear of contradiction, that there are books It is admitted that there are words which occur
of the New Testament almost as Hebraizing as in the Gosjiel and epistles, but not in the Apoca-
the Apocalypse; and that the anomalies charged lyjwe. The advetb TrdiToTf is an example. On
to the account ol" the Hebiew language may be the same principle and by virtue of the same
paralleled in other parts of the New Testament or reasoning, it may Iw denied, as far a* language
in classical (ireek. What shall be said, for in it concerned^ that 1 Timothy was written by Haul,
stance, to the attempt ol' Hilzig tu demonstrate because TrdVroTf, which is found in his other
from the language of Mark's Gospel, as compared epistles, does not occur tu it. In this manner
with that of the Apocalypse, that both proceeded we might individually tak* up each wont and
from one author, viz., John Mark ? This author every syntactical p cnliai ity on which the charge
has conducted a lengthened investigation with of harshness, or solecism, or Hebraising has been
the view of showing that all the peculiarities of fastened. It is sufficient to state, that there are
language found in the Ajwcalypse are equally very few retU solecisms in the Apocalypse. At*
presented in the second Gospel, particularly that most all that have lieen adduced may lie paral
the Hebraisms of the one correspond with those of leled in Greek writers, or in those of the New
REVELATION, BOOK OF. REVELATION, BOOK OF. 617
Testament The words of Winer, a master in 8vo. ; Donker Curtius, Spccitnen hermeneAico*
this department, are worthy of attention: 4 The theologicum de Apocalypsi ab indole, doctrina
solecisms that appear in the Apocalypse give the et scrtbendi genere Johannis Apostoli non ab?ior~
diction the impress of great haishness. but they r<m&, Trajecti Batav. 1799, 8vo.; Kolthofl', Apo-
are capable of explanation, partly from anaco- calypsis Joanni Apostolo vindicata, Ilafnise,
luthou and the mingling of two constructions, 1834, 8vo.; Stein (in Winer and Kngelliardt's
partly in another manner. Such explanation Kritisch. Journal, v. i.), and the Jena Literatur-
should have beeu always adopted, instead of Zeitung for April, 1833, No. 61). It is true,
ascribing these irregularities to the ignorance of that some of these expressions are said by Lucke,
the author, who, in other constructions of a much De Wette, and Credner, to be used in a different
more difficult nature in this very honk, shows sense in the Apocalypse ; others not to he charac
that he was exceedingly well acquainted witli the teristic, but rattier accidental and casual ; others
rules of grammar. For most of these anomalies not original, hut bomnved. Such assertions,
too, analogous examples in the Greek writers however, proceed more from a priori assumption
may he found, with this difference alone, that than from any inherent truth they possess. In
they do not follow one another so frequently as in regard to the charge of cabbalism, especially in
the Apocalypse' (Grammatifc, fuufte Aufloge, the use of numbers, it is easily disposed of. The
pp. 273, 4). Should the reader not he satisfied cabbala of the Jews was widely different from the
with this brief statement of Winer, he is referred instances in the Apocalyjise that have been quoted.
to his Exeget. Stttdim, i. 154, sq., where the Perhaps Julio's use of the number 666 comes the
Professor enters into details with great ability. nearest to one kind of t lie cabbala; but still it
The following linguistic similarities between is so unlike as to warrant the conclusion that
John's Gospel and the Apocalypse deserve to be the ajiostle did not employ the cabbalistic art.
cited : ^tci toDto, Apoc. i. 19 ; IT. 1 ; vii. 1, 9 ; His mysterious indications of certain facts, and
ix. 12; xv. 5; xviii. 1 ; xix. 1; xx. 3; Gosp. the reasons of their being in some measure in
iii. 22 ; v. 1, 14 ; vi. 1 ; vii. 1 ; xix. 38 ; xxi. 1 ; volved in darkness, are explicable on other than
HavTvpia, Apoc. i. 2, 9 ; vi. 9 ; xi. 7 ; xii. 11,17; Jewish ground*. There is no real cause for
xix. 10; xx. 4. Gosp. paprvptw or uaprvpla> believing that the apostle had recourse to the
i. 7, 8. 15, 10, 32, 34; ii. 25; iii. H, 36, 28, artificial and trifling conceits of the Rahbins.
32, 33 : iv. 3, 9, 44 ; v. 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, In short, this argument is by no means con
39; 1 Epist i. 2; iv. 14; v. 6*11. Iva, Apoc. clusive. As far as the language is concerned
ii- 10, 21 ; iii. 9, U, 18; vi. 2, 4, 11 ; vii. 1, nothing militates against the opinion that the
&c &c. Gosp. vi. 5, 7, 12, 15, 28, 29, 30, 38, 39, Apocalypse proceeded from John, who wrote the
40, 50; xi. 4, 11, 15, 10, 19, 31, 37, 42, 50, 52, Gospel. The contrary evidence is not of such a
53, 55. 57 ; xii. 9, 10, 20, 23, 35, &c. 1 Epist. nature as to demand assent. When rigidly scru
of John, i. 3, 4, 9; ii. 1, 19, 27, 28. ttyiy, tinized, it does not sustain the conclusion so con
Gosp. vii. 24; xi. 44. Aj>oc. i. 16. n-icffcii', fidently built upon it.
Apoc. xix. 20. Gosp. vii. 30, 32, 44; viii. 20 ; But it is also affirmed, that, the doctrinal views
X. 39; xi. 57; xxi. 3, 10. rr}pt7v tov \6yov, and sentiments inculcated in the Apocalypse are
ras ivToKas, or some similar expression, Apoc. quite different from those found in the Gospel.
iii. 8, 10; xii. 17; xiv. 12; xxii. 7, 9. Gosp. This may be freely allowed without any detri
viii. 51, 55; xiv. 15; xxiii. 24, &c. 6 vikuv, ment to their identity of authorship. How slow
Apoc. ii. 7, 11, 17,26; iii. 5, 12, 21; xv. 2; the Germans are in learning that a difference in
xxi. 7. This verb is quite common in the first the exhibition of truths substantially the same,
epistle, ii. 13, 14 ; iv. 4; v. 4, 5. Gosp. xvi. 33. is far from l>eing a contradiction ! A difference
Ifowp (mis, Apoc. xxi. 6; xxii. 17; comp. Gosp. of subject in connection with a different plan,
rii. 38. Compare also thejoining together of the demands correspondent dissimilarity of treatment.
present and the future in Apoc. ii. 5 and Gosp. Resides, there must be a gradual development of
xiv. 3. The assertion of the same thing posi the tilings pertaining to the kingdom of God on
tively and negatively, Apoc. ii. 2, 6, 8, 13 ; iii. earth. Sensuous ex|>ectation8 of the Messiah,
8, 17, 21 ; Gosp. i. 3, 6, 7, 20, 48; iii. 15, 17, such as are alleged to altound in the Apocalypse,
20; iv. 42; v. 19, 24; viii. 35, 45; x. 28; xv. may be perfectly consistent with the spirituality
5, 6, 7. 1 Epist ii. 27, &c. In several places of his reign, though it appears to us that the re
in the Apocalypse Christ is called the Lamb; so presentations so designated are figurative, sha
also in the Gospel, i. 29, 36. Christ is called dowing forth spiritual realities by means of out
6 Xdyos rov 0fou, Apoc. xix. 3, and in the Gospel ward objects.
of John only has he the same epithet. rrjpfTv But what is to be said of the pneumatolugical.
4k rtv4s, Apoc. iii. 10. Gosp. xvii. 15. tr<f>drr(iy, demonological, and angelogical doctrines of the
Apoc. v. 6, 9, 12; vi. 4, 9; xiii. 3, 8; xviii. 24; book: The object lor which John's Gospel was
only in the 1st Epist. of John, in. 12. x*iy primarily written did not lead the apostle to in
pfpos, Apoc. xx. 6. Gosp. xiii. 8. TreptiraTtiy troduce so many particulars regarding angels
perd rivosy Apoc. iii. 4. Gosp. vi 66. (tktivow, and evil spirits. The intervention of good and
Apoc. vii. 15; xii. 12; xiii. 6; xxi. 3. Gosp. the malignant influence of evil spirits are clearly
i. 14, The expulsion of Satan from heaven implied in the Old Testament prophets, particu
is expressed thus in the Ajkic. xii. 9 : ^$\^0n us larly in Zechariah and Dauiel. It is therefore
Vp> ywv; in the Gosp. it is said, yiiv 6 &PX&V quite accordant with the prophetic, Hebraistic
tov tcdapav roirov iitfi\n&i}OfTai coj, xii. 31. character of the Apocalypse, to make angelic
(SeeScholz, Die Apokalypse des heilig. Johannes agency a prominent feature in the bitok. And
ubersetztf erktdrt, u. s. w. Frankfurt am Main, that such agency is recognised in the Gospels, is
1828, 8vo. ; Schulz, Ueber den Schriftsteller, Cha apparent to the most cursory reader. The special
racter and Werth de* Johannes, Leipzig, 1803, object with which the fourth Gospel was written
618 REVELATION, BOOK OF. REVELATION, BOOK OP.
was different from that which prompted the com stereotyped uniformity in the writing* of the
position of the Apocalypse, and therefore the same author. How different are the language
subject-matter of both is exceedingly diverse. and representations that characterize some of
But still there is no opposition in doctrine. The Paul's epistles, as compared with others ! Place,
same doctrinal views lie at the foundation of all for example, the epistle to the Ephesians by the
the representations contained in them. In the side of that addressed to the Romans, and how
one, the Redeemer is depicted in his humble dissimilar are their features!
career on earth ; in the other, in his triumphs as But the entire question of authorship so much
a kingor rather, in the victorious progress of debated in Germany, is more curious than profit
his truth in the world, notwithstanding all the able. The book may not have been written by
efforts of Satan and wicked men to suppress it. an apostle, and yet be equal in authority to any
As to a spirit of revenge in the Apocalyptic writer, acknowledged production of an apostle. Luke
it is not found. The inspired prophet was com* was only an Evangelist; and yet his writings are
missioned to pronounce woes and judgments as infallibly true and correct in every particular,
soon to befal the enemies of Christ, in conse because they proceeded from the Holy Spirit.
quence of their persevering, malignant efforts. The question whether the Apocalypse was written
As well might an evil disposition be attributed by an apostle or not, is of trifling importance as
to tlie blessed Saviour himself, in consequence of long as its inspiration is maintained. It will not
his denunciation of the Seril>es and Pharisees. diminish the credit due to the work, though it be
The same John who wrote the Apocalypse says, assigned to the Presbyter John, or to a disciple of
in the second epistle, ver. 10, ' if there come any the apostle, or to John Mark. If any imagine
unto you and bring not this doctrine, receive him that, in attempting tu destroy the directly apos
not into your house, neither bid him God speed. tolic authorship, they lessen the value or disturb
It must ever strike the simple reader of the Apo the canonical credit of the book, they are mis
calypse as a positive ground for attributing the taken. We are glad to perceive that this view,
authorship to John the Ajiostle, that he styles him obvious as it is to the English mind, has not
self the servant of God by way of eminence, escaped the perception of all Germans, though it
which none other at that time would have ven seems not to have been apprehended by many.
tured to do; and that he employs the expression, Tinius says : 1 There has been a needless strife
/ John, after the manner of Daniel, as if he were of argument Do we not plainly see from the
the only prophet and ]**rson of the name. Nor Gospels of Mark and Luke, and from the ujingrolic
can it be well believed that a disciple of the history of the latter, that a biblical hook may be
apostle, or any other individual, should have pre esteemed canonical without having been written
sumed to introduce John as the speaker, thus de by one of the twelve apostles? The name of no
ceiving the readers. The apostle was well known writer is associated with the epistle to the He
to the Christians of his time, and especially to brews, and yet it is justly held to be a Christian
the Asiatic churches. He did not therefore think production. Even Paul was only an extraordi
it necessary to say John the Apostle for the nary apostle. In all, says he, works one and the
sake of distinguishing himself from any other. same spirit; and he that is not against us, laid
(See Zullig's Die Offenbarung Johannisy Stutt Jesus, is for us. Now the Apocalypse is not
gart, 1834, 8vo. p. 136.) against, but for Him, and for Christianity, to
To enter further into the allegations of such preserve it. This indeed is its chief object; con
critics as deny, on the ground of internal diver sequently, it is a Christian book, and has pro
sities between this writing and John's acknow ceeded from the Spirit of God. Whoever WH
ledged productions, tliat the apostle was the au the John of our book, lie was certainly a man of
thor, would be a work of supererogation. Even God, with a serious and honest intention in re
Eichhornand Bertholdt made many good remarks gard to the cause of Jesus.* {Die Offenbarung
in reply, although they did not take the position Johannis, Leipzig, 1S39, 8vo., Einleit. p. 37.)
which they were warranted to assume. Tiie external evidence certainly prejHtnderates
In view of the whole question, we are disposed in favour of the apostle, since it may be fairly
to abide by the ancient opinion, that John the presumed that the fathers who speak of it as the
Apostle wrote the Apocalypse. Ecclesiastica1 Writing of John, and as a divine tcritint/, gene
tradition clearly favours this view ; while the in rally meant John the Apostle. But we attach little
ternal grounds so carefully drawn out and earn weight to the testimonies of the fathers, discordant
estly urged by recent German critics, do not ap as these writers frequently are on topics that came
pear sufficiently strong to overturn it. When lfore them. In many cases they adopted vague
such grounds are soberly examined, after being traditions, without inquiring whether such rejKirts
divested of all the extravagance witli which they rested on any good foundation. They were lor
are associated ; when the nature of the subjects the most part incapable or undesirous of critical
discussed is seen to be such as the fourth Gospel investigationsinvestigations demanding acute-
does not present; an impartial critic will pro ness and discrimination. Hence they commonly
bably rest in the opinion that both writings pro followed their immediate predecessors, contented
ceeded from the same author. And yet there are in ecclesiastical matters to glide down the stream
phenomena in the Apocalypse, as compared with of popular belief, without diligently inquiring
John's gospel, which strike the reader's attention whether such belief were correct and scriptural.
and induce suspicions of a different origin. It A few noble exceptions there are; but how few,
exhibits peculiarities of language and of symbols, in comparison of the undiscerning number who
such as no other book exemplifies. In some re appear to have possessed feeble abilities, while
spects it is unique. Hence an air of plausibility they exercised small discernment in theological
attaches to the arguments of recent German matters !
writers; although it is preposterous to look for a II. Its canonical authority, authenticity, and
REVELATION, BOOK OF. REVELATION, BOOK OF. 6It
genuineness.(a.) External testimonies adverse Gosjiel) ; for it is becoming the apostolic office
to its canonicity. (&.) Such as are favourable. to speak plainly, and without figure or vision,
(a). The Alogi or Antimontanists in the second respecting Christ and his acts. Moreover, it
century, ascribed all John's writings, including seems to me far too arrogant for him to enjoin it
the Apocalypse, to Cerinthus, as Epiphanins re upon his readers to regard this his own work as
lates. It is obvious that no weight can be attached of more impoitance than any other sacred book,
to these assertions. Caius of Rome, from opposi and to threaten that if any one shall take anght
tion to Montanism, ventured to make the same away from it, God will take away from him his
statement, as we learn from Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. part in the book of life (Rev. xxii. 19). Besides,
iii. 29) : 'AAAa /cal Kiipivdos b 5' AiroKaAityewc even were it a blessed tiling to believe what is
Wl inrb Qjro<rr6kov firydkov y*ypaftp4twvt rtrpa- contained in it, no man knows what that is. Tho
\oyias Ti/xTy wr o dryyiXw airy 55i*yftfVay hook is believed in (and is really just the same to
$tv66ufvos, 2*(itrdyi Ktywv, k. t. A.. This pass us) as though we had it not ; and many more
age has given rise to much discussion, some valuable books exist for us to believe in. But
affirming that the revelations spoken of do not let every man think of it as his spirit prompts him.
mean the present Apocalypse of John, but, in My spirit cannot adapt itself to the production,
vented revelations bearing some resemblance to and tfiis is reason enough for me why I should not
it. We agree witli Lucke and De Wette in their esteem it very highly.* This reasoning is mani
view of the meaning, in opposition to Twells, festly so inconsequential, and the style of cri
Paul us, Hartwig, and Hug. They refer it rightly ticism so bold, as to rentier animadversion unne
to our present book. The 85th of the ' Ajiostolic cessary. The names of Haflenreffer, Heerbrand,
Canons,* which are supposed to belong to the and John Schroder, are obscure, but they are all
fourth century, does not mention the Apocalypse ranged against the book. With Sender a new
among the apostolic writings. In the 'Constitu opposirion to it began. That distinguished critic
tions' also, which probably originated in Syria was unfavourable to its authenticity. He was
and the adjacent regions, there is no notice of the followed by Oeiler, Merkel, Michaelis, Heinrichs,
book. It has lieen inferred, from the circumstance Bretschneider, Ewald, I)e Wette, Schott, Bleek,
of the Apocalypse being wanting in the Peshito, Lucke, Neander, Credner, E. Reuss, Hitzig,
that it did not belong to the canon of the Syrian Tinius, &c. It should, however, be distinctly
church. It has also been thought that the theo observed, that most of these recent critics go no
logians of the Antiocheuian school, among whom farther than to deny that John the A|>ostle was
are Chrysostom, Theodoret, and Theodore of Mop- the writer; which may certainly l>e done without
suestia, omitted it out of the catalogue of ca impugning its indirectly apostolic authority.
nonical writings. But in regard to the first, if we They do not exclude it from the canon as a
rely on the testimony of Suidas, he received the divinely inspired writing; although in attacking
Apocalypse as divine ; and as to Theodoret, there its direct apostolicity, some may imagine that
is no reason for assuming that he rejected it they ruin its canonical credit.
(Lucke, p. 348). Probably Theodore of Mop- (b.) We shall now allude to the evidence in
suestia did not acknowledge it as divine. It favour of its canonicity. The earliest witness for
appears also to have been rejected by the theolo it is Papias, as we leam from Andreas and
gical school at Nisibis, which may l>e regarded Arethas of Cappadocia, in their preface to Com
as a continuation of the Antiochenian. Junilius mentaries on the Apocalypse. According to
does not mention it in his list of prophetic these writers, Papias regarded it as an inspired
writings. Cyril of Jerusalem has omitted it in Inxik. It is true that Rettig (Studien und
his Catecheses ; as also Gregory of Nazianzen, Kritikcn, 1^31), followed by Lucke, has endea
and the 60th uannn of the Laodicean Synod. voured to weaken their testimony ; but since the
Amphilochius of Iconium says that some re publication, by Cramer, of an old soholion re
garded it as a divine production, but that others lating to the words of Andreas, it is indubitable
rejected it. Eusebius* testimony respecting the that Papias's language refers to the present Apo
Asiatics is, that some rejected the Apocalyjise, calypse of John ("Haveniirk's Lucubrationes
while others placed it among the acknowledged Critic* ad Apoc. spectantes, Regioni. 1812, Svo.
(&fio\oyovfifva) books. Euthalins, when divid No. 1, p. 4, sq.). Melito, Bishop of Sardis, one
ing parts of the New Testament stichometrically, of the seven apocalyptic churches, wrote a work
says nothing whatever of the book ; and Cosmos exclusively on this thtok. Eusebius thus speaks
Indicopleustes excludes it from the list uf the of liis production (Hist. Eccles. iv. 26") : nod t4
canonical. In like manner Nicephorus, patriarch wfpl rov Zta&6\ov koI ttjs airotcttXvtyews 'lu&vvov.
of Constantinople in the ninth century, appears to From these words Sender endeavours to show
have placed it among the Antilegnmena. The that tlte books concerning the devil and the
witnesses already quoted to remove the authorship Ajmcalypse were one ami the same, a conclusion
from John the Apostle do not belong here, although which, if it were valid, would go to weaken the
many seem to nave entertained the opinion of testimony. But Melito calls it the Apocalypse
their present appropriateness. of John, implying that he regarded it as such ;
At the time of the Reformation, the controversy for had he suspected the book, Eusebius would
respecting the Apocalypse was revived. Erasmus hardly have omitted that circumstance. Jerome,
speaks suspiciously concerning it, while Luther in his catalogue of illustrious men, explicitly
expresses himself very vehemently against it. distinguishes two works, one respecting the devil,
' There are various ami abundant reasons,1 says the other relative to the Apocalypse. Theophilu,
he, 'why I regard this book as neither apostolical Bishop of Antioch (Euseb. iv. 24), in Ins book
nor prophetic. First, the aiwstles do not make use against Hermogenes, drew many proofs and argu
of visions, but prophesy in clear and plain lan ments from the Revelation ; so also Apullonius of
guage (as do Peter, Paul, and Christ also, in the Ephesus, according to the same ecclesiastical
620 REVELATION, BOOK OF. REVELATION, BOOK OF.
historian (v. 18). The testimony of Irenaeus is It is also necessary to attend to the testimony o?
most important, because he was in early life ac Ephrem definitely ascribing the Revelation to
quainted with Polyearn, who was John's disciple, John the Theologian, in connection with the
and because he resided in Asia Minor, where fact of the l)ook's absence from the Peshito, and
John himself abode during the latter part of his from Kbedjesu's catalogue of the books of Scrijn
life. Iu one place he says, 1 It was seen no ture received by the Syrians. Certainly its
long time ago, hut almost in our age, towards absence from this ancient version does not [irove
the end of Domitian's reign while he frequently its want of canouicity ; else the same might be
quotes it elsewhere as the Revelation of John, the affirmed of John's two epistles, and that of Jude,
disciple of tf\e Lord. It is true that De Wette none of which is found iu the same version.
and Crednerseek to cast suspicion on tins father's Probably the Peshito was made, nut, as Liicke
testimony, because he states that it was written and others affirm, at the conclusion of the second
under Domitian, which they regard as incorrect ; or commencement of the third century, but in
hut this point shall be noticed hereafter. To thefrsty before the Ajocalypse was written. Toe
these may be added the testimony of the maityrs words of Assemanni, iu relation to one of the
at Lyons, of Nepos (Euseb. vii. 23), Methodius passages in which Kphrem attributes the Revelation
of Tyre, Didymus of Alexandria, Cyprian, Lac- to John, are striking: 4 In hoc sermone citat s.
tatitius, Augustine, Athanasius, Basil the Great, doctor Aj>ocaly|isiu Johannis tanquam caiiuni-
EpiphaniusofCyprus, Jerome, Ephrem the Syrian, cam Script uramquod ideo uotavi, ut constaret
Rutinus the presbyter, Isidore of Pelusium, Hilary Syrorum autiquissiinorum de illius libri aucto-
of Poictou, Cyril of Alexandria, Arethas and An ritate judicium' (see Httvernick, p. 8, sq.).
dreas of Cappadocia, the Synod of Hippo, a.d. 393, That the Syrian church did not reject the book,
canon 36, the Synod of Toledo, a.d. 633, the may l>e inferred from the fact that the inscription
third council of Carthage, a.d. 397, Victorin of of the current Syriac version assigns it to Johu
Pettaw in Pannonia, Dionysius the Areopagite, the Evangelist. The witnesses already adduced
Sulpicius Severus, Job. Damascenus, CEcume- for ascribing the authorship to John the A(>ostie
nius, Amphilochius, Novatus and his followers, also belong to the present place, since iu attesting
the Manicures, the Donatists, the Arians, the the apostolic, they equally uphold the divine
latter Arnobius, Uhaban Maurus, Isidore of Spain, origin of the book.
Comniodian, and others. At the period of the Reformation, Flacius stre
It has been disputed whether Chrysostom re nuously upheld the authority of the Apocalypse,
jected the hook or not. The presumption is in and since his day able defenders of it have not
favour of the latter, as Liicke candidly allows. been wanting. Twells, C. F. Schmid, J. F. Reuss,
A similar presumption may be admitted in the Knittel, Storr, Luderwald, Hartwig, Kleuker,
case of Theodoret, although nothing very decisive Herder, Donker Curtius, Ilanlein, Bertholdt,
can be affirmed in relation to his opinion. Perhaps Eichhorn, Hug, Feilmoser, Kolthoff, Olshausen,
some may be inclined to dispute the testimony of J. P. Lange (Tholucks Lit. Anzeig. 1838),
Jerome in favour of the canonical authority, Daunemann, Hiivernick {Evangel. Kirchtnzeit,
because he says in his annotations on the 1 49th 1834, and Lucub. Critica), Guerike, Schnitier
Psalm, ' The Apocalypse which is read and (Allgem. Literalurzi it. 1S41), Zeller (Deutsche
received in the churches is not numbered among Jahrb.t 1841), and others. Most of these writert
the apocryphal books, but the ecclesiastical.' 1 In seem to rest all the credit and authority of ttt
the strict sense of the term,' says Hug, an hook on the fact of its being written by John the
ecclesiastica scriptura is a book of only secondary Ajwstle, while one or two of the later critics
rank. It is well known that a contemporary of attribute it to the apostle, for the sake of inva
Jerome divides the hooks of the Old and New lidating and ruining the fourth Gospel. The
Testament, together with those which make any external evidence in favour of its authenticity
pretensions to he such, into canonici, ecclesiastici, and genuineness is overwhelming. This is par
et apocryphi. Now if Jerome affixed the same ticularly the case in regard to the Latin church.
meaning as this writer to the expression lifter In the Greek, doubts were more prevalent, until
ecclesiasiicus, we have here a very singular fact. they were lost iu the dark night of the middle
The Latins then placed this book in the second ages. Montanism tirst aroused and drew atten
class among the disputed books. Thus it will tion to the question, for the adherents of that false
have been assigned to each of the three classes. system based their tenets almost exclusively on
But Jerome does not attach to this word the the Revelation. Hence we may account iu some
strict signification which it bears with his con degree for the sentiments of Dionysius of Alex
temporary ; for, in his Epistle to Dardanus, he andria, who contended against the millennarian
says, " If the Latins do not receive the Epistle to NejHJS.
the Hebrews among the canonical Scriptures, so, Thus the general tenor of the external evidence
with equal freedom, the Greek churches do not is clearly in favour of the canonical authority,
receive John's Apocalypse. I, however, ac while internal circumstances amply confirm it.
knowledge both, for I do not follow the custom The style, language, and manner of the book,
of the times, but the authority of older writers, cannot I>e mistaken. In dignity and sublimity
who draw arguments from both, as being it is equal to any of the New Testament writings,
canonical and ecclesiastical writings, and not if not superior to them all. The variety arid
merely as apocryphal books are sometimes used." force of the images impress the mind of every
Here Jerome has so expressed himself, that we reader witli conceptions of a divine origin.
must believe he made no difference between Surely no uninspired man could have written in
canonical and ecclesiastical, and affixed no such a strain.
stronger signification to the one than to the other' III. The time and place at which it was
(Hug's Introd., translated by Fosdick, pp. 661-2). written.In ascertaining these points there is
REVELATION, BOOK OF. REVELATION, BOOK OK. 62 *
considerable difficulty. The prevalent opinion In the absence of definite external evidence,
is, that the book was written a.d. 96 or U7, at internal circumstances come to our aid. These
Patmos or Ephesus, after Domitian's death, t. e. show that Jerusalem had not been destroyed.
under Nerva. So Mill, Le Clerc, Basnage,' Had such a catastrophe already happened, it
Lardner, Woodhouse, and others. This is sup would scarcely have been left unnoticed. An
posed to be in accordance with the tradition, that event pregnant with momentous consequences to
John was sent into Patmos inwards the end of the cause of trutli anil the fortunes of the early
Domitian's reign, and that lie there received the church, would most probably have been men
Revelation, agreeably to the statement in ch. i. 9. tioned or referred to. But there are distinct re
The fart that John was banished to Patmos is ferences to the impending destruction of the city.
attested by antiquity, and seems to be hinted In chap. xi. 1, it is commanded to measure the
at in ver. 9, in which we must helieve, in temple, obviously pre-supposing that it still
opposition to Neander, that there is a necessary stood. In verse 2, the holy city is about to be
reference to sufferings on account of the (iospel. trodden by the Gentiles forty-two months ; and
It is mentioned by Irenscus, Clement of Alex in the 13th verse of the same chapter, the same
andria, Tertullian, Origen, Ensebius, and Jerome. event is also noticed. Besides, the sixth emperor
The time, however, is very differently stated. Eu- was still sitting on the throne when the writer
sehiusand Jerome attribute theexile to Domitiau ; was favoured with the visions (xvii. 10). Five
the Syriac version of the Apocalypse, Theophy- kings or emperors had already fallen, one was
lact, and the younger Hippolytus, assign it to then reigning, and the other had not come. The
Nero ; Kpiphanius to Claudius ; while Tertullian, most natural interpretation of the sixth king is
Clement, and Origen, give it no name. It has that which, beginning the series with J ulius
been conjectured that Domitius (Nero) and Caesar, fixes upon Nero : so Bertholdt uud
Domitiau were early interchanged, and that even Koeliler. Gallwi is of course the seventh, and
the testimony of Irenseus refers rather to Domi agreeably to the prophecy he reigned but seven
tius (Nero) than to Domiiian. The following months. That such was the usual mode of com
is the passage in question ; o08i yap irph iroAXou putation, Koeliler has attempted successfully to
Xpivov iupdOrj, aAAa (rx*$bv eirl Hjs riperfpas show from the fourth book of Ezra and Jusephus's
7ceas, wpor t TA.fi rrjs Aofitrtavov apx*}* Antiquities; which is confirmed by Suetmnns's
(Adters. liter, lib. v. p. 419. ed. Grabe). If Ttcelve Cetsars, uud by t he Sibylline oraclts, fifth
A-iuf r.avnv I* an adjective formed from the book.* We are aware that Eichhorn reckons from
substantive Aofirrtos, it will mean ' belonging to Aiitrustus, and niiikes the sixth VespasianOtho,
Domitiuj' (seeGuerike, Ui^torisch-Krit. Einleit. Galha. and Viletlius being {Hissed over; ami
pp. 235, G). But whatever plausibility there be that Kwahl, Liicke, and others, beginning also
in this conjecture (and there seems to be none), with Augustus, make Gains the sixth, the em
the language of Tertullian, Clement, and Origen, peror * that is;' but it was contrary to the usual
is more appropriate to Nero than to Domitian. method of reckoning among the Jews and Romans
Besides, if Peter and Paul suffered from the to commence with that emperor. Yet the opinion
cruel tyrant, it is difficult to conceive how that tlie sixth emperor was Nero, is liable to objec
John could have eluded notice or persecution. tion. The 8th and 1 1th verses appear to contradict
Indeed early ecclesiastical tradition is as favour it, for they state that * he teas, and is not.' It will
able to the assumption that John was sent into be observed that in these verses un explanation re
tianishment by Nero, as it is to the opinion rhat specting the 1 "-a ' is given, couched in the language
he was exiled by Domitiau. Thus Ensebius, of current report. The words amount to this
who in his Chronicon and Ecclesiastical History The beast winch thou sawest is the emperor, of
follows Irenaeus. in his Demon. Ecanyet., asso whom it is commonly believed that he shall be
ciates t he Patmos-exile with the death of Peter assassinated) recover from the wound, no to the
and Paul who suffered under Nero. But we East, and return from it to desolate the church
are not left to external grounds on thp question and inflict terrible punishments on his enemies.'
before us, else the decision might lie uncertain ; Nero is described, according to the common
for tn- tradition of the early church in regard to beliefa belief that prevailed before his death*
the banishment of John is neither consistent nor In chap. xiii. 3, it is not implied that Nero teas
valuable: it will not stand the test of modern then tieady for the holy seer beheld things a
criticism. Hence the view of those who think fitWet yeve<r6ai as well as tilings a eiVi: and the
that it was manufactured solely from chap. i. y, passage is descriptive of a vision, not explana*
is exceedingly probable. Taken from such an tory of one pi eviousty pourtrayed. We conclude,
origin, it was slui|ied in various ways. The therefore, thai the apostle saw the visions during
jKis-atje in question certainly implies that John the reign of the bloody and cruel Nero, Still,
had l>ecn a untVerer for the Gospel1! sake, and however, he may have written the book not at
that he either withdrew to Patmos before the Patmos, but immediately after his return to
fury of persecution burst upon him, or that he Ephesus, if so be that he did return thither before
was compelled to betake himself to that lonely Nero ceased to live. It has l>een inferred that
island in consequence of (msitive opposition. the book was written after he hud hem in
The language of the fathers in recording this Patmos, because 4yev6ixTjv is used in chap, i.
tradition also shows, that they did not carefully 9, 10. The use of tins tense, however, by
distinguish between the time of writing the no means militates against the view of those who
visions and the time when they tcere received. assert that he wrote as well as saw the visions in
Sometimes it is said that the Apocalypse was Patmos, and consequently does not prove that
written in Patmos, but much more frequently it
i* simply stated that revelations tcere there made * See Lucke's objections to this view, which
to the seer. cannot be refuted here, at p. 251, notes 1 and 2.
622 REVELATION, BOOK OF. REVELATION, BOOK OF.
the book was written at Ephesua. The verb in forbade violence to the persons of Christians, and
ver. 10 may aptly refer to the commencement of the apostle in consequence withdrew for a time
that ecstatic state into which he was thrown for from the scene of his labours.
the purpose of receiving mysterious disclosures 2. The most probable interpretation is, that
to the time when lie lirst began to l>e iv irvcvfiart ; Nicolaitans is a symbolic name signifying cor
and in ver. 9 it may in like manner allude to rupters of the people, equivalent to Balaam in
the commencement* of his exile. In view of all Hebrew. It is true that Irenteus speaks of such
circumstances we are inclined to assume that a sect in his time, deriving the appellation from
the Apocalypse was written during the reign of the deacon Nicolaus (Acta ii.), and representing
Nero, when persecution hxid commenced, as many the allusion in the Ajwcalyftse as belonging to it.
passages imply, and, therefore, at Patmos. It The sect called the Nicolaitans, spoken of by
weighs nothing with us that Eichhom, Bleek, and Clement, is probably not the same as that men
De Wette conjectural ly assume that the place tioned in the Apocalypse (Neander, Rirchengt&ch.
mentioned in i. 9 may be a jKWtieal fiction: 1. 2, p. 775, sq.).
even Kwald opposes such a thought, 3. A close examination of the language ad
Before leaving this subject it is necessary to dressed to each of the seven churches will show
glance at the circumstances supposed to show that it may have been appropriate in the year of
thjt the hook was not written till after Nero*s our Lord 68. It does not by any means imply
death. Tbe general expeclation of his return that there had been an open persecution in the
(xvii. 11), and the allusions to the persecutions provinces. About a.d. 61 the church of Ephesus
of Christians under him (vi. 9 ; xvii. 6), as also is commended by Paul for their faith and luv<
the pre-supposed fact of most of the apostles (Epli. i. 15), which is quite consistent with Rev. ii
being dead (xviii. 20). are stated by De Wette. 2, 3 ; while ttoth are in agreement with the censure
But in xvii. II, the apostle merely describes that the members had left their fiat l'#ve. In tin
Nero according to the common reporta report lapse of a very few years, and Mpc.iuUj io tryiui
current before his death, the substance of which circumstances, the ardour of then \vfsue\\ cooled
was, that after reigning a while he should appear The patience for which they aie ':( mi-wnded re*
again, and make an eighth, though one of the fere, as the context shows, to '.be temptation*
seven. The passages, vi. 9 and xvii. 0, allude to which they suffered frotn wicked ami corrupting
different events, the former to the souls of the teachers, and the difficulties' af(*udant upon th*
martyrs that had been slain by the Jews, the faithful exercise of discipline fa the church
latter to the persecutions of imperial Rome Similar wus the case with the cuurch at Smyrna
generically. According to the right reading of their tribulation having chief inference to th.
xviii. 20, it does not imply that most of the blasphemy of Satan's synagogue.
apostles were already dead. 4. In regard to Antipas not!" ing is knowp
In conformity with the testimony of Irenrous, He suffered at Pergamos, but under what empv-
understood in the ordinary acceptation-, it has been ror, or in wlut circumstances, is uncertain. It
very generally believed that the book was written is not at all necessary to our hypothesis to assume
under Domitian, a.d. 96 or 97. But the vague that he was put to death during Nero's j>erje-
report of the apostle's banishment, current iimong cut tuii. Individual Christians were put to dea i.
early writers in different and varying forms, even in the provinces before the time of New .
must not l> allowed to set aside internal evidence, On the whole, we see no good grn'Uid for beli*v
esj>ecially the clearly-defined chronological ele ing that the book was written in the time c
ments of the xi. and xvii. chapter*. Claudius, or Galba, or Vespasian, or Dom'uiau,
The arguments adduced in favour of Domi or Trajan, or Adrian, though all these have been
tian*s reign are the following : advocated ; nor is theie sufficient reason for sepa
1. Nero's persecution did not reach the pro rating the time of the writing from that of the
vinces. 2. The Nicolaitans did not form a sect receiving of the visions. In view of all circum
when the Iwok was written, although they are stances we assign it to the time of Nero, and the
spoken of as such. 3. The condition of the locality of Patmos, a.d. 67 or 68. Sir Isaac
seven churches, as pourtrayed in the Apocalypse, Newlou long ago fixed upon ihe same date.
shows tliat they hail been planted a considerable IV. Unity of the book. A few writers have
time. 4. Mention is made pf the martyr A ut i|>as thought that the Apocalypse w.is written at differ
at Pergamns, who could not have suffered death ent limes by the same author, as G' rot ins, Ham
in Nero's reign, localise the persecution did not mond, and Bleek ; or by different authors, ai
reach the provinces (Leiriant and Beausobre's Vogel. Such dismemberment is nt9 abandoned.
Preface sur I'Apoc. de S. Jean, pp. 613-14; Even De Wette allows that no ream -able doubts
and Vitringa, in Apoc., cap. i. v. 2, p. 9-11). can be entertained of its unity, li e entire book
1. In order to account for John's banishment is so regular in its structure, so intimately con
to Patmos, it is not needful to believe that the nected ia one paragmph with another, that all
spirit of ]>ersecution raged at Ephesus. While must have proceeded from the same writer. If
it was so active at Rome, we may ><iirly infer the nature of prophetic peispscttra be rightly un
that the Christians in the provinces trembled for derstood, all will apjiear to bo rvihnal and easy.
their safety. Whatever affected the capital so John saw thiugs past, present, Hfld future at once.
fearfully, would naturally affect the distant parts He did not need to wait for the progress of events
of the empire to a greater or less extent; and for events were presented to hi* vision just as
John's retirement to Patmos does not necessarily the Spirit willed. Hence the present tense is so
pre-suppose the horrors of fire and sword. The much used in place of the future. The hypotheses
storm h as seen to lower; the heathen magistrates, of Grotius, Vogel, and Bleek, have been refuted
as well as the Jews, put forth their enmity in by Liicke ; and that of Hammond requires not
various forms, even when the edicts of emperor* now the like examination.
REVELATION, BOOK OP. REVELATION, BOOK OF. 639
V. The class of writings to which it belongs. was primarily meant to subserve a definite end.
<Pareus seems to have been the first who started When first written, it was destined to suit the
the idea of its being a dramatic poem. The peculiar circumstances of the early Christians.
tame opinion was also expressed by Hartwig. But The times were troublous. Persecution had ap
the genius of Eichhorn wrought out the sugges peared in various forms. The followers of Christ
tion into a theory pervaded by great symmetry were exposed to severe sufferings for conscience
and beauty. Hence the opinion that it forms a sake. Their enemies were fierce against them.
regular dramatic poem is associated witli his Comparatively few and feeble, the humble dis
name alone. According to him the divisions ciples of the Lamb seemed doomed to extinction.
are: 1. The title, chap. i. 1-3. 2. The pro But the writer of' the Ajiocaiypse was prompted
logue, i, 4iii. 22. 3. The drama, iv. 1xxii. 5. to present to them such views as were adapted to
Act 1. The capture of Jerusalem, or the triumph encourage them to steadfastness in the faithto
of Christianity over Judaism, vii. Cxii. 17. comfort them in the midst of calamityand to
Act 2. The capture of Rome, or the triumph of arm them with resolution to endure all the as
Christianity over Paganism, xii. 18xx. 10. saults of their foes. Exalted honours, glorious
Act 3. The new Jerusalem descends from heaven, rewards, are set before the Christian soldier who
or the felicity which is to endure forever, xx. 11 should endure to the end. A crown of victory
xxii. 5. 4. The epilogue, xxii. 0-21 ; (a) of the the approbation of the Redeemereverlasting
angel, xxii. 6; (b) of Jesus, xxii. 7-16; (c) ot felicity;these are prepared for the patient be
John, xxii. 16-2U. The apostolical benediction, liever. In connection with such rejircsentations,
xxii. 21. the final triumph of Christianity and the Mes
As this theory is now abandoned by all exposi- siah's jieaceful reign with his saints, form topics
tors, it needs no refutation. It is exceedingly on which the writer dwells with emphatic earnest
ingenious, but without foundation. To represent ness (See chap. i. 1-3; ii. 1 : iii. 22; xxii. 6,
the book as made up of little else than sublime 7, 10-17). The suffering Christiana of primitive
scenery and fiction, is contrary to the analogy times may have sorrowfully thought that they
of such Old Testament writings as bear to it should never t>e able to stand the shock of their
the greatest resemblance. Something more is bitter and bloody assailants, the power and policy
intended than a symbolic description of the tri of the world Wing leagued against them but
umph of Christianity over Judaism and Pagan the statements of the writer all tend to the
ism. The book contains historic narrative. It conclusion that truth should make progress in
exhibits real prophecies, which must have had the earth, and the church, emerging out of all
their accomplishment in distiuct events and indi struggles, wax stronger and stronger. If such be
viduals. It consists of a prophetic poem. Its the primary and principal aim of the book, it
diction is, with some exceptions, the diction of follows that we should not look in it for a history
poetry. It is not made up of a series of disjointed of the kingdoms of the world. To compose a
visions ; it is regular in its structure and artificial civil histnry did not com[>ort with the writer s
in its arrangement. According to the rules of object. The genius of Christ's kingdom is totally
rhetoric, it nearly approaches art ei>opee. Those different from that of the kingdoms of the world.
who thoroughly examine it with a view to dis It advances steadily and silently, independently of,
cover the arrangement and connection of ]>arts and frequently in opposition to them. Hence the
will observe unity and artificiality in the dispo Apocalypse cannot contain a history of the world.
sition of the whole. It hears an analogy to the It exhibits a history of the church, specially of
prophetic writings of the Old Testament, esi>e- its early struggles with the powers of darkness
cially to those of Daniel. It is obvious, there and the malice of superstition. This last remark
fore, that a deep and thorough study of the Old leads to another of chief importance to the inter
Testament prophets should precede the study of preter of the hook before us, viz., that it princi
the Apocalypse. If it bear a close resemblance pally relates to events past, present, and sj*edily
in many of its features tothe inspired productions to happen in connection with t he Christian reli
of a former disjwnsation ; if the writer evidently gion as viewed from the writer's stand-point.
imitated the utterances of Daniel, Ezekiel. and The glances at the past are brief, but references
Zechariah ; if his language be more Hebraistic to the circumstances of the church at the lime
than that of the New Testament generally, the are numerous and diversified, while rapidly
interpreter of the book should be previously qua coming catastrophes and triumphs are jxmrt rayed
lified by a familiar acquaintance with the sym in full and vivid colours. Trials impending
bols, imagery, diction, and spirit of the Old Tes over the church, and judgments over her enemi- s,
tament poets and prophets. in the time of the apostle,these form the burden
VI. The object for which it teas originally of the prophecy. This conclusion is fully sus
written.The books of the New Testament, like tained both by the prologue and epilogue, although,
those of the Old, were designed to promote the in strange to say, it has been overlooked by the ma
struction of God's people in all ages. They were jority of expositors. What language can be mitre
adapted to teach, exhort, and reprove all man explicit than this: 'Blessed is he that readeth,
kind. They do not belong to the class of ephe and they that hear the words of this prophecy,
meral writings that have long since fulfilled the for the time is at hand' ' The revelation of
purpose for which they were originally composed. Jesus Christ, which God gave unto him, to show
Their object was not merely a local or partial unto his servants things which must sJwrily come
one. So of the Apocalypse. It is suited to all. to pass.' * He which testifieth these things sail 1 1,
* Blessed is he that readeth, and they that hear Sun ly I come quickly. Amen, even so, Come
the words of this prophecy.' But this general Lord Jesus.'
characteristic is perfectly consistent with the fact VII. Its contents.The body of the work is
that it arose out of specific circumstances, and contained in chaps, iv.-xxii. G, and is almo-f
CM REVELATION, BOOK OF. REVELATION, BOOK OF.
entirely a series of symbolic representations. To vention of priest or solemnity, as in the abrogated
this is prefixed a prologue (i.-iv). A brief epi economy. Thus tlie Jewish ritual is done away;
logue is subjoined (xxii. 6-21). The prologue is the Jews as a nation of persecutors are destroyed ;
of considerable length, embracing separate epistles and free scope is given to the new religion.
to the seven churches in Asia Minor. John had This portion, therefore, of the prophetic book
lived and laboured fur a time in the region where depicts the downfall ofJerusalem, and the triumph
these churches were planted. Probably lie was of Christianity over Judaism. The Son of Man
personally known to many of the believers of came in fearful majesty to punish the guilty
which they were composed. Now that the other nation, as had been predicted.
aiiostles were dispersed or dead, the care of them We are aware that some deny tlie existence of
devolved ii|K)n himself. As their spiritual super a catastrophe in the 11th chapter. Schott says
intendent, he naturally felt the most intense and that it is procrastinated, although the reader here
lively interest in their growing prosperity and exfleets it. But Grotius long ago saw the point
steadfastness in the faith. The storm of persecu in its true light, and remarked : 4Solet apostolus
tion had fallen upon the apostles and believers at mala gravia brevibus verbis, sed efticacihus pras-
Rome, striking fear into their brethren in the re tervehi, bona eloqui liberaliter.'
mote provinces of the empire. It is highly pro The 21th chapter of Matthew, with the corre
bable, from other sources, that the Christians in sponding paragraphs of the other two Gospels,
these regions had been already visited with such treats of the same subject, though in much hriefei
trials (see 1st Kp. of Pe(er). After the prologue compass. Jt may be regarded as the ground
or introduction, which is peculiarly fitted to ad work of chaps, iv.-xi. of tlie Ajiocalypse, and
monish and console amid suffering, we come to should be carefully compared by the interpreter.
the tM>dy of the work itself, commencing with the The second division, chaps, xii.-xix., depicts
fourth chapter. This may lie appropriately di the sufferings inflicted on the church by the
vided into three parts : (I.) iv.-xi. ; (2.) xii.-xix. ; heathen Roman power, and tlie triumph of Chris
(3.) xx.-xxii. 5. The first narrates the fortunes tianity over this formidable enemy also. Here
and fate of Christ's followers to the destruction of tlie writer hits special reference to the cruel Nero,
Jerusalem, when the coming of the Saviour took as ch. xvii. 10, 11, which can only be consistently
place. Here the triumph of Christianity over interpreted of Aim, demonstrates. This iiart com
Judaism is exhibited, as the conclusion demon mences with a description of the Saviour s birth,
strates. The following particulars are comprised who is represented as springing from the theocracy
in this portion. or theocratic church, and of Satan's malignity
A vision of the divine glory in heaven, ana against him. Cast out of heaven by Michael and
logous to the vision which Isaiah had, as re the good angels, Satan turns his rage upon the
corded in the 6th chapter of his prophecies. followers of Christ on earth. Hitherto l here is no
An account of the sealed book, with seven seals, account of the Romish persecuting power; and it
which none but the Lamb could open ; and the is an inquiry worthy of attention, why John com
Eraises of 1 lie Lamb sung by the celestial inha- mences with the birth of the Saviour and Satan's
itants. The opening of the first six seals. Before opposition to the early church, thus mcttimg to
the owning of the seventh, 44,000 are sealed out a period prior to that which had been gone over
of the tribes of the children of Israel, and an already. Why does not the seer carry on the
innumerable multitude with palms in their hands series of symbolic predictions from the destruction
are seen before t lie throne. After the opening of of the Jewish power? Why does he not commence
the seventh, the catastrophe is delayed by the at tlie point where, in the preceding chapter, he
sounding of seven trum|>ets, (he first six of which had left off'/ The question is not easily answered.
cause great plagues and hasten on the judgment. It cannot well be doubted that the brief notice of
Yet, before the last trumpet sounds, a mighty tlie Saviour's birth, and of Satan's unsuccessful
angel, with a rainbow round his head, appears attempt upon heaven ami the holy child, is merely
with an open Imok in bis hand, announcing that introductory to tlie proper subject. Perhaps John
the mystery of God should be finished when the carries the reader back to the origin of Chris
seventh angel should begin to sound. On this tianity, when Satan was peculiarly active, in
he gives the book to the seer, commanding him to order to link his malignant opposition as embodied
eat it up, and to prophesy hereafter concerning in the persecuting violence of heathen Rome, to
many people, countries, and kings. After this the his unceasing attacks upon the truth even from
interior of the temple, with its Jewish worshippers, the very birth of Christ. This would serve to
is measured by the prophet, while the outer court keep up in the reader's recollection the memory
is excepted and given over to the heathen for the of Satan's past opposition to religion, and also
pace of forty-two mouths. But, notwithstanding prepare for a readier apprehension of symbols
the long-suffering mercy of God, the Jews con descriptive of his further malevolence. The second
tinue to persecute the faithful witnesses, so that part therefore begins, properly speaking, with the
they are punished by the fall of a tenth part of 13th chapter, the 12th being simply preparatory.
the holy city in an earthquake. Hence 7000 men A beast rises out of the sea with seven heads
perish, and the remainder, affrighted, give glory and ten boms. To it the dragon gives power*
to God. After this the seventh angel sounds, and The heathen power of Home, aided by Satan,
the Lord appears, to inflict the final blow on makes war upon the saints and overcomes them.
Jerusalem and its inhabitants. The catastrophe Presently another beast appears to assist the
takes place; the heavenly choir gives thanks to former, with two horns, as a lamb, but speaking
God for the victory of Christianity ; and the as a dragon. This latter symbolizes the heathen
temple of God is opened in heaven, so that he is priests assisting the civil power in its attempts to
accessible to all, being disclosed to the view of crush the Saviour's adherents. Then comes the
the whole earth as their God, without the inter vision of tlie Lamb and the 144,000 elect on
REVELATION, BOOK OF. REVELATION, BOOK OF. 625
Mount Sinn. Doubtless this vision is introduced strophe heaven resounds with praises. The mar
at the present place to sustain and elevate the riage-supper of the Lamb is announced, and the
hopes of the struggling Christians during the church is permitted to array herself in fine linen.
dominance of this power. Such as had passed But the destruction is not yet completed. Another
triumphant through the fiery trials sing a new act in the great drama remains. A battle is to be
song of victory, in the undisturbed |>osspssion of fought with the combined powers of the empire.
everlasting happiness. Three angels are nw in Heaven opens. The conqueror on the white horse
troduced with proclamations of the speedy down appears again, and an angel calls upon the fowls
fall of heathenism, and of divine judgments on to come and eat the ilesh of the Lord's enemies,
the persecuting power. The tirst announces that for the victory is certain. Accordingly, the beast
the everlasting Gospel should l>e preached ; the and the false prophet are taken anil cast alive into
second, that the great city Rome is fallen. The the lake of fire and brimstone. The congregated
third speaks of tremendous judgments that should hosts are slain by the word of the Redeemer.
befall those who ajfosfat ized to heathenism; while, Such is the second great catastrophe, the fall of
on the other hand, a voice from heaven proclaims the persecuting heathen ]K>werthe triumph of
the blessedness of such as die in the Lord. But Christianity over paganism.
the final catastrophe is yet delayed : it is not fully The third leading division of the hook reaches
come. The Saviour again appears sitting on a from ch. xx. to xxii. 6, inclusive. This is the
white cloud, with a sharp sickle in his hand. only portion that stretches to a period far remote
Three angels also appear with sickles, and the from the time of the writer. It is added to com
harvest is reaped. The catastrophe rapidly a|>- plete the delineation ofChrist's kingdom unearth.
proachrs. Seven angels are seen with seven vials, Though his main design was accomplished in the
which are successively pound out on the seat of preceding chapters, John was reluctant, so to speak,
the least. The first six are represented as tor to leave the sublime theme without glancing at
menting and weakening the Unman power in distant times, when the triumphs of righteousness
different ways, until it should be overthrown. should be still more marked and diffusive, when
At last the seventh angel discharges Ins vial of Satan's power should be remarkably restrained,
wrath, ami heaven resounds with the cry, It is and the lost great conflict of heathen and anti-
done, while voices, thunders, lightnings, and a christiau power with the Redeemer should ter
mighty earthquake, conspire to heighten the terror minate for ever the church's existence on earth :
and complete the catastrophe. Rome is divided ushering in the general judgment, the everlasting
into three parts; the cities of the heathen fall; woe of the wicked, and the glorified stale of the
the islands llee away, and the mountains sink. righteous. Here the writer's sketches are brief
Men, tormented, blaspheme Ood. After tins, the and rapid. But when we consider the place in
destruction of the Romish power is described more which they are introduced, the inconceivable na
particularly. The writer enters into detail. All ture of the happiness referred to, and the ten
angel takes the seer to show him more closely the dency of minds the most Chrisrianized to attach
desolation of the church's enemy- The Roman seiMuous ideas to figures descriptive of everlasting
power then reigning is indicated somewhat myste misery and endless felicity, their btevity is amply
riously, though in such a way as would l*> intel justified. A glorious period now commences, but
ligible to the Christians whom John addressed. how long after the preceding events is not affirmed.
This power is emlx>diel and personified in Nero, That a considerable interval may l>e assumed we
who, though not named, is yet not obscurely de deduce from the description itself. Satan is
signated. He is tlte l>east * that was, and i* not, Ixiuiid, or his influences restrained, a thousand
and yet is.1 'The story that Nero was not really years, throughout the seat of the beast. Chris
dead, but had retired to the Euphrates, and would tianity is spread abroad and prevails in the Roman
return again from thence, appears here more fully empire. But after the thousand years are expired,
delineate! by a Christian imagination. He is the Satan is set free nnd begins again to practise his
monster to whom Satan gave all his power, who deceptions. He incites Gog and Magog to battle.
returns as Antichrist and the destroyer of Rome, The camp til" the saints and the beloved rity are
who will force all to worship bis image. The invaded by the assembled hosts. But fire from
Roman empire at that time is set forth as the heaven devours the adversaries, while the devil
representative of heathenism, and of ungodly is again taken anil cast into the lake of lire.
]K)wer personified ; and in this connection, under After this (how long is unknown) comes the
the image of the beast with seven heads (the seven general resurrection, the last judgment, and the
emperors which would succeed one another till doom of the wicked. For the righteous a new
the appearance of Antichrist), Nero is signified heaven and a new earth are prepared, in which
as one of these heads (xiii. 3), which appeared they shall be jmfectly free from sin and cor
dead, but whose deadly wound was healed, so ruption. With this the visions end, and an
that to universal astonishment he appeared alive epilogue closes up the book.
again. Nero, re-appearing after it had !>een lie- From the preceding outline it will be seen that
lieved that he was dead, is the beast * which was, the l>ody of the work consists of three leading
and is nut, ami shall ascend out, of the bottomless divisions, in which are pourirayed the proceedings
pitand yet is* (Rev. xvii. 6), (Neander, History of God towards the Jews; the rise and progress of
of the Planting and Training of the Christian the Christian church, till through much struggling
Churchy translated by Ryland, vol. ii. p. 5K, it possessed the Roman empire, partly by convert
note). After this, Babylon or the Roman power, ing and partly destroying the heathen; the mil
is represented as fallen, and the few remaining lennium, succeeded by the resurrection and judg
believers are exhorted to depart out of her. A ment, and the glorious felicity of the saints in the
mighty angel casts a great stone into the sea, an heavenly Jerusalem.
emblem of the ruin of tluu power. At the cata- In this summary view of the content!, it has
YOL. II.
626 REVELATION, BOOK OF. REVELATION, BOOK OF.
been found inconvenient to introduce any thing is striking, but not demonstrative of that for which
in the way of exposition beyond general remarks it is instituted. The imagery indeed is substan
and hints. As to diversities of sentiment in regard tially the same, anil probably the New Testa
to the interpretation of different portions, our limits ment seer imitated Jsaiah ; but the strain of the
will not admit of their statement, much less an former rises far higher than the sublime vision
examination of their respective merit. depicted by the ancient prophet.
In opposition to the majority of German writers, VIII. Some errors into which the expounders
as Bleek, Schott, Liicke, Ewald, De Wette, and ofthe book have fallen. It would not i>e an easy
others, the existence of a catastrophe at the ter task to enmneiate all t he mistakes committed by
mination of the 1 1 tli chapter has been assumed. interpietert in the Held of prophecy as unfolded
A primary reason for so doing is the mention of in the Apocalypse. We shall cursorily glance
great thundering* (voices) in heaven (xi. lft), at a few in connection with their causes.
which are always the emblems of fearful judg 1. When the historic basis is abandoned, ima
ments. Accordingly, in the parallel phrase gination has ample range fur her wildest extra
(x. 3), it is said th.it seven thunders uttered their vagances. The Apocalyptic visions are kised
voices, denoting the signal and complete blow Upon time ami placeelements that ought never
about to be inflicted on Jerusalemthe destruc to he neglected by the exegetical inquirer. Tims
tion consummated in the third and last woe we are informed that the things mutt shortly
(xi. 14). In like manner, at the destruction of come to pass (i. I), and that the time is at
heathen Rome there were 1 voices and thunders hand (ver. 3). So also in chap, xxii., it is stated,
and lightnings' (xvi. IS). It were useless to re that the tilings must shortly be done (ver. 6),
count the different expositions of ch. xvii. 1'). while the Saviour affirms, 1 Behold. I come
We have adopted the only one that appears to quickly' (ver. 7. 20). These notices are significant
be tenable in connection with the surrounding as to the period to which the visions principally
context. Liicke's view is the most plausible, refer; and the coining of Christ, announced to
and lias therefore gained the assent of Neander, take place within a short time, denotes those re
Reuss, and others. Hug's must be regarded as markable judgments which impended over his
unfortunate. enemies. There are also mentioned three cities
The position of the Millennium is a matter of forming the theatre of the sublime and terrible
great difficulty. Professor Bush contends that it occurrences described. 1. Sodom, Kgypt, de
should l>e regarded as commencing somewhere signated as the place where our Lord was cruci
between a.d. 395 and a.d. 450, and terminating fied, and the holy city. This cau mean none
not far from the capture of Constantinople by the other place than Jerusalem. 2. Babylon, built on
Turks, a.d. 1453. Not very dissimilar is the seven hills. This is Rome. 3. The New Jeru
opinion of Hammond, viz., that the jwriod in salem. The fiist two are doomed to destruction.
question reaches from Constantine's edict in They also depict Judaism and heathenism; for
favour of Christianity to the planting of Moham when the capitals fell, the empires sank into feeble
medanism in Greece by Othman. In either case ness and decay. The New Jerusalem, the king
the Millennium is past. dom of the blessed, succeeds the two former as a
To the hypothesis so ably supported by Bush kingdom that shall never be moved. There are also
we hesitate to accede, l>ecause the description historic [HTsonages that appear in (lie book. The
given in the 20th chapter is extravagantly lign- seven Roman emjiemrs are mentioned, while Nero
rative as appropriated to any period of the church's ill particular is significantly referred to. Now,
history already past; and also because his in except the interpreter keep to historic ground, he
terpretation of the dragon ap)tears inconsistent will assuredly lose himself in endless conjectures,
with the second verse of the 20th chapter. Ac as is exemplified in a remarkable manner by the
cording to this ingenious writer, the dragon is the anonymous author of Hyponota (New York, Iftli,
mystic name of Paganism in its leading cha Hvo.), who supposes the book to be 'an unviling
racter of idolatry and despotism combined^ an of the mysterious truths of Christian doctrine,
hypothesis apparently countenanced by the 12th with an exhibition of certain opposite errors a
chapter, which the reader is requested to examine. revelation made by Jesus Christ of himselfan
But it will be observed, that in the 20th chapter, intellectual manifestation.1
the beast and the false prophet are expressly dis 2. Others have fallen into grievous error by
tinguished from the dragon ; so that by the dragon seeking a detailed history of the church universal
Satan alone must he meant as distinct from the in the Revelation. Some even find an epitome
civil and ecclesiastical power of heathen imperial of the church's entire history in the Epistle* to
Rome. The beast had been already cast into the .Seven Churches; others, in the rest of the
the lake before Satan was thrown into the same book ; others again in both. Agreeably to such
place, and by the former is obviously meant the a scheme, particular events are assigned to jiar-
civil des]K)tism of Paganism. ticular periods, persons are specified, peoples are
In regard to the period described in Rev. xxi., characterized, and names assigned with the greatest
xxii., denoted by the new heavens and the new particularity. The ablest interpreters alter this
earthy we are quite aware of the opinion main fashion are Vitringa, Mede, and Faber ; but the
tained by Hammond, Hug, Hush, and others, entire plan of proceeding is inconsistent with the
viz., that it comprises an earthly flourishing writer's original purpose, and leads to endless
state of the church. Yet we must freely confess, mazes.
notwithstanding the very able manner in which 3. It is obvious that we should not look fur *
it has l>een advocated by Bush, that there is a circumstance, event, or person, corresponding to
degree of unsatisfactoriness about it. The paral every particular in the visions of the seer. 1 It is
lelism instituted between John's description and unnecessary to remark,' says Hug, ' that all thu
Isaiah liv. II, 12; lx. 3-11 ; Ixv. 17, 18, 19, 20, particular traits and images in this large work
REVELATION, BOOK OF. REVELATIONS, SPURIOUS. , 627
tre by no means significant. Many are Intro chaelis, Haenlein, Eichhorn, Ber+holdt, Hug,
duced only to enliven the representation, or are Feilmoser, De Wette, Credner, Schotr, Guerike;
taken from the prophets and sacred books for the Bleek's Beitriige zur Kritik der Offenbarung Jo-
puq>oee of ornament ; and no one who has any hannis (in the Zeitschrift of Sctdeiermacher.
judgment in such matters will deny that the work I)e Wette, and Lucke, it. 2o2, sq.); Kleuker^
is extraordinarily rich and gorgeous for a pro Other Urapruntf utui Zweck der QJfenbar. Jo-
duction of Western origin' (Fosdick s Transla hannia ; Steudel, Veber die richtige Auffossung
tion, p. 668). der Apocalypse (in BengePs N. Archiv, iv. 2);
4. The principle of synchronisms has been the Treatises of KolthofT, Lange, and Dannematm,
largely adopted by interpreters since the times of already referred to; Knittel's Beitriige zur Kritik
Mede and Vitringa. For an explanation anil uber Johatints Offenbarung ; Vogel's Commen-
defence of such a system, we refer the reader to tatio de Ajwc. Johannis, pt. i-vii. ; Neander's
Mede"i Claris Apocalyptica (Works, fol. London, History of the Planting and Training of the
1677, p. 419, sq.), where it is fully drawn out. Christian Church ; Olshausen s Proof of the
The method so ingeniously devised by this learned Genuineness of the Writings of the New Testa
writer has been followed by the great majority of ment (translated by Fosdick, Andover, 1838);
English expositors, especially by Faber in his Lardner's Credibility of the Gospel History,
Sacred Calendar of Prophecy, In this way the vols. i. and iii. 4to. edition; Havernick in the
same events are said to he represented by a suc Evangelische Kirchenzeitung* and Lucnbra-
cession of different series of symbols, the symbols tiones already quoted.
Iteing varied, but the things intended by them re (6.) Pareus, Grotius, Vitringa, Kichhorn, Hem-
maining the same. Instead, therefore, of the book riclis, Scholz, Ewald, Tinius, Bossuet, Alcassar,
being progressive continuously, it is progressive Hentenins, Sal moron, Herrenschneider, Hagen.
and retrogressive throughout. Sucli a plan, so Of English works Lowman's Commentary has
unlike that of the other prophetic hooks of Scri[>- l>een highly esteemed, though his scheme is wrong.
ture, is repugnant to the sober sense of every in Mede s Clavis and the Commentary attached to
telligent student of the Divine word. It intro it, have had great influence on subsequent writers ;
duces complication and enigma sufficient to Faber's Sacred Calendar of Prophecy is able and
ensure its rejection. Not a hint is given by John ingenious, but radically wrong; Sir Isaac New-
of any such method. It was left for the in tons Observations on the Apocalypse, and Bishop
genuity of after ages to decipher ; and when dis Newton's Remarks, are generally incorrect. Cun-
covered by the 1 father of prophetic interpretation,' ninghame has written various treatises illustrative
as Mede is frequently called, it is difficult to be of the A]H>calypse, but his lucubrations are dark
understood even by trie learned reader. There is and doubtful. Woodhouse's Commentary is per
no good reason for supposing that the series of vaded by commendable diligence and sobriety,
events symUilized does not progress. The repre though he has greatly deviated from the right
sentation is progressive, just as the events recorded mode of interpretation. We socially recom
by history are progressive. mend Hammond and Lee (Six Sermons on the
5. On the designations of time which occur Study of the Holy Scriptures, Loudon, 1830,
so frequently in the Apocalypse, this is not the 8vo.), who have perceived the right principle lying
place to enlarge. The entire subject is yet un at t he basis of a correct ex]x>sit ion ; to which may
settled. Those who take a day for a year must be added the Latin Notes of Grotius, and the
prove the correctness and Scriptural lw,sis of such perspicuous German Commentary of Tinius.
a principle. This is quite necessary after the The latest and largest work on the Apocalypse that
arguments advanced by Maitland and Stuart to has appeared in England is Elliott's Hone Apo
show that a day means no more than a day, and calyptica, in 3 vols. 8vo, characterised by great
a year a year. We do not suppose that all, or research and minute investigation, but proceeding
most ofthe numbers are to l>e taken arithmetically. on principles essentially and1 fundamentally er
The numbers seven and three, especially, recur so roneous.
often as to suggest the idea of their being em Valuable suggestions in regard to the interpre
ployed indefinitely for poetic costume alone. Yet tation may be found in Stuart's Hints on the In
there may be special reasons iu the context of terpretation of Prophecy; Bush's Hierophant;
| articular passages for abiding by the exact num or, Monthly Journal of Sacred Symbols and Pro
bers stated.* phecy ; as also iu the various Introductions and
By far the greater number of works on the Treatises mentioned under (a.).S. D.
Apocalyjjee are of no value, the authors having REVELATIONS, SPURIOUS [Apocry
failed to perceive the primary purpose of the pha]. The Apocalyptic character, which is oc
apostle. We shall only mention a few ; to enu cupied in describing the future splendour of the
merate all would be impossible. Messianic kingdom and its historical relations,
(a.) Works on the literature of the book. presents itself for the first time in the U>ok of
(6.) Commentaries, Daniel,* which is thus characteristically distin
(a.) The best book on the literature of the guished from the former prophetical book-;. In
Apocaly]isc is tliat of Lucke, published in 1832. the only prophetical book of the New Testament,
It is both copious and excellent. In addition to the Apocalypse of St. John, this idea is fully
it may be mentioned the Introductions of Mi developed, and the several aiMicryphnl revelations
are mere imitations, more or less happy, of these
* Against the view of Maitland and Stuart, two canonical books, which furnished ideas to a
see Birk's First Elements of Sacred Prophecy,
and Bush's Hierophant ; compare also an article * See the able remarks on the age of this book
in the Eclectic lieview for December, 1814, by in the Publication of the Christian AdvocaU
the present writer. (W. H. Mill, D.D.) for 1841.
22
628 REVELATIONS, SPURIOUS. REVELATIONS, SPURIOUS.
numerous class of writers in the Brat ages of the fifih century, Liicke infers that it was a Jenish-
Christian church. The principal spnriom reve Christian production (of the second century), and
lations extant have been published by Fabriciui, of the same family w ith the Preaching of Peter,
in his Cod. Paeudep. V.T.y and Cod. Apoc. N. T. ; It is uncertain whether this work is the same
and their character has been still mure critically that is read by *.he Copts among what they call
examined in recent times by Archbishop Lau the apocryphal looks of Peter. There was also
rence (who has added to their number"), by a work under the name of the Apocalypse of
Nitzsch, Bleek, and otliers ; and esjiecially by Peter by his Disciple Clement, an arcount of
l)r. Liicke, in his Einleitung in die Ojfenbarung which was transmitted to Pope Honorius by
Johan. und die gesammte apocalyptische Littc- Jacob, bishop of Acre in the thirteenth ceirtury,
ratur. To this interesting work we are in a written in the Saracenic language; but this has
great measure indebted for much of the informa l>een conjectured to be a later work, originating
tion contained in the present article. in the time of the Crusades.
We shall first treat of the a[>ocryphal reve In the ancient Latin stichometry in Cotelerius
lations no longer extant, which are the following, (Jpostolic Fathers), the Apocalypse of Peter is
vh. : said to contain 2070 stichs, and that of John 1*21)0.
1. The Apocalypse of Elias. 2 The Apoca It betted a^ an apocrypha! bock in the huUeuhlt
lypse of Zephaniao. 3. The Apocalypse of Ze- Scripturarurn after the Que*stiones of Anastasim
chariah. 4. The Apocalypse of Ailam. 5. The of Nica?a, together with the Apocalyjwe of Ezra
Apocalypse of Abraham. 8. The Apocalypse of and that of Paul. There is in the Bodleian
Moses. 7. The Prophecies of Hystaspes. 8, The Library a MS. of an Arabic Apocalypse of Jretert
Apocalv]e of Peter. 9. The Apocalypse of Paul. of which Nicoll has furnished an extract in his
10. The Ajwcalyjise of CeriuhW II. The Apo catalogue, and which may possibly be a transla
calypse of Tliomas. 12. Tlie Apocalypse of the tion of the Greek Apocalypse.
proto-martyr Stephen. The Apocalypse of St. Paul is mentioned by
Thefirst three are referred to by St. Jerome Augustine (Tract. 9S in Ev. Joan.), who asserts
(Ep. ad Pammach.), and cited as lost apocryphal that it abounds in fables, and was an invention
books in an ancient MS. of the Scriptures in the to which occasion was furnished by % Cor. xii.
Cnislinian Collection (ed. Montfaucon, p. 194). 2-4. This apjiears from Epiphanius (Htrres.
The A)x>cali/pse of Adamt and that of Abraham, xxxviii. 2) to have been an anti-Jewish Gnostic
are cited by Epiphanius (Hteres. xxxi. 8) as production, and to be identical with the apt&ari-
gnostic productions. The Apocalypse of Moses, k6v of Paul, used only by the anti-Jewiih sect
mentioned by Syncellus (Chronog.) and Cedrenus of Gnostics called Cainites. It is saitl by Sc-
(Comp. Hist.), fragments of which have been zan\en(Hist. Eccles. vii. 19) to have been held h
published by Fahricius (ut supra), is conjectured great esteem. It was also known to Theophylac
by Grotius to have been a forgery of one of the and {Ecumenius (on 2 Cor. xii. 4), ami to Nice
ancient Christians. phoris in the ninth century (Can. 3, 4). Who*
The Prophecies of Hystaspes were in use ther this is the same work which Da Pin (Proley.
among the Christians in the second century. and Canon) says is still extant among the Copt*
This was apparently a pagan production, but is is rendered more than doubtful by Fahricius
cited by Justin Martyr, in his slpology, as agree (Cod. Apoc. ii. p. 954) and Grabe (Spicileg. i.
ing with the Sibylline oracles in predicting the p. 85). The Revelation of St. Paul, contained in
destruction of the world by fire. Clemens Alex- an Oxford MS., is shown by Grabe (/. c) to l>e
audrinns (Strom. vi.)and Lactantins (Instit. vii. a much later work. TheodottOt of Alexandria
15) also cite passages from these prophecies, which ('Eparr^aro 7repl irpoffwZtwv) says that the Apo
bear a decidedly Christian character. calypse of St. Paul is not a work of the apostle,
The Apocalypse of Peter is mentioned by hut of Paul of Samosata, from whom the Pauli-
Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. iii. 3. 23), and was cited cians derived their name. The Revelation of J'aul
by Clement of Alexandria, in his Adumbrations, is one of the spurious works condemned by Pope
now lost (Euseb. /. c. vi. 1-1). Some fragments Gelasins, together with the Revelations of St.
of it have, however, been preserved by Clement, Thomas and St. Stephen.
in his Selections from the lost Prophecies of The Apocalypse of Cerinthus is mentioned by
Theodotus the Gnostic, anil are published in Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. iii. 28), and hyTheodoret
Grabe's Spicilegium (vol. i. p. 74, sq.). Prom these (Fab. Iheret. ii. 3). Eusebius describes it as a le-
we can barely collect that this Apocalypse con velation of an earthly and sensual kingdom of
tained some melancholy prognostications, which Christ, according to the heresy of the Chiliasts.
seem to be directed against the Jews, and to refer Of the Revelations of St. Thomas and St.
to the destruction of their city and nation. This Stephen, we know nothing beyond their con
work is cited as extant hi the ancient fragment demnation by Pope Gelasins, except that Sixtus
of the canon published by Muratori, a document of Sienna observes that, according to Serapion,
of the second or third century, with this proviso, they were held in great repute by the Manichees ;
that 'some of us are unwilling that it be but in the works of Serapion which we now
read in the church;' as is jierhaps the signifi possess there is no allusion to tliis. There is. how
cation of the ambiguous passage, 1 Apocalypais ever, an unpublished MS. of Serapion in the
Johannis et Petri tantum lecipimus; <juam qui- Hamburg Libiary, which is supposed to contain
dam ex nostris legi in ecclesia nolunt,' Eusebius a more complete copy of his work.
designates it at one time as 'spurious,' and at We now proceed to treat of the extant spurious
another as 1 heretical.' From a circumstance Revelations.
mentioned by Sozomen (Hist Eccles. vii. 19), The Ascension and the Vision of Isaiah
Tiz., that it was read in some churches in ('Ayafiarutbr Kal"Opcurts 'Haatov), although for a
Palestine on all Friday* in the year down to the long time lost to the world, was a work well
REVELATIONS, SPURIOUS. REVELATIONS, SPURIOUS. 629
Known to the ancients, as is indicated by the the Anavasis (as he calls it), had been printed at
allusions of Justin Martyr, Origen, TertuLlian, Venice. Referring to this last publication, the
and Kpiphanius. The first of these writers (Dial, late Archbishop Laurence observes that he had
c. Tryph. ed. Par. p. 349) refer3 to the account hoped to find in some bibliographical work a
therein contained of the death of Isaiah, who ' was further notice of it, but that lie had searched in
sawn asunder with a wooden saw y a fact, he adds, vain; concluding af the same time that it must
' which was removed by the Jews from Ihe sacred have been a publication extracted from the
text.' Tertulliait also (Dc Patientid), among Ascension of Isaiah, or a Latin translation of
other examples from Scripture, refers to the same the Vision, as the title of it given by Sixtus was,
event ; and in tlte next (the third) century Origen * Visio admirabilis Esaix prophets in raptu
(Epist. ad African.), after stating that the Jews mantis, qua? divinaj Tihiitatis arcana, et lapsi
were accustomed to remove many things from generis humani redemptiouem continet.' Dr.
the knowledge of the people, which they neverthe Laurence observes also that the mode of Isaiah's
less pieserved in apocryplial or secret writings, death is farther in accordance with a Jewish tra
adduces as an example the death of Isaiah, ' who dition recorded in the Talmud (Tract Jebammoth,
was $awn asunder, as stated in a certain apocry iv.) ; and he supposes that Mohammed may nave
phal writiug, which the Jews perhaps corrupted founded his own journey through seven different
in order to throw discredit on the whole.' In his heavens on this same apocryphal work. He shows
Comm. in Matt, he refers to the same events, ob at the same time, by an extract from the Uaboth,
serving, that if this apocryphal work is not of that tiie same idea of the precise number of seven
sufficient authority to establish the account of the heavens accorded witli the Jewish creed.
prophet's martyrdom, it should be believed upon There appeared now to l>c little hopea of re
the testimony borne to that work by the author covering the lost Ascension of Isaiah, when Dr.
of the Epistle to the Hebrews (Heb. xi. 37); in Laurence (then Regius Professor of Hebrew in
tbe same manner as the accouut of the death of the University of Oxford) had the good fortune
Zechariah should be credited upon the testimony to purchase from a bookseller in Drury Lane un
borne by our Saviour to a writing not found in the Kthiopic MS. containing the identical Iwok, to
common and published books [tenuous Kai 5e5ijueu- gether witli the canonical book of Isaiah and the
/xeVois 0tf3\lois)y but probably in an apocryphal fourth (called in the Kthiopic the first) book of
work. Origen cites a jiassnge from the apocryphal Esdras. It is entitled the Ascension of the Pro-
account of the martyrdom of Isaiah, in one of his phet Isaiah, the first five chapters containing the
Homilies (ed. De la Rue, vol. iii. p. \0H). The martyrdom, and the six last (for it is divided in
Apostolical Constitutions also refer to the apocry the MS. into chapters and verses) the Ascension
phal hooks of Moses, Enoch, Adam, and Isaiah, or Vision of Isaiah* At the end of the canonical
as writings of some antiquity. lnM)k are the words, 1 Here ends the Prophet
The first writer, however, who mentions the Isaiah ;* after which follows 1 The Ascension,' &c,
Ascension of Isaiah by name is Epipbanitts, in concluding with the words, 1 Here ends Isaiah
the fourth century, who observes {Hccres. xl.) the Prophet, with his Ascension.' Then JoUows
that the apocryphal Ascension of Isaiah was ad a postscript, from which it apjwars that it was
duced by the Archonites in support of their opi transcribed for a priest named Aaron, at the cost
nions resitecting the seven heavens and their of a piece of tine cloth, twelve measures long *
arckons or ruling angels, as well as by the and four broad. The Ascension of Isaiah was
Egyptian Hteracas and his followers in con published by Dr. Laurence at Oxford in 1819,
firmation of their heretical opinions resj>ecting the with a new Latin and an English version. This
Holy Spirit, at the same time citing the passage discovery was first applied to the illustration i f
from the 'ArajSarucoV to which they refer (Ascens. Scripture by Dr. Gesenius (Comm. on Isaiah).
of Isaiah, ix. 27, 33-36; xi. 32, 33). Jerome Some time afterwards the indefatigable Dr. An
also (in Esau lxiv. -4) expressly names the work, gel0 Mai (Nova Collect. Script. Vet. e Vat. Codd.
asserting it to be an apocryphal production, ori Rom. 1828) published two Litin fragments as
ginating in a passage in the New Testament an appendix to his Sermon. Arian. Fragment.
(1 Cor. ii. 9). St. Ambrose (Opp. i. p. 1124) cites Antiquiss., which lie conjectured to be portions
a passage contained in it, but only as a tradi of some ancient apocryphal writings. Niebuhr,
tionary report, 'plariqua ferunt1 (Ascens. Is. v. however, perceived them to In' fragments of the
4-8) ; and the author of the Imperfect Work on Ascension and Vision ofIsaiah; and Dr. Nitzsch
Matt., a work of the fifth century, erroneously (Nachiceiswig zweyer liruchstucke, Ulc, in the
attributed to St. Chrysoslom (Chrysost. Opp, Theolog, Stud, wul Kritik 1830) was enabled to
horn. 1.), evidently cites a passage from the lame compare them with the two corresponding por
work (Ascens. i. I, &c). After this period all tions (ii. 1 1-iii. 12; vii. 1-19) of the Kthiopic
trace of the book is lost until the eleventh cen version. Finally, in consequence of the more
tury, when Euthymius Ztgabenus informs us tliat complete notice of the Venetian edition of the
the Messalian heretics made use of that *abo- Latin version given by Panzer (AnnaI. Typog.
rninahle {weudepigraphal work, the Vision of viii. p. 473j. Dr. Gicseler liad a strict search made
Isaiah." It was also used (most |>rohahly in a for it, which was eventually crowned with suc
Latin version) by the CaUiari in the West cess, a copy la'ing discovered in the Library at
(P. Moneta, Adv. Catharos, ed. Rich. p. 218), Munich. This work, the date of w hose impression
The Vision of Itaiah is also named in a cata was 1522, contained also the Gospel of Xico-
logue of canonical and apocryphal books in a demus, and the Letter of Lentulus to (he Roman
Paris MS. (No. 17S9), after the Quasi, et Retp. Senate. The Latin version contains the Vision
of Anastasius (Cotelerius, P. P. Apost. i. p. 197, only, corresponding to the last seven chapters of
349). Sixtus of Sienna (Bibl. Sand. 156G) the Kthiopic version.
atates that the Vision of Isaiah, as distinct from The subject of the first nart is the martyrdom
630 REVELATIONS, SPURIOUS. REVELATIONS, SPURIOUS.
of Isaiah, who is here said to have been sawn legend already referred to, as well as by his re
asunder in consequence of the visions which he presenting the false accuser of Isaiah as a Sama
related to Hezekiah, in the twenty-sixth year of ritan. The work also abounds in Gnostic. Va-
the reign of that monarch, and which are recorded lentinian, and Ophitic notions, such as the ac
in tiie first four chapters. These relate princi count of the seven heavens, and the presiding
pally to the coining of * Jestis Christ the Lord 1 angels of the first five, the gradual transmutation
from the seventh heaven; his being changed into of Christ until his envelopment in the human
the farm of a man ; the preaching of Ins twelve form, and finally the docetic conception of his
apostles ; his tinul rejection and susjtension on a history on earth. All this has induced Liicke
tree, in company with the workers of iniquity, (ut supra) to consider the whole to be a Gnostic
on the day before the Sabbath ; the spread of the production of the second or third century, of
Christian doctrine; the last judgment; and his which, however, the martynlom was first written.
return to the seventh heaven. Before this, how Dr. Laurence finds so strong a resemblance be
ever, the arch-fiend Rerial is to descend on earth, tween the account of the seven heavens here, and
in the form of an impious monarch, the murderer in the Testament of Levi (Twelve Patriarchs),
ofhis mother, where, after his image is worshipjied that he suspects the latter to * betray a little
in every city for three years, seven months, and plagiarism.' If this learned divine were right in
twenty-seven (lays, he and his powers are to be his conjecture resecting the early age of this pro
dragged into Gehenna. duction, it would doubtless afiord an additional
The second |K>rt ion of the work gives a prolix testimony (if such were wanting) to the antiquity
account of the prophet's ascent through seven of the belief in the miraculous conception and
heavens, each more resplendent and more glorious the proj>er deity of Jesus, who is here called the
than the other. It contains distinct prophetical lieloved, the Lord, the Lord God, and the Lord
allusions to the miraculous birth of Christ of the Christ. In respect, however, to another passage,
Virgin Mary at ttetldehern ; his crucifixion, re- in which the Son and Holy Spirit are represented
unreel ion, and ascension ; and the worship of * the as worshipping God, the learned prelate truly
Father, Ins beloved Christ, and the Holy Spirit.' observe* that this takes place only in the character
The mode of the prophet's own death is also an of angels, which they Ltd assumed.
nounced .to him. The whole work, observes its Dr. Lucke observes that the drapery only of
learned translator, is ' singularly characterized by the apocalyptic element of this work is Jewish,
simplicity of narration, by occasional suhlimity the internal character being altogether Christian.
of description, and by richness as well as vigour But in both form and substance there is an evi
of imagination.' Dr. Laurence conceives that dent imitation, if not of the Apocalypse of St.
the writer had no design of imiiosing upon the John, at least of the book of Daniel and of the
world a spurious production of his own as that Sibylline oracles. The use of the canonical Apo
of the propuet'l) but rather of composing a work, calypse Lucke (/. c. 16) considers to be un
avowedly fictitious, but accommodated to the deniable in viii. *13 (comp. Rev. xxii. 6 vii.
character, and consistent with the prophecies, of 21-23; Rev. xix. 10).
him to whom it is ascribed.
As to the age of this work. Dr. Laurence sup Of the ancient Greek poems called tne oibyi -
poses, from the obvious reference to Nero, and the i.ink Oiiaclks (written in hexameter verse), then-
]>eriod of three years, seven months, and twenty- was formerly a considerable number in use, of
seveu days, and again of three hundred and which but few have descended to our times.
thirty-two days, after which llerial was to be Senilis, in the fifth century, mentions a hundred
dragged to Gehenna, that the work was written books (sermones, Ajyot: ; and Suidas, who lived
after the death of Nero (which tink place on the most probably in the eleventh, speaks of twenty-
9th June, a.d. G8), but licfore the close of the four books of the Chaldxan sibyls alone. But
year b9. Liicke, however {Einleituwj in dte eight only were known to the modems, until
OJfenbarung Julian.)* looks upon these nnm Iters t he recent discoveries of Angelo Mai, who has
as purely arbitrary and apocalyptical, and main recovered and puhlislied an eleventh, twelfth,
tains that the dogmatical character of the work, thirteenth, and fourteenth t>ook from palini|ests
the allusion to the corruptions of the church, the >n the Ambrosian and Vatican libraries (i-icript.
absence of all reference to Ibe destruction of Je Vet Nov, Collect, vol. in. |u 3). The first eight
rusalem, and the Chiliastic view, all |>oint to a books liave been shown to be the com]>ositiom of
later period. All that can be considered as cer various writers from the commencement of the
tain respecting its date is, that the first portion second century B.O. to a.i>. 500. Of these, the
was extant before the time of Origen, and the curliest in point of dote is supposed to be the
whole before Kpipliantus. It has Iteen doubted third book, containing a series of connected pre
wl>etter the work does not consist of two inde dictions written by an Alexandrian Jew in the
pendent productions, which were afterwards united time of the Maccabees, hut containing heathen
into one, as in the Kthiopic version; hut this is poems of a still earlier period. The subject is
a question impossible to decide in the absence continued by another Alexandrian Jew, who
of the original. The Lathi fragments discovered lived about forty years Itefore the Christian wra.
by Mai Correspond literally with the Kthiopic, Notwithstanding the later Christian interpolations
while they not only differ from the Venetian edi by which this document lias been disfigured, it
tion in single phrases, but the latter contains forms a valuable collection nt* Sibylline oracles
{-assages so striking as to induce the supposition respecting the Messiah, anterior to tlte Christian
that it is derived from a later recension of the era. It concludes with another addition, written
original text. partly in the third century and partly at a still
The author was evidently a Jewish Christian, later period. Hut before this period, the fourth
W appears from the use made of the Talmudical and fifth books come in, the former of which we*
REVELATIONS, SPURIOUS. REVELATIONS, SPURIOUS. 631
written by a Christian about A.o. 80 ; the latter predictions, threatenings, and promises ; while the
consists of several predictions, from various Apocalypse of John presents us with an all but
auithors, principally Egyptians, one of whom was diamatic development of the kingdom of God in
an Alexandrian Jew, who wrote in the middle of a living picture. The most important portion for
the second century ; another portion is by a Jew comparison with the Apocaly|e is the contem
in Asia Minor, about a.d. 20 ; and certain parts porary first oracle of the fourth book. The later
by anothei Jewish author, about a.d. 70. But pieces of this kind may have stood in conscious
the whole book in its present form proceeds most relation witli the Apocalytise, but this is incapable
probably from the Jewish Christians residing at of proof (Liicke, ttt sujfra).
Memphis in the commencement of Adrian's reign, The books discovered by Angelo Mai are much
who collected the greater portion of the oracles of of the same character with the former, but have
the first part, and united them to the third and less of the religious element. Tlie eleventh book
fourth books. At least the whole three books contains a statement of Jewish, Greek, Macedo
were formed into one collection in the middle of nian, and Egyptian history from the Deluge to
the second century, and ascribed to one and the Julius Gmsar. There are some single passages
same sibyl. But at the close of the next century which resemble the third book, hut theautlior was
these books were completely separated, and were, a different person, and was probably a Jew, who
together witli the subsequent books then written lived a short time before the Christian era.
(sixth, seventh, and eigiith), eacli attributed to a The twelfth book resembles the fifth in its com
distinct prophetess. Of these, the earliest in point mencement, and contains the same seriesof Roman
of date is the eighth book, part of which was einjierors from Augustus, under whose reign the
composed about a.o. 170-180, and the entire ap|iearauce of Christ is prominently brought for
finished at the end of the third century,when it ward. This series, which in the third book
was united with the others, as we learn from Lac- ended with Hadrian, here proceeds as far as Alex
tantins. The seventh book, separate from its later ander Severus, lyissing over Sulpicius Severus.
interrelations, was composed by a Judaixing Its Christian origin is beyond question, and it
Christian in the third century. The sixth book may have been written after the death of Severus,
appears to have been written at the close of this .i d. 222.
century by a Christian, for he speaks of Christ as The thirteenth booh narrates, in the Sibylline
the second Adam. That part called the Acrostics form, the wars of tiie Romans in the East to the
was constructed in the fourth century from earlier midule of the third century, probably com
Sibylline verses. Some portions of the eighth book mencing where the former had ended. It is ol>-
were probably written at this period, and intro servahle that the author alludes to the mathe
duced at a still later among the Sibylline oracles. matical fame of Bostra.
The latest of all are the first and second boohs, The most prominent feature of the fourteenth
written by one and the same author, who lived in book is the destruction and rebuilding of the city
die West in the middle of the lifth century. of Rome, which is provisioned for a whole year
Of this motley group, the chief portions only in exiiectation of a long period of adversity ; the
ore of an A}X>calyptic character, others being lost prince of the Latin race appears and departs,
purely epic, or in the form of hymns. The sibyl, after whom comes a royal race of long duration.
as the oracle of God, predicts the destruction of The whole narration points to the period of the
paganism in its wars on both Judaism and Chris migration and downfall of the Western empire.
tianity. To this is annexed the Apocalyptic The author doubtless was a Christian of the fifth
consolation and encouragement to the sufferer and century.
oppressed among God's people. The poetic in
terest, which is a characteristic of Apocalyptic The book called the Testaments ok the
composition, both Jewish and Christian, is not twelve Patriarchs is an ancient Apocryphal
lost sight of. work (founded most probably on Gen. xlix. 1, sq.),
There have been three distinct periods traced in which the twelve sons of Jacob are represented
in respect to the Sibylline Revelations. The first as delivering their dying predictions and precepts
is the Jewish, commencing at the Maccalraau to their posterit v . If we are to credit the authori ty
period. This, observes Locke, ' belongs to the cycle of a manuscript in the Bodleian library, this work
of Daniel's Apocalypse,' The second period is was originally written in Hebrew, and translated
the Jewish Christian, having a special relation to into Greek by St. Clirysoswm. But Dr. Grahe,
the Autichristian character of the persecuting who first adduced this testimony, cousiders it very
Nero, with an admixture of Chiliastic elements. doubtful. The author of the Latin version (from
The third period is free from Chiliasm, and be the Greek) was Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
longs to the Christian character of the third cen Lincoln in the thirteenth century, with the assist
tury, embracing a species of universal history in ance of a Greek named Nicholas, Abbot of St.
the Sibylline form, concluding with the end of all Albans. The bishop's attention was first directed
tilings at the filial judgment. to it by Archdeacon John de Basingstoke, who
It is impossible to deny the resemblance be had seen the work during his studies at Athens.
tween the Apocalypse of John and the Sibylline This version, which was first printed from very
poems of the second period. ' Besides the Chili incorrect copies in 1483, and afterwards in 1532
astic elements and the reference to the return of and 1549, was reprinted in the Orthodoxogra-
Nero, it is common to both that the destruction pha of Grynreus, and in the JJibliotheca Patrum.
of Rome forms the grand crisis of their predic A few specimens of the original were printed at
tions, and that letters and cyphers are symbol various times by Cotelerius (A'o/. in Script.
ically employed. But, on the other hand, wluit Apostol.), Gale (Anuot. in Jamblich.), and
a difference ! The Sibylline oracles are cha Wharton (Auctarium) ; but it was reserved for
racterised by a dry, monotonous series of mere the learned Dr. Grabe to give the entire work in
633 REVELATIONS, SPURIOUS. REVELATIONS, SPURIOUS.
the original Greek, in 1699, from a Cambridge Apocalyptical portions have evidently this for
manuscript on vellum (the identical MS. used their groundwork, together with the book of
by Robert of Lincoln for his translation), a copy Daniel, and that of Enoch, which is expressly
of which was made for him by the learned Dr. cited as a wo>k of authority (Levi, 2; Naph-
John Mill, who collated it with a manuscript on thali, 5), and is consequently an earlier produc
paper in the Bodleian, written a d. 1268, and tion. There was an altered and interpolated
annexed to it various readings from other matin- English translation of this book, published (as a
scripts. Dr. Grabe was the person who first divided genuine work of the twelve patriarchs) in Bristol
the work into ctiapters or paragraphs, with num by Richard Day, in 1813.
bers prefixed. He added some valuable notes,
which, with the originals, were republished by The Fourth Hook of Ezra (theJirst accord
Fabricins in his Cod. Pseudep. V. T. ing to the Kthiopic and Arabic) [Esduas] is. from
This work contains many beautiful passages, its Apocalyptic character, styled by Nicephorus
and, while its form is that of a pretended pro { Can. 3. 4) the Apocalypse of Ezra ('AiroicaAu^ts
phecy, hears indirect testimony to the facts and 'Eatipa). Its original language (according to
nooks of the New Testament, the nativity, cruci Liicke) was Greek, although it is at present extant
fixion, resurrection, ascension, and unblemished only in a Latin, Kthiopic, and Arabic tiansla-
character of Jesus, ascribing to him such titles as tion, of which the J^atin is the most ancient. The
evidently show that his divinity was fully recog main body of the work, viz., chups. iii.-xiv., con
nised. The atithor testifies also to the canonical tains a connected revelation, which is partly an
authority of the Acts of the Apostles and St. open imitation of Daniel, and partly resembles
Paul's Epistles, and seems especially to allude the New Testament Apocalypse. It contains a
to the four Gospels. The age of this Aj>ocryphal mixture of Jewish and Christian elements. This
work is, therefore, of considerable importance in work, as has been formerly observed, was known
sacred criticism. to Clemens Alexandrinus in the second century;
Mr. William Whiston, who has given an and from the indication in the Introduction
English translation of this work in his Authentic (ch. iii. 1), * In the thirtieth year of the de
Records, considers it to be a genuine production, struction of the city I was in Babylon,1 Lucke
and one of the concealed (as he interprets the conjectures that the author may have written in
word Apocryphal) b(x>ks of the Old Testament, the thirtieth year after the destruction of Jerusa
maintaining that if this, and the book of Knoeh, lem, or a.d. 100; and this date is further confirmed
were not written after the destruction of Jer isa'*m by the vision of the eagle (ch. xi. ; xii.), which
(which he holds to be a wild notion), they are of indicates the time of Trajan. He conceives the
necessity genuine and divine. Cave (Hint. Liter.) author to have been evidently a Jew, who lived
was at first disused to place the work in the year out of Palestine, prohably in Egypt, but that the
a.d. 192, but he subsequently regarded it as more variation in the several ancient versions of the
probably written near the commencement of the work prove it to have been interpolated by a
second century. That the work was extant in Christian hand.
the lime of Origen appears from bis observation, The first two and last two chapters (found only
* We find the like sentiment in another little in the Latin, in most MSS. of which they form
book, called the Testament of the twelve Patri distinct books, the first two chapters bein^ gene
archs., although it is not in the canon,1 viz., that rally named 2nd and 3rd, and the two last 5th
by sinners are to be understood the angels of and sometimes 6th Esdras ; see Laurence's 1 Ezray
Satin (Homil. in Jos. comp. with Testament. pp. 2S3-2S7) are the work of a Christian, and are
Reuben., sect 3). Jerome also observes that unconnected witli the main body of the book. Xii
there had lieeu forged revelations of all the patri the two first the author lias imitated the canonical
archs and prophets. Tertullian has also been Apocalypse, and prefixed ihis portion as a kind
supposed to refer to it. It is cited by Procopius of preface to the work ; but there is no internal
of Gaza, about a.d. 5'20; and in the Stichometnj character which can enable us to form any neater
of Nicephorus (about a.d. 800) it is said to con conjecture as to their date. The author of the
tain in the Greek 5100, and in the Latin 4R00, last two chapters (xv., xvi.) seems to have lived
stichs or verses [Vekrk]. Dr. Dodwell, from in the third or fourth century, during the Decian
its Hellenistic character, ascribes it to the first or Diocletian persecutions (chap. xv. 10). Rome,
century. The recent investigations of Dr. Nitzsch the Apocalyptic Babylon of the author, ap
(De Testaments duodecim Patriarcharv/n, \\ 'it- proaches her downfall (xv. 43, sq.). Several
tenb. 1810), however, seem to leave no doubt of passages of the .Now Testament are evidently
its having l>een the work of a Jewish Christian, alluded to (comp. 4 Ezra xvi. 29, sq. with Matt,
about the beginning of the second century. The xxiv. 40, 41 ; xvi. 4215, with 1 Cor. vii. 29,
design of the writer was evidently to convert the 30; xv. 8, 9, witli Rev. vi. 10). The whole
twelve tribes to the Christian faith. For this chapter seems, indeed, to be an imitation of
object are introduced the Apocalyptic elements. Matt. xxiv. (comp. also 4 Ezra i. 30 with Matt,
The lime of Christ's ap|>earance is predicted. xxiii. 37; ii. 1L with Luke xvi. 9 ; and ii. 12
Tne Messiah is represented as lx>th priest nnd with Rev. xxii. 2 ; also ii. 42 with Rev. xiv. 1-3 ;
king, and with this view characterized as equally and ii. IS with Rev. xxii. 1, 2).
sprung from the trills of Judah and Levi. He
is to appear, after many calamities, as the com
mon Saviour of Jews and Gentiles. It also con The ancient romantic fiction, entitled theSiiEP-
tains revelations purely Christian, as the ever hbkd of Hermas, is not without 'ts Apoca
lasting reign of Christ, tlie general resurrection, lyptic elements. These, however, are confined to
and the last judgment. The Apocalypse of John book i. 3, 4 ; but they are destitute of signification
is referred to, if not expressly cited; and the or originality [Hbrhas].
REZEPH. RHODES. 63$
Tbe Book of Enoch is one of tbe most curious Messina in Sicily (Acts xxviii. 13). It is now
_ f the spurious revelations, resembling in its out called Reggio, and is the capital of Calabria.
ward form both the book of Daniel and the Apo RHODA ('P(J5tj, t. e. Rose), a servant maid
calypse ; but it is uncertain whether tins latter mentioned in Acts xii. 13.
work or the book of Enoch was first written
[Enoch]. Professor Moses Stuart (Biblioth. RHODES ('P<J5o$). an island in the Mediterra
i>acrat No. 2, p. 363, 1813) is of opinion that the nean, near the coast of Asia Minor, celebrated frcm
Book of Enoch, the Ascension of Laiah, tbe Testa the remotest antiquity us the seat of commerce, na
ments of the Twelve Patriarchs, many of the Sibyl vigation, literature, and the arts, but now reduced to
line Oracles, the fourth Book of Ezra, and the a state of abject poverty by the devastations of war
Pastor of Hennas, were composed ' nearly at the and the tyranny and rapacity of itsTuikish rulers.
same time with the A|wcalypse of St. John.' It is of a Triangular form, about forty-four leagues
in circumference, twenty leagues long from north
There was an Apocuyphal Revelation of to south, and about six broad. In (he centre is
St. John extant in the time of Theodosius the a lofty mountain named Artemira, which com
Grammarian, the only one of the ancients who mands a view of t he whole island ; of the
mentions it, and who calls it a pseudepigraphal elevated coast of Carmania on the north ; the
book. It was not known what had become of it, Archipelago, studded with numerous islands, on
\intil the identical work was recently published the north-west ; Mount Ida, veiled in clouds, on
from a Vatican, as well as a Vienna manuscript, the south-west: and the wide expanse of waters
by Birch, in his Auctarium, under the title of that wash the shores of Africa on the south and
* The Apocalypse of the Holy Apostle and Evan south-east. It was famed in ancient times, and is
gelist John the Divine." From the silence of the still celebrated for its delightful climate, and the
ancients respecting this work, it could scarcely fertility of its soil. The gardens are filled with
have been written before the third or fourth cen delicious fruit, every gale is scented with the most
tury. Liieke lias pointed out other internal marks powerful fragrance wafted from the groves of
of a later age, as, for instance, the mention of in orange and citron-trees, and the numberless aro
cense, which he observes first came into use in matic herbs exhale such a profusion of the richest
the Christian church after tbe fourth century (al odours that the whole atmosphere seems impreg
though here the author of the spurious book may nated with spicy perfume. It is well watered by
have taken his idea from Rev. v. 8 ; viii. 3) ; also the river Caudura, and numerous smaller streams
of images and rich crosses, which were not in use and rivulets that spring from the shady sides of
before the * fourth and fifth centuries.' The name Mount Artemira. It contains two cities Rhodes,
patriarch, applied here to a dignitary in the the capital, inhabited chiefly by Turks, and a small
church, belongs to the same age. The time in which number of Jews ; and the ancient Lindus, now
Theodosius himself lived is not certainly known, reduced to a hamlet, peopled by Greeks, who are
but he cannot be placed earlier than the fifth cen almost all engaged in commerce. Besides these
tury, which Lucke conceives to be the most pro there are five villages occupied by Turks and tk
bable age of the work itself. Regarding the small number of Jews; and five towns and forty*
object and occasion of the work (which is a rather one villages, inhabited by Greeks. The whole
servile imitation of the genuine A(Hicalypse), in population was estimated by Savery at 36,500;
consequence of the absence of dates and of in but Turner, a later traveller, estimates them only
ternal characteristics, there are no certain indica at 20.000, of whom 1 1,000 were Greeks, and 6000
tions. Birch's text, as well as his manuscripts, Turks, with a small mixture of Jews residing
abound in errors; but Thilo lias collated two chiefly in the capital.
Paris manuscripts for his intended edition (see The city of Rhodes is famous for its huge brazen
his Acta Thorn*, Prolcg. p. lxxxiii.). Assemann statue of Apollo, called Colossus, which stood at
(Biblioth. Orient torn. iii. pt. i. p 282) states the mouth of the harbour, and was so high that
that there is an Arabic version among the Vatican ships passed in full sail between its legs. It was?
Msaw. w. the work of Chares of Lindus, the disciple of
REZEPH ; Sept. 'Pac?>^), a city which Lysippus ; its height was 120 feet, and twelve years
occurs among those subdued by the Assyrians (2 were occupied in its construction. It was thrown
Kings xix. 12; Isa. xxxvji. 12). It is supposed down by an earthquake, in the reign of Ptolemy
to be the same that Ptolemy mentions under the III., Euergetes, king of Egypt, after having stood
name of 'Ptju^o, as a city of Palmy reue {Geoff, 06 years. The brass of which it was com*
v. 15); and this again is possibly the same with posed was a load for POO camels. Its extremities'
the Rasapha which Abulfeda places at nearly a were sustained by sixty pillars of marble, and a
day's journey west of the Euphrates. winding staircase led up to the top, from whence*
REZIN (rVI ; Sept. 'Vaao-ffwv), the last king a view might be obtained of Syria, and the ships
of Damascene-Syria, slain by Tiglath-pileser proceeding to Egypt, in a large looking-glass sus
(2 Kings xv. 37; xvi. 5-10; Isa. vii. 1 ; viii. pended to the neck of the statue. There is not a
4-7) [Damascus]. single vestige of this celebrated work of art now
remaining.
REZON (PH, prince ; Sept. 'Pa(uv), an offi St. Paul appears to have visited Rhodes while
cer of Hadadezer, king of Zobah, who established on his journey to Jerusalem, a.d. 58 (Acts xxi. 1).
the independence of Damascus, and made it the The Sept. translators place the Rhodions among
seat of the kingdom of Damascene-Syria, so often the children of Javan (Gen. x. 4), and in this they
mentioned in tbe history of the Hebrew kingdoms are followed by Eusebius, Jerome, and Isidore; but
(1 Kings xi. 23, 24) [Damascus], Bochart maintains that the Rhodians are too mo
RHEGIUM ('P^yiof), a city on the coast of dern to have been planted there by any immediate
Italy, near its south-western extremity, opposite son of Javan, and considers that Moses rather ir
631 RIBLAH. RIDDLE.
tended the Gauls on the Mediterranean towards sisting of an artful and abstruse [imposition, put
the mouth of the Rhone, near Marseilles, where in olwcure, ambiguous, and even contrary terms,
there was a district called Rhodanusia, and a city in order to exercise the ingenuity of others in find
of the same name. They also render Ezek. ing out its meaning.
xxvii. 15, 'children of the Rhodians/ instead of, The pleasure of the propounder is derived from
as in the Hebrew, ' children of Dcdan.' Calmet perplexuig his hearers; and theirs from oyercom
considers it probable that here they read 'children ing the difficulty, which is usually renewed by
of Redan or Uodan,' but that in Gen. x. 4, they their proposing another enigma.
read ' Dedan/ as in the Hebrew. This kind of amusement seems to nave oeen
The antiquities of Rhodes reach no farther bacic resorted to, esjiecially at entertainments, in all
than (lie residence of the knights of St. John of ages among different nations ; and lias even been
Jerusalem. The remains of their fine old fortress, treated as an art, and reduced to rules. The chief
of great size and strength, are still to be seen; writers on this curious subject are, Nic. Reiuuer
the cells of the knights are entire, but the sanc (sEnigmatograph.) and F. Meneetrier.
tuary has twen converted by the Turks into a The priucipal rules laid down for the construc
magazine for military stores. tion of an enigma are the following : that it must
In muderu times Rhodes lias been chiefly cele be obscure, and the more obscure the lietter, pro
brated as one of the last retreats of this military vided that the description of the tiling, however
order, under whom it obtained great celebrity by covered and abstract, and in whatever remote or
its hemic resistance to the Turks; but in the uncommon terms, be really correct ; and it is
time of Solyman the Great a capitulation was essential that the thing thus described be well
agreed upon, and the island was dually surren known. Sometimes, and esjiecially in a witty
dered to the Turks, under whom it has since con enigma, the amusement consists in describing a
tinued. thing by a set of tmisms, which tell their own
It is now governed by a Turkish Pacha, who meaning, but which confound the he* f*r, through
exercises despotic sway, seizes upon the property his expectation of some deep and diftuult mean
of the )>eop]e at his pleasure, and from whose vigi ing. The greater enigma is to be rendered
lant rapacity scarcely anything can be concealed. more Intricate ami knotty by a multitude of
Under this iron rule the inhabitants are ground to words ; the lesser may consist of only one or two
poverty, and the island is becoming rapidly depo remote words or allusions.
pulated (Coronelli, Isolandi Rodi Geograjica ; The sj>eech of Lamech to ois wives Adah and
Clarke's Travels; Tnrner'i Journal} Schubert's Zillah (Gen. xiv. 23, 21) is, possibly, an enig
Reisc ins Morgenl.),G. M. B. matic mode of communicating some painful in
RIBLAH (H^H; Sept. 'Pa$\adu)t a town telligence. It is recorded (1 Kings x. I) that the
on the northern border of Palestine, in the dis queen of Sheha came to prove Solomon niTrO ;
trict of Hamath, through which the Babylonians, Sept. iv atvlypaai ; Vulg. in tcnigmatibus. Jose-
both in their irruptions and departures, were ac phus relates that Hiram, king of Tyre, tried the
customed to pass (Num. xxxiv. 1 1 ; 2 Kings skill of Solomon in the same way; and quotes
xxiii. 33; xxv. 26; Jer. xxxix. 5; lii. 10). Dius to attest that Solomon sent riddles to Hiiam,
This place is no where mentioned but in the and that the Tyrian king forfeited much monev
Bible. The Jewish commentators, exchanging to Solomon from his inability to answer them, but
the 1 for 1, supposed it to denote Daphne or An- redeemed it, upon a man of Tyre named Ahdemmi
tioch (Jerome, Onomast. s. v. 'Riblatha;' and being found able to solve them (Anttq. viii. 5. 3).
on Ezek. xlvii.). This city, however, was too far The description of the Messiah under the name of
from Hamath to the north boundary of Palestine. the Branch, when considered in regard to the
It is i>erhaps represented by the site called Ribleh, occasion and context, may be considered as a sjie-
which Buckingham found thirty or forty miles cimen of the lesser enigma (see Lowth upon the
south of Hamath on the Oronles (Arab Tribes. passage). * The number of the beast ' (Rev. xiii.
18), may be also considered as an enigma. The
p. 481). other instances in which the Hebrew word is used
RIDDLE (>TVn), literally, 'something intri all exhibit more or less of the enigmatic charncter.
cate or complicated ;' airiy/ia. Gesenius de They are as follows, with the Sept. and Vulg.
rives the Hebrew word from the Arabic readings:Num. xii. 8, where it means *an
oracle or vision,' 5** alviyfidruv. non per trnigmata
' to lnd off, or tie in knots and the immediate et Jiguras (Moses) dominum videt ; Ps. xlix. 5,
etymology usually assigned to the Greek word is 1 a song,' Kpi&Ktjfia, propositio ;} lxxviii. 2, * dark
ah'ia 'TiLat, ' to hint obscurely.' The Hebrew sayings,' irpo/BA^juaTO. propositions; Prov. i. 6,
word (Judg. xiv. 12-19) properly means ' a riddle * intricate proverbs/ atvtypara, trnigmata; Ezra
or enigma; 'Sept. rp60\n/jLa ; Vulg. problema and xvii.2, 'a parable/ 8^777^0, Aq.; aXviypa, amigma;
propositio; where Samson proposes to the thirty Dan. viii. 23, 'artifices;1 Trpo&KripaTa, proposi-
young Philistines who attended his nuptials, an tiones, trnigmata ; Halt. ii. 6, 'a song/ wp6f}A-npa,
enigma, derived from the circumstance dT his foquela atnigmatum. In the Apocrypha we find
having lately found a swarm of bees and honey in (Wisd. xlvii. 15) irapa0o\ais cuvtyparuy, artiig-
the skeleton of the lion, which he had killed some mata ; in the New Testament ^1 Cor. xiii. 12),
months before, when he had come to espouse bis V tttnyptartf in ernigmatey which Rretschneider
wife [Bee]. This riddle or enigma, though un points out as a quotation of Num. xii. R, and
fair in regard to those who accepted the pledge to where alviyumi is opposed to to f8os, 'the clear
unravel it, because they were ignorant of the par reality.' The word enigma, taken in the exten
ticular fact by the knowledge of which alone it sive meaning of iu root, alvos, certainly applies to
could be explained by them, nevertheless answers an immense portion of the sacred writings, viz. at
to the approved definition of an enigma, as con a narrative or tale, having an application to present
RIMMON. RIMMON. 639
circumstances ; Odyss. xiv. 508, a fable, bearing duced in Palestine during the same early ages is
moral instruction; Hes. Oper. 202, which nearly evident, from the spies bringing some back when
approaches to the nature of a parable [Parable] ; sent into Canaan to see what kind of aland it was;
a pointed sentence, saying, or proverb (Theocritus, for we are told that they 'came unto the brook of
xiv. 13) [Proverb; Prophecy]. According Kshcol, and cut down from thence a branch with
to Lenuep, the word aiViyua. taken substantively, one cluster of grapes, &c, and they brought of the
means ' anything obscure.' As specimens of the pomegranates, and of the figs."
enigmatical style in the Old Testament, Winer The [Kunegranate was well known to the Greeks,
points out Prov. xxx. 12-19; Isa. xxi. 12. In being the fodof Theophrastus, and of Dioscorides,
the New we may adduce our Lord's discourse (i. 151). It was employed as a medicine by
with Nicodemus (John iii. 3), and with the Jews Hippocrates, and is mentioned by Homer under
(vi.51,&c), where the enigmatical style is adopted the name side, supposed to be of Phoenician origin.
for the purpose of engaging attention, in an unri Its English name is derived from the pomum
valled manner (Winer, Bihl. Archdol. ; Stuck, grunatnm ('grained apple') of the Romans. Vari
Antiq. Conviv. iii. 17).J. F. D. ous parts of the plant were employed medicinally,
as, for instance, the root, or rather its bark, the
RIMMON (J112PI) is mentioned in numerous flowers which are called kvtivos by Dioscorides,
places in the Old Testament, and is universally and the double flowers f5a\ai(TTtov ; also the rind
acknowledged to denote the Pomegranate-tree and of the pericarp, called malicorixtm by the Romans,
fruit, bfing described in the works of the Arabs and rfftW by Dioscorides. Some of the pro
by the name rooman. The pomegranate is a perties which these plants ]x>ssess, make them
native of Asia; and we may trace it from Syria, useful both as drugs and as medicines. We
through Persia, even to the mountains of Northern have hence a combination of useful and orna
India. It is common in Northern Africa, and mental properties, which would make the pome
was early cultivated in Kgypt: hence the Israel granate an object sure to command attention;
ites in the desert complain (Num. xx. 5), ' It is ami these, in addition to the showy nature of the
no pluce of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pome flowers, and the roundish form of the fruit,
granates.* Being common in Syria and Persia, crowned by the protuberant remains of the calyx,
it must have early attracted the attention of would induce its selection as an ornament to be
Eastern nations. In the present day it is highly imitated in carved work. Hence we find fre
valued, and travellers desci ibe the pomegranate as quent mention of it as an ornament on the robes
l>eing delicious throughout Persia. The late Sir of the priests (Kxod. xxviii. 33; xxxix. 24);
A. Bumes states that the famous pomegranates and also in the temple (1 Kings vii. 18, 20, 42;
without seeds are grown in gardens under the 2 Kings xxv. 17; 2 Chron. iii. 16; iv. 13). It
snowy hills, near the river Cabul. The bright might, therefore, well be adduced by Moses among
and dark-green foliage of the pomegranate, and the desirable objects of the land of promise
its flowers conspicuous for the crimson colour (Deut. viii. 8); *a land of wheat, and barley,
both of the calyx and petals, must have made it and vines, and fig-trees, and pomegranates ; a land
an object of desire in gardens; while its large of oil-olive and honey.'J. F. R.
reddish-coloured fruit, filled with numerous seeds, RIMMON, the name of several places in
each surrounded with juicy pleasant-tasted pulp, Palestine, prolahly distinguished by the pre
would make it still more valuable as a fruit in sence of pomegranate-trees.
warm countries. The pulpy grains of this fruit 1. A city of the tribe of Simeon, in the south
are sometimes eaten by themselves, sometimes of Palestine (Josh. xv. 32 ; xix. 7; 1 Chron. iv.
sprinkled with sugar; at other times the juice is 32; Zech. xiv. 10).
pressed out and made into wine, or one of the 2. A town on a high conical chalky rock or
esteemed sherbets of the East. This seems also to peak, north-cast of Gibeah and Michmash, near
have been the custom in ancient times, for it is the deseit (Judg. xx. 45, 47 ; xxi. 13). The
said in Canticles, viii. 2, 1 I would cause thee to Onomasticon places it fifteen miles north in Jeru
drink of spiced wine of the juice of my |xime- salem, which corresponds to ihe situation of this
granate.' The beauty of the fruit when burst rock, which is still crowned by a village bearing
ing and displaying the delicate colours of the the name of Uummon : see Robinson's Palestine^
pulpy grains, seems to be referred to in the follow ii. 113. Some suppose this the Uimmon men
ing passage of the same book ( vi. 7), ' As a piece tioned in 1 Sam. xiv. 2.
of pomegranate are thy cheeks (temples; within 3. A city of Zebulon (Josh. xix. 3; 1 Chron.
thy locks ;' so also the beauty of the flower-beds vi. 62).
when first opening made it an object of attraction 4. A station of the Israelites after leaving
(vi. 11), ' I went into the garden of nuts, &c, to Sinai (Num. xxxiii. 19).
see whether the pomegranates budded;' and again
in vii. 12. Being valued as a fruit, and admired RIMMON, an idol worshipped by the Sy
as a flower, it was to l>e exacted that it should rians (2 Kings v. 18). As this name is found
lie cultivated in gardens and orchards; and to nowhere but in the Bible, and there only in the
this several jiassages refer, as Canticles iv. 13. In present text, nothing positive can be affirmed con
other places it is enumerated with the more valued cerning the power it symbolized. If it be referred
and cultivated trees of the country, such as the to the pomegranate, we may suppose that the fruit
vine, the fig-tree, the palm-tree, and the olive, as had become the symbol of some mysterious pow
in Joel i. 12; Uag. xi. 19. The pomegranate is ers in nature. But many commentators entitled
not likely to have been a native of Egypt; it to respect, as Le Clerc, Selden, Vitrtnga, and
must, however, have been cultivated there at a very Rosenrnuller, would rather seek the signification
early period, as the Israelites, when in the desert, of tlie word in DDI rnmam, ' the exalted;' in
lamented the loss of its fruit. That it was pro which case we m.iy take it to 1-uve been a name
636 RIPHATH. ROADS.
of eminence applied to the sun, or rather to some watered by a brook or torrent. Snch are the valley
idol under which the sun was represented. of Eshcol (which see); the valley of Geuak
RIPHATH (nan ; Sept. 'PtfdB; in 1 Chron. (Gen. xxvi. 17) ; and as nachal signifies both a
brook and the valley in which it flows, the same
Diphath, riB'T), a northern people descended terms may be understood of either, as in the case
from Gomer (Gen. x. 3). See Nations, Dis- of the * brook' Zered in Deut. ii. 13, 14 ; which is
pkhsion or. expressed by the same word as the * valley* of
RIVER. All the rivers mentioned in Scrip Zered in Num. xxi. 12; and in some cases it is
ture are in this work described under their respec difficult to say which is meant, as in Josh. xv.
tive names, except sucli as are included in the 7; xix. 14, comp. 11. The valley of Soukk
article Palestine. The Nii.k is described un (Jndg. xvi. 4), so called probably from its vine
der Egypt ; and Gihon and Pison are consi yards, Eusebtus and Jerome place north of Kleu-
dered under Paradise. theropolis, and near to Zorah. The valley of
It may be desirable to discriminate the words Shittim ('acacias') was in Moab, on the borders
which are applied to different kinds of rivers in of Palestine (Joel iv. 18 ; comp. Num. xxv. 1 :
Scripture. Josh. ii. 1 ; iii. 1 ; Mic. vi. 5). The valley of
1. and UN* jeor, which appears to have Zered was in the territory of Moab, east of the
been of Egyptian origin, denotes a 'fosse,' or Dead Sea (Num. xxi. 12; Deut. ii. 13, 14), pro
' river :' (it was expressed by ioro in the dialect of bably the same with * the Brook of Willows.'
Memphis, and by iKiiO in that of Thebes, while it RIZPAH (n^V1> a coal; Sept. *Pc<r+4), a
appears as ior in the Rosetta inscription). This concubine of Saul, memorable for the touching
name is applied exclusively in Scripture to ' the example of maternal affection which she afforded,
liver of Egypt' (D'lVD excepting in Dan. in watching the dead bodies of her sous, and
xii. 5, 6, 7, where it denotes another river. This driving the birds away from them, when they
river of Kgypt' is undoubtedly the Nile ; and is had been gibbeted by the Gibeouites (2 Sam.
to be distinguished from the ' brook of Egypt/ iii. 7; xxi. 8, 10, 11).
mentioned below. ROADS. In the Kast, where travelling is per
2. *iri3 nahar, is the word generally used to formed mostly on some beast of burden, certain
express any river or perennial stream. It has ut tracks were at a very early period customarily
this day the same application in Arabic, in pursued ; and that the rather as from remote ages
which language also, as in Hebrew, it includes commerce and travelling went on by means of
canals, as the ( iVaAarawan of Khuzistan ; and caravans, under a certain discipline, and affording
the Scripture rnust mean the Euphrates and its mutual protection in their passage from city to
canah, where it s|>eaks of ' the rivers (naharoth) city, and from land to land. Now wherever such
of Babylon' (Ps. cxxxvii. 1). a band of men and animals had once jjassed they
nachal, denotes a stream, brook, or would form a track which, especially in countries
torrent, whether perennial or not, but mostly not, where it is easy for the traveller to miss his way,
as most of the brooks of Palestine are torrents, subsequent caravans or individuals would natu
flowing only in winter [Palestine]. See a rally follow ; and the rather inasmuch as the ori
picturesque allusion to such brooks in Job vi. 15. ginal route was not taken arbitrarily, but because
When the word stands alone it seems to denote a it led to the first cities in each particular district
mere winter torrent, a permanent stream being in of country. And thus at a very early period
dicated by the addition of the word )TVtC, ' peren were there marked out on the surface of the glol>e
nial,' as in Ps.lxxiv. 15; Beut. xxxi. 4 ; Amos v. lines of inter-communication, running from land
24. A few brooks are specially designated, as to land, and in some sort binding distant nations
the Brook of Willows (Isa. xv. 7), a stream together. These, in the earliest times, lay in the
on the east of the Dead Sea, probably the present direction of east and west, that being the line on
Wady-el-Ahsy, which descends from die eastern which the trade and the civilization of the earth
mountains, and enters the eastern end of the first ran.
Dead Sea ; the Arnon (see the word) ; the The purposes of war seem, however, to have
Jaubok (which see); the Bksor (the cold), a furnished the first inducement to the formation of
torrent emptying itself into the Mediterranean made, or artificial roads. War, we know, afforded
near Gaza (I Sam.xxx. 9, 10, 21 ) : the Kidkon, to the Romans the motive under which they formed
the Kisuon (see the two words); and the Kanau, their roads ; and doubtless they found them nut
a stream on the borders of Ephraim and Manasseti only to facilitate conquest, but also to insure the
(Josh. xvi. 18; xvii. 9). The Brook of holding of the lands they had subdued : and the
Egypt,1 mentioned in Num. xxxiv. 5 ; Josh, remains of their roads which we have under our
xv. 4, 47; 1 Kings riii. 65; 2 Kings xxiv. 7; own eyes in this island, show us with what skill
Isa. xxvii. 12; which is also called simply * the they laid out a country, and formed lines of
brook* (Kick, xlvii. 19 ; xlviii. 28), and described communication. To the Romans, chiefly, was
as on the confines of Palestine and Kgypt, is Palestine indebted for such roads.
unquestionably the Wady-el-Arish, near the vil There seem, indeed, to have been roads of some
lage of that name, which was anciently called kind in Palestine at an earlier period. Language
Rhinocorura. The 1 river" (jeor) of Kgypt* is, is employed which supposes the existence of arti
however, the Nile; and it is unfortunate that the ficial roads. In Isa. xl. .'i are these words, 'Pre
two are mt so well distinguished in the Authorized pare ye the way of the Lord, make straight in the
Version as in the original. desert a highway for our God. Every valley shall
he exalted, and every mountain and hill sh.ill te
The word nachal (?nj sometimes oc >r in made low ; and the crooked Bhall be made straight,
the sense of the Arabic Wady, that is, a n ey and the rough places plain.1 There camnot he a
ROADS. ROADS. C37
more graphic Jescription of the operations and re gTeat commercial highways. One came out of
sults Optingcted with the formation of a long and Arabia Felix, through Pelia. The other struck
imiioi taut road. That this is the language of pro from the northern extremity of the Persian Gulf,
phetic inspiration affords no objection, Imt rather through Palestine, to Tyre.
confirms our view ; for jwetiy, as liehig an appeal Tiie first road in Palestine which we mention
to widely-spread feelings, grounds itself, in such a ran from Ptolemais, on t lie coast of the Mediter
case as tins, on fact; nor could such imagery as ranean, to Damascus. This road remains to the
we lind here have been employed, had artificial present day. Beginning at Ptolemais (Acco), it
roads been unknown in Palestine. Nor is the ran southward to Nazareth, and continuing south
imagery unusual (comp. Isa. xi. 16; xix. 23; and east, passed the plain of Esdraelon on the
xxxiii. 8; xxxv. 8; xlix. 11; lxti. 10). In north ; after which, turning north and east, it came
1 Sam. vi. 1*2 we read, * The kine went along the to Tiberias, where, running along the Sea of Ga
highway, lowing as they went, and turned not lilee, it reached Capernaum, and having passed
aside to the right hand or to the left.' In Num the Jordan somewhat above the last place, it went
bers also (xx. 17), ' We will go by the king's high over a spur of the Anti Libanus (Jebel Heish),
way/ Ac. (xxi. 22; Deut. ii. 27; Lev. xxvi. and keeping straight forward east by north, came
22). Whether or not these were roads in the mo to Damascus. This road was used for the pur
dern acceptation of the term, we know from the poses both of trade and war. In the history of the
law regarding a free, open, and good passage to Crusades it bears the name of Via Maris. It con
the cities of refuge (see that article, and Dent. xix. nected KniDpfl with the interior of Asia. Troops
3, compared with Mhhnay tit. Maccoth), that the coming from Asia over the Euphrates passed along
minds nf the Israelites were early familiarized with this way into the heart of Palestine. Under ihe
the idea: 'Thou shalt prcjiaie thee a w*y,' &c, Romans it was a productive souice of income. It
1 that every slayer may flee thither.' .And, much was on this road, not far from Capernaum, that
as we hesitate to differ from so high an authority, we Jesus saw Matthew sitting 'at the receipt of cus
cannot agree with Wilier ( Rml-wert. in 'Strasse'), tom,' and gave him his call to the aj>ostleship.
that this last cited passage stands alone; for other Another road passed along the Mediterranean
passages have been given which, when taken in coast southward into Egypt. Beginning at Pto
conjunction with it, seem to prove that to some ex lemais, it ran first to Cxsarea, thence to Diospolis,
tent artificial roads were known to the Hebrews and so on through Ascalou and Gaza down into
in the commencement of their commonwealth. Egypt. This was also an important line of com
Indeed it is highly probable that the Hebrews had munication, passing as it did through cities of
become acquainted with roads during their sojourn great importance, running along the coast and
in Eg) t, where, in the Delta especially, the nature extending to Egypt. A glance at the map will
of the comitry would require roads and high show how important it was for trade by laud and
ways to l<e thrown up and maintained. Josephus by sea, as well as for the passage of troops. A
(Antiq. viii. 7. i) expressly says, 'Solomon did branch of this road connected the sea with the me
not neglect the care of the ways, but lie laid a tropolis, leading from the same Csstarea through
causeway of black stone (basalt) along the roads Diospolis to Jerusalem. Down ibis branch Pan*.
that led to Jerusalem, both to render them easy fur WW sent on his way to Felix (Acts xxiii. 23, 20).
travel U-rs, and to manifest the grandeur of his The band went through Antipati is, and thence ou
riches.* Winer, indeed, remaik* that Josephus** to Carea.
roads find no support in the Bible, tint al A third line of road connected Galilee with
though these particular roads may not be men Judaea, running through the intervening Samaria
tioned, it does not hence follow that they did (Luke xvii. 11 ; John iv. 4; Joseph. Antitj. xx.
not exist ; but mention is made, as we have 6. 1 ; Fit/a, $ 32). The journey took three days.
seen, of ways and highways in the Scriptural Passing along t he plain of Esdraelon the traveller
authorities. To t^e Romans, however, Pales euteied Samaria at Ginea ( Jenin), and was thence
tine was gnsutl? indebted for its roads. On conducted to Samaria (Selwste), thence to Slie-
this subject P.el*.nd (Paferstina) has supplied chem (Nahlous), u hence a good day's travel
useful iw^ire iMlillll In the East generally, and brought him to Jerusalem. This last part of (he
in Poles'*! oe in particular, the Romans formed journey has been described by M&undrell {Jour
i ?ji<' set up mile-stones, in imitation of what ney, p. 6.3, sq.).
-hey ^aii d jtie in Italy. These stones bore the In the time of the Romans there was also a road
n^piet iTv'iV.u, (tt^Koi. and n'ioyfs- From the fact from Jerusalem to the lake Gennesaretb, through
*f tbeir existing in Palestine, Eusebius, in his Shechem and Scylhopolis. The same road sent
'swmasticon, frequently uses the terms tv fTrry a branch off at Scythopulis, in a westerly direc
i7/4V> and similar phrases. In Reland's time tion through Ksdraelon to Ca'sarea ; and another
raiments nf these mile-stones still remained. branch across the .Ionian to Gadara, on to Damas
For the merely internal Palestinian roads, Re- cus, along which line of country there still lies a
and may he consulted. He gives a list of them mad, southward of the sea of Galilee, to the same
iii. 2), which wilt supply the reader with t he celebrated city.
equisite information, especially if studied under There were three chief roads running from Je
J* corrections supplied by recent travellers. rusalem. One pa.-sed in a imrih-easteily direc
Our remarks will lie confined to roads which tion over the Mount of Olives, by Bethany, through
tonnected Palestine with other countries, since a openings in hills and winding ways on to Jericho,
notice of the internal roads as well, if at all com near which the Jordan was passed when travellers
plete, would require too much space. took their way to the north, if they wished to pass
The Phoenicians, as a mercantile people, main through Pereea : which was the road the Galilean
tained a connection not only with the West, by sea, Jews, in coming to and returning from the festi
but also, overland, with the East. They had two vals in the capital, were accustomed to take, thus
ROADS. RODON.
$3*
Sacred Scriptures,
avoiding the unfriendly territory of Samaria; or pretended scientific theories but he must also reject those
travellers turned their faces towards the south, if Writ. Such hyiiotheses may which contradict Holy
they intended to go towards the Dead Sea, This groundwork of scientific legends.easily become the
road was followed by the Israelites when they tismal-place of the Chamberlain atToTel fix the
directed their steps towards Canaan. Through contradicts the Scripture; but Bethsur,el-Hasy, which
Penca the Syrian and Assyrian armies made their has from the earliest ages l>eeii so accounted, agrees
hostile advances on Israel {2 Kings viii. 28 ; ix. with the passage in the Acts of the Apostles."
14 ; x. 32, sq. ; 1 Chron. v. 26). There only remains for us to mention what
A second road led from Jerusalem southward Winer reckons the third of the three great road
to Hebron, whence travellers went through the which ran from Jerusalem ; this third road went tc
wilderness of Juda?a to Aila, as the remains of a the Mediterranean
Roman road still show ; or they might take a from the time of theatCrusades Joppa (Jaffa), a way which
has l)een taken by
westerly direction on to Gaza, away which isstill pilgrims proceeding to the Holy City Iran Egypt
pursued, and is of two days1 duration. The ordi
nary way from Jerusalem to Gaza appears, in the andinfrom Europe.
addition to the works already referred to. see
Roman period, to have lain through Eleuthero- De Wette, Archiiologie ; Scholz, Archiiologie g
polis and Ascalou. From Gaza through Rhino- Heeren, Idecn%
corura and Pelusium was the nearest road down Palustina, i. 8;i. 7Burckhardt,10 ; Ritter, Erdkunde ; Croine,
Syria, ii. 517 ; also
into Egypt from Jerusalem (Antiq. xiv. 14. 2). the article Geography.J. R. B.
Along this road many thousand prisoners, made
by Ves]iasiau in his capture of Jerusalem, were ROAST. [Food.]
pent to Alexandria in order to l>e shipped for Rome. only iu the A|K>cryphal Uwks of *Kcclesiasticus
RODON (fr6Bov\ signifying rose,* occurs
Of these two roads from Jerusalem to Gaza, one and the Book of Wisdom. In the English trans
went westward by Ramlah and Ascalou ; the
other southward by Hebron. This last road lation of the Hebrew Scriptures * rose* occurs also
Raumer (Paldstina, p. 191 ; see also his Ueitrage, int ; the Song of Solomon El. I, and in Isaiah xxxv.
but in neither of these passages is there any
published after Robinson's work on Palestine, proof
namely, in 1843, correcting or eon(inning the so rendered.the Indeed
that word Chabbazzeleth ought to be
by many the narcissus is
views given in his Palastina, 1838) is of opinion thought to l>e intended. In the books of the
wai tiiat which was taken by Philip (Acts viii. Apocrypha written in Greek,
26, sq.), partly became tradition states that the may seem to indicate the same the word jW5or
eunuch was baptised in the vicinity of Hebron, among the Greeks, namely, the plant that it did
and tli is road from Jerusalem to Hebron runs Ecclesiasticus xxiv. 14, *I was rose. Thus in
through the * desert* Thekoft (Thecua) ill the palm tree iu Engaddi, and as a exalted like a
rose plant iu
Qnomasticon. And here he linds the reason of the Jericho;' in xxxix. 13, *and hud forth M a rose
:ommand to go 'towards the south;' for
Hebron lay south of Jerusalem; whereas but lor growing by the brook of the field ;' and the high
this direction Philip might have gone westward priest's ornaments are compared in I. 8, 1o * the
flowers of roses in the spring of the year." But
by Ramlah. Robinson, admitting that there is a the jtassage hi the Book of Wisdom fxi. R), 1 Let
road from Jerusalem to Hebron, maintains (ii.610; us crown ourselves with roses ere ihey be with
i. 320) that Philip went by a third rund, which ered,' is esjiecially well-suited
led down Wady Musun to Bctogabra (Eb u- roses have not IMen found by totraveller! the nwe. But
theropolis), and think* that he has found at 777/ neighuouihood of Jericho; i hey cannot bein con the
el-Hasy the spot where the eunuch received bap sidered exactly as spring flowers; nor do tiiey
tism. But, says Raumer (Bcilrugey p. 41), this grow specially by the sides of brooks.
road ran in a south-westerly direction, and Philip The rose was as highly esteemed among an
van commanded to get towards the south, for whicti cient,
]uir|H)se he must have gone by Hebron. Raumer judge ;lsbyit the is among modern nations, if we may
frequent references to it hi the
then proceeds to confirm his original position. poets of antiquity. As we know that it con
Jerome, in his Life of Paula, testifies that a toad tinues to t>c the favourite
from Jerusalem to Gaza went through Hebron. and is much cultivated inflower of the IVisians,
Egypt, we might ex
Paula travelled from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, pect mure frequent mention of
which lay south of the city: ' When she reached rous sjtecies and varieties iu thesome of ii* nume
Bethlehem she quickened the pace of her horse and This, however, is not the case,Jewish writings.
took the old road which leads to Gaza." This road arises from its being less common inamia wild probably
state
conducted to Bethsur (a little north of Hebron),
* where,' says Jerome, 4 while he read the Scrip in a comparatively dry and warm climate like
tures, the eunuch found the Gospel fountain.' that of Syria. It is, however, indigenous in BUttM
'This,' adds Raumer, * is the same Btthsnr of jtarts. History
Monro, as quoted by Kitto in the Physical
of Palestine., 'found in the valley of
which Jerome, in tiic Onomasticon, says, * As
Baalbec,
you go from Aelia to Hebron, at the twentieth in full bloom, a creeping rose of a bright yellow colour
mile-atone, you meet Bethsoron, near wuich, at the the same lime, onabout the end of May. About
advancing towntds Kama and
foot of a mountain, is a fountain bubbling out of Joppa from Jerusalem, the hills are found Iu lie
the soil. The Acts of the Apostles state that the
chamberlain of Queen Candace was baptized in to a considerable extent covered with white and
pink roses. The gardens of Rama itself abound
it by Philip." From Bethsur Paula proceeded to in roses of a powerful fragrance.* Marili, ut
Hebron. The Itinerarium Hicrosolymitamtm (of stated
the year 333) mentions Bethsur as the place where tity of byroses Rosenmuller, found the greatest qnai*
in the hamlet of St. John, iu the
the baptism was jwrformed.'
Raumer concludes by remarking* Robinson plants form emailname.
desert of the same
foresU
' In this place the rose-
in the gardens. Th
rightly rejects tradition when it contradicts the
RODON. RODON. 639
greatest part of the ro*es reared there are brought vellers in Palestine have been struck with the
to Jerusalem, where rose-water is prepared from beauty of this plant. Of the neighbourhood of
them, of which the scent is so very exquisite, Tripoli, Rauwolt' says, * There also by the river's
that in every part of Lycia, and also in Cyprus, side are found anthilis marina, &c, and oleander
it is i i request above all other rnse-walers.' with purple flowers by the inhabitants called
Burckhardt was struck with the number of rose- defle.* At the foot of Lebanon, again he says,
trees which be found among the ruins of Bozra 1 in the valley further down towards the water
beyond the Jordan. That the rose was cultivated grew also the oleander/ It is mentioned as
in Damascus is well known. Indeed one species a conspicuous object in similar situations by
is named Rosa Damascena from being supposed Robinson and Smith. Mr. Kitto says, 'Among
to be indigenous there. 4 In the gardens of the the plants in flower in April, the oleander
city roses are still much cultivated. Monro flourishes with extraordinary vigour, and in some
says that in size they are inferior to our damask instances grows to a considerable size by all the
rose, and less perfect in form ; but that their odour waters of Palestine : when the shrub expand* its
and colour are far more rich. The only variety splendid blossoms the effect is truly beautiful.
t'.<at exists in Damascus is a white rose, which Lord Lindsay sjieaks witli rapture of the glorious
appears to belong to the same species, differing appearance which the groves of blooming olean
only in colour 1 (Kit to, I. c. p. eclxxxiv.). ders make in this season, along the streams and
in the lone valleys of Palestine1 (I. c. p.
cexxxvii.). 1 In the month of May,' adds Mr. Kitto
(/. c. p. ccxliv.), 'oleanders, continuing still in
bloom, are as much noticed in this as in the pre
ceding month by travellers. Madox noticed in
this month that fine oleanders in full bloom were
growing all along the borders of the Lake of
Tif>erias, mostly in the water. The same obser
vation was made by Monro. The lake is here
richly margined with a wide belt of oleanders,
growing in such luxuriance as they are never
known to do even in the most genial parts of
Europe.* Such a plant could hardly escape
reference, and therefore we are inclined to think
that it is alluded to in the ttook of Ecclestasticns
by the name foSor. If this should not U* con
sidered sufficiently near to rhododaphne and
rhododendron, we may slate that in Arabic
writers on Materia Medica, rodyon is given as
the Syrian name of the oleander.
The plant commonly called 4 Rose of Jericho,'
is in no way referred to ill the above-quoted
passages. Dr Lindley, in the Gardener's Chro
nicle, ii. 3fi2, has thus described it : ' the aa-
470. [Oleander.] stalica hierochuntica, or rose of Jericho of the
old herbalists, is not a rose at all, nor has it the
It is possible, however, that the common rose smallest resemblance to a rose, nor is it, as it is
may not be the plant meant in the above passages often deacrit>ed to be, alive as sold in the shops.
of Ecclesiasticns, and that the name rodon may It is a little grey-leaved annual, very common
have been used in a general sense, so as to in Palestine, and uf which hundreds may he
include some rose-like plants. We have an in gathered in full flower in June, by the sides of
stance of this, indeed, in the oleander, of which the road over the Isthmus nf Suez. It produces
rhododendron, or rose-tree, was one of the ancient a number of short, Stiff, zigzag branches, which
names, and rhododaphnc another. The former spread pretty equally from the top of the root,
name is now applied to a very different genus of and, when green and growing, lie almost Hat
plants, but laurier-rose, the French translation upon the ground, having the flowers ami fruit
of rhododaphne, is still the common name in upon their upper side. It is, in fact, a crucife
France of the plant which used to t>e called rose rous plant, nearly related to the common purple
bay in this country, but which is now commonly sea-rocket, which grows on the coast of England,
called oleander. Its long and narrow leaves are and has a somewhat similar habit. When the
like some kinds of willows, and in their hue and seed-vessels of this plant are ripe, the branches
leathery consistence have some resemblance to die, and drying up. curve inwards, so as to form
the bay tree, while in its rich inflorescence it a kind of ball, which then separates from the
may most aptly lie compared to the rose. The roots, and is blown about on the sands of the
oleander is well-known to be common in the desert. In the cavity thus formed by the
smith of Europe, by the sides of rivers and branches, the seed-vessels are carefully guarded
torrents; also in Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. from being so disturbed as to lose their contents.
The present writer has seen it in similar situations In that condition the winds carry the anastatica
in the north of India, and nothing can be from place to place, till at last rain falls, or it
conceived more lieautiful than the rivulets at reaches a pool of water. The dry hard branches
the foot of the mountains, with their banks lined immediately absorb the fluid, become softened,
with thickets of oleanders, crowned with large relax, and expand again into the position they
lj- inches of roseate coloured flowers, Most tra occupied when alive; at the same time the seed
640 KOMAN EMPIRE. ROMAN EMPIRE.
vessels opfMi, and the seeds fall out, when, the Euro|H\ and forms the most numerous society thai
place being suitable, they readily germinate, has ever been united under the same system of
and establish themselves as new plants." The government.'
eflTe ts, therefore, are owing to the hygroscopic The government was at first kingly. Romulus,
properties of vegetable texture, which thus form the first monarch, was probably succeeded by six
of the anastatica * hygromttres uaturels,' accord others, during a period of 241 years, till in the
ing to D'Arvieux.J. F. R. year b.c. 509, kingly government was abolished
ROE [Antelope; species Tsebi or Dorcas]. when in the hands of Tarquinins Boperbttf, in
ROLL. [Writing.] consequence of his arrogant and oppressive des
potism. A consular form of government suc
ROMAN EMPIRE: the government of the ceeded, which was at the first of an essentially
Romans as conducted by the em|iernrs, of whom aristocratic character, but was compelled to give
Augustus was the first. The term may be taken way by degrees to popular influence, till men nt
with some latitude of meaning, as representing plebeian origin made their way to the highest
the Rinnan state since the Romans came into offices and first honours in the state, when the
contact with the Jews before the commencement government became an oligarchy; then fell into
of tlie imperial sway. We have not, however, anarchy, from which it was rescued by the strong
the intention of entering into an account of the hand of Octavius Caesar, who became sole master
rise, progress, and decline of 1 tie Roman power, of the world by defeating Antony at Actium on
but merely to set forth a few of the more essential the 2nd of September, a, u. 723 (b.c. 31), though
facts, speaking a little less briefly of the relations
formed and sustained between the Romans and
the Jews.
The foundations of Rome lie in an obscurity
from which the criticism of Niebohr has done
little more than remove the legendary charm.
Three tribes, however, formed the earliest popu
lation, namely, the Ramneuses (probably Ro-
manensrs, still further abbreviated into Ramnes),
the Titienses (shortened into Tities, from Titus
Tatius, their head), and the Luceres (probably
an Etruscan horde, who migrated to Home from
Solonium, under Lucumo). In order to in
crease his population, and with a view to that
conquest which lie afterwurds achieved, and which
was only a small prelude to the immense do
minion subsequently acquired, Komulus opened
in Rome an asylum, inviting thereto those who,
for whatever cause, (led from the neighbouring
cities. To Rome accordingly there Hocked the
discontented, the guilty, the banished, and (lie
aspiring, freemen and slaves. Thus were laid
the foundations of the future mistress of the
world, according to the ordinary reckoning,
n.c. 753, the number of inhabitants at the first
not exceeding, it is supposed, four thousand 471. [Roman Emperor and Empress.
souls' : what it arose to in the jieriod of its greatest
extent we have scarcely the means of ascertain it was not till the year 725 that the senate named
ing. Gibbon thus bjteaks :4 The number of Octavius Imperator, nor till the year 727 that
subjects who acknowledged the laws of Rome, he received the sacred title of Augustus. His
of citizens, of provincials, and of slaves, cannot empire had for its limit the Euphrates on the
now be lixed with such a degree of accuracy as east, the cataracts of the Nile, the African deserts,
the importance of the object would deserve. We and Mount Atlas on the south, the ocean on the
are infuimed that when the Kmperor Claudius west, and the Danube and the Rhine on the
exercised the office of censor he took an account nortli.
of six millions nine hundred and forty-live thou The subjugated countries that lay beyond the
sand Roman citizen*, who, with the proportion of limits of Italy were designated by the general
women and children, must have amounted to name of Provinces. The first provisions necessary
about twenty millions of souls, The multitude on the conquest of a country by the Roman aims
of subjects of inferior rank was uncertain and were made with a view to secure the acquisition
fluctuating. But after weighing with attention by the victorious general, in virtue of the power
every circumstance which could influence the and authority fimperium) intrusted to him by
balance, it seems probable that there existed in the government at home. Accordingly the earlie-t
the time of Claudius about twice as manv pro object of attention was the ordering of the mili
vincials as tliere were citizens, of either sex and tary |K>wer, and the procuring of suitable resources
of every age, and that the slaves were at least for subsisting the troops. These arrangement*,
equal in number to the free inhabitants of the however, were made not without a regard to the
Roman world. The total amount of this im- pacific relations into which the conquerors and
uerfect calculation would rise to about one hun- the conquered had mutually entered. Acting
(bed and twenty millions of personsa degree of on the principle that all unnecessary evil was
population which possibly exceeds that of modern gratuitous folly, the general availed himself of
ROMAN EMPIRE. ROMAN EMPIRE. 641
the aid aflbrded by existing institutions, and only master : they wore the sword as an index of mili
ventured to give displeasure by establishing new tary authority, and bad power of life and death
ones in cases where the laws and customs of a over the soldierstwo distinctions which were not
country were insufficient for his purposes The granted to the proconsuls, or governors of the sena
civil government, was, however, recognised, mo torial provinces. The imperial lieutenants re
dified or remodelled by the conqueror, provision mained many years in the provinces; until, in
ally, and only until the Roman senate had made deed, it pleased the emperor to recall them. Quaes
its behests known. Ordinarily, however, the gene tors were not sent into the imperial provinces, but
ral who had conquered the province constituted their place, was supplied by ' prncuratores,' called
its government, in virtue or a law or decree of at a later period * rationales,* who were generally
the senate in which the constitution (forma pro taken from the equestrian order : they raised the
vincial was set forth and established, or the pro revenue for t tie imperial treasury, and discharged
visional appointments already made were sanc the office of paymaster of the army. There was
tioned and confirmed. In order to complete these also in the senatorial provinces a procurator, who
structural arrangements, the general received spe raised the income intended, not for the treasury,
cial aid from ten senators, appointed for the pur- but fur the emperor's privy purse: the smaller
provinces, like Judsea, which belonged to Syria,
were altogether governed by such.
The proconsuls, propraetors, and propra?tonal
lieutenants, when about to proceed into their se
veral province.-*, received instructions for their guid
ance from the emperor; and in cases in which
these were found insufficient, they were to apply
for special directions to hie imperial head of the
state. A specimen of such application may be
found in Pliny's letter to Trajan, with the empe
ror's rescript, regarding the conduct which was to
be observed towards the already numerous and
rapidly growing sect of Christians. The adminis
tration of justice, so far as it did not belong to the
province itself, was in the governor or lieutenants
assembled in a conventus ; an appeal lay from this
court to the proconsul, and from him to Caesar.
Criminal justice was wholly in the hands of the
local governor, and extended not only over the
provincials, but the lioman citizens as well : in
important cases the governors applied for a deci
sion to the emperor. As the Romans carefully
473. [Roman Orator and Youth.] abstained from making any changes in religious
matters, so in Palestine the judging of crimes
pose, whose counsel he was obliged to make use against religion was left by them to the high-priest
jf. In thu3 re-forming the legal and social life and the Sanhedrim, even so far as condemnation
of a province, the conquerors had the good sense to death; but the execution of the sentence de
to act in general with prudence and mildness, pended on the procurator (Joseph. Antiq. xx. 9. 1 ;
having regaid in their appointments to local pe Mark xiv. 53, S5, 02-436; John xviii. 31). The
culiarities and existing institutions, so far as the Jews, at lnast during the time covered by the
intended adjunction to the Roman power per Gospels, enjoyed the free exercise of their religion.
mitted, in order to avoid giving the provincials They bad their synagogues or temples of public
provocation for opposing their new masters. Under worship, wiiere they served God without molesta
ordinary circumstance* tiie government of the tion, streaming thither at their great festivals from
provinces was conducted by authorities sent fur all parts of the hind, and making what offerings
the purpose from Rome. Augustus divided the or contributions they pleased. On these {.mints
government of the provinces between himself and the testimony of Josephus is full and (dear. The
the senate in inch a manner that lie assigned to Roman presidents did indeed depose and set up
the senate the provinces which were so well se high-priests as they pleased, but they cotiflued
cured and abeaiefit that they needed no army to their choice to the sacerdotal race. In these- inter
keep them in allegiance to Rome ; while he kept ferences they seem to have been guilty of acts of
under his own liauds, in virtue of his impcrium despotism, for winch, as for other abuses of their
proconsular*1, those that were more considerable power, they were liable to be called to account
and more difficult to bold. The aovernment of by an appeal of the injured to the Roman em
the senatorial provinces lay between the Consuls, peror, which was not often made in vain (Antiq,
for whom, after they had completed their con xviii. 2 -. o and 3 ; xx. 4, 3 and 4). ])r. Lardner
sular office, two provinces were appointed; the has, in his own minute, accurate, and learned
other provinces were allotted to the pratort, manner, reviewed the civil condition of the Jews
Suetonius adds (Octav. 47) that Augustus some during the time before referred to, dividing it into
times made changes in this arrangement. Quaes four heads I. The period from the preaching of
tors, chosen by lot out of those win) were named John the Baptist to our Saviour's resurrection : 2.
for the year, went with the proconsuls into the Thence to the time of Herod the king, mentioned
provinces of the senate. Into the provinces of the Acts xii.; 3. The reign of Herod; 4. From the
emperor legati, or lieutenants, were sent, with pro end of this reign to the conclusion of the evan
prietorial power, to act as representatives of their gelical history (Works, London, 18:27, i. 37, sq.).
VOL. IX.
642 ROMAN EMPIRE. ROMAN EMPIRE.
In regard to ttie first period he concludes, after a 10. 6 ; Justin, xxxvi. 3). The contests, however,
long inquiry, that the Jews practised their own which soon ensued in Syria, for the throne, gave
religious rites, worshipped at the Temple and in the Jews respite from their neighbours, and even
their synagogues, followed their own customs, and weight in the political scale, so that the treaty
lived very much according to their own laws. was not much called into operation (I Mace,
They had their high-priests, council or senate, and x. 11). Jonathan renewed and confirmed the
inflicted lesser punishments ; they could apprehend connection with the Romans (1 Mace. xii. . Joseph.
men and bring them before the council : and if Antiq. xiii. 5. 8) ; as did Simon, who *sent Nu*
a guard of soldiers was needful, could be assisted menius to Rome with a great shield of gold, of a
by them upon asking the governor for them; they thousand pounds weight, to confirm the league
could bind men and keep them in custody; the with them1 (1 Mace. xiv. 24). A very favour
council could summon witnesses, take examina able answer was returned in the name of 4 Lucius,
tions, and, when they bad any capital o(lenders, ;1 of ilir Romans.' The Jews thus attained
carry them before the governor. This governor the honour of being admitted into the rank of
usually paid a regard to what they offered, and, friends (socii) of the Roman peoplea dangerous
if they brought evidence of the fact, pronounced distinction, but which seems to have had an im
sentence according to their laws. He was the proper mediately beneficial influence in restraining the
judge in all capital causes. In the second period Syrian kings, who at once recognised the high-
the Scriptures do not make it clear that then was priest S;mon (1 Mace. xiv. 38, sq. ; xiv. 16, sq.).
any Roman officer in Judaea. In the main the con John Hyrcanus, the successor of Simon, aided by
dition of the province was not dissimilar to what these influences, was able to maintain himself as
it was in the first period. The case of Stephen, an independent prince during the conflicts which
who was stoned to death, may seem to be an ex continued in Syria, and had occasion only once to
ception ; but it may l>e considered as the result of appeal to Rome, namely, on occasion of injury
offended bigotry and of the outbreak of popular inflicted on bis country by Antiochus Sidetes : an
fury. The facts connected with the third jieriod embassy was dispatched to the senate, the treaty was
offer no difficulty, and may be found in AcU xii. renewed, and reparation, as well as immnnily from
Every order and act of Herod, here mentioned future injury, was readily promised (Antiq. xiii.
bis killing James with the sword, imprisoning 9, 2). The Romans gained a nearer and more de
Peter with intent to bring him forth to the people, cided influence in Judaea through the conflicts for
commanding the keepers to l>e put to deathare power carried on between Hyrcanus II. and Aris-
undeniable proofs of his sovereign authority at this tobulus II. Both these rivals sent an embassy to
time in Judoea. In the fourth period the main Scaurus, who had been detached by Pompey from
thing is the treatment of Paul in Judssa, so far as the army which he was leading against Tigranes
there is any appearance of legal procedure. The and had come into Syria. Each of them oflerea
case was tin's : a man was in danger of being Scaurus 400 talents. The bribe of Aristobulus
killed in a ]>opular tumult hi Jerusalem; a was accepted, and Scaurus, as the service to be
Roman officer rescues him, takes him into hu Own done for the payment, relieved Aristobulus by
hands, and lodges him in a castle ; afterwards, compelling Aretas, who was in alliance with Hyr
that his prisoner might be safer, he removes him canus, to raise the siege of Jerusalem {Antiq. xiv.
to Caesarea, the residence of the governor, before 2, 3). Shortly after, Pompey himself came to
whom there are divers hearings. There was there Damascus and marched over Coele-Syria, where
fore at the time a Koman governor in Juda?a. A lie was met by ambassadors from Hyrcanus and
Jewish council also appears --one not void of au Aristobulus. Pompey beard their rival claims,
thority. The charge was of a religious nature, yet and the appeal of the Jewish nalion against
is it heard before Felix and Festus, whose authority them, which alleged as their crime that they wished
is acknowledged on all sides. Paul appealed to subvert the established form of government,
to the Roman emperor. The general conclusion and each to make himself king of the Jews. The
is, that if causes of a religious nature did not ex Roman chief saw bis opportunity, marched to
clusively belong to the Romans, they had supreme Jerusalem, and captured the city, making Hyrca
power over the Jews in civil matters. These de nus high-priest and prince of the Jews, restricting
ductions, made from the EvangelUtl themselves, bil territory, and imposing tribute (Antiq. xiv. 4.
Lardner corroborates by an appeal to independent 4 ; Flor. iii. 5, 50 ; Tacit. Hwt 9). This is the
authorities, namely, the opinions of Roman law event ( b.c. 63) from which the loss of their liberty
yers concerning the power of the governors of pro by the Jews is to be reckoned. Henceforth they
vinces'; the statements of historians relating to the formed a part of the province of Syria, under the
condition of Judaea in particular ; and similar in protection of whose president they were; and from
formation touching the state of the people in other his avarice they bad much to endure. The mo
provinces. Before, however, we speak of the con narchy had passed into a species of aristocracy,
nection in this period between Rome and Judam. which lasted for some time. But though the
we must go back a little in order to show under Jewish people then became subject to the Romans,
what preliminary circumstances Judxa became a and from that time forward the rod of Heaven may
part of the great Roman empire. The Romans be said to have hung over the land, they yet en
and Jews first came into political contact about joyed many privileges, as well as the freedom of
B.C. 161, when Judas Maccahaeus, being moved their worship, under the mild government of these
by the great and widely-spread military re masters. When Pompey captured Jerusalem, be
nown of the Romans, sent an embassy to Rome, and some of bis oflicers entered, into the Temple,
and formed with them a treaty olTensive and and the most holy places of it, but they took no
defensive, but with the special view of obtaining thing away.
help against * the Grecians,* that is, Demetrius, Julius Caesar, whom political considerations lea"
king of Syria (1 Mace. viii. ; Joseph. Antiq. xii. into the East, confirmed Hyrcanus in the high
ROMAN EMPIRE. ROMAN EMPIRE. 643
briesthood, and showed himself well-disposed to stroyed. In the third year of Caligula, a.d. 39,
wards the Jews by several decrees, but associated Petronius was sent into Syria with orders to set up
with Hyrcauus Antipater, an Idumsun, who, the emperors statue in the Temple at Jerusalem.
under the title of procurator of Judrca, was in This rest of the churches seems to have reached
reality the sole governor (Antiq. xiv. 10. 10; some way into Herod Agrippa's reign. When he
xiv. 8. 5). The Jews were anew declared friends ascended the Jewish throne, as we have already
of the Homau people, being in reality their sub intimated, the Jews had a king of their own, but
jects. In the year B.C. 40, the Roman senate he was a vassal king.
declared Herod king of the Jews. Archelaus, The Romans, during their dominion, introduced
Herod's son, being banished by Augustus (a.d. into Judaea many of their manners and customs ;
6 or 7), Judaea was put under the immediate go their money became current ; their weights and
vernment of Rome. Josephus says, * The domi measures were adopted ; their mode of reckoning
nion of Archelaus being reduced to a province, time was employed. Yet none of these things ob
Coponius, a person of the equestrian order among tained more than partial prevalence. The Latin
the Romans, is sent thither, invested by Caesar with language no longer remained unknown, esjiecial ly
the power of life and death' {De Bell. Jttd. ii. 8. among the higher classes. In judicial proceed
1). In his Antiquities (xvii. 13. 5) he adds, ings and public documents the Latin was used.
* Cyrenius also came into Judaea, it being annexed It must have been extensively spoken in Jerusalem,
to lite province of Syria.' The procurators, under since (John xix. 20) the title which bore the alle
whom Judaea had now fallen, had their official gation on which our Lord was ostensibly put to
residence at Caesarea. When Cyrenius came into death was written in Latin, as well as in Greek
Syria he took an account of the sultstance of the and Hebrew (Val. Max. ii. 2. 2). These three
Jews. At first they were unwilling to endure tins tongues were indeed used, but in what proportion,
hadge of subjection, but submitted with difficulty cannot now be ascertained. Many Latinisms are
(Antiq. xviii. 1. 1). From this time, however, found in the diction of the New Testament, though
they continued tributary to Rome (Lardner, i. they may not be so numerous as was once sup
&0JU In order to enforce the taxes and generally posed (Olearius, De Stylo A'. T.p. 368, sq.; Georgi,
aid the procurator, a t>ody of Roman soldiers in the second part of his Hicrocrit. N. J\, Viterb.
(a cohort) was put at his disposal, which had their 1733; Michael is, Einleit. N. T.t i. 173, sq. ;
quarters permanently in the country, their head Winer, Grammatik des Real Sprach., ed. I*eip-
station being at Caesarea. In Acts x. 1 mention zig, 1R44, Erst. Abschuitt). The language which
is made of the Italian band at Caesarea ; which was our Lord sftoke has been much disputed. The
so termed because composed of Italian soldiers, Latin (Wernsdorf, De Ckristo Latine loquentc),
while the other troops in Syria and Judaea consisted has put in its claim. The Greek has done the
of natives (Schwarz, De Cohorte Italica, Xltorf, same (D. Diodati, De Christa Greece loquente, by
1 720). A portion of the troops was always sta Dobbin, London, 1843). There can, however, be
tioned in Jerusalem at the Passover, in order to little doubt that he ordinarily employed the lan
aid in preserving the peace : they had their quar guage of the j>eop]e, which was neither Greek nor
ters in the citadel Antouia, which commanded the I..i' in. but Aramaic, a dialect of the Hebrew.
Temple, and so controlled the city (Antiq. xix. 9. Not only in Judsea, but in other provinces of the
2; xx. 4. 3; Acts xxi. 31, sq. ; xxii. 21 j xxiii. Roman empire, (he Jews enjoyed full freedom of
23). The first procurator entrusted with the worship, and were excused from military service
izovemment of Judaea was Coponius; he was fol on the express ground oftheir religious observances
lowed by Marcus Amhivius ; then came Annius (Joseph. Antiq, xiv. 10 ; xix. 5. 3 ; Philo, De Leg.
Rufus, in whose time Augustus died, a.d. 14. p. 1U36). In Alexandria social favour was shown
The next was Valerius Gratus, who was ap- to the numerous Jews settled there, by their
piinted by Tiberius : he continued in the province Roman masters.
eleven years, and was then succeeded by Pontius The right of citizenship is sjioken of in Acts
Pilate, whose government lasted ten years. Lard xxii. 2S, where we find the chief captain declar
ner is of opinion that Pontius Pilate left Judaea ing, in relation to Paul's claim of being a Roman,
before the Passover, a.d. 36. During the ensuing 'With a great sum obtained I this freedom'
four or live years it may be questioned whether (woKirtla, jus civitatis, civitas). In the preceding
the Jews had a procurator residing amongst them twenty-fifth verse we learn that it was unlaw ful to
with power of life and death. Ol they had from scourge 'a man that was a Roman, uud uncon-
a.d. 7 to a.d. 36 or 37. They were, however, demned.' These statements are in strict accord
suhject to the Romans. Lardner inclines to the ance with what we learn from independent sources
opinion that they had no procurator residing [Citizenship] (Sigonius, De Antiquo Jure Civ.
among them from the time of Pilate's removal to Rom., Paris, 1572); found also in Graevit The-
Agrippa's accession. During this time they were saurus, i. ; K. Spanheim, Orbis Rom., London,
immediately under the government, tirst of Vitel- 1703 ; Cellarii Dissertatt. p. 715, sq. ; Fabric.
lius, and then of Petronius, presidents of Syria. HtbUoijraph. Antiq. p. 724, sq.). On the general
Hence some degree of license would be assumed subject of this article consult fcschenberg's CUu-
by the Jewish authorities; winch was manifested in sical Manual, Hotnan Antiquities, Wiley and
their treatment of the first Christian missionaries, Putnam, London, 1R44; Rupei ti's Handbuch des
as shown in the stoning of Stephen, and the perse Romisch. Alterthiimer, Hanover, 1841 a very
cution which immediately broke out. In Acts ix. accurate and comprehensive manual, in two vo
31 a different state of things is recorded 'Then lumes, Svo. ; Maillott and Martin, Recherche*
had the churches rest throughout all Judaea, and sur les Costumes, les Ma?urs, $c. des Aneien*
Galilee, and Samaria.* This appears to have Peuplvs. The first volume exhibits in detail the
arisen from the Jews themselves being in distress. costume, manners, &c. of the Romans down to
In Alexandria their houses of prayer were all de the lat emperors of Constantinople. The engrav
644 ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE. ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE,
inga are taken from medals and monuments. carried to Rome as slaves : gome of the early
TonM who wish to study the morals of the Ro Christians at R>me followed mercantile pursuits.
mans will find aid in Rttperti (ut supra, 2 Al>- At the time when this epistle was written, there
the'il, p. 259, sq-) *ee WO J. K. Unger, Sitten were also Geutile Christians in the Roman church ;
und Gebrauche dcr Homer, Wien, 1805; see also and from passages like xi. 13; xv. 16; i. 7 and
Arnold's History of Rome. Much information 13, we learn that the Gentile Christians were then
may he found hy the English reader, on the state more numerous than the converted Jews. It is
of manners in the first centuries after Christ, well known that in those times many heathens
in the following fictionsLoekharl's Valerius; embraced Judaism (Tacitus, Annul xv. 44;
Bulwer's Pompeii; Ware's Palmyra; and in Juvenal, Sat. xiv. 96). These converts to
Milman's History of Christianity.J. R. B. Judaism were mostly women. Such proselytes
ROMANS, THE EPISTLE TO THE. formed at that period (lie point of coalescence for
This epistle claims our interest more than the other the conversion of the Gent iles. Among the converts
didactic epistles of the Apostle Paul, because it is from Judaism to Christianity, there existed in the
more systematic, and because it explains es)>e- days of Paul two parties. The congregated
cially that truth which became subsequently the apostles hail decreed, according to Acts xv., that
principle of the reformation, viz., righteousness the converts from paganism were not bound to
through faith. Melanchthou was so fund of this keej) the ritual laws of Moses. There were, how
epistle that he made it the subject of constant ever, many converts from Judaism who were dis
lectures, and twice copied it out with his own inclined to renounce the authority of the Mosaic
hand, just as Demosthenes copied Thncydides law, and appealed erroneously to the authority ot
(romp. Strobel's Littcrargeschichte dcr loci Theo- James (Gal. ii. 9; comp. Acts xxi. 25): they
logici des Melancht/um, p. 13): in these lectures claimed also the authority of Peter in then
he explained the leading dogmatical anil ethical favour. Such converts from Judaism, mentioned
ideas, i.e. the loci Theologici, which, at a later in t he other epistles, who continued to observe
period, gave rise to the dogmatical work bearing the ritual laws of Moses, were not prevalent in
this title. Rune : however, Or. Baur of Tubingen sup-
At the period when the apostle wrote the Epistle jxtses that this Kbiunitic tendency prevailed at
to the Romans, he had passed through a life full that time in all Christian congregations, Rome
of experience. About four years after the com|>osi- not excepted. He thinks that the converts
tion of this letter Paul calls himself npta&vr-qs, from Judaism were then more numerous than the
the aged* (Philemon, ver. 9). Paul was at this Gentile Christians, and that all were compelled
time between fifty and sixty years old. After to submit to the Judaizing opinions of the ma
having spent two years and a half at Ephesus, he jority (comp. Baur's Abhandlung iibcr Zwcck
planned a journey to Macedonia, Achaia, Jeru and Veranlassung des Rdmerbriefs, in der Tii-
anient, and Rome (Acts xix. 21). Having spent binger Zeitschrift, 1836). However, we infer
about three months iu travelling, he arrived at from the passages above quoted, that the Gentile
Corinth, where he remained three months (Act* Christians were much morenumerousat Rome than
xx. 2) ; and during this second abode at Corinth he the converts from Judaism. Neander has also
wrote the Epistle to the Romans (comp. 1 Cor, shown that t he Judaizing tendency did not prevail
xvi. 1 3, and 2 Cor. ix. with Rom. XV. 25). in the Roman church (comp. Neander's Pflan-
Paul dispatched this letter by a Corinthian zung der Vhristlichen Kirche, 3rd ed. p. 388).
woman, who was just then travelling to Rome This opinion is confirmed by the circumstance,
(xvi. 1), and sent greetings from an inhabitant of that, according to ch. xvi., Paul bad many
Corinth (xvi. 23; comp. I Cor. i. 14). friends at Rome. Dr. Baur removes this objec
The data iu the life of the apostle depend ujxm tion only by declaring ch. xvi. to be spurious.
the year in which his conversion took place. Con He appeal* to ch. xiv. in order to prove that there
sequently we must have a settled opinion con were Kbionitic Christians at Rome: it appears,
cerning the date of this event before we speak however, that the persons mentioned in ch. xiv.
about the date of the Epistle to the Romans. were by no means strictly Judaizing zealots, wish
Tle opinions of the learned fluctuate concerning ing to overrule the Gentile Christians, but, on the
the date of the conversion : some think that this contrary, some scrupulous converts from Judaism,
event took place as early as a.d. 31 or 41 ; but it upon whom the Gentile Christians looked down
is by far more probable that the epistle was contemptuously. There were, indeed, some dis
written about the year 58 or 59. The Congrega agreements between the converts from Judaism and
tion of Christians at Rome was formed at a very the Gentile Christians in Rome. This is evident,
early period, but its founder is unknown. Paul from ch. xv. 6f), and xi. 17, 18 : these debates,
himself mentions two distinguished teachers at however, were not of so obstinate a kind as among
Rome, who were converted earlier than himself. the Galatians; otherwise tbe&pMtle could scarcely
According to Rom. i. 8. the Roman congrega have praised the congregation at Rome as be does
tion had then attained considerable celebrity, as inch. i. Sand 12, and xv. 14. From ch. xvi. 17
their faitli was spoken of throughout the whole 20. we infer that the Judaizers had endeavoured,
world. From chap. xvi. we learn tiiat there were to find admittance, but with little success.
a considerable number of Christian teachers at The opinions concerning the occasion and
Rome: from which we infer that the congregation objf.ct of this letter, differ according to the va
had existed there for some time; and it is most rious suppositions of those who think that the
likely thai the Jews at Rome were first converted object of the letter was supplied by the occasion,
to Christianity. Under Augustus there were so or the sup]>osition that the apostle selected his
many Jews at Rome, that this emperor appointed subject only after an opportunity for writing was
for them quarters beyond the Tiber. These Jews offered. In earlier times the latter opinion pre
coniitfac' mostly offreeimen, whom Pompey had vailed, as, for instance, in the writings of Thomas
ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE. ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE. 645
Aquinas, Luther, Melanchthon, Calvin. In more circumstance that in Rome the number of Gen
recent times the other opinion ha* generally been tile Christians was much greater than that of the
advocated, as, fur instance, by Hug, Eichhorn, and converted Jews, and he explains how this was
Flatt. Many writers supjiose thai the debates consistent with the counsel of God. He endea
mentionetl in ch. xiv. and xv. called forth this vours to re-establish peace lietween the contend
epistle. Hug, therefore, is of opinion that the ing parties ; consequently he had to produce many
theme of the whole epistle is the followingJews arguments which might be converted into jtole-
AND GkNTILES HATE EQUAL CLAIM TO THK mics (Polemik) against the Jews ; but it does by
Kingdom ok God. According to Eichhorn, the no means follow that such polemics were the
Roman Jews being exasperated against the dis chief aim of tlie apostle.
ciples of Paul, eudeavouied to demonstrate that
Judaism was sufficient for the salvation of man Contents ok the Epistle to the Romans.
kind ; consequently Eichhorn supjioses that the It belongs to the characteristic tyjie of St,
Siolemics of St. Paul were not directed against Paul's teaching to exhibit tlie Gospel in its his
udaizing converts to Christianity, as in the torical relation to the human race. In the Kpistle
Epistle to the Galatians, but rather against Ju to the Romans, also, we find that peculiar cha
daism itself. This opinion is also maintained by racter of St. Paul's teaching, which induced
De Wette (Einleitung ins Neue Testament, 4th Schelling to call St. Paul's doctrine a philosophy
ed. $ 138). According to Credner (Einleitung. $ of the history of man. The real purjutse of tlie
141). the intention of the apostle was to render the human race is iu a sublime manner stated by St.
Roman congregation favourably disposed before his Paul in his sj>eech in Acts xvii. 26, 27; and he
arrival in the chief metropolis, and lie therefore en shows at the same time how God had, by various
deavoured to show that the evil reports spread con historical means, promoted the attainment of Ins
cerning himself by zealously Judaizing Christians puriwse. St. Paul exhibits the Old Testament dis
were erroneous. This opinion is nearly related to pensation under the form of an institution for the
that of Dr. Baur, who supposes that the real object education of the whole human race, which vhould
of this letter is mentioned only iu ch. ix. to xt. enable men to terminate their spiritual minority,
According to Dr. Baur, the Judaizing zealots and become truly of age (Gal. iii. 24, and i". 1-4).
were displeased that by the instrumentality of In the Kpistle to the Romans also, the apostle com
Paul such numbers of Gentiles entered the King mences by describing the two great division* of the
dom of God, that the Jews ceased to appear us human race, viz., those who underwent the pre
Messianic people. Dr. Uaur supposes that paratory spiritual education of the Jews, and those
tbese Judaizers are more especially refuted in who diil not undergo such a preparatory educa
ch. ix. to xi., after it has been shown in the first tion. We find a similar division indicated by
eight chapters that it was iti general incorrect to Christ himself (John x. 16), where he speaks of
consider one people better than another, and that one flock separated by hurdles. The chief aim of
all had equal claims to be justified by failh. all nations, according to St. Paul, should be tlie
Against the opinion that the apostle, in writing ZiKaioavvn tvunriov rov Qtov, righteousness befort
the Epistle to the Romans, had this particular the face of God, or alisolute realization of the
polemical aim, it has been justly olwerved by moral law. According to St. Paul, the 1 eat hen
Riickert (in the second ed. of his Commentar.), also have their p6fiOSt law, as wejl religion* at
Olshauseu, and De Wette, that the apostle himself moral internal revelation (Horn. i. 19,32; il. lft).
states i ii.it his epistle had a general scope. Paul The heathen have, however, not fulfilled ll at law
says in the introduction that he had long enter which they knew, and are in this respect like the
tained the wish of visiting the metropolis, in order Jews, who also disregarded their own law (it.).
to confirm the faith ofthe church, and to be himself Both Jews and Gentiles are transgressois, or by
comforted by that failh (ch. i. 12). He adds (i. 16), the law separated from the grace and lODiihin of
that be was prevented from preaching in the chief God (Horn. ii. 12; iii. 20); consequently if
city by external obstacles only. He says that he blessedness could only l>e obtained by fulfilling
had written to the Roman Christians in fulfil* tlie demands of God, no man could be Messed.
meut of his vocation as ajKwtle to the Gentile*. God, however, has gratuitously given righteous
The journey of Pfccvbe to Rome seems to have ness and blessedness to all who believe in ChrUt
been the external occasion of the epistle : Paul (iii. 21 31); tlie Old Testament also recog
made use of (his opportunity by sending tlie sum nises the value of religious faith (iv.) : thus we
and substance of tlie Christian doctrine iu writing, freely attain to peace and sonship of God pre
having lieett prevented from preaching in Rome. sently, and have before us still greater things, viz.,
Paul had many friends in Rome who commu the future development of the kingdom of God (v.
nicated with him; consequently he was the more 1-1 1). The human race lias gained in Christ much
induced to address the Romans, although he more than it lost in Adam (v. 12, 21). This doc
manifested some hesitation iu doing so (xv. 15). trine by no means encourages sin (vt.) : on the
These circumstances exercised some influence as contrary, men who are conscious of divine grace
well on the form as upon the coutents of (he fulfil the law much more energetically than they
letter ; so tbut, for instance, its contents ditler were aide to do l>efore having attained to this
considerably from (he Kpistle to the Kphesiuns, knowledge, because the law alone is even apt to
although this also has a general scojw. The ibarpen the apatite for sin, and leads finally to
especial hearings of the Epistle to the Romans are despair (vii.) ; hut now we fulfil the law by means
jwirticularly manifest in ch. xiii. to xvi. ; Paul of that new spirit which is given unto us, and the
hows to both Jews and Gentiles the glory of full development of our salvation is still liefore
Christianity as being absolute religion, and he us (viii. 1-27). The sufferings of the present time
especially endeavours to confirm the faith of the cannot prevent this development, and must rather
ion verts from Judaism (iv.) : Paul refers to tlie work for good to them whom God from eternity
646 ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE. ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE.
has viewed as faithful believers ; and nothing treated amply on the mystery of redemption*
can separate such believers from the eternal love We find an analogous instance in Kphes. xxiii.
>f God (viii. 28-39). It causes pain to behold 27, where a doxology occurs after the mystery of
the Israelites themselves shut out from salvation; salvation had been mentioned : we are therefore
but they themselves are the cause of tins seclusion, of opinion that the doxology is rightly placed at
because they wanted to attain salvation by their the conclusion of ch. xvi., and that it was in some
own resources and exertions, by their descent codices erroneously transfused to the conclusion
from Abraham, and by their fulfilment of the of ch. xiv., because the copyist considered the
law i thus, however, the Jews have not obtained blessing in xvi. 24 to be the real conclusion of the
that salvation which God has freely offered under Epistle. In confirmation of this remark we ob
the sole condition of faith in Christ (ix.) ; the serve that the same codices in which the doxology
Jews have not entered upon the way of faith, occurs in ch. xvi. either omit the blessing alto
therefore the Gentiles were preferred, which was gether, or place it after the doxology.
predicted by the pmphets. However, the Jewish
race, as such, has not been rejected ; some of Interpreter! ov tub Epistle to the
them obtain salvation by a selection made not Romans.Chrysostorn is the most important
according to their works, but according to the among the fathers who attempted to interpret this
grace of God. If some of the Jews are left to epistle; he enters deeply, and with psychological
their own obduracy, even their temporary fall acumen, into the thoughts of the apostle, and ex
serves the plans of God, viz., the vocation of the pounds them with sublime animation. Among
Gentiles. After the mass of the Gentiles shall the reformers Calvin is distinguished by logical
have entered in, the people of Israel also, in their penetration and doctrinal depth. Beza is
collective capacity, shall be received into the distinguished by his grammatical and critical
church (xi.). knowledge. Sitice the period of rationalism the
interest about this epistle has been revived by the
ON TBI AUTHENTICITY AND INTEGRITY OV Commentary of Tholuck, the first edition of
the Epistle to tux Romans.The authen which appeared in 1824. No other book of the
ticity of this epistle has never been questioned. New Testament has, since that period, been ex
The Epistle to the Romans is quoted as early as pounded so frequently and so accurately. From
the first and second century by Clemens Romanus 1824 to 1844, there have been published as many
and Poly carp. Its integrity lias lately been at as seventeen learned and critical commentaries
tacked by Dr. Baur, who pretends that chs. xv. on it; and, in addition to these, several practical
and xvi. are spurious, but only, as we have ob expositions. In the Commentar von Riickert,
served above, because these chapters do not har 2d ed., 1839, 2 vols., we find copious criticisms
monise witli his supposition, that the Christian of the various interpretations, and n clear and
church at Home consisted of rigid Judaizers. pleasing, altltoughnot always carefully weighed,
Schmidt and Reiche consider the doxology at the exposition.
conclusion of ch. xvi. not to be genuine. In this The Commentar von Fritiscfee, 1836 to 1843^
doxology the anacolouthical and unconnected 3 vols., exhibits a careful critique of the text, com
style causes some surprise, and the whole has been bined with philological explanation, but the true
deemed to be out of its place (ver. Mattel 27). We, sense of the apostle has frequently lieen missed.
' however, observe, in reply to Schmidt and Keiche, The Commentar of Olshauseu, 2nd ed., 1840,
that such defects of style may be easily explained generally contains only the author's own exposi
from the circumstance, that the apostle hastened to tion, but presents a very pleasing development of
the conclusion, but would l>e quite inexplicable in (he doctrinal contents. De Welte manifests on the
additions of a copyist who had time for calm con whole a correct tact (3rd ed., 184)) ; however, his
sideration. Tfie same words occur in d liferent book is too comprehensive, so that the contents of
passages of the epistle, and it must be granted that toe epistle do not make a clear impression. Late))
such a fluctuation sometimes indicates an interpo there has been published in French also an inter
lation. In the Codex i in most of the Codices pretation of tin- Epistle to the Romans, worked out
Miuusculi, as well as in Chrysostorn, the words with much diligence and ingenuity, by Hugues
occur at the conclusion of ch. xiv. In the Oltramare; the first part contains chs. i. to v.
Codices B.C.D.E., anil in the Syrian transla 11, and was published at Geneva, 1843.A. T.
tion, this doxology occurs at the conclusion of [Tlie principal English works on the Epistle to
ch. xvi. In Codex A it occurs in both places; the Romans are!Willet, Htxapia, or a Six/old
whilst in Codex D**, tbe words are wanting Comment on the Epistle to tf*e Romans, 1611 ;
entirely, and they seem not to fit into either of Taylor's Paraphrase and Soteson the Epistle to
the two places. If the doxology be put at the con the Romans, 1747 ; Jones, The Epistle to the
clusion of ch. xiv., Paul stems to nromise to Romans analyzed, from a development of the
those Christians weak in faith, of whom lie had circumstances by which it was occasioned, 1801 ;
spoken, a confirmation of their belief. Bnt it Cox, Hone Roman*, 1824 (translation with
seems unfit (unpossend) in this connection to call notes); Turner, Note* on the Epistle to the Ro
the Gospel an eternal mystery, and the doxology man*, New York, 1824 (exegetical, for the use of
seems here to interrupt the connection between students) ; Terrot, The Epistle of Paul to the
chs. xiv. and xv. ; and at the conclusion ofch. xvi. Romans, 182s* (Greek text, paraphrase, notes,
it seems to be superfluous since the blessing had and useful prolegomena). Stuart's Commentary
been pronounced already in ver. 24. We, bow- on the Epistle to the Romans, Andover, U. S.,
ever, say that tins latter circumstance need not 1832, is undoubtedly the greatest work on this
have prevented the ajmatle from allowing hit Epistle which has been produced in the Englisb
animated feelings to burst forth in a doxology, language, and may Iw regarded as next in im
specially at the couclnsiuu of an epistle which portance to the admirable Commentary by tb*
ROME. ROME. 647
of the above article (Dr. Tholuck), a cisely the same as that which was at any period co
translation of which, by the Rev. R. Menzies, has vered by the ancient city : the change of locality
been given in the Edinburgh Biblical Cabinet. being towards the north-west, the city has par
Ed.] tially retired from the celebrated hills. About
ROME, the famous capital of the Western two-thirds of the area within the walls (traced by
World, and the present residence of the Pope, Aurelian) are now desolate, consisting of ruins,
stands on the river Tiber, ahout fifteen miles from gardens, and fields, with some churches, con
its mouth, in the p!ain of what is now called the vents, and other scattered habitations. Origin
Campagna {Felic ilia Campania, Pliny. Hist. ally the city was a square mile in circumference.
Nat. iii. 6), in lat. 41 54' N., long. 12 28' E. In the time of Pliny the walls were nearly twenty
The country around the city is not a plain, but a miles in circuit ; now, they are from fourteen
sort of undulating table-land, crossed by hills, to fifteen miles round. Its original gates, three
while it sinks towards the south-west totlic marshes in number, had increased in the time of the elder
of Maremma, which coast the Mediterranean. Pliny to thirty-seven. Modem Rome has six
In ancient geography the country, in the midst of teen gates, some of which are, however, built up.
which Rome lay, was termed Latium, which, in Thirty-one great roads centered in Rome, which,
the earliest times, comprised within a space issuing from the Forum, traversed Italy, ran
of about four geographical square miles the through the provinces, and were terminated only
country lying between the Tiber and the Numi- by the boundary of the empire. As a starting
cius, extending from the Alban Hills to the sea. point a gilt pillar (Milliarium Aureum) was set
having for its chief city Laurentum. Here, on the up by Augustus in the middle of the Forum.
Palatine Hill, was the city of Rome founded by This curious monument, from which distances were
Romulus and Remus, grandsons of Numitor. and reckoned, was discovered in 1823. Eight prin
sons of Rhea Sylvia, to whom, as the originators cipal bridges led over the Tiber ; of these three
of the city, mythology ascribed a divine parent are still relics. The four districts into which
age. The origin of the term Rome is in dispute. Rome was divided in early times, Augustus
Some derive it from the Greek 'Pw/iij, * strength," increased to fourteen. Large ojjen spaces were
considering that this name was given to the place set apart in the city, called Campi, for as
as being a fortress. Cicero (De Uepub. ii. 7) semblies of tlie people anil martial exercises, as
says the name was taken from that of its founder well ii for game.*. Of nineteen which arc men
Romulus. At first the city had three gates, ac tioned, the Campus Martius was the principal.
cording to a sacred usage. Founded on the It was near the Tiber, whence it was called
Palatine Hill, it was extended, bj degrees, so as Tiberinus. Tlie epithet Martius was derived
to take in six other hills, at the foot of which ran from the plain being consecrated to Mars, the god
deep valleys that, in early times, were in jiart of war. In the later ages it was surrounded
overflowed with water, while (he hill-sides were by several magnificent structures, and porticos
covered with trees. In the course of the many were erected, under which, in bad weather, the
years during which Rome was acquiring to citizens could go through their usual exercises.
herself the empire of the world, the city under It. was also adorned with statues and arches.
went great, numerous, and important changes. Tlie name of Fora was given to places where
Under its 6rst kings it must have presented a tlie people assembled for the transaction of busi
very different aspect from what it did after it ness. Tlie Fora were of two kinds fora venal ia,
had been beautified by Tarquin. The destruc 1 markets \ fora civ ilia, Maw courts,' &c. Until
tion of the city by the Gauls (i/.c. 365) caused the time of Julius Caesar there was but one of the
a thorough alteration in it ; nor could the troubled latter kind, termed by way of distinction Forum
times which ensued have beeu favourable to its Romanuro, or simply Forum. It lay between
being well restored. It was not till riches and the Capitolfoe and Palatine Hills; it was eight
artistic skill came into the city on the conquest hundred feet wide, and adorned on all sides with
of Philip of Macedon, and Antiochus of Syria porticos, shojs, and other edifices, on the erection
(u.c. 56J), that there arose in Rome large hand of which large sums had l>een expended, and the
some stone houses. The capture of Corinth con appearance of which was very imposing, especi
duced much to the adorning of the city : many tine ally as it was much enhanced by numerous sta
specimens of art being transferred from thence to tues. In the centre of the Forum was the plain
the abode of the conquerors. And so, as the |>ower called the Curtian Lake, where Curtius is said to
of Rome extended over the world, and her chief have cast himself into a chasm or gull, which
citizens went into tlie colonics to enrich themselves, closed on him, and so he saved his country. On
did the master-pieces of Grecian art Mow towards uue side were the elevated seats or suggestus, a
the capital, together with some of the taste and skill sort of pulpits from which magistrates and orators
to which they owed their birth, Augustus, however, addressed the peopleusually called Rostra, be
it was, who did most for embellishing the capital cause adorned with the beaks of ships which had
of the world, though there may be some sanrilice been taken in a sea-fight from the inhabitants of
of truth in the pointed saying, that he found Antium. Near by was the part of the Forum
Rome built of brick, and left it marble. Subse called the Comitium, where were held the assem
quent emperors followed his example, til! the blies of the people called Comitia Curiata, The
place became tle greatest repository of architec celebrated temple, Itearing the name of Capitol
tural, pictorial, and sculptural skill, that the (of which there remain only a few vestiges), stood
world has ever seen; a result to which even on the Capitoline Hill, the highest of tlie seven :
Nero's incendiarism indirectly conduced, as af it was square in form, each side extending alout
fording an occasion for the city's being rebuilt two hundred feet, and the ascent to it was by a
under the higher scientific inlluences of the times. flight of one hundred steps. It was one of tlie oldest,
The site occupied by modern Rome is not pre- largest, and grandest editices inthe city. Founded
648 ROME. ROME.
by Tarquinius Priscus, it was at several times ing the name of Basilica?, were erected uuder Con
enlarged and embellished. Its gates were of stantine. He gave his own palace on the Cselian
brass, and it was adorned with costly gilding* ; Hill as a site for a Christian temple. Next in
whence it is tenned 1 nldat' and 'glittering,' antiquity was the church of St. Peter, on the
aurea, fulgent. It enclosed three structures, the Vatican Hill, built a.d. 324, on the site and with
temple of Jupiter Capitoliuus in the centre, the the ruins of temples consecrated to Apollo and
temple of Minerva on (lie right, and the temple Mars. It stood about twelve centuries, at the
of Juuo on the It-It - The Capitol also compre end of which it was superseded by the modern
hended some minor temples or cha|>eis, and the church bearing the same name. The Circi were
C.uwi Rotnuli, or cottage of Romulus, covered buildings oblong in shaj>e, used for public games,
with straw. Near the ascent 10 the Capitol was races, and beast- tights. The Theatra were edifices
the asylum [Citiks ok Rbkugk], We alto designed fur dramatic exhibitions ; the Amphi-
mention ihe Basilica*, since some of them were theatra (double theatres, buildings in an oval
afterwards turned to the p TjNxes of Christian form) served for gladiatorial shows and the right
worship. They were originally buildings of great ing of wild animals. That which was erected by
splendour, being appropriated to meetings of the the Emperor Titus, and of which there still exists
senate, and to judicial purjHwes. Here coun a splendid ruin, was called the Coliseum, from a
sellors received their clients, and hankers trans colossal statue of Nero that stood near it. With
acted their business. The earliest churches, bear an excess of luxury, perfumed liquids were con-
473. [Rome.]
veyed in secret tubes round these immense struc allowed the free use of their national worship, an**
tures, and diffused over the spectators, sometimes generally the observance of their ancestral cus
from the statues which adorned the interior. In toms. Then, as now, the Jews lived in a part of
the arena which formed the centre of the amphi the city appropriated to themselves (Joseph. Antiq.
theatres, the early Christians often endured mar xiv. 10. 8), where with a zeal for which ihe na
tyrdom by lieing exposed to ravenous beasts. tion had been some time distinguished, they aj>-
The connection of the Romans with Palestine plied themselves with success to proselytising (Dion
caused Jews to settle Ht Home in considerable Cass, xxxvii. 17). They appear, however, to
numbers. On one occasion, in the reign of Tibe hue been a resfntt* colony ; for when, after their
rius, when the Jews were tstnished from the city expulsion under Tiberius, numbers had returned
by the emperor, fur the misconduct of some mem- to Koine, ther were again expelled from the
ben of their body, not fewer than four thousand city by Claudius (Suet. Claud. 23 ). The
enlisted iu the Roman army which was then sta Roman biographer does not give the date of this
tioned in Sardinia (Suetun. Tib. ;jb" ; Joseph. Antiq. event, but Orosius (vii. 6) mentions the ninth
xviii. 3. 4). These appear to have been emanci year of that emjieror's reign (a d. 50). The pre
pated descendants of those Jews whom Ponipey cise occasion of this expulsion history does not
had taken prisoners in Judaea, and brought captive afford us the means of determining. The words of
to Rome (Philo, De Leg. ad Cat., p. 101 4). From Suetonius are, * Judaws, impulsore Chresto, assi-
Philo also it appears that the Jews in Rome were due tumultuantes, Romaexpulit'' He expelled
ROME. ROME. 649
from Rome the Jews continually raising distur more readily introduced from the fact that, while
bances under the impulse of Chrestos.' The Christ was a foreign word, Chrest was customary :
sause here assigned fur their expulsion is, tltat they
lips therefore that had been used to Chrest would
raised disturbances, an allegation which, at firstrather continue the sound than change the vo
view, does not seem to point to a religious, stillcalisation. The term Chrest occurs on inscrip
less to a Christian, influence. And yet we must tions (Heumann, Syttoge Diss.y i. 536), and
remember that the wools bear the colouring of epigrams in which the name appears may be
(lie mind of a heathen historian, who might easilyfound in Martial (vii. 55; ix. 28). In the same
lie led to regard activity tor the diffusion of Chris
author (xi. 91.) a diminutive from the word,
tian Truth, and the debates to which that activitynamely Chrestillus, may be found. The word
necessarily led, as a noxious disturbance of the assumed also a feminine form, Chrestu, as found
peace of society. The Epicurean view of in an ancient inscription
life could scarcely avoid describing religious * Hoc, virtus, fatique decus et amabile nomen,
agitations by terms ordinarily appropriated to Dote pudicitise, celebrata laboribus actis
martial pursuits. It must equally be borne in Vitai, Chresta jacet condita nunc tumulo.
mind that the diffusion of the Gos|wl in Rome We subjoin a few lines from Martial (vii. 55):
then the very centre and citadel of idolatrywas
no holiday task, but would call forth on the part Nulli munera, Ckreste. si remittis,
of the disciples all the fiery energy of the Jewish Nec nobis dederis, remiserisque,
character, and on the part of the Pagiuis all the Crodam te satis esse liberalem.
vehemence of passion which ensues from pride, There can therefore be little risk in asserting
arrogance, and hatred. Hail the ordinary name that Suetonius intended to indicate Jesus Christ
of our Lord been employed by Suetonius, we by Chrestus ; and we have already seen that
should, for ourselves, have found little difficultythe terms which he employs to describe the
in understanding the words as intended to be ap cause of the expulsion, though peculiar, are not
plied to Jewish Christians. But the biographer irreconcilable with a reference on the part of the
uses the word Chreslus. The us is a mere Latin writer to Christians. The terms which Suetonius
termination ; hut what are we to make of the root employs are accounted for, though they may not
of the word, Chrest for Christ? Yet the change he altogether justified by those passages in the Acts
is in only one vowel, and Chrest might easily be of the Apostles, in which the collision between
used for Christ, by a Pagan writer. A slight the Jews who had become Christians, and those
difference in the pronunciation of the word as who adhered to the national faith, is found to
vocalised by a Roman and a Jew, would easily have occasioned serious disturbances (Kuinoel,
cause the error. And we know that the Romans Acts xviii. 2 ; Rorsal, De Christo per errorem in
often did make the mispronunciation, calling Chrest. Comm., Groning. 1717). This interpreta
Christ Chrest (Tertull. Apol. c. 3; Lac taut. tion is confirmed by the fact that a Christian
Inst. iv. 17; Just. Mart. Apol. c. 2). The point ischurch, consisting of Jews, Proselytes, and Pm-
important, and we therefore give a few details, gan Romans, had at an early period been formed
the rather that Lardner has, under Claudius (vol. in Rome, as is evident from the Epistle of Paul
i., 259), left the question undetermined. Now to the Romans ; which Christian community must
in Tacitus (Anna/, xv. 44) Jesus is unquestion have been in existence a long time when Paul
ably called Chrest (quoa per tlagitia invisns vul- wrote (about a.D. 59) that epistle (see Rom. i. 8-
gus Christianos appellabat. Auctor nomiuis ejus 13); and Meyer (Commeutar der Brief an die
Chrestus) in a passage where his followers are Homer Einleit., 2) is of opinion that the found
termed Christians. Lucian too, in his Philopa- ations of the Church in Rome may have been
trist so designates our Lord, playing on the word laid even during the lifetime of our Lord. It is
Xp7](rr6s, which, in Greek, signifies ' good :' these
also worthy of notice that Luke, in the book of
are his words : ex rvxot ye Xp^trrbs koI fV tficetrt,
Acts (xviii. 2), when speaking of the decree of
K.T.A., * since a Chrest (a good man) is found Claudius as a banishment of all the Jews from
among the Gentiles also.' And Tertullian (ut Rome, adverts to the fact as a reason why two
supra) treats the difference as a case of ignorant Christians, Aquila and Priscilla, whom we know
(Rom. xvi. 3) to have been members of the Ro
man church, had lately come from Italy : these
the apostle found on his arrival at Corinth in the
year a.d. 51. Roth Suetonius and Luke, in
mentioning the expulsion of the Jews, seem to
have used the official term employed in the de
cree ; the Jews were known to the Roman magis
trate; and Christians, as being at first Jewish
converts, would be confounded under the general
name of Jews; but that the Christians as well as
the Jews strictly so called were banished by Clau
dius appears certain from the book of Acts; and,
independently of this evidence, seems very pro
bable, from the other authorities of which men
tion has been made.
A'A. [Mamertine Prison ] The question, Who founded the church at
Rome? is one of some interest as between Catholic
mispronunciation : 1 Christianus pcrperam Chres- and Protestant. The former assigns the honour
tianus pronuuciatur a fobia, nam nominis rertaest to Peter, ariU on this grounds an argument in
notitia penes vos.' The mistake may have been the favour of the claims of the papacy. There is,
650 ROME. ROSH.
however, no sufficient reason for l>elieving that r is equivalent to <r and r, but whether an fl or an
Peter was ever even so much as within the walls sty it is the initial of the word Satanas, Satan, or the
of Rome. But we have no intention of en adversary. Taking the two first names in the
tering hereon that disputed point, and content* genitive, and the last in the nominative, we have
ourselves with referring the reader to the most the following appellation, name, or title : Xpttrrou
recent work on the subject which has come to our v\ov caravas, u the adversary of the cross ot
knowledge, in which he will find the argument Christ," a character corresjmnding with that of cer
well and learnedly handled (D. J. Kllendorf, tain enemies of the truth, deserilted by Paul, Phil,
1st Petrus in Rom tmd Bischof der Rdmischen iii. 19.' The spiritual hy ponoia or underthought
Kirche gewesen t Darmstadt, 1843). embodied in this the author thus states : ' Any doc
Rome, as being their tyrannical mistress, was trine tending to represent the intervention of a
an object of special hatred to the Jews, who divine propitiation as unnecessary, or militating
therefore denominated her by the name of Baby with a belief and trust in the vicarious sacrificr-
lonthe state in whose dominions they hail en of Jesus, as the only hope of salvation, must be
dured a long and heavy servitude (Schottgen, an adversary of the cross of Christ ; of this cha
Hor. Ileb. i. p. 1125; Eisenmenger, Entdeckt racter we consider every principle of self-right
Judenth. i. 1800). Accordingly, Rome, under eousness,' &c. (See Ansald, De Romana Tutelar
the name of Babylon, is set forth in the Apoca Deor. evocatione, Brix. 1743; Plin. Hist. Nat. iii
lypse (xiv. 8; xvi. 19; xvii. 5; xviii. 2) as the 9; Cellar. Rolit. i. p. G32, sq. ; Mannert. Geog
centre and representative of heathenism ; while ix. 1. 581, sq. ; Sachse, Versvch ein Hist. Topogr
Jerusalem appears as the symbol of Judaism. Beschreib. von Rom, Hannov. 1813; Hilsches,
In ch. xvii. 9 allusion is clearly made to the Sep- De Chresto citjus mention, fecit Suet., Lips. ,
ticollis, the seven-hilled city' seven mountains also Kruesti and Wolf, ad Sueton.; Eichboru,
on which the woman siftetli.' The description of Comm. in Apocal. p. 104, sq-).
this woman, in whom the profligacy of Rome is ROOF. [House.]
vividly personified, may be seen in ch. xvii. of ROOM. [House.]
the Revelation. In ch. xiii. Rome is pictured ROSE. [Rhodon.]
as a huge unnatural beast, whose name or num
ber * is the numl>er of a man, and his numlrer is ROSH (tTfcO and 6W) occurs in several places
x<tt,' not improbably Aarivos, Latin, Roman. of the Old Testament. The word is thought ori
This beast has been most variously interpreted. ginally to signify * poison,' and is therefore sup
The several theories serve scarcely more than to posed to indicate a poisonous plant. But this has
display the ingenuity or the bigotry of their ori not yet been ascertained. Celsius Iregins his article
ginators, and to destroy each other. Miinter on Rosh by stating that * Aben Ezra and the
(De occulto Urbis Roma; nomine, Hafn. 1811,) Rabbins observe, that the word is written with
thinks there is a reference to the secret name of a van in Deut. xxxii. 32, and with an aleph
Rome, the disclosure of which, it was thought, in all the other places, but incorrectly, ac
would be destructive to the state (Plin. Hist. Nat. cording to J. Gousset." It is sometimes trans
iii. 9 ; Macrob. Sat. iii. 5 ; Plutarch, Qtuest. Rom. lated gallt sometimes bitter or bitterness, but is
c. 6 1 ; Serv. ad *En. ii. 293). Pliny's words occur generally considered to signify some plant. This
in the midst of a long and picturesque account of we may infer from its being frequently men
Italy. Coming in the course of it to speak of tioned along with laanah or * wormwood,* as in
Rome, lie says, 1 the uttering of whose other name Deut. xxix. 18, * lest there should be among you
is accounted impious, and when it had been a root that beareth gall (rosh) and wormwood
poken by Valerius Sorauus, who immediately (laanah); so also in Jer. ix. 15; xxiii. 15; and
suffered the j>ena1ty, it was blotted out witli a in Lament, iii. 19, 4 Remembering mine affliction
faith no less excellent than beneficial.' He then and my misery, the wormtcood and the galV
proceeds to speak of the rites observed on the 1st That it was a berry-hearing plant, has been in
of January, in connection with this belief, in ferred from Deut. xxxii. 32, * For their vine is
honour of Diva Angerona, whose image apj>eared of the vine of Sodom, and their grajres arc
with her mouth bound and sealed up. This mys grapes of gall (rosh), their clusters are bitter.'
tic name tradition reports to have been Valencia. In Jer. viii. 14, 'water of gall' (rosh), is
The most recent view of the name of the mentioned ; which may be either the expressed
beast, from the pen of a Christian writer, we juice of the fruit or of the plant, or a bitter in
find in Hyponoia, or Thoughts on a Spiri fusion made from it: ' aquai Rosch dicuntur,
tual Understanding of the Apocalypse, London, quia sunt succus herbs, quam Rosch apirellant."
18*11. 'The number in question (666) is ex That it was a plant is very evident from Hosea
pressed in Greek by three letters of the alpha x. 4, where it is said ' their judgment springeth Dp
bet ; X' s'x hundred ; {, sixty ; trr, six. Let us as hemlock (rosh) in the furrows of the field.*
suppose these letters to be the initials of certain Here we observe that rosh is translated hemlock
names, as it was common witli the ancients in in the Auth. Vers., as it is also in Amos vi. 12,
their inscriptions upon coins, medals, monuments, * For ye have turned judgment into gall (laanah,
&C-, to unite.it** names of distinguished charac ( wormwood'), and the fruit of righteousness into
ters by initial letters, and sometimes by an addi hemlock (rosh).*
tional letter, where the initial might be considered Though rosh is generally acknowledged to
insufficient, as C. Caius, Cn. Cneus. The Greek indicate some plant, yet a variety of opinions
letter x (cn) -a initial of Xpt<rr6s (Christ) ; the have l>een entertained respecting its identifica
letter is the initial of (uXov (wood or tree) ; some tion : some, as the Auth. Vers, in Hosea x. 4,
times figuratively put in the New Testament and Amos vi. 12, consider cieuta or hemlock to
for the Cross; and in the Revelation applied to be the plant intended. Tremellius adopts this
the tree of life, the spiritual cross. The last letter as the meaning of rosh in all the passages, and is
ROSH. ROTHEM. 651
followed by Celsius (Hierobot. ii. 49). The rierra, et Gallis jiel de terre vocitatur.' Wa
cicuta of the Romans, the k&v*iov of the Greeks, may also mention that an old name of this
is generally acknowledged to have been what we centaury was * Rha capitatum.' From the ex
now call hemlock, the coniunx maculaturn of treme bitterness of taste, from growing in fields,
botanists. There can be no doubt of its poison and being a native of warm countries, some
ous nature, * Cicuta venerium est publica Athe- plant like centaury, and of the tribe of gentians,
niensium poena in visa" (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxv. might answer all the passages in which rosh
13). There is, however, little or no proof adduced is mentioned, with the exception of that (Deut.
that rosh is hemlock. Celsius quotes the descrip xxxii. 32) where it is supposed to have a berried
tion of Linnaeus in support of its growing in the fruit Dr. Harris, quoting Blaney on Jerein. viii.
furrows of fields, * Frequens perKuropam in rude- 14, says, ' In Ps. lxix. 21, which is justly con
ratU, juxta pagos, urbes, in sepibus, aggeribus, sidered as a prophecy of our Saviour's sufferings,
ngris.' But it does not appear to be so common it is said, ** they gave me to eat," which the
in Syria. Celsius, however, adduces Ben Melech, Sept. have rendered xpkiiv, gall. And accord
the most learned of Rabbins, as being of opinion ingly it is recorded in the history, Matt, xxvii.
that rosh was conium or hemlock : 1 Aqua? Rosch, 34, ** They gave him vinegar to drink, mingled
virus; barbare tnxicum. Herba est, cujus suc- with gall," uos ^icTttxoAfjs. But in the parallel
cum hibendum porrigunt illi, quern iuterimere passage (Mark xv. 23) it is said to be " wine
vulunt.' mingled with myrrh," a very bitter ingredient.
But there does not appear any necessity for our From whence I am induced to think that xo^and
considering rosh to have been more jhmsoiious perhaps CXI, may be used as a general name
than laanah or wormwood, with which it is asso for whatever is exceedingly bitter ; and, conse
ciated so frequently as to appear like a pro quently, when the sense requires, it may be nut
verbial expression (l)eut. xxix. 18; Jer. ix. 15; specially for any bitter herb or plant, the infusion
xxiii. 15; Lam. iii. 19; Amos vi. 12). Some of which may be called E^XT yD, ** Aquae
have erroneously translated it wormwood, from Roach.* 'J. F. R.
which it is sufficiently distinguished in the above ROTHEM, written also Rotem (DflS), oc
passages. The Sept. translators render it agrostis, curs in four passages of the Old Testament, in
intending some species of grass. Hence some have all of which it is translated Juniper in the Auth.
concluded that it must be folium temulentum, Vers., though it is now considered very clear that
or darnel, the zizanium of the ancients, which a kind of broom is intended. Celsius remarks
is remarkable among grasses for its poisonous that the Sept. translators seem to have been un
and intoxicating properties. It is, however, rather acquainted with the meaning of the word, as in
sweetish in taste, and its seeds being intermixed one passage they introduce it in Greek letters as
with com, are sometimes made into bread. It is VaBdu, &c, iu another as meaning burning char
well known to grow in corn-fields, and would coal, and in a third as roots of woods. Some
therefore suit the passage of Hosea ; but it has not who have perceived that some plant was intended,
a berry-like fruit, nor would it yield any juice: have doubted about the genus, translating it
the infusion in water, however, might be so under oak and terebinth, hut more frequently juniper.
stood, though it would not be very bitter or dis The last has been the most generally adopted
agreeable in taste. Some have in consequence in modern versions ; but travellers in the East
thought that some of the solanew or luridte of have met with a plant or plants, which by
Linnaeus might be intended by the word rosh. the Arabs is called retem, ratam, rehtem, and
These are remarkable for their narcotic properties, retem, varying a little perhaps in different dis
though not particularly bitter ; some of them have tricts ; the variations being probably owing to
berried fruits, as the belladonna, which, however, the modes of spelling adopted by different authors.
is not indigenous in Palestine; but solanun ni- In the Arabic works on Materia Medica we have
grurn, common nightshade, a small herbaceous
plant, is common in fields and road-sides from the same word j retem, signifying a kind
Europe to India, and is narcotic like the others.
The henbane is another plant of this family, of broom, and which, according to Celsius, is so
which is possessed of powerful narcotic pro named from ^jj, ligando. The Moors, no
perties, and has been used in medicine from early
times, both by the Greeks and Asiatics. But doubt, canied the word into Spain, as retama is
uo proof appears iu favour of any of this tribe, there applied to a species of genista or broom.
and their sensible properties are not so remark In Loudon's Encyclupardia of Plants it is named
ably disagreeable as to have led to their being spartium nwnospermum, or white single-seeded
employed in what appears to be a proverbial ex broom, and is described as a very handsome
pression. Hiller, in his Hierophyticon (ii. 54), shrub, remarkable for its numerous snow-white
adduces the centaury as a bitter plant, which cor llowers. Osbeck remarks that it grows like willow-
responds with much of what is required. Two bushes along the shores of Spain, as far as the
kinds of centaury, the larger and smaller, and flying sands reach, where scarcely any other
lioth conspicuous for their bitterness, were known plant exists, except the ononis serpens, or creeping
to the ancients. The latter, the Erythrcta cen restharrow. The use of tins shrub is very great
taurinm, is one of the family of gentians, and in stopping the sand. The leaves anil young
still continues to be employed as a medicine on branches furnish delicious food for goats. It con
account of its bitter and tonic properties. 'Hoc verts the most barren spot into a fine odoriferous
centaurium inquit Plin. xxv. c. 6, nostri fel garden by its flowers, which continue a long
terras vocant, propter amaritudinem summam. Ka time. It seems to shelter hogs and goats against
non radici tanturn inest, sed totam inficit plantam : the scorching heat of the sun. The twigs are
idea et Germanis erd-gall et Hiipanis Htel ds used for tying bundles; and all kinds of herbs
652 ROTHEM. RUBY.
that are brought to market are fastened together *but he (Elijah or Elias) himself went a day's
with them. Forskal found it in Arabia, and journey into the wilderness, and came and sat
Desfontaines in Barbary, on the sandy coast. down under &Juniper {rothem') tree,' &c; * And
as he lay and slept under a Juniper tree,*
&c. In the other passages the meaning is not so
clear, and therefore different interpretations have
been given. Thin, Job (xxx. 4) says of the half-
famished people who despised him, * who cut up
mallows by the bushes, and Juniper {rothem)
roots for their fuod.' Though the broom root
may perhaps he more suitable for diet than the
juniper, yet they are both too bitter and medicinal
to be considered or used as nutritious, and, there
fore, some say, that * when we read that rotem roots
were their food, we are to suppose a great deal
more than the words express, namely, that their
hunger was so violent, as not to refrain even
from these roots," which were neither refreshing
nor nourishing. Ursinus supposes, that instead of
the roots of this broom, we are to understand a
plant which grows upon these roots, as well as
upon some other plants, and which is well known
by the English name of broom-rape, the oro-
banche of botanists. These are sometimes eaten.
Thus Dioscorides (ii. 136) observes that the oro-
batwhe, which grows from the roots of broom,
was sometimes eaten raw, or boiled like asparagus.
Celsius again suggests an amendment in the sen
tence, and thinks that we should understand it to
mean that the broom roots were required for fuel,
479. [Genista monospermy.] and not for food, as the Hebrew words signifying
fuel and food, though very similar to each oilier,
The Spaniards call it Retama, from the Arabic are very different in their derivation : ' Diverse
name Retem. It is now referred by all igitur sunt voces Lachmam, panis eorum, et
botanists to the germ* Genista, and called Larhmam, ad calefaciendum se, script ioue licet
G. monosperma. It is described by De Cau- et literis atque punctis exacte cotiveiiiaut ;' and
dolle as a branching and erect shrub, with this sense is confirmed by some of the Talmndical
lender, wandlike, flexible branches ; leaves com- writers, as R. Levi Ben Gerson, who commenting
jtaratively few, linear, oblong, pressed to the on this passage says : ' ut signiricet, ad calefacien
branches, pubescent ; inflorescence in few flowered dum se ; quia opus habebant, quo calefierent, quod
lateral racemes; }>etals white, silky, nearly equal versarentur in locis frigidis, sine ullo perfugio.*
to one another ; legumes oval, inflated, smooth, The broom is the only fuel procurable in many
membranaceous, one to two seeded. It occurs of these desert situations, as mentioned by several
on the sterile shores of Portugal, Spain, Barbary, travellers. Tims Thevenot, 4 Puis nous nous
and Egypt. It was found by Forskal at Suez, rejtosames en tin lieu oO il y avoit tin peu de
and named by him Genista Spartiumf witli genets, car ils tie nous faisoient point reposer,
ratctm as its Arabic name. Bove also found it qu'en des lieux oil il y eut de quoi bruler, tant
at Suez, and again in ditlererit parts of Syria. pour se chauffer, que pour fa'ire cuire le cabve
Belon also mentions finding it in several places et leur mafrouca." In Ps. cxx. 4, David ob
when travelling in the East. Burckhardt also fre serves that the calumnies of his enemies were
quently mentions the shrub rethem in the deserts ' like arrows of the mighty, with coals ofjuniper 1
to the south of Palestine, and he thought it to be (rothem). The broom, being, no doubt, very com
the same plant as the Genista rwtetm of Forskal. monly used as fuel in a country where it is
He states that whole plains are sometimes abundant, and other plants scarce, might re-
covered with this shrub, anil that such places dily suggest itself in a comparison ; but it is also
are favourite places of pa*turage, as sheep are re described as sparkling, burning and crackling
markably fond of the pod. !. i Lindsay again, more vehemently than other wood.J. F. R.
while travelling in the middle of the valleys of RUBY. The word rendered 1 ruby' in the
Mount Sinai, says, * The ratfam a species of Authorized Version (Job xxviii. 18; Prov. iii.
broom, bearing a white flower, delicately streaked 15 : viii. 1 1 ; xx. 15 ; xxxi. 10 ; Lam. iv. 7) is
with purple, afforded me frequent shelter from petiinim, which appears rather to indicate
the sun while in advance of the caravan." Mr. * pearls.' The ruby is, however, generally sup
Kitto on tilis well observes, ' It ii a remarkable, posed to be represented by the word 13*13 kad-kod,
because undesigned, coincidence, that in travel which occur* in Ezek. xxvii. 6, and Isa. ltv. 12,
ling to the very same Mount of Horeb, the where the Authorized Version renders it 'agate.
prophet Elijah rested, as (lid Lord Lindsay, An Arabic word of similar sound (kadskadsat)
under a rattam shrub.' There can lie no reason signifies ' vivid redness;1 and as the Hebrew word
able doubt, therefore, that the Hebrew rothem de- may l>e derived from a root of like Bonifica
Dotes the same plant as the Arabic retem, though tion, it is inferred that it denotes the Oriental
it has been rendered juniper in the English, and ruby, which is distinguished for its vivid red
several other translations, as in 1 Kings xix. 4; colour, and was regarded as the most valuable of
I
RUTH. RUTH. 653
precious stones next after the diamond. This is put to a severe test, and Ruth determines at
mode of identification, however, seems rather all hazards to accompany Naomi. She accord
precarious. The Greek translator of Ezek. xxvii. ingly arrives at Bethlehem with her mother, where,
16, does not appear to have known what it meant, in the extremity of want, she goes to glean after
for he preserve* the original word ; and although the reapers in the harvest-field of Boaz, a wealthy
the translator of Isa. liv. 12 has jasper (Xcurrts), kinsman of her deceased father-in-law, Eliinelech.
he is not regarded as any authority in such Attracted by her appearance, and informed of her
matters, when he Btands alone. The ruhy was exemplary conduct towards her mother-in-law,
doubtless known to the Hebrews; but it is by no Boaz bade her return from day to day, and
means certain that kad-kod was its name. Some directed his servants to give her a courteous wel
have supposed that the word mpX eArfowA, which come. An omen so propitious could nut but he
from its etymology should signify a sparkling regarded as a special encouragement to fwth, and
flaming gem, is to be regarded as a species of Naomi therefore counselled Ruth to seek an op
ruby. It occurs only in Isa. liv. 12; hence the portunity for intimating to Boaz the claim she had
Septuagint makes it a carbuncle, as does the Au upon him as the nearest kinsman of her deceased
thorized Version. husband. A stratagem, which in other circum
RUFUS ('Pov<pos). A person of this name was stances would have been of very doubtful pro
one of the suns of Simon the Cyrenian, who was priety, was adopted for compassing this object;
compelled to lear tlie cross of Christ (Mark xv. and though Boaz entertained the proposal favour
21} : he !- supposed to be the same with the Rnfus ably, yet he replied that there was another person
to whom Paul, in writing to the Romans, sends his moie nearly related to the family than himself,
greeting in the remaikable words, ' Salute Rufus, whose title must first be disjiosed of. Without
ukttrti hi the Lord, and his mother and mine' delay he applied himself to ascertain whether the
(Rom. xvi. 13). The name is Roman; but the kinsman in question was inclined to assert his
Ml was probably of Hebrew origin. He is said righta right which extended to a purchase of
to have been one of the seventy disciples, and the ransom (at the Jubilee) of Elimelech's estate.
eventually to have had charge of the church at Finding him indisposed to the measure, he obtained
Thelws. from him a release, ratified according to the legal
RUSH. [Aomon.] forms of the time, and then proceeded himself to
RUTH (Iin; Sept. *Poi/0), a Moabitish redeem the patrimony of Eliinelech, and espoused
woman, brought, under peculiar circumstances, the widow of his sou, in order ' to raise up the
into intimate relation with the stock of Israel, name of the dead u|xm his inheritance.1 From
and whose history is given in one of the books of litis union sprang David, the illustrious king of
the sucred canon which bears her name. The Israel, whose line the writer traces up, in conclu
narrative that brings her into the range of inspired sion, through Boaz, to Pharez, son of Judah.
story is constructed with idyllic simplicity and The Book ok Ruth is inserted in the Canon,
pathos, and forms a pleasant relief to the sombre according to the English arrangement, between
and repulsive shades of the picture which the the book of Judges and the books of Samuel, as a
reader has just been contemplating in the later sequel to the former and an introduction to the
annals of the Judges. It is the domestic history latter. Among the ancient Jews it was added to
of a family compelled, by the urgency of a famine, the l>ook of Judges, because they snpjmsed that the
to abandon the land ofCanaan, and seek an asylum transactions which it relates happened in the time
in the territories of Moah.* Ktimelech, the head of the judges of Israel (Judg. i. 1). Several of
of the emigrating household, dies in the land of the ancient fathers, moreover, make but one l>ook
hit sojourn, where his two surviving sous ' took of Judges and Ruth. Hut the modern Jews com
them wives of the women of Moab ; the name of monly place in their bibles, after (lie Pentateuch,
the one was Orpah, and the name of the oilier the live Megdloth 1. The Song of Solomon ; 2.
Ruth.' On the death of the sons, the widowed Ruth; 3. The Lamentations of Jeremiah ; 4. Ec-
parent, resolving to return to her country and clesiastes; 5. Esther. Sometimes Ruth is placed
kindred, the lilial all'ection of the daughters-in-law the first of these, sometimes the second, and some-
times the fifth.
* The [Mriod to which this famine is to be re- The true date and authorship of the book are
fenvd is a greatly disputed (mint among commen alike unknown, though the current of autho
tator*. The opinion of Usher, which assigns it. to rity is in favour of Samuel as the writer. That
the age ol' Gideon, and which is a mean between it was writ ten at a time considerably remote
the dates tixed upon by others, carries with it the from the events it records, would appear from the
greatest probability. The oppression of the Midi- passage in ch, iv. 7, which explains a custom re
anites. mentioned in Judg. vi. 3-6. which was pro ferred to as having been * the manner in former
ductive of a famine, and from which Gideon was time in Israel, concerning redeeming and con
instrumental in delivering his people, wasted the cerning changing ' (comp. Deul. xxv. 9). That
laud and destroyed its increase. * till thou come it was written, also, at least as late as the establish
unto Gaza;' and this embraced 1 ho region in ment of David's house upon the throne, appears
which Jiidah and Bethlehem were situated. The from the concluding verse* And Obed begat
territory ofjudab was also adjacent to Moab, anil Jesse, and Jesse Ijegat David.' The expression,
a removal thither was easy and natural. The moreover (ch. i. 1), * when the judges ruled,'
scourge of Midian endured, moreover, for seven marking the ]>eriod of the occurrence iff the events,
years ; and at the expiration of ten years after the indicates, no doubt, that in the writer's days kings
deliverance by Gideon was fully consummated, had already begun lo reign. Add to this what
Naomi re-emigrated to her native laud. All the critics have considered as certain Chaldaisms with
circumstances coml ined favour, mainly, the hy which the language is interspersed, denoting its
pothesis of Usher. composition at a period considerably later than
654 RUTH. SABBATH.
that of the events themselves. Tims Eichhom 1
finds a Clialdaism or Syriasm in the use of K for
H in tOD, though tlie same form occurs elsewhere.
He adverts also to the existence of a sujwrfluous
Yod in nDE* and (Hi. 3), and ^rQDE? s.
{yet. 4). As, however, the language is in other
respects, in the main, pure, these few Chalda>sms
may have arisen from a slight error of the copyists, SABBATH. The original word (T\$P) sig
and therefore can scarcely he alleged as having nifies simply rest, cessation from labour or em
any special liearing on the era of tlie document. ployment.
The same remark is to I* made of certain idiomatic The term, however, l>ecame appropriated in a
phrases and forms of expression which occur else specific religious sense, to signify the dedication
where only in tlie hooks of Samuel and of Kings, of a precise portion of time to cessation from
as 'The Lord do so to me.and more also ' (Ruth worldly labour, and a peculiar consecration by
i. 17; comp. 1 Sam. iii. 17; xiv. 41; xx. 23: virtue of which a sanctity was ascrilied to the
2 Kam. iii. 9, 35; xix. 13; 1 Kings ii. 23; xix. portion of time so set apart, just as a similar
2 ; xx. 10; 2 Kings vi. 31); * I have discovered sacred character was ascribed to consecrated
to your ear,' for * I have told you ' (Ruth iv. 4 ; places, things, and persons: the violation of it
comp. I Sam. xx. 2; 2 Sam. vii. 27 J. was analogous to sacrilege.
Tlie canonical authority of Ruth has never lieen The character of the institution, as it existed
questioned, a suflicient confirmation of it being under the Mosaical law, is distinct and mani
found in the fact that Ruth, the Moabiless, comes fest ; but the subject, as a whole, embraces point!
into the genealogy of the Saviour, as distinctly on which Christian opinion has been considerably
given by the Evangelist (Matt. i. 6). Tlie prin divided. It will be our object briefly to exhibit
cipal difficulty in regard to the hook arises, how the different views which have been taken on
ever, from this very genealogy, in which it is these points, and to indicate the materials by
stated that Boat, who was the husband of Ruth, means of which the subject may be more fully
and tlie great-grandfalher of David, was tlie son of investigated,
Salmon hy Rachah. Now, if by Rachah we sup- Wat there any Sabbath before the Laic f This
|He to be meant, as is usually understood, Rahuh is a question which lies at the root of all the dif
the harlot, who protected the spies, it is not easy ferences of opinion which have been entertained.
to conceive that only three personsBoaz, Ohed, For the affirmative, it is alleged on the authority
anil Jesse, should have intervened between her and of Gen. ii. 3, that the Sabbath was instituted by
David, a period of near 41M) years. Rut the solu God in commemoration of bis resting on the
tion of Usher is not impnibable, that (he ancestors seventh day from the work of creation, and given
of David, as jjersons of pre-eminent piety, were to our first parents.
favoured with extraordinary longevity. Or it This text has indeed usually been regarded a*
may lie that the sacred writers have mentioned conclusive of the whole question : but those who
in the genealogy only such names as were distin Hold that the institution of the Sabbath originated
guished and known among the Jews. under the Law, olwerve that this passage contains
The leading scope of the hook bus l>eeu variously no express command, addressed to any parties,
understood by different commcntatoia. Umbreit nor any specific mention of the nature of such
{Ueber Geist und '/.week des Btt.hes Ihtihs, in implied solemnization ; still less any direct al
Theol. SttuL und Krit. for l3i, p. 308) thinks lusion to rest from labour, or to religious wmahipj
it. was writt. n with the S[>eeilie moral design of It is also urged, that some of the ablest divines,
showing how even a stranger, and that of the hated even of older times, regard the passage (Gen. ii.
Moabitish stock, might t>e sufficiently noble to 3J as proleptical or anticipatory, and referring
become the mother of the great king David, be to tlie subsequent institution recorded in Exodus.
came she placed her reliance on the God of Israel. They conceive that Moses, in recounting this de
Berthoidt regards the history as a pure fiction, de scription of the creation, had for at least one prin
signed to recommend the duty of a man to marry cipal object, the introduction of this sanction from
bis kinswoman; while Kichhom conceives that it the received cosmogony, for the establishment of
was composed mainly in honour of (he house of the Sabbath among the Israel ites : und that, as this
David, though it does not conceal the jmveity of narrative was composed after the delivery of the
the family. The move probable design we think law for their special instruction, so this passage
to lie to pre-intimate, by the recorded adoption of was only intended to confirm more forcibly that
a Gentile woman into the family from which institution; or that it is to lie understood as if
Christ was to derive his origin, the final reception Moses had said. ' God rested on the seventh day,
of the Gentile nations into tlie true church, as which he has since blessed and sanctified'
fellow-heirs of the salvation of the Gospel. The It is admitted that there is no other direct
moral lessons which it incidentally teaches are of mention ofa Sabbath in the book of Genesis: hut
the most interesting and touching character; there are traces of a period of seven days, which are
that private families are as much the objectI of usually regarded as indicating the presence of a
divine regard as the houses of princes J that the Sabbath. Thus, in Gen. iv. 3, the words rendered
present life is a life of calamitous changes; that * in process of time,* have been held to signify ' the
a devout trust in an overruling Providence will end of days,' and this supposed to mean a week,
never fail of its reward; and that no condition, when the offerings of Cain and Abel were made,
however adverse or afflicted, is absolutely hopeless, and thence the Sabbath. Again, they refer to the
are truths that were never more strikingly illus periods of seven days, occurring in the history of
trated than in the brief and simple narrative Noah (Gen. vii. 10; viii. 10); yet the term ' week'
before us.G. R. is also used in the contract betweeu Jacob and
SABBATH. SABBATH. 605
Lahan (Gen. xxix. 27, 28); and Job and his earliest periods, among the Assyrians, Arabs, and^
friend* observed the term of seven days (Job ii. Egyptians ;to the latter people Dion Cassiue
13); all of which, it is alleged, goes to prove that ascribes its invention. It was found among the
the blessing of a Sabbath was not withheld from tribes in the interior of Africa by Oldendorf
the primitive world. (Jahn's Arch. Bibl, art. < Week '). The Peru
The terms in which the appointment of the Sab vians counted their months by the moon, their half-
bath to the Israelites is made befure the delivery months by the increase and decrease of the moon,
of the rest of the law (Exod. xvi. 23), have also and the weeks by quarters, without having any
been supposed to imply that it was nut a new particular names for the week days. Their cos
institution, as also the use ofthe word 1 rememlier,' mogony, however, does not include any reference
introducing the injunction in the Decalogue. But, to a six days1 creation (Garcilasso de la Vega,
on tin' other side, it is answered that in giving Hist, of the Incas, in Taylor's Nat. Hist, of So
an injunction, the monitory word 'remember' is ciety, i. 2'Jl). The Peruvians, besides this, have
as commonly used in reference to thefuture re a cycle of nine days, the approximate third part
collection of the precept so given, as to anything of a lunation (to. p. 292), clearly showing the
past. Tiiat there is nothing extraordinary in the common origin of both. Possibly, also, the
institution of one particular observance of the u nundinsB * of the Romans may have had a simi
law before the rest of it was delivered : the same lar origin.
argument would show a previous obligation to * The Mexicans had a period of5 days (Antonio
observe the Passover or circumcision. That with de Solis, Conquest ofMexico, quoted by Norman
regard to the reckoning of time by weeks, this on 4 Yucatan,' p. 185). They had also periods
does not at all necessarily imply any reference to of 13 days; their year was solar, divided into
a Sabbath. And that the employment of any 18 months of20 days each, and 5 added (Laplace,
particular mode of reckoning by an historian, Hist. d'Astton.,\). 65). Some writers, as Acosta
is no proof that it was used by the people, or in and Baron Humboldt, have attributed the origin
the timet he is describing. of tiie week to the names of the primary planets
It is powerfully urged by the believers in a as known to the ancients. It is certain that the
primitive Sabbath, that we tind from time im application of the names of the planets to the
memorial the knowledge of a week of seven days days originated in the astrological notion, that
among all nationsEgyptians, Arabians, In each planet in order presided over the hours of
diansin a word, all the nations of the East, the day ; this we learn expressly from Dion Cas
have in all ages made use of this week of seven sias (lib. xxvii.). Arranging the planets in the
days, for which it is difhcult to account without order of their distances from the earth, on the
admitting that this knowledge was derived from Ptolemaic system, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun,
the common ancestors of the human race. Venus, Mercury, the Moon,then e. g. Saturn
On the other side it is again denied that the presided over the 1st hour of Saturday; and as
reckoning of time by weeks implies any reference signing each planet to an hour in succession, the
to a Sabhath- One of our own contributors, who 22nd hour will fall to Saturn again, the 23rd to
takes this view, remarks Jupiter, the 24th to Han; and thus the 1st hour
* The division of time by weeks, as it is one of the next day would fall to the Sun, and so on.
of the most ancient and universal, so is it one This mode of designation was adopted by the
of the most obvious inventions, especially among Greeks and liomaus from the East, and is found
a rude people, whose calendar required no very among the Brahmins (see Useful Knowledge
nice adjustments. Among all early nations the Society's Life of Galileo, p. 12; also Laplace,
lunar months were tiie readiest large divisions of Precis del Hist, de CAstron., p. Ifi).'
time, and though the recurrence of the lunar Those who take the view adverse to the existence
period in about 29^ days was incompatible with of a primitive Sabbath, regard it as a circum
any exact subdivision, yet the nearest whole num stance worthy of remark, that in the re-establish
ber of days which could l>e subdivided into ment of the human race, after the Flood, we find
shorter periods, would be either 30 or 28 ; of which in Gen. ix. a precise statement of the covenant
the latter would of course be adopted, as admit which God is represented as making with Noah,
ting of division into 4, corresjwnding -nearly to in which, while several particulars are adverted
t hose striking phenomena, the phases or quarters to, no mention whatever is made of the Sabbath.
of the moon. Each of these would palpably The early Christian writers are generally as
corri'Sjiond to about a week ; and in a period of silent on this subject of a primitive Sabbath as on
about 5^ lunations, the same phases would return tiiat of primitive sacrifice [Sacrifice^. Such
very nearly to the same days of the week. In examination as we have been able to institute, has
order to connect the reckoning by weeks with the disclosed no belief in its existence, while some in
lunar month, we find that all ancient nations dications are found of a notion that the Sabbath
observed some peculiar solemnities to murk the began with Moses. Thus, Justin Maityr says,
day of the new moon. Accordingly, in the that the patriarchs * were justified before God not
Mosaic law the same thing was also enjoined keeping the Sabbaths:' and again, ' from Abraham
(Num. X. 10; xxviii. It, &c), though it is originated circumcision, and from Moses the Sab
worthy of remark, that while particular observ- bath, and sacrifices and ullerings,* &c. (Dial. con.
anees are here enjoined, the idea of celebrating Tryph., 236. 201). Irentcus observes, 'Abraham,
the new moon in some toay is alluded to as if without circumcision, and without observance of
already familiar to them. ' Sabbaths, believed in God,' &c. (iv. 30). And
1 In other parts of the Bible we find the Sabbaths Tertullian expresses himself to the same effect
and new rnoons continually sjxikenofiii conjunc (Adv. Jud. ii. 4). While, on the other hand,
tion ; as (Isa. i. 13, &c.) the division of time by they regard the institution as wholly peculiar to
weeks prevailed all over the East, from the the Israelites. Justin Martyr, in particular, ex*
656 SABBATH. SABBATH.
presses himself pointedly to the efTect that 4 it in lofty imagery a future condition of glory and
was given to them on account of their lawlessness prosperity, connected with the reign of the pro
'kvofuav) and hardness of heart 1 {Dial, cum mised Messiah. These predictions are in a great
Tryph.i 235). degree conveyed under the literal representation
The Jewish Sabbath.Under the Mosaic law of temporal grandeur, to be attained by the
itself, the case is perfectly free from all doubt Jewish nation, and the restoration of their temple
or ambiguity. The Sabbath, as consisting in a and worship to the highest pitch of splendour,
rigid cessation from every species of labour, was while proselytes should come in from all nations,
enjoined expressly ' for a peqtetual covenant,' until the whole world should own its spiritual
and as ' a sign between God and the children of sway (as Amos ix. 11 ; Mich. i*v. 1 ; Zecti. viii.
Israel for ever ' (Kxod. xxxi. 16). And the same 20). In the course of these representations refer
idea is repeated in many other passages; all ence is made to the observance of Sabbaths (Isa.
showing U>tb the exclusive aunonncenient and lvi. 6, 7 ; Ism. 23).
peculiar object and application of the institution In the interpretation of these passages some
to the peoploof Israel ;as particularly Ezek. xx. difference of opinion has prevailed. The Jews
10; Nehem. ix. 13, &c. And this is further themselves have always understood them in their
manifest in the constant association of this ol>- strictly literal sense. Among Christians they
servance with otbeis of the like ]>eculiar and posi have been regarded as literally predicting some
tive nature,as with reverencing the sanctuary future restoration of the people of Israel, or per
(Lev. \iX. 30), keeping the ordinances (Ezek. haps as applying in a Jirst or literal sense to the
xlv. 17). solemnizing the new moons (Isa. i. 13; tem|K>ral restitution of the Jews after the cap
Ixvi. 23 j, and other feasts (Hos. it 11). And tivity (which was to a great degree fulfilled More
obviously with the same view it vn expressly the coming of Christ), and the extraordinary ac
made one of the primary obligations of proselytes cession of proselytes from all nations which had
who joined themselves to the Lord, as ' taking at that |>eriod taken place, while in a second or
hold of the covenant* thert-hy (Isa. lvi. 6). Jigttrative sense they refer to the final extension of
The degree of minute strictness] wWi which it Christ's spiritual kingdom over the whole world.
was to be observed, is laid down in express literal These passages have been adduced in proof of
precept, as against kindling tire ( Kxod. xxxv. 4) the coutiuued and permanent obligation of the
or preparing food (xvi. 5, 22). A man was put Sabbath under all circumstances of the church of
to deatli for gathering sticks (Num. xv. >>X . God; hut those who dispute this, call attention
Buying and selling were also unlawful (Neh. to the fact that in these the Sabbath is always
x. 31). coupled with other observances of the Mosaic
To these a multitude of more precise in law; and they allege that if the whole descrip
junctions were added by the traditions of (lie tion be taken literally, then by common consis
Habbis, such as the prohibition of travelling tency the Sabbaths must he also taken literally
more than twelve miles, afterwards contracted to as applying to the Jews and the proselytes to their
one mile, and called a Suhltalh day's journey, religion : if figuratively, the Sabbaths must by
and not only buying and wiling, but any kind parity of reason he taken figuratively also, as im
of pecuniary transaction, even for charitable pur plying spiritual re*t, cessation from sin, and the
poses or so much as touching money (see Vi everlasting rest of the faithful.
lnius, De Synagoga, translated bv Bernard, p. The teaching of Christ himself on this subject
76). was of precisely the same kind as on all othei
Tins w, 11 lie the place also to mention, how tMiints connected with the law. He was address
ever brielly, the extension of the idea of a seventh ing exclusively Jews living under that law still
period of rest, in the institution of the Sabbatical in force. He censured the extravagant rigour
Year ; or the injunction of a fallow or cessation with which the Pharisees endeavoured to enforce
of tillage for the laud every seventh year. Not it ; he exhorted to a more sjweial observance of
only were the lahotirs.nf agriculture sus] -ended, its weightier matters, and sought to lead his fol
but even tin1 s|)outaneous productions of the earth lowers to a higher and more spiritual sense of
were to bfl given to the poor, the traveller, and the their obligations ; but he in no degree relaxed,
wild animals (see Lev. xxv. 1-7 ; Dent. xv. 1-I0j. modified, or abrogated any portion of the Mosaic
This prohibition, however, did nut extend toother code. On the contrary, expressly upheld its
labours i r trades, which were still carried on. authority, enlarging indeed on many precepts,
Titers was however, in this year an cxtruordi- but rescinding none (Matt. v. 17, 18; xxiii. I.
dary time devoted to the hearing of the law read 29; xviii. 17, ftc).
through (see Deut. xxxi. 10, IS). As Moses pre So in regard to the more particular precept of
dicted (Lev. xxvi. 31), this institution was after (lie Sahtmth, while he reproved the excessive
wards much neglected (2 Chron. xxxvi. 21). strictness of the Pharisaical observanceand to
Closely connected with this was the observance this end wrought miracles U|X>n it, and vindicated
of the year following seven Sabbatic years (t. e. works of mercy and necessity by reason of the
the fiftieth year) called the year of Jubilee; but case, and instances from the Old Testament (as
of this we have fully treated under the Art. in Matt. xii. 1 ; Luke xiii. 15; John v. 9, ftc.)
JUBII.KR. still he in no way modified or altered the obli
The Christian Sabbath.The question as to gation beyond what the very language of the law
the continued obligation of the Sabbath under and the prophets clearly sanctioned. He used
the Christian dispensation, is one on which great "indeed the remarkable declaration, * The Sab
difference of opinion has been entertained, not bath was made for the man (5ta rbv &vdpt*irov),
only by Christian churches, but by theologians not the man (6 foepvwos) for the Sabbath,' which
of the same church. is usually regarded as the most conclusive text in
The Jewish propheti in several places describe favour of the universal obligation of the Sabbath'
SABBATH. SABBATH. 657
and it must have been so regarded by our trans placed in exactly the same predicament as new
lators, seeing that they omit the article. It is moons, distinctions of meats, &c, and all ex
commonly understood in the fullowing sense : 1 it plicitly declared to be shadows. It is also urged
was made for man, not as he may be a Jew or a that in the discourses of the apostles to the hea
Christian, but as man, a creature bound to love, then recorded in the Acts, we find not the slight
worship, and serve his God and maker, in time est allusion to any patriarchal obligations, of
and in eternity/ To this it is answered, that which, if such had existed, it would have been ma
we must not overlook the article in the original, nifestly necessary to have informed their hearers.
where the man must ineau ' those for whom it These last arguments appear to us to be the
was appointed/ without specifying who they were, strongest of any that have yet been advanced in
much leu implying man in general ; that * the man favour of the view indicated; nor do we see how
was not made for it,1 as manifestly implies that they can be met but by urging the distinction
it was not a duty of an essential and unchange between the moral and ceremonial law, and the
able nature, such as those for which man is es paramount obligation of the former, while the
pecially constituted and ordained in other latter is abrogated : for it will then follow, that
words, that it was an institution enjoined by the whole moral law l>eing of unchangeable obli
way of adaptation to the case of those to whom gation, it was not necessary.to specify the Sabbath
the precept was given. An intermediate view, in particular, when the general obligation of the
whicb lays no particular stress upon t lie definite whole was understood. This answer dots not,
article, is thus expressed in paraphrase by the however, meet the argument founded on Col. ii.
elder Rosenmuller (Scholia in Marc. ii. 27) : 1 The 10, which is alleged to place the Sabbath under
Sabbath is an institution for the recreation ofman ; the ceremonial law, if the distinction of the moral
but man was not therefore created that tie might and ceremonial divisions of the law be admitted.
on the seventh day rest from all anxious labour/ That text is indeed of the utmost importance to
He adds, 'This being the nature of the Sabbath, the question ; of this tlte disputants on both sides
what follows in verse 2S will hold true, that it is have been fully aware, and have joined issue
in the power of the Messiah to dispense with its upon it. The view of those who are opposed to
observance/ the sabbatic obligation, has been already given:
In the preaching of the Apostles we find hardly that of the other side may be expressed in the
an allusion to the subject. Their ministry was words of Bishop Horsley (Sermons, L 357). ' From
at first addressed solely to the Jews, or to those this text, no less a man than the venerable Calvin
who were at least proselytes. To these disciples, drew the conclusion, in which he has been rashly
in the first instance, they neither insisted on the followed by other considerable men, that the
observance of the law, nor on any abrogation of sanctification of the seventh day is no indispen
it; though at a later period we find St. Paul, sable duty of the Christian church ; that it is
more especially, gradually and cautiously point one of those carnal ordinances of the Jewish re
ing out to them its transitory nature, and that ligion which our Lord had blotted out. The
having fulfilled its purpose, it was to cease (e. truth, however, is, that in the apostolical age, the
Heb. vii. 18). There is nothing to show directly first day of the week, though it was observed with
whether the obligation of the Sabbath did or did great reverence, was not called the Sabbath-day,
not share in the general declaration ; and the af but the Lord's day ; that the separation of the
firmative or negative must be determined by the Christian church from the Jewish communion
weight of the arguments in behalf of the preser might be marked by the name as well as by the
vation of the moral as distinguished from the day of their weekly festival; and the name of
ceremonial law. It is however clear from several the sabbath-days was appropriated to the Satur
passages in the New Testament, that it continued days, and certain days in the Jewish church
"to be observed as heretofore by these converts, which were likewise called Sabbaths in the law,
along with the other peculiarit ies of the law. Our because they were observed with no less sanctity.
Saviour adds,1 Therefore the Son of Man is Lord The sabl>ath-day5, therefore, of which St. Paul in
even of the Sabbath-day ;' which is on all hands this passage speaks, were not the Sundays of the
agreed to mean that he bad power to abrogate it Christians, but the Saturday and other sabbaths
partially or wholly, if he thought tit, and it is ad of the Jewish calendar. The Judaizing heretics,
mitted that he did not then think fit to exercise it. with whom St. Paul was all Itis life engaged,
With regard to the Gentile converts (who were were strenuous advocates fur t he observance of
the more special objects of St. Paul's labours! these Jewish festivals in the Christian church ;
we find a totally dine rent state of things prevail and his (St. Paul's) admonition to the Colossians,
ing. They were taught at first the spiritual re is, that they should not l*e disturbed by the ceu-
ligion of the Gospel in all its simplicity. But sures of those who reproached them for neglecting
the narrow zeal of their Jewish brethren very early to observe these sabbaths with Jewish ceremonies/
led them to attempt the enforcement of the addi To the same effect, see Macknight and Eulkley,
tional burden of the law upon these Gentile on Col. ii. 16.
Christians. The result was jhe explicit aposto The difference of opinion, then, is this, that
lic decree contained in Acts xv. 28. The omis the passage is alleged, on one side, to abrogate
sion of the Sabbath among the few things which altogether the sabbatic observance ; while on the
are there enforced upon them, is advanced by other it is contended, that it applies only to (hat
.hose who doubt the abiding obligation of the in part of it which was involved in the ceremonial
stitution, as a very strong circumstance in their law.
favour ; and the freedom of these converts from its The question thus becomes further narrowed to
\ obligation U regarded by them as conclusively the point, whether it is right or not to transfer to
i proved in Col. ii. 16, and clearly implied in the Lord's day the name, the idea, and many of
\ Rom. xi v 6, where the Sabbaths are said to be the obligations of the Jewish Sabbath ? The oe-
J TOU II . 2u
658 SABBATH. SABBATH.
gative is asserted hy two very opposite parties; first Sundays was honoured hy our Lord's pre
by the Sabbatarians as a body, ami by indivi sence. It was, perhaps, to set a mark of distinc
duals in different denominations, via? take their tion upon this day in particular, that the inter
stand ip.H-i the primitive determination of tbe vening week passed oft', as it would seem, without
Sahbalh to the seventh day, in commemoration any repetition of his first visit to the eleven
of the creation ; and who therefore hold that the A|Ostles. From that time, the Sunday was the
Saturday or seventh day must remain, to all time, constant Sabbath of the primitive church. The
the day of rest, unless altered by Mi authority Christian, therefore, who devoutly sanctifies one
equal to that by which it was established. They day iu seven, although it be on the first day of
deny that the authority for any such alteration the week, not the last, as was originally ordained,
is to In; found in the New Testament; for they may rest assured, that he fully satisfies the spirit
understand the passage above referred to (Col. of the ordinance ' (Horsiey, i. 334, 335; compare
ii. 16), to apply not to the day, but to the pecu- Holden's Christian Sabbath, pp. 2Sfi, 287).
liar observances which the Jewish law connected In justification of the change, it has also been
with it (Rupp, Rtlig. Deitom. pp. 83-91). The well remarked, that the same portion of time
right of thus transferring the idea of the Sabbath which constituted the seventh day from the crea
to the Lord s day, is also denied by those who tion could not be simultaneously observed in all
believe that the Sabbath was entirely a Mosaical parts of the earth, and that it is not therefore pro-
institution, and as such abrogated, along with the liable that the original institution expressed more
whole body of the law, at the death of Christ which than one day in sevena seventh day of rest after
closed the old shadowy disjiensation, and opened six days of toil, from whatever point the enume
the realities of the new. It is .admitted that Christ ration might set out or the weekly cycle begin. If
hims-.'lf did not abrogate it, though he asserted more had been intended, it would have been neces
his right to do so; for 1 lie old dispensation sub sary to establish a rule for the reckoning of days
sisted till his death. But being then abro themselves, which has been different in different
gated, it is denied that it was re-enacted through nations; some reckoning from evening to evening,
the Apostles, or that they sanctioned the transfer as the Jews do now ; others from midnight to mid
of the Sabbatic obligations to the Sunday, al night, &c. Even if this point were determined,
though the early Christians did, with their appro the difference of time produced by difference of
bation, assemble on that dayas the day on latitude and longitude would again throw the
which their Lord arose from the deadfor wor whole into disorder; and it is not probable that a
ship, and to jiartake in the memorials of his law intended to be universal would be fettered
love f Lord's Day.J. with that circumstautiat exactness which would
In answer to this, it is urged, that the transfer render difficult, and sometimes doubtful astrono
or change was made under the authority of the mical calculations necessary in order to its being
Apostles. It is, indeed, allowed, that there is no obeyed according to the intentions of the lawgiver.
express command to that effect; but as it was It is true that this very argument might be adduced 1
done in the apostolic age (which, however, the on the other side, to prove that the obligations of 1
other side does not admit), the consent of the the Sabbatic observance were originally limited 1
Apostles is to be understood. More cogent is the to the Jews. It is not, however, our object, nor
argument, that the day itself was nor an essential would it be jKiesible, to exhaust alt the arguments
part of the original enactment, which ordains not which bear upon the subject. Enough has tieen
necessarily every seventh day. but one day in produced to indicate the bearing.-; of the question,
seven, as holy time. In ihe primitive ages of and at the end of the article materials are fur
man. the creation of (he world wa* the benefac nished for more minute inquiry. It appears to
tion by which God was principally known, and for us that great confusion and much injustice have
which he was chiefly to be worshipped. The arisen from confounding the different shades of,
Jews, in their religious assemblies, hail to com opinion respecting the Sabbath. They might be
memorate other blessingsthe political creation thus discriminated :
of their nation out of Abraham's family, and 1. Those who believe that the Sabbath is of
their deliverance from Egyptian bondage. binding and sacred obligation, both as a primitive
Christians have to commemorate, besides the institution and as a moral law of the Mosaical
common benefit of the creation, the transcendant code. I bese may be divided into :
blessing of our redemption,our new creation to a. Those who contend for the very day of the
the hope of everlasting life, of which our Lord's Mosaical institution.
resurrection on ttic first day of the week was a 6. Those who believe the obligation to have
sure pledge anil evidence. Thus in the progress been transferred to thefirst day by the Apostles.
of ages, the Sabbath acquired new ends, by new 2. Those wfio deny that the Sabbath was a
manifestations of the divine mercy; and these primitive institution, or that its obligation sur
new ends justify corresponding alterations of the vived the Mosaical dispensation, but who never
original institution. Horsiey, and those who theless hold the observance of the Lord's day a* an
agree with him, allege, that upon our Lords apostolical institution, deriving none of its autho
resurrection, the Sabbath was transfened iu me rity or obligation from the Mosaical dispensation.
mory of that event, the great foundation of the 3. Those who both deny the permanent obli
Christian's hope, from the last to the first day of gation of the Sabliath, and that there is any obli
the week. 1 The alteration seems to have been gatory authority in the New Testament for the ob
made by the authority of the Apostles, and to servance of even the Lord's day. These again
have faken place the very day in which our Lord may be divided into two classes:
arose; for on that day the Apostles were assem a. Those who hold that, although not of divine
bled ; and on that day eevennight they were obligation, the observance of the first (lay of the
assembled again. The celebration of these two week as a day of rest from toil, and of spiritual
SABBATH, SABBATH-DAY'S JOURNEY. 660
edification, it not only salutary but necessary, extent of the obligation, will be found in the
and is therefore in accordance with the will of clearer perception of the agreement to which they
God, and ought as such to be maintained. all tend, in favour of the observance itself, as in
b. Those who assert that, not being a matter of the highest degree conducive to the health of the
positive injunction, it is not necessary or desirable mind and the nourishment of the soul (Calvin,
to observe tlie day at all on religious grounds. Iixstit. Christ Relig. lib. ii. ch. 8 ; Brerewood,
But even these generally admit that it is com Treatise of the Sabbath; Bp. Prideaux, Doc
petent for human legislation to enact its ob trine of the Sabbath ; Abp. Bramhall, Discourses
servance as a day of rest, and that it then on the Controversy about the Sabbath ; Bp.
Ijecomes a duty to obey it as the jaw of the land, White, Treatise of the Sabbath Day; Heylin,
seeing that it is not contrary to the will of God. History of the Sabbath ; Chandler, Two Sermons
c. A mixed view uf the subject, arising out of the on the Sabbuth ; Wotton, On the Mishna, i. 205 :
two last, seems to l>e emertaiued by the Quakers, Warburton, Divine Legation* iv. 30, note ; Watts'
and by individuals in different denomination! ; Perpetuity of the Sabbath ; Kennicott, Serm.
namely, that the authorized institution of Moses and Dialog, on the Sabbath ; Porteus, Sermons,
respecting a weekly Sabbath, and the practice of vol. i. serm. 9 ; Horsley's Sermons, u.s. ; Paley,
tlie first teachers of Christianity, constitute a Natural and Political Philosophy, b. v. c. 7;
sufficient recommendation to set a|irt certain Holden's Christian Sabbath ; Burnside, On the
times for the exercise of public worship, even Weekly Sabbath ; Burder's Law of the Sabbath ';
were there no sucli injunctions as that of Heb. x. Ward!apr, Wilson, and Agnew, severally, On the
23. Community of dependence and hope dic Sabbath ; Modern Sabbath Examined, 1 832 ;
tates the propriety of united worship, and worship, Archbishop Whately, Difficulties of St. Paul,
to le united, must be |>erformed at intervals pre Essay v. note on Sabbath).*
viously fixed. But, it is urged, since the Jewish SABBATH-DAY'S JOURNEY (ffafi&drov
Sabbath is abrogated, and since tlie assembling t'5-Is. Acts i. 12), the distance which the Jews
together on the first day of the week is mentioned were ]termitted to journey from and return to
as an existing practice in tlie New Testanient, their places of residence uj,K)n the Sabbath-day
but not enjoined a* a jxmitive. obligation, it doe* (Exod. xvi.29). The Israelites were forbidden to
not appear why these peiioils should recur at go beyond the encampment (to collect manna)
intervals of seven days any more than of five or upon the Sabbath-day; which circumstance seems
ten. Nevertheless, il is added, 'the question to have given rise to the regulationwhich is not
whether we are to observe the first day of tlie distinctly enjoined in the law, although it might
week because it is the first day,, is one point be fairly deduced from the principle on which the
whether we ought to devote it to religious exer legislation concerning tlie Jewish Sabbath was
cises, seeing that it is actually set apart for the foundedthat no regular journey ought to be made
purpose, is another. Bearing in mind then that on the Sabbath-day (Joseph. AnHg, xiii. 8. J).
it is right t devote some portion of our time to The intention of the lawgiver in this respect was
these exercises, and considering that no objection also indicated by the direction, that beasts should
exists to the day which is actually appropriated, rest on the Sabbath-day (comp. ch. xxiv. 26).
the duty seems very obviousso to employ it* The later Jews, as usual, drew a large numlter of
(Jonathan Dymond, Essays on the Principles of precise and minute regulations from these plain and
Morality, i. 164-172). simple indications. Thus the distance to which
This testimony in favour of the oliservance, a Jew might travel was limited to 2000 cubits
from one who utterly denies the religious obli beyond the walls of the city or the borders uf his
gation of setting even out* day in seven apart, residence, liecause the innermost tents of the
i* not unlike that of Dr. Arnold, who seems to Israelites' camp in the wilderness are supposed to
have taken the view of the subject represented in have been that distance from the tabernacle (Josh,
3, a. In a letter to Mr. Justice Coleridge, he nays: iii. ( . and because the same distance beyond a
* Although I think that the whole law is done city for a Sabbath-day's journey is supposed
away with, so far as it is the law given in Mount to be indicated in Num. xxxv. 4, 5 (Lightfoot,
Sinai, yet so far as it is tlie law of the Spirit, I Hot. Heb. in Luke xxiv. 50 ; Acts i. 12) ; Targ.
hold it to he ail binding ; and believing that our on Kuth, i. 16; Jarchi on Josh. iii. 4; Oecum
need of a Lord's day is as great as ever it was, on Acts i. 12). This also h the distance stated
pa that, therefore, its observance is God's will, in the Talmud (Tract. Erubin), where the mode
and is likely, so far as we see, to le so to the end of measuring is determined, and the few cases
of time; 1 should think it most mischievous to are specified in which jiersons might venture to
weaken the resjiect paid to it' (Life and Com* exceed tlie distance of 2000 cubits. Some of
spontlence, i. 335). the Rabbins, however, distinguish a great (2800
We have entered into these details concerning cubits), a middling (2000 cubits), and a lesser
the differences of opinion on this important (1800 cubits) Sabbath-day's journey. Epipha-
subjectwhich concerns one-seventh of man's life nius {Haer. 66 82) estimates the Sabbath-day's
for the sake of defining the exact amount of journey by the Greek measure of six stades,
such differences, and of showing that pious men, equal to 750 Roman geographical paces (1000 of
lincerely seeking tlie truth of God's word, may on which made u Roman mile). In agreement with
the one band conscientiously doubt the obligation
of a Christian Sabbath without deserving to be * In this urticle the view of the subject to
stigmatised as Antinomiaus, scoffers, or profane ; which prevalent ideas are much opposed has been
and on the other, may uphold it without being furnished by a contributor (B. P.); and the
regarded as Judaizers and formalists. A very arguments which it appeared necessary to insert
gratifying result which arises from the contem on the other side have, with his concurrence,
plation of these differences as to the nature and been subjoined by the Editor.
660 SACKCLOTH. SACRIFICES.
this is the statement of Josephus (Bell. Jud. v. crifice, we are enabled to trace back the custom
2. 3), who makes the Mount of Olives to be about through all nations to him ; and he doubtless
six stades from Jerusalem ; and it is the distaoce derived it through the antediluvian fathers, from
between these two places which in Acts i. 12 is the sacrifices which the first men celebrated, of
given as a Sabbath-day's journey. It is true that which we have an example in that of Abel. The
Josephus elsewhere determines the same distance question concerning the divine or human origin
as five stades (Antiq. xx. 8. C) ; but both were of sacrifices, therefore, centres upon the conclu
probably loose statements rather than measured sions which we may be able to draw from the
distances ; and both are below the ordinary esti circumstances and preliminaries of that transac
mate of 2000 cubits. Taking all circumstances tion. Abel brought for sacrifice one of the lambs
into account, it seems likely that the ordinary of his flock, for he was a shepherd ; and with bit
Sabbath-day's journey was a somewhat loosely offering God was well pleased : Cain brought of
determined distance, seldom more than the whole the fruits of the ground, for he was a husband
and seldom less than three-quarters of a geogra man ; and with bis offering God was not well
phical mile (Seldcn, De Jure Nat. ct Gent. iii. pleased. Now out of this arise the questions
9; Frischmuth, Dissert, de /fin. Sabbat. 1670; Was this the first animal sacrifice? and if it was,
Walther, Dissert, de Itin. Sabbat. ; both in The Was it offered by Abel from the spontaneous im
saurus Theolog. l'hilog., Amsterd. 1720). pulse of his own mind, or by command from God?
SABBATIC YEAR. [Jubilee.] and if not by divine command, How was it that
SAB^ANS. rSHEBA.] his offering was more acceptable than his bro
SACHAPH. [Cuckoo; Gull.] ther's ?
SACKCLOTH. The Hebrew word for taek- That this was not the first sacrifice is held by
cloth, or soci-ing, is pjf tak ; in the Sept and many to be proved by the fact, that ' unto Adam
New Testament, crown ; and as it has been pre and his wife the Lord made coats of skin, and
served in most languages (our own included) to clothed them' (Gen. iii. 21); for, it is urged, that
denote the same tiling, much ingenious specula as animal food does not apjiear to have been used
tion has been brought to bear upon itchiefly as before the deluge, it is not easy to understand
a venerable monument of the primitive language, whence these skins came, probably before any
from which it is supposed to have been derived by animal had died naturally, unless from beasts
all tlie nations in whose vocabularies it has been offered in sacrifice. And if the first sacrifices had
been offered by Adam, the arguments for the di
found. vine institution of the rite are of the greater force,
The sackcloth mentioned in Scripture was, as seeing that it was less likely to occur spontane
it is still in the East, a coarse black cloth, com ously to Adam than to Abel, who was a keeper of
monly made of hair (Rev. vi. 12), and was used heep. Further, if the command was given to Adam,
for straining liquids, for sacks, and for mourning and his sons had been trained in observance of
garments. In the latter case it was worn instead the rite, we can the better understand the merit of
of the ordinary raiment, or bound upon the loins, Abel and (he demerit of Cain, without further
or spread under the mourner on the ground (Gen. explanation. Apart from any considerations
xxxvii. 34 ; 1 Kings xxiii. 2 ; Isa. lviii. 5 ; Joel arising out of the skin-vestures of Adam and his
i. 8; Jon. iii. 5) [Mourning]. Such garments wife, it would seem that if sacrifice was a divine
were also worn by prophets, and by ascetics gene institution, and, especially, if the rile bore a piacu-
rally (Isa. xx. 2 ; Zech. iii. 4 ; comp. 2 Kings i. lar significance, it would have been at once
8 ; Matt v. 4) [Prophecy]. prescribed to Adam, after sin had entered the
SACRIFICES. The sacrifices and other offer world, and death by sin, and not have been post
ings required by the Hebrew ritual have been enu poned till his sons had reached manhood.
merated under Offering ; and in this place it is if animal sacrifice was the invention of Abel,
only requisite to offer a few remarks upon the great testifying his thanks to God, by offering that
and much controverted questionsWhether sacri which was most valuable to him, the question
fice was in its origin a human invention, or a comes, Where was the offence of Cain, anil why
divine institution ; and whether any of the sa was his offering despised? It is suggested that
crifices before the law, or under the law, were Abel brought the best of his flock, and Cain only
sacrifices of expiation. Eminent and numerous the refuse of his produce ; or, that Abel believed,
are the authorities on both sides of these questions ; anil Cain disbelieved, that his offering would be
but the balance of theological opinion pre|K>iide- accepted. This latter explanation is thought to
rates greatly for the affirmative in eacli of them. be home out by the allegation of the Apostle (Heb.
On the latter point, however, most of those who xi.4), that it was 'by faith Abel offered to God a
deny that there was any expiatory sacrifice lie- more acceptable sacrifice than Cain.' If, how
fore the law, admit its existence under the law : ever, sua ilice hud been divinely commanded, this
and on the first, those who hold that sacrifice was faith was that manifested in obeying the com
of Divine origin, but became much corrupted, mand ; and if it was also piacular, it might be
and was restored by the Mosaic law, do not in even referred ti> a belief in the doctrine of atone
substance differ much from those who hold it to ment for sin, which the rite in that case must have
have been a human invention, formally recog adumbrated.
nised, and remodelled by the law of Moses. One of the most recent writers on the subject,
From the universality of sacrifice, it is ob the Rev. J. Davison, in his Inquiry into the Origin
vious that the rite arose either from a common and Intent of Primitive Sacrifice, adduces (on
source, or from a common sentiment among na the authority of Spencer and Outram) the consent
tions widely dispersed, and very differently con of the fathers in favour of the human origin of
stituted. Remembering that Noah, the common primitive patriarchal sacrifice; and alleges, that
ancestor of the post-diluvian nations, offered sa the notion of its divine origin is ' a mere modern
SACRIFICES. SACRIFICES. 661
figment, excogitated in the presumptively specu thence, how they might blamelessly offer unto
lative age of innovating Puritanism.1 This as God his meet and due honour.*
sertion has been ably, and we think successfully, If, then, these authorities be taken as neutral
met by the Rev. G. S. Faber, in his Treatise on on the question, with the four exceptions al
the Origin of Expiatory Sacrifice. He shows ready indicated, we shall find whatever au
that the only authorities adduced by Outram and thority we ascribe to these more than counter
Spencer are Justin Martyr, Chrysostom, the au balanced by the testimony of other ancient wit
thor of the work called Apostolical Constitu nesses in favour of the divine origin of primitive
tions, and the author of the Questions and sacrifice. Philo-Judeeus says, * Abel brought
Answers to the Orthodox, commonly printed neither the same oblation as Cain, nor in the
witii the works of Justin Martyr. Of the early same manner ; but instead of things inanimate,
theologians thus adduced, the three last are posi he brought things animate ; and instead of later
tive and explicit in their assertion; while the and secondary products, he brought the older and
sentiments of Justin Martyr are gathered rather the first:- for he offered in sacrifice from the first
by implication than in consequence of any direct lings of his flock, and from their fat, according to
avowal. He says, ( as circumcision commenced the most holy command (koto t2> Upwrarhv
frum Abraham, so the sabbath, and sacrifices, Hidraypa: De Sacrif. AbeL et Cain. Opp. p.
and oblations, and festivals, commenced from 145). Augustine, afier expressly referring the
Moses;1 which clearly intimates that he consi origin of sacrifice to the divine command, more
dered primitive sacrifice as a human invention distinctly evolves his meaning by saying : * The
until made by the law a matter of religious obli prophetic immolation of blood, testifying from
gation. The great body of the fathers are silent the very commencement of the human race the
as to the origin of sacrifice : hut a considerable future passion of the Mediator, is a matter of
number of them, cited hy Spencer (De Legib. deep antiquity : inasmuch as Abel is found in
Heb. p. 6-16, sq.), held that sacrifice was admitted Holy Scripture to have been the first who offered
into tin- law through condescension to the weak up this prophetic immolation ' (Cont. Faust.
ness of the people, who had been familiarised Munich. Opp. vi. 145). Next we come to Atha-
to it in Egypt, and if not allowed to sacrifice to nasius, who, shaking of the consent of the Old
God, would have been tempted to sacrifice to the Testament to the fundamental doctrines of the
idols of their heathen neignl>ours. The ancient New, says : 1 What Moses taught, these things his
writers who held this opinion are Justin Martyr, predecessor Abraham had preserved : and what
Origen, Tertnllian, Chrysostom, Theodoref, Cyril Abraham had preserved, with those things Enoch
of Alexandria, Epiphaiiius of Salamis, Irenxus, and Noah were well acquainted ; for they made
Jerome, Procopius, Eucherius, Anastasius, and a distinction between the clean and the unclean,
the author of the Apostolical Constitutions. But and were acceptable to God. Thus also in like
out of the entire number, only the four already manner Abel bore testimony ; for he knew what
mentioned allege incidentally the human origin he had learned from Adam, and Adam himself
of primitive sacrifice : the rest are silent on this taught only what he had previously learnedfrom
point. Outram indeed (De Sacrif. lib. i. cap. 1, the Lord (Synod. Nicen. contr. liter. Arian. de-
6, pp. 8, 9) thinks, that in giving this opinion, cret^ Opp. i. 103). Euwbiui of Cajsarea, iu a
they virtually deny the divine origin of sacrifice. passage too long for quotation, alleges, that ani
But it is fairly answered, that the assertiou, Im it mal sacrifice was first of all practised by the
right or be it wrong, that sacrifice was introduced ancient lovers of God (the patriarclis), and that
into the law from condescension to the Egyptian- not by accident, but through a certain divine con
izing weakness of the people, furnishes no legiti trivance, under which, as taught by the Divine
mate proofthat the persons entertaining thisopinioii spirit, it became their duty thus to shadow forth
held the merehuman origin ofprimitive jiatriarchal the great and venerable victim, really acceptable
sacrifice, and affords no ground for alleging trie to God, which was, in time then future, destined
consent of Christian antiquity in favour of that opi to be ofi'ered in behalf of the whole human race
nion. Such persons could not but have known, (Demonst. Evang. i. 8. pp. 24, 25).
that the rite of sacrifice existed anterior fo the rise These testimonies certainly vindicate the
of pagan idolatry: and hence the notion which opinion of the divine origin of primitive sacrifice
they entertained leaves the question, as to the from the charge of being a modern innovation,
primitive origin of sacrifice, eutirely o|ien, so far with no voice of antiquity in its favour.
as they are concerned. Paganism, whether in Among the considerations urged in sup[X)rt of
Egypt or elsewhere, merely borrowed the rite t he opinion, that sacrifice must have originated in
from pure Patriarchism, which already ] assessed a divine command, it has been suggested as ex
it : and unless a writer expressly declares sucli to ceedingly doubtful, whether, independently ofsuch
be his opinion, we are not warranted in conclud a command, and as distinguished from vegetable
ing that lie held the human origin of primitive oblations, animal sacrifice, which involves the
patriarchal sacrifice, simply because he conceives practice of slaughtering and burning an innocent
that a system of sacrificial service had lieen victim, could ever, under any aspect, have been
immediately adopted into the law from Paganism adopted as a rite likely to gain the favour of God.
out of condescension to the weakness of the jieople. Our own course of scriptural education prevents
Besides, some of these very lathers held language us, perhaps, from being competent judges on this
with respect to primitive sacrifice, not much in point : but we have means of judging how so sin
favour of the interpretation which has on this gular a rite must strike the minds of thinking
ground been given to their sentiments. Thus, men, not in the same degree pre[)osse8sod by
according to Cyril, * God accepted the sacrifice early associations. The ancient Greek masters of
of AU-1 and rejected the sacrifice of Cain, because thought not unfrequently expressed their astonish
it was fitting that posterity should learn from ment how and upon v. hat rational principles, so
662 SACRIFICES. SACRIFICES.
strange an institution as that of animal sacrifice before the law. It appears to us, that the differ
could ever have originated ; for as to the notion ence of opinion as to the existence of expiatory
nf its being pleasing to the Deity, such a thing sacrifice under the law, is more apparent than
struck them as a manifest imjtossibility (Jamblic. real, and arises from the different senses in which
De VU. Pythag. pp. 1061 18 1 Porphyr. De Abstin. the term 'expiatory sacrifice 1 is understood. It
p. 96; Theophnu*t. et Porphyr. apud Euseb. will often transpire, that those who deny its ex
Pracp. Evang. pp. 90, 91). Those who do not istence have an idea of such a sacrifice different
believe that sacrifices were of divine institution, from that of the persons whom they think them
must dispose of this difficulty by alleging, that, selves opposing, but from whom they do not, in
when men had come to slay animals for their fact, materially differ. In general, those who
own food, they might think it right to slay them do not admit the doctrine of the atonement
to satisfy their gods: and, in fact, Grottus, who through the death of Christ, do not see that certain
held the human origin of sacrifices, and yet be* sacrifices of the law were piacular : and on their
lieved that animal MM was not used before the own premises, they reason justly; for unless
Deluge, is reduced to the expedient of contending expiatory sacrifice prefigured the atonement of
thai Abe l's offering was not an animal sacrifice, fered by Jesus Christ, there appears no adequate
but only the producethe milk and woolof his reason for the existence of expiatory sacrifice as a
best sheep. This, however, shows that he believed divine institution, and it is difficult to believe
animal sacrifice to have been impossible belbre that it could (as piacular) have been a human
the Deluge, without the sanction of a divine com invention. In fact, oiiart from the doctrine of
mand, the existence of which he discreditetl. the atonement, the subject of expiatory sacrifice
A strong moral argument in favour of the ceases to be of any material interest.
divine institutinn of sacrifice, somewhat feebly The question, of the existence of expiatory sa
put by Hallet {Comment, on Heb. xi. 4, cited by crifice before the law, is more difficult, and is de
Magee, On the Atonement), has lieen reproduced nied by Outram, Kmesti, Doedcrlin, Davison,
with increased force by Faber (Prim. Sacrifice, and many others, who believe that it was revealed
p. 183). It amounts to this : under the law ; as well as by those who douht its
Sacrifice, when uncommamled by God, is a existence under the Mosaical ditjiensation. The
mere act of gratuitous superstition. Whence, on arguments already stated in favour of the divine
the principle of St. Paul's reprobation of what lie institution of primitive sacrifice, go equally to
denominates will-worship, it is neither acceptable support the existence of piacular sacrifice; the
nor pleasing to God. idea of which seems moTe urgently to have re
But sacrifice, during the patriarchal ages, was quired a divine intimation, liesides, expiatory
accepted by God, and was plainly honoured with sacrifice is found to have existed among all na
his approbation. tions, in conjunction with eucharistie and im-
Therefore sacrifice, during the patriarchal age, petratory sacrifices ; and it lies at the root of the
could not have been an act of superstition uncom- principle on which human sacrifices were offered
manded by God. among tike ancient nations. The expiatory view
If, then, such was the character of primitive of sacrifice is frequently produced by heathen
sacrifice ; that is to say, if primitive sacrifice was writers :
not a mere act of gratuitous stqwrstition uncom
mamled by God,it must, in that case, in 1 Cot pro corde, precor, pro fibra sumite fibnu ;
dubitably have been a divine, and not a human Hanc animam vohis pm meliore damus.*
institution. Ovid. Fasti, vi. 161.
if it be held that any of flie ancient sacrifices This being the case, if is difficult to believe hut
were expiatory, or piacular, the argument for their that the idea was derived, along with animal
divine origin is strengthened; as it is hard to sacrifice itself, from the practice of Noah, and
conceive the combination of ideas under which preserved among his various descendants. This
the notion of expiatory sacrifice could be worked argument, if valid, would show the primitive
out by the human mind. This difficulty is so origin of piacular sacrifice. Now there can be
great, that the ablest advocates of the humau no douht that the idea of sacrifice which Noah
origin of primitive animal sacrifice, feel t>ouiid transmitted to the post-diluvian world, was tho
also to deny that such sacrifices as then existed same that he had derived from his pious an
were piacular. It is strongly insisted that the cestors, and the same that was evinced by the
doctrine of an atonement by animal sacrifice sacrifice of Abel, to which we are, by the course
cannot be deduced from the light of nature, or of the argument, again brought back. Now
from the principles of reason. If, therefore, the if that sacrifice was expiatory, we have reason
idea existed, it must either have arisen in the fer to conclude that it was divinely commanded :
tile soil of a guessing superstition, or have l>een and the supposition that it was both expiatory
divinely appointed. Now we know that God and divinely commanded, makes the whole his
cannot approve of unwarranted and presumptu tory far more clear and consistent than any other
ous superstition : if therefore he can be shown to which Iias been or can be ofiered. It amounts
have received with approbation a sj>ecies of sa then to thisthat Cain, by bringing an eu
crifice undiscoverable by the light of nature, or charistic offering, when his brother brought one
from the principles of reason, it follows that it which was expiatory, denied virtually that his
must have been of his own institution. sins deserved death, or that he needed the blood
Here, however, the argument again divaricates. ofatonement. Some go further, and allege that
Some are unable to see that piacular sacrifices in the text itself, God actually commanded Cain
existed under, or were commanded by, the law of (o otter a piacular sacrifice. The argument doea
Moses; while others admit this, but deny that not require this additional circumstance ; but it
animal sacrifice, with on expiatory intent, existed is certainly strengthened by it. When Cain he*
SACRIFICE, HUMAN. SADDUCEES. 663
canfe angry that Artel's offering was regarded ancient Hebrews did not differ essentially from
with' Divine complacency, and his own refused, that of the Canaanites, so that Moloch, who had
God said to him, * Why art thou wroth; and been originally a god common to both, merely
why is thy countenance fallen? If thou doest in the process of time was softened down and
well, shalt thou not Ite accepted? and if thou passed into Jehovah, thus becoming the national
doest not well, fin lietk at the door." Now the deity of the people of Israel; so did their altars
word ilNOn chattah, translated 'sin,' denotes smoke with human blood, from the time of Abra
in the law a 'sin-offering;' and the word ham down to the fall of both kingdoms of Judah
translated Mirth,' is usually applied to the re and Israel. In the same year appeared in Ger
cumbency of a beast. It is therefore proposed to many another work, by Daumer (Der Fetter \md
translate the clause, 'a sin-offering couclieth at Molochdienst der alien Hebriier), intended to
the door :' which by paraphrase would mean, ' an prove that the worship of Moloch, involving his
Animal tit for a sin-offering is there, couching at bloody rites, was the original legal and orthodox
the door, which thou mayest offer in sacrifice, worship ofthe nation of Abraham, Moses, Samuel,
and thereby render to me au offering as accept and David. To these works a reply was put
able as that which Abel has presented/ forth in 1813, by Lowengard (Jehovah, nicht
These are the principal considerations which Moloch, tear der Gott der alten HtbrHer), in
seem suitable to this place, on a subject to the which he defends the worship of Jehovah from
complete investigation of which many large vo the recent imputations, and strives, by distin
lumes have been devoted. See Outran?, De guishing between the essential and the unessen
Sacrificiis ; Sykes. Essay on the Nature, Origint tial, the durable and the temporary, to prepare
and Design of Sacrifices ; Taylor, Scripture the way fur a reformation of modem Judaism.
Doctrine of the Atonement, 1758 ; Ritchie, We do not think thai it requires any deep re
Criticism upon Modern Notions of Sacrifices, search or profound learning to ascertain from the
1761 ; Magee, Discourses on Atonement and Biblical records themselves, that the religion of
Sacrifices^ Davison, Inquiry, &c, 1825 ; Faber, the Ilible is wholly free from the shocking al>onii-
Primitive Sacrifices, &c. 1827. nations of human sacrifices ; and we do not there
SACRIFICE, HUMAN. The offering of hu fore hesitate to urge the fact on the attention of
man life, as the most precious thing on earth, the ordinary reader, as not least considerable
came in process of time to be practised in most among many proofs not only of the superior cha
countries of the world. All histories and tra racter, but of the divine origin, of the Hebrew
ditions darken our idea of the earlier ages with worship. It was in Egypt where the mind of
human sacrifices. But the period when such Moses and of the generation with whom he had
prevailed was not the earliest in. time, though primarily to do, was chiefly formed, so far as
probably the earliest hi civilization. The prac heathen influences were concerned. Here offer
tice was both a result and a token of barbarism ings were very numerous. Sacrifices of meat
more or less gross. In this, too, (lie dearest object offerings, libations and incense, were of very early
was primitively selected. Unman life is the date in the Egyptian temples. Oxen, wild goats,
most precious thing on earth, and of this most pigs, and jiarticularly geese, were among the ani
precious possession the most precious portion is mal offerings ; besides these there were presented to
the life of a child. Children therefore were the gods wine, oil, ler. milk, cakes grain, oint
nth -red in fire to the false divinities, and in no ment, flowers, fruits, vegetables. In these, and
part of the world with less regard to the claims in the case of meat, ]eaceand sm offerings (as well
of natural affection than in the laud where, at a as others), there exists a striking resemblance with
later jteriod, the only true God had his peculiar similar Hebrew observances, which may be found
worship and highest honours. indicated in detail in Wilkinson (Manners and
It is under these circumstances a striking fact Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, v. 358, sq. ;
that the Hebrew religion, even in its most rudt- see also ii. 378), who, in agreement with He
mental condition, should be free from the conta rodotus, maintains, in opposition to Diodorus,
mination of human sacrifices. The case of Isaac that the Egyptians were never accustomed to
and that of Jephthah's daughter cannot impair the sacrifice human beings: a decision which has a
general truth, that the offering of human beings is favourable aspect on our last latsitiou, namely,
neither enjoined, allowed, nor practised in the Bi that the religion of the Israelites, even in its
blical records. On the contrary, such an offering earliest days, was uupmfaned by human blood.
is strictly prohibited by Moses, as adverse to the A remarkable instance of disagreement between
will of God, and an abomination of the heathen. the observances of the Egyptians and the Jews, in
* Thou shalt not let any of thy seed pass through regard to sacrifices, is, f hat while the Egyptians
the fire to Moloch : defile not yourselves with received the blood of the slaughtered animal into
any of these things1 (Lev. xviii. 21 ; see also a vase or Itasin, to be applied in cookery, the eat
cb. xx. 2; Dent. xii. 31 ; Ps. cvi. 37 ; Isa. lxvi. ing of blood was most strictlv forbidden to the
3; Jer. xxiii. 37). Yet in an age in which, like Israelites (Dent. xv. S3).J. R. B.
the present, all manner of novelties are broached, SADDUCEES : one of the throe sects ofJewish
and. in some cases, the greater the paradox philosophers, of which the Pharisees and the
broached with the more promptitude, and main Essenes were the others, who hail reached their
tained with the greater earnestness, these very highest state of prosperity about the commence
clear positions have been withstood, and human ment of the Christian era.
sacrifice* have Iteen charged confidently on the In every highly develo|>ed social system the ele
Hebrew race. In the year 1842, Chillany, pro ments are found to exist which led to the forma
fessor at NUmberg, published a book (Die Mcn- tion of the sect of Sadducees. But these elements
sehenopfcr der alten Hebrder), the object of were in fuller amplitude and more decided energy
which was to prove that, as the religion of the among the post-exilian Jews lhan in most ancient
664 SADDUCEES. SADDUCEES.
nation*. The peculiar doctrines and practices of very large portion of Grecian civilixation#orer
the Pharisees naturally begot the Sadduceean the soil of the East, and especially over Western
system. The first embodied the principle of vene Asia.
ration, which looked on the past with so much As little is historically known respecting the
regard as to become enamoured of its forms as author of this sect ; there are various statements,
well as its substance, its ivy as well as its columns, but their very variety shows that nothing certain
its corruptions no less than its excellences, taking is known. The Rabbins have a story which
and maintaining the whole with a warm but makes one Zadok, a pupil of Antigonus Joeho,
blind and indiscriminate affection ; the second, the founder; who, under the instructions of his
alienated by the extravagances of the former, master, was, in company with one Baithos, a
were led to seize on the principle of rationalism, fellow disci [ile, led to the conclusion that there is
and hence to investigate prevalent customs, and no future life, and, of course, no retributiou after
weigh received opinions, till at length investiga death (Pirke Aboth,i. 3). It has also been said,
tion begot scepticism, and scepticism issued in the that the name Sadducee is descriptive|lpTV,
positive rejection of many established notions and * the just ones,' that is, men who were just to the
observances. The principle of the Sadducee is law, to God as the author of the law and the
thus obviously an otTshoot from the rank growth source of truth, just in their own conceptions and
of conservatism and orthodoxy. Corruption brings their mode of thinking in contradistinction to the
reform. And as it is not possible for the same excesses of the Pharisees ; just every way in th*
individuals, nor for the same classes of men, to sense in which our word just is sometimes used
perform the dissimilar acts of conservatism and exact, without superfluities, the thing itself apart
reformation, so must there be, if Pharisees, Sad- from accessories, the truth and nothing but the
ducees also in society. It is for the good of men truth. Nor can it be denied that such a view of
that the latter should come into being, seeing tliat the sect embodies their peculiar and fundamental
the principle represented by the former arises, in principle (Epiphan. Hares, i. 14). A modem
evitably, in the actual progress of events. True critic, Kditer ( Studien und Kritiken, 1 837, vol. i.
wisdom, however, consists in avoiding the extremes p. 164), deduces the word, as well as the doctrines
peculiar to both, and aims to make man }>ossessor which it represents, from the Grecian stoics, which
of all the good which the past can bestow and all is more ingenious than solid.
the good which the present can produce, uniting As may be inferred from what has been ad
in one happy result the benign results of conser vanced, the Sadducees stood in direct opposition
vatism and improvement, retention of the post to the Pharisees. So they are described by Jose
and progress in the present. phus (Antiq. xiii. 10. 6). and so they appear in the
It would be easy to show how the several par New Testament. Hostile, however, as these two
ticulars which were peculiar to the Sadducee sects were, they united for the common purpose of
arose out of Pharisaic errors. As, however, we opposing our Lord (Matt. iii. 7; xvi. 1,6, 11,
wish to give to this necessarily brief notice an his sq. ; xxii. 23, 34 ; Acts iv. 1 ; v. 17). In opposing
torical character, we shall content ourselves with the Pharisees the Sadducees were led to im|>each
one instancethe doctrine of tradition. By an their principal doctrines, and so to deny all the
excessive veneration of the Mosaic institutions and * traditions of the elders,' holding that the law
sacied hooks, the Pliarisees had been led to regard ulone was the written source of religious truth
every thing which concerned them as sacred. [Antiq. xviii. 1. 4). By more than one consi
But if (he text and the observance were holy, holy deration, however, it might be shown that they are
also was that which explained their meaning cr in error who so understand the fact now stated, as
unfolded their hidden signiticatinn. Hence the if the Sadducees received no other parts of the
exposition of the ancients came to be received with Jewish canon than the Pentateuch; lor in truth
res|>ect equal to that with which the very words of they appear to have held the common opinion
the founders and original writers were regarded. regarding the sacred t>ooks<a fact of some con-
Tradition was engrafted on the vine of Israel. sequencetiuasmuch as we thus gain the determina
But all ex|>ositiou is relative to the mind of the tion, on the point of the Jewish cauon, of the cri
exjK>sitor. Accordingly various tXpontiotM came tical scepticism of the day. The Sadducees
into l>eing. Every age, every doctor gave a new taught that the soul of man |>erished together with
exposition. Thus a diverse and contradictory, as his hotly, and that of course there was neither re
well as a huge, mass of opinion* was formed.which ward nor punishment after death (Joseph. Dc Bell.
overlaid and hid the law of God. Then a true Jttd. W. 8. 14 ; comp. Matt. xxii. 23). Indeed they
reverence for that law identified itself with the appear to have disowned the moral philosophy
principle of the Sadducee. and the Pharisee was which obtrudes the idea of recompense. * Be not
made to ap|>ear as not only the author hut the as those slaves'so runs an injunction derived,
patron and advocate of corruption. it is said, from Zadok himself'who serve their
The time when the sect of the Sadducees came master on this condition, namely, that they receive
into existence, history does not define. From what a reward ; hut let the fear of heaven be in you *
lias been advanced it appears that they were pos (1'irke Aboth, i. 3, and Kabbi Nathan on the
terior to the Pharisees. And although so soon as passage). Were they consistent in this view, they
the Pharisaic elements began to become excessive, may have held high and worthy ideas of duty, its
there existed in Judaism itself a sufficient source source and its motives ; ideas, however, which are
for Sadduceeism, yet, as a fact, we have no obviously more suited for men of cultivation like
doubt that Grecian philosophy lent its aid to the themselves thau for the great bulk of human
development of Sadduceeism. Whence we are beings. And in views such as this may probably
referred for the rise of the latter to the period when he found a chief cause why they were far less
the conquests and the kingdoms which ensued acceptable witli the common people and far lets
from the expedition of Alexander had diffused a influential in the state than their rivals, the Ph%
SADDUCEES. SALACH. 660
riaees. The cold self-reliance and self-sumcienc> influence of a strong repellant influence which
which sits apart in the enjoyment of the satisfac came from the extravagant notions entertained
tions resulting from its own resources, and aims on the point by their antagonists the Pharisees. It
at nothing beyond its own sphere and nothing must, however, be said that this denial, whence-
higher than its own standard, may possess pecu soever it came, shows how entirely theirs was a
liar attractions for the philosophic few, or for the system of negatives and of materialism ; and
contemptuous scoffer, but is too alien from ordi being such it could, with all its elevuted moral
nary sympathies, and too unkindling and too conceptions, do very little for the improvement of
tranquil to Hud general acceptance in any con individuals and the advancement of society.
dition of society that the world has yet known. A very natural consequence was, that their
It was a position with the Sadducees, that the doctrine held sway over but comparatively few
Scriptures did not contain the doctrine of a future persons, and those mostly men distinguished by
life. In this opiuion they have had many fol wealth or station {Antiq. xviii. 1. 4; xiii, 10.6).
lowers in modern times. Vet Jesushimself finds They were the freethinkers of the day, and free-
a proof of that doctrine in the Pentateuch (Matt, thinking is ordinarily the attribute only of the
xxii. 31, 32), and the astonishment which his cultivated and the fortunute. Least of all men
teacbiug on the point excited seems to show that are those of a sceptical turn gregarious. They
it was not an ordinary inference of the Rabbins, stand on their own individuality ; they enjoy their
but a new doctrine that Jesus then deduced : this own independence; they look down on the vulgar
makes against the mode of interpretation which crowd with pity, if not with contempt. They may
would represent this as a sort of argumentum ad serve quietly to undermine a social system, but
hominem, a shaft from the quiver of Christ's ene they rarely assume the proselyting character
mies. That, however, the species of exegesis to which gave Voltaire and Diderot their terrible
which this proof belongs prevailed among the Jews power for evil. It has been reserved for modern
in the time of our Lord there can be no doubt ; for infidelity to be zealous and enthusiastic.
from the ]>eriod of the return from Babylon it had What Josephus says of the repulsiveness of their
been gaining ground, was very prevalent in the manners (De BeU.Jud. ii. 8.14) is in keeping
days of Christ, and abounds in the Talmudical with their general principles. A sceptical mate
writings. Being, however, a kind of exegetical rialism is generally accompanied by an undue
spiritualism, it was disallowed by the Sadducees, share of self-confidence and self-esteem, which are
who accordingly rejected the doctrines which by among the least sociable ol' human qualities.
its means had been deduced from the- sacred The Sadducees, equally with the Pharisees, were
writings. not only a religious but apolitical party. Indeed
Sadduceeism appears to have been to some ex as long as the Mosaic polity retained an influ
tent a logically deduced and systematically ence, social policy could not be sundered from
formed set of ideas. Making this life the term of religion; for religion was everything. Accord
our being, and man his own beau ideal, it was ingly the Sadducees formed a part of the Jewish
naturally led to assert for man all the attributes parliament, the Sanhedrim (Acts xxiii. 6), and
that he could reasonably claim. Hence it taught sometimes enjoyed the dignity of supreme power
the absolute freedom of the human mind. The in the high-priesthood. Their possession of power,
words of Josephus are emphatic on this point : however, seems to have been owing mainly to
4 The Pharisees ascribe all to fate and to God, but their individual personal influence, as men of
the Sadducees take away fate entirely, and sup superior minds or eminent position, since the
pose that God is not concerned in our doing or general current of favour ran adversely to them,
not doing evil ; and they say that to act what is and their enemies, the Pharisees, spared no means
good or what is evil is in man's own choice ; and to keep them and their opinions in the back
that all things depend on our own selves 1 I >< ground. Accordingly in the Rabbinical writings
BeU.Jud. ii. 8, 14; Antiq. xiii. 5, 9). An inference they are branded with the name of heretics, C^O.
injurious to them has been deduced from this (Othon. Lex. Rabb. p. 270 ; see also Trigland,
position, as if they denied divine Providence alto Syntagma de Tribus Sectti ; Ugolini, Trihctre-
gether ; but their reception of the canonical books, sium, in vol. xxii. of his Thesaurus; Standi in,
and their known observance of the usages for Gesch. der Sittenlchre Jesu, i. 443, sq.J. R. B.
divine worship therein prescribed, are incompa SAIL. [Ship.]
tible with such a denial. Indeed we have here SAIT. [Zait.]
the same difficulty which has presented itselfover
and over again ten thousand times to thinking SALACH Lev. xi. 17 ; Deut xiv. 17), in
minds, namely, how to unite in harmony the common with the usual Greek version Karopcbm}*,
moral freedom of man with the arrangements and is considered to have reference to darting, rushing,
behests of the will of Him or stooping like a falcon ; and accordingly has
Zs tc r1 toma, re r laakptva, irp6 r* toma. been variously applied to the eagle, the jerfalcon,
the gannet, the great gull, and the cormorant. Of
As the Sadducees denied a future state, so also the Hebrew Saiach nothing is known but that it
they were led to deny the existence of angels and was an unclean bird. The Greek Karapdicrrjs,
spirits (Acts xxiii. 8); for they appear to have con associated with the lost mentioned, though noticed
cluded that Bince there were no human spirits in by several authors, is not referred always to the
heaven, there could be no other beings in the in same genus, some making it a minor gull, others a
visible state but Gtxl. Yet if we allow the force diver. Cuvier considers Gesner to be right in con
of this deduction, we cannot well understand how. sidering it to denote a gull, and it might certainly
receiving as they did at any rate the five books of be applied with propriety to the black-hacked
Moses, they could bring themselves to disown gull, ' Larus marinus,' or to the glaucous, 1 Larus
angel-existences, unless, indeed, it was under the glaucus f but although birds of such powerful
666 SALACH. SALOME.
wing and marine habitat are spread over a great to snap at mollusca or small fishes, or wheel
part of (lie world, it doe not appear that, if ing through the air in pursuit of insects ; and
known at the extremity of the Mediterranean, in calm weather, after rising to a great height, it
tliey were sufficiently common to have been drops perjjendicularly down to near the surface
clearly indicated by either the Hebrew or Greek of the water, but never alights except on land ;
names, or to have merited being noticed in the and it is at all times disposed to utter a kind of
Mosaic prohibition. Roth the aljove are in gene laughing scream. This tem nestles in high cliffs,
ral northern residents, being rarely teen even so sometimes at a very considerable distance from
low as the Bay of Biscay, and the species now the sea, 'Sterna Nilotica' appears to be the
called ' Lestris cataractes ' is exclusively Arctic. young bird, or one nearly allied.
Thus the species is not likely to have been un
known to the Israelites, even while they were in
the desert; and as the black tern, 1 Sterna nigri
cans,' and iterhaps the ' Procellaria obscura' of
the same locality, may have been confounded with
it, their number was more than sufficient to cause
them to be noticed in the list of prohibited birds.
Still the propriety of the identification of salach
with the 'great tern ' must in some measure rest
upon the assumption that the Greek KaTapcucrtis
is the same. We figure one that was shot among
a flight of these birds, some distance up the river
Orontes.C. H. S.
With regard to the cormorant, birds of that genus
are no doubt found on the coasts of Palestine, SALAH a thoot; Sept. and New Test.
where high dills extend to the sea-shore; sucli, for
example, as the * Phalacrocorax pygmanrs ;' but
all the species dive, and none of them rush Hying SALAMIS (SoXafii's), one of the chief cities of
upon their prey, though that habit has been Cyprus on the south-east coast of the island (Acts
claimed for them by commentators, who have xiii. 5). It was afterwards called Constantia,
mixed up the natural history of 'cormorants' and in still later times FamagusU [Cyprus].
with that of lite 'sula' or 'gannet,' which really SALATH1EL. [Shealtiel.]
darts from great elevations into the sea, to catch
its prey, rising to the surface sometimes nearly SALEM (D.^, peace ; Sept 2oaV), * ori
half a minute after the plunge, as we ourselves ginal name of Jerusalem (Gen. xiv. 18; Heb.
have witnessed. But the gannet (solan goose) vii. 1, 2), and which continued to be used poeti
rarely comes farther south than the British Chan cally in later times (Ps. lxxvi. 2) [Jerusa
nel, ami does not appear to have been noticed in lem].
the Mediterranean. It is true that several other SALIM (SaXsfja), a place near Mnon, where
marine birds of the north frequent the Levant; John baptized (John iii. 23). Jerome places it
but none of them can entirely claim Aristotle eight Roman miles from Scythoixilis (Bethshau),
and Oppian's characters of 1 cataractes,' for though which is the same distance southward that he and
the wide throat and rather large head of the dwarf Eusebius assign to .-Ktioti. Nothing is known
cormorant may be adduced, that bird exceeds in of this site. Some have been led by the name to
tature the required size of a small hawk ; and conceive that here, and not at Jerusalem, we
fishes, it may be repeated, swimming and diving, should seek the Salem of Melchizedek (Gen. xiy.
not by darting down on the wing, and is not suffi 18) [>95non; Saj.em].
ciently numerous or important to have required the SALLONIM. [Sillon and Thorns.]
attention of the sacred legislator. Thus reduced
to make a choice where the objections are less, SALMON (fife, clothed; Sept. and New
and the probabilities stronger, we conclude the Test laKnAv), the father of Boaz (Ruth iv. 21 ;
taltu h to have been a species of 1 tern,' considered Matt. i. 4, 5 ; Luke iii. 32), elsewhere called
to be identical with the ' Sterna Caspica,' so called Salmah, mbb (Ruth iv. 20; 1 Chron. ii. 11).
because it is found about the Caspian Sea ; but it
is equally common to the Polar, Baltic, and Block theSALMONE (2dA/>T|), a promontory forming
eastern extremity of the island of Crete (Acta
Seas, and if truly the same, is not only abundunt
for several mouths in the year on the coast of xxvii. 7).
Palestine, hut frequents the lakes and pools far SALOME (iaKiiuif), a woman of Galilee,
inland ; flying across the deserts to the Euphrates, who accompanied Jesus in some of his journeys,
and to the Persian and Red Seas, and proceeding and ministered unto him ; and was one of those
up the Nile. It is the largest of the tern or sea- who witnessed his crucifixion and resurrection
swallow genus, being about the weight of a pigeon, (Mark xv. 40 ; xvi. 1). It is gathered, by com
and near two feet in length, having a large black paring these texts with Matt xxvii. 56, that she
naped head ; powerful, pointed crimson bill ; a was the wife of Zebedee, and mother of the
while and grey body, with forked tail, and wings apostles James and John.
greatly exceeding the tips of the tail : the feet arc SALOME was also the name (though not
very small, weak, and but slightly webbed, so given in Scripture) of that daughter of Herodias,
that it swims perhaps only accidentally, but whose dancing before her uncle and father-in-law,
with sufficient power on land to spring up and Herod Autipas, was instrumental in procuring
to rise from level ground. It flies with immense the decapitation of John the Baptist [Hero*
velocity, darting along the surface of the sea uian Family; John the Baptist].
SALT. SALUTATION. 667
SALT (n^tp) was procured hy the Hebrews ii. 150); in the same way as, in Greece, those re
from two sources; first, from rock-salt, obtained garded each other as friends even to distant gene
from iii IN of salt which lie about the southern ex rations, between whom the rites of hospitality had
tremity of the Dead Sea ; and secondly, from the been once exchanged. The domestic sanctity
waters of that sea, which, overflowing the banks which thus attached itself to salt was much en
xearly, and being exhaled by the sun and the heat, hanced in influence by its religious applications, so
left behind a deposit of salt both abundant and that it became symltolical of the most sacred and
good. In the same manner the Arabs of the present binding of obligations. Accordingly ' a covenant
day procure their supply of salt from the deposits of salt was accounted a very solemn
of the Dead Sea, and carry on a considerable trade bond (Num. xviii. 19 ; 2 Clirou. xiii. 5 ; Lev. ii.
in that article throughout Syria. 13) : a signification to which force would be given
The uses to which salt was anciently applied by the preservative quality of salt (Uahrdt, De
were not dissimilar to those for which it serves at Fadere Salis ; Zerbech, De Fwdere Salis).
present ; a fact which arises from the circumstance But salt, if used too abundantly, is destructive
that these uses depend on its essential qualities, of vegetation and causes a desert. Hence arose
and on the constitution and wants of the human another class of figurative applications. Destroyed
frame. It is now known as a physiological fact, cities were sown with salt to intimate that they
that salt is indispensable to our health and vigour. were devoted to perpetual desolation (Judg. ix.
For this reason doubtless the use of it was pro 45) ; salt became a symbol of barrenness (Deut*
videntially made agreeable to the palate. Inde xxix. 23; Zeph. ii. 9; Virg. Georg. ii. 238);
pendently of its services to man as an ingredient and ' a salt land ' (Jer. xvii. 6) signifies a sterile
in Ins food, salt is employed 1, as a manure, and unproductive district (Job xxxix. 6 ; Alt-
since when used in proper proportions, it en matin, Meletem. Philolog. Exeg. i. 47). By ex
riches the sod ; and 2, as an antiseptic, as it posure to the influence of the sun and of the
preserves llesh meat from corruption. From these atmosphere, salt loses its savoury qualities (Plin.
qualities severally result tlie applications of salt, Hist. Nat. xxxi. 34 ; xxxi. 39 ; Maundrell, R.
both natural and figurative, of which mention is 162) ; whence the striking and forcible language
made in Scripture. of our Lord in Matt. v. 13.
From Job vi. 6 it is clear that salt was used as We have reserved to the end reference to a sin
a condiment with food. Salt was also mixed gular usage among the Israelites, namely, wash
with fodder for cattle (Isa. xxx. 21), where the ing new-born infants in salt water; which was
marginal reading is preferable, 1 savoury proven regarded as so essential that those could have
der.* As offerings, viewed on their earthly side, hardly any other than an ill fate who were de
were a presentation to God of what man found prived of the rite (Ezek. xvi. 4). The practice
good and pleasant for food, so all meat-offerings obviously arose from a regard to the preserving,
were required to be seasoned witli salt (Lev. ii. the domestic, the moral, and the religious uses to
13; Spencer, De Legibus Rit i. 5. 1). Salt, which salt was applied, and of which it became
therefore, became of great importance to Hebrew the emblem (Richter, De Usu Salis apud Prit-
worshippers; it was sold accordingly in the cos Profano et Sacro, Zettan, 1766).-J. R. B.
Temple maiket, and a large quantity was kept
in the Temple itself, in a chamber appropriated SALUTATION. The frequent allusion in
to the purpose (Maii Diss, de Usu Salis Symbol, Scripture to the customary salutations of the Jews,
in rebus Sacris, Giessen, 1692 ; Wokenius, DeSa- invests the subject with a higher degree of interest
litura oblattonum Deo factar., 1717; Joseph. than it might otherwise claim : and it is therefore
Antiq. xii. 3. 3 ; Middoth, v. 3 ; Othon. Lex. fortunate that there are few Scriptural topics,
Jiabb. p. 66S). Jewish tradition agrees with which can be better understood by the help of the
Kzekiel xliii. 21, in intimating that animal offer illustrations derivable from the existing usages of
ings were sprinkled with salt (Joseph. Anttq. iii, the East.
9. 1 ; Philo, ii. 255; Hottinger, Jur. Heb. Legg. Most of the expressions used in salutation, and
p. 168); as was certainly the case with the also those which were used in parting, implied,
Greeks and Romans (Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxi. 44; that the person who employed them interceded for
Ovid, Fast. i. 337; Spencer, De Leg. Rit. iii. the other. Hence the word "]"0 barak, which
2. 2; Lukernacher, Antiq. Grac. Sacr. p. 350; originally signified * to bless,1 meant also 1 to sa
Hottinger, De L'su Salis in Cttltu Sacro, Mar lute,' or 'to welcome," and ' to bid adieu ' (Gen.
burg, 1708; Schickeclani, De Salis usu in Sa- xlvii. 8-11; 2 Kings iv. 29 ; x. 13; 1 Chron.
crific. ServesU 1738). The incense, 1 perfume,' was xviii. 19).
also to have salt as an ingredient (Exod. xxx. 35 ; The forms of salutation that prevailed among
marginal reading 'salted"), where it appears to the Hebrews, so far as can be collected from
have been symbolical, as well of the divine good Scripture, are the following :
ness as of man's gratitude, on the principle that of 1. ' Blessed be thou of the Lord,' or equivalent
every bounty vouchsafed of God, it Ijccame man phrases.
to make an acknowledgment in kind. 2. The Lord be with thee.
As salt thus entered into man's food, so, to eat 3. ' Peace be unto thee,' or ' upon thee,' or
salt with any one, was to partake of his fare, toshare 'with thee' In countries often ravaged, and
his hospitality ; and hence, hy implication, to en among people often ruined by war, ' peace 1 im
joy his favour, or to l>e in his confidence. Hence, plied every blessing of life; and this phrase
also, salt became an emblem of fidelity and of inti had therefore the force of 4 Prosperous be thou.*
mate friendship. At the present hour the Arabs This was the commonest of all salutations (Judg.
regard as their friend him who lias eaten salt with xix. 20 ; Ruth ii. 4 ; 1 Sam. xxv. 6 ; 2 Sam. XX.
them, that is, has partaken of their hospitality 9 ; Ps. exxix. 8).
(Niebuhr, Beschr. p. 48; Rosenraiiller, Morgenl.j 4. ' Live, my lord' (*0'"'N (HIV, was a com
668 SALUTATION. SALUTATION.
mon salutation among the Phoenicians, and was This latter mode, which is the most respectful, is
also in use among the Hebrews, but was by them often performed to a person of superior rank, not
only addressed to their kings In the extended form only at first, with the salam, but also frequently
of ' Let the king live for ever !' (1 Kings i. 31) ; during a conversation. In some cases the body
which was also employed in the Babylonian and
Persian courts (Dan. ii. 4 ; Hi. 9 ; v. 10 ; vi. 7,
22 ; Neh. ii. 3). This, which in fact is no more
than a wish for a prolonged and prosperous life,
has a parallel in the customs of most nations, and
does not differ from the ' Vivat !' of the Latin ; the
' Vive le Roi !' of the French ; or our own '
for ever !'
5. xmpf, xa'p<Tt> Jy io tAee ' Jy 10 you. '
rendered by Hail! an equivalent of the Latin
Ave! Salve! (Matt xxvii.29; xxviii. 9; Mark
*v. 18; Luke i. 28; John xix. 3).
The usages involved in these oral salutations,
seem not only similar to, but identical with, those
still existing among the Arabians. These indeed,
as now observed, go upon the authority of religious
precepts. But it is known that such enactments
of the Koran and its commentaries, merely em
body such of the previously and immemorially m.
existing usages as the legislature wished to be is gently inclined, while the right hand is laid
retained. Their most common greeting, as among
the Jews, is, ' Peace be on you !' to which the re upon the left breast A person of the lower or
ply is, * On you be peace !' to which is commonly ders, in addressing a superior, does not always
added, ' and the mercy ofGod, and his blessings !' give the salam, but shows his respect to high rank
This salutation is never addressed by a Moslem by bending down his hand to the ground, and
to one whom he knows to be of another religion; then putting it to his lips and forehead. It is a
and if he find that he has by mistake thus sa common custom for a man to kiss the hand of his
luted a person not of the same faith, he generally superior instead of his own (generally on the back
revokes his salutation : so also he sometimes does only, but sometimes on both back and front), and
if a Moslem refuses to return his salutation, usu then to put it to his forehead in order to pay more
ally saying,'' Peace be on us, and on (all) the right particular respect. Servants thus evince their re
worshippers of God !' This seems to us a striking spect towards their masters : when residing in
illustration of Luke x. S, 6 ; 2 John xL Va the East, our own servants always did this on
rious set compliments usually follow this salam ; such little occasions as arose beyond the usage
which, when people intend to be polite, are very of their ordinary service ; as on receiving a pre
much extended, and occupy considerable time. sent, or on returning fresh from the public baths.
Hence they are evaded in crowded streets, and by The son also thus kisses the hand of hi* father,
persons in haste, as was the case, for the same and the wife that of her husband. Very often,
reason doubtless, among the Jews (2 Kings iv.
29 ; Luke x. 4). Specimens of this conventional
intercourse are given by Lane {Mod. Egyptians,
i. 253), who says, that to give the whole would
occupy a doien of his pages. There are set an
swers, or a choice of two or three answers, to every
question ; and it is accounted rude to give any
other answer than that which custom prescribes.
They are such as those by which the Israelites
probably prolonged their intercourse. If one is
asked, ' How is. your health V he replies, Praise
be to God !' and it is only from the tone of his
voice that the inquirer can tell whether he is well
or ill. When one greets another with the common
inquiry, ' Is it well with tbee V (see 2 Kings iv.
S6), the answer is, God bless thee !' or ' God
preserve thee !' An acquaintance on meeting
another whom he has not seen for several days, or
for a longer period, generally says, after the salam, 478.
'Thou hast made us desolate by thy absence
from us ;' and is usually answered, ' May God however, the superior does not allow this, but
not make us desolate by thy absence!' only touches the hand extended to take his ;
The gestures and inflections used in salutation whereupon the other puts the hand that has been
Taried with the dignity and station of the person touched to his own lips and fcrehead. The cistern
saluted ; as is the case with the Orientals at this of kissing the beard is itiil preserved, and follows
day. It is usual for the person who gives or returns the first and preliminary gesture; it usually takes
the salutation, to place at the same time his right place on meeting aA.er an tbsence of some dura
hand upon his breast, or to touch his lips, and tion, and not as an every-day compliment. In this
then his forehead or turban, with the same hand. case, the person who gives the kiss lays the right
SAMARIA. SAMARIA. 669
band under the beard, and raises it slightly to his destroyed by Jehu (1 Kings xvi. 32, 33; 2 Kings
Km, or rather supports it while it receives his kiss. x. 18-28). It was the scene of many of the acts
Tnis custom strikingly illustrates 2 Sam. xx. 9. of the prophets Elijah and Klisha, connected with
In Arabia Petraca, and some other parts, it is the various famines of the land, the unexpected
more usual for persons to lay the right sides of plenty of Samaria, and the several deliverances
their cheeks together. of the city from the Syrians. After the exile of
the ten tribes, Samaria appears to have continued,
for a time at least, the chief city of the foreigners
brought to occupy their place; although Shechem
soon became the capital of the Samaritans as a
religious sect. John Hyrcanustook the city after
a year's siege, and razed it to the ground (Joseph.
Antiq., xiii. 10. 3 ; Be Bell Jud.y i. 2. 7). Yet it
must soon have revived, as it is not long after men
tioned as an inhabited {dace in the possession of
the Jews. Pomjwy restored it to its former pos
sessors; and it was afterwards rebuilt byGabinius
(Joseph. Antiq.t xiii. 5. 4; xiv. 4. 4; xiv. 5. 3).
Augustus bestowed Samaria on Herod ; who
eventually rebuilt the city with great magni
ficence, and gave it the name of Sebaste (which
is the Greek translation of the Latin name or
epithet Augustus), in honour of that emperor
479. (Antiq.! xv. 7. 3; De Bell. Jud.y xv. 7.7: sr.
8. 5). Here Herod planted a colony of 6000
Among the Persians, persons in saluting under persons, composed partly of veteran soldiers, and
the same circumstances, often kiss each other on partly of people from the environs; enlarged the
the lip-; hut if one of the individuals is of high circumference of the city ; and surrounded it
rank, the kiss is given on the cheek instead of the with a strong wall twenty sfades in circuit. In
Hps. This seems to illustrate 2 Sam. xx. 9 ; the midst of the citythat is to say, upon the
Gen. xxix. 11, 13; xxxiii. 4; xlviii. 1012; summit of the hillhe left a sacred place of a
Exod. iv. 27 ; xviii. 7. stade and a half, splendidly decorated, and here
Another mode of salutation is usual among he erected a temple to Augustus, celebrated for
friends on meeting after a journey. Joining its magnitude and beauty. The whole city was
their right hands together, each of them compli greatly ornamented, and became a strong fortress
ments the other upon his safety, and expresses his (Joseph. Antiq., xv. 8.5; DeBell.Jud^ i. 21. 2;
wishes for his welfare, by repeating, alternately, Strabo, xvi. 2. 13).
many times the words selarnat (meaning 1 1 congra Such was the Samaria of the time of the New
tulate you on your safety'), and teiyibeen (' 1 hope Testament, where the Gospel was preached by
you are well'). In commencing this ceremony, Philip, and a church was gathered by the apostles
which is often continued for nearly a minute (Acts viii. 5, 9, sq.). Nothing is known of Sthasl e.
before they proceed to make any particular in in the following centuries, except from the coins,
quiries, they join their hands in the same maimer of which there are several, extending from Nero hi
as is usually practised by us ; and at each al Geta (Eckhel, iii. 440; Mionnet, Med. Antiq.)
ternation of the two expressions, change the posi V. 513). Septimius Severus appears to have esta
tion of the hands. These circumstances farther blished there a Roman colony in the Ix-ginning of
illustrate such passages as 2 Kings iv. 19 ; Luke the third century (Cellarius, Not, Orb., ii. 432).
X. 4. Other jiarticulars, more or less connected Eusehius scarcely mentions the city a-* extant ;
with this subject, may be seen in Attitudks ; but it is often named by Jerome and other writers
Kiss. of the same and a later age (adduced in ReUnd'l
SAMARIA (fWQ&t watch-height; lafidpcia), Palrrstina, pp. 979-981). Samaria was early an
a city, situated near the middle of Palestine, episcopal see. Its bishop, Marios, or Mari:ius,
built by Omri, king of Israel, on a mountain or was present at the council of Nice in A.n. 325 ;
hill of tike same name, about lie. 926. It was and IVlagius, the last of six others whose names
the metropolis of the kingdom of Israel, or of the are preferred, attended the council of Jerusalem
ten tribes. The bill was purchased from the in a.]>. 536. Tlie city, along with Nautilus, fell
owner, Sbemer, from whom the city took its name into the power of the Moslemsduring the siege of
(1 Kings xvi. 23,21). The site of the capital Jerusalem ; and we hear but little more of ii till
was therefore a chosen one ; and all travellers the time of the Crusades. At what time the city of
a^ree that it would be difficult to find in the whole Herod became desolate, no existing accounts state ;
land a situation of equal strength, fertility, and but all the notices of the fourth century and later
l>eauty combined. * In all these jiarticulars,' says lead to the inference that its destruction had
Dr. Robinson, 1 it has greatly the advantage over already taken place.
Jerusalem* {Bibl. Researches, in. 146). Samaria The crusaders established a Latin bishopric at
continued to be the capital of Israel for two cen Sehaste; and the title was continued in the Romish
turies, till the carrying away of the ten tribes by church till the fourteenth century (Le Quien,
Shalmaneser, about b.c. 720 (2 Kings xvii. 3. 5). Oriens Christ, iii. 1290). Saladin marched
During all this time it was the seat of idolatry, through it in a.d. 1184, after his repulse from
and is often as such denounced by the prophets, Kerak (Abulfed. Annal. a.h. 580). Benjamin
sometimes in connection with Jerusalem. It was of Tudela describes it as having been * formerly
the seat of a temple of Baal, built by Ahah, and a very strong city, and situated on the mount,
170 SAMARIA. SAMARIA.
in a fine country, richly watered, and surrounded tains through substantial cottages of the modem
by gardens, vineyard*, orchards, and olivegroves.' Sebustieh (the Arabic form of Sebaste), which
He adds that no Jews were living- there (Itiner. appear to have been constructed to a great extent
ed. Asher, p. 66). Phocas and Brocardus speak of ancient materials, very superior in size and
only of the church and tomb of John the Baptist, quality to anything whi^h could at this day be
and of the Greek church and monastery on the wrought into an Arab habitation. The first object
summit of the hill. Notice* of the place occur which attracts the notice of llie traveller, and at
in the travellers of the fourteenth, sixteenth, the same time the most conspicuous ruin of the
and seventeenth centuries; nor ure they all so place, is the church dedicated to John ihe Baptist,
meagre as Dr. Robinson conceives. That of erected on the spot which an old tradition fixed
Morison, for instance, is full and exact (Voyage as the place of his burial, if not of his martyrdom.
du Mont Sinai, pp. 230-233). Scarcely any It is said to have been built by the Empress He*
traces of the earlier or later Samaria could then leua; but the architecture limits its antiquity to
Imj perceived, the materials having been used by the period of the crusades, although a portion of
the inhabitants for the construction of their own the eastern end seems to have been of earlier date.
mean dwellings. The then residents were an ex There is a blending of Greek and Saracenic styles,
tremely poor and miserable set of people. In the which is particularly observable in the interior,
eighteenth century the place appears to have been where there are several pointed arches. Others
left uuexplored but in the present century it has are round. The columns follow no regular order,
often been visited and described. while the capitals and ornaments present a motley
combination, not to be found in any church
erected in or near the age of Constantitie. The
length of the edilice is 153 feet long inside, besides
a porch of 10 feet, and the breadth is 75 feet.
The eastern end is rounded in the common (ireek
style; and resting, as it does, uj)on a precipitous
elevation of nearly 100 feet immediately above
the valley, it is a noble ami striking monument.
Within the enclosure is a common Turkish tomb ;
and beneath it, at a depth reached by 21 stone
steps, is a sepulchre, three or four paces square,
where, according to the tradition, John the Baptist
was interred after he had lieen slain by Herod.
This tradition existed in the days of Jerome; but
there is no earlier trace of it : and if Josephus is
correct in stating that John was beheaded in the
castle of Machajrus, on t lie east of the Dead Sea
(Antiq. xviii. 5. 2), his burial in Samaria is
very improbable.
On approaching the summit of the hill, the
traveller comes suddenly upon an area, once sur
rounded by limestone columns, of which fifteen aie
still standing and two proarrate. These columns
form two rows, thirty-two paces ij^vrt, while less
than two paces intervene between the columns.
480. [Samaria; Church of St. John.] They measure seven feet nine inches in circum
ference ; but there is no trace of the order of
The Hill of Samaria is an oblong mountain of their architecture, nor are there any foundations
considerable elevation, and very regular in form, to indicate ihe nature of the edilice to which they
situated in the midst of a broad deep valley, the belonged. Some refer them to Herod's temple In
continuation of that of Nabnlus (Shechem), Augustus, others to a (ireek church which seems
which here expands into a breadth of th e or six In have once occupied the summit of the lull.
inifes. Beyond this valley, which completely The descent of the hill on the W.S.W. side brings
isolates the hill, the mountains rise again on the traveller to a very remarkable colonnade,
every side, forming a complete wall around the which is easily traceable by a great unraher ut
city. They are terraced to the tops, sown in columns, erect or prostrate, along the side of the
grain, and planted with olivet and tig*, in the hill for at least one-third of a mile, where it ter
midst of which a number of handsome village! minates at a heap of ruins, near the eastern ex
appear to great advantage, their white stone cot- tremity of the ancient site. The columns are sixteen
tuges contracting strikingly with the verdure of feet high, two feet in diameter at the base, and one
the trees, * The Hill of Samaria' itself is culti foot eight inches at the top. The capitals have
vated from its base, the terrared sides and sum disap[>eared . but the shafts retain their polish,
mits being covered with corn and with olive- and, when not broken, are in good preservation.
trees. About midway up the ascent the hill is Eighty-two of these columns ate still erect, and
surrounded by a narrow terrace of level land, the number of those fallen and broken must be
like a belt; below which the roots of the hill much greater. Most of them are of ihe lime
spread oil' more gradually into the valleys. stone common to the region ; but some are of white
Higher up, too, are the marks of slight terraces, marble, and tome of granite. The mass of ruins in
once occupied, perhaps, by the streets of the which this colonnade terminates toward the west
ancient city. The ascent of the hill is very steep, i composed of blocks of hewn stone, covering no
and the narrow footpath winds among the moun great area on the slope of the hill, many feet luwei
8AMARITANS. SAMARITANS. 071
than the summit Neither the situation nor extent away by the victors. With them, therefore, the
of this pile favours the notion of its having been a heathen colonists became incorporated. But the
palace; nor is it easy to conjecture the design of latter were far more numerous than the firmer,
the edifice. The colonnade, the remains of which and had all power in their own hands. The rem
now stand solitary and mournful in the midst of nant of the Israelites was so inconsiderable and
ploughed fields, may, however, with little hesita iusigniKcant as not to affect, to any important
tion, be referred to the time of Herod the Great, extent, the opinions of the new inhabitants. As
and must be regarded as belonging to some one the people were a mixed race, their religion also
of the splendid structures with which he adorned assumed a mixed character. In it the worship of
the city. In the deep ravine which bounds the city idols was associated with that of the true God.
on the north, there is another colonnade, not visited But apnstacy from Jehovah was not universal.
by Dr. Robinson, but fully described by Dr. Oliu On the return of the Jews from the Babylonish
(Travels, ii. 371-373). The area in which these captivity, the Samaritans wished to joiu them in
columns stand is completely shut in by hills, with rebuilding the Temple, saying, 'Let us build with
the exception of an ojtening on the north-east; you ; for we seek your God, as ye do ; and we do
and so jwculiarly sequestered is the situation, that sacrifice unto him since the days of Ksarhaddon,
it is only visible from a few (joints of the heights king of Assur, which brought us up hither' (Ezra
of the ancient site, by which it is overshadowed. iv. 2). But the Jews declined the proffered assist*
The columns, of which a large number are entire once; and from this time the Samaritans threw
and several in fragments, are erect, and arranged every obstacle in their way. Hence arose that
in a quadrangle, 106 paces in length, and 04 in inveterate enmity between the two nations which
breadth. They are three paces asunder, which afterwards increased to such a height as to become
would give 170 columns as the whole number proverbial. In the reign of Darius Nothus, Ma*
when the colonnade was complete. The columns tiasses, sou of the Jewish high-priest, married the
resemble in size and material those of the colon daughter of Sanballat the Samaritan governor ;
nade last noticed, and appear to belong to the and to avoid the necessity of repudiating her, as
same age. These also probably formed part of tlte law of Moses required, went over to the Sama
Herod's city, though it is difficult to determine ritans, and became high-priest in the temple which
the use to which the colonnade was appropriated. his father-in-law built for him on Mount Gerizim.
Dr. Olin is twssibly right in Ins conjecture, that From this time Samaria became a refuge for all
this was one of the places of public assembly and malcontent Jews; and the very name of each
amusement which Herod introduced into his do people became odious to the other. About the
minions (Robinson, Researches., iii. 136-149; year u.c. 109, John Hyrcanus, high-priest of the
Olin, Travels, ii. 366-374; Rockingham, Tra- Jews, destroyed ihe city and temple of the Sama
vels in Palestine* pp. 5 1 2-51 7 ; Richardson, ritans ; but, B.C. 25, Herod rebuilt them at great
Travels, ii. 409-413 , Schubert, Morgenlantt, iii. exjiense. In their new temple, however, the Sa
156-162; Raumer, Paldstina, p. 138; Maun- maritans could not be induced to offer sacrifices,
drell, Journey, pp. 7S, 79). but still continued to worship on Gerizim. At
SAMARITANS. In the Iwoks of Kings the present day they have dwindled down to a few
there are brief notices of the origin of the ]>eople families. Shechem, now called Nabnlug, is their
called Samaritans. The ten tribes which re place of abode. They still possess a copy of the
volted from Reholxiam, son of Solomon, chose Mosaic law.
Jeroboam for their king. After his elevation A different account of the origin of this people
*o the throne he set up golden calves at Dan has been given by Hengstenberg, whom Hiiver-
and Bethel, lest repeated visits of his subjects to nick and Robinson follow. According to this
Jerusalem, for the purpose of worshipping tfie true learned writer, all the inhabitants were carried
God, should withdraw their allegiance from hitn- away into Assyria. None weie left in the laud by
eelf Afterward* Samaria, built Ity Omri, became the conquerors. Shalmaueser greatly weakened
the metropolis of Israel, and thus the sejraratiini the ten tribes, hut did not extinguish tlte king
between Judah and Israel w is rendered complete. dom of Israel, because at his invasion many of
The people took the name Samaritans from the the people took refuge in the most inaccessible
capital city. In the ninth year of Hiwea, Samaria and retired parts of their country, or fled into
was taken by the Assyrians under Slialmaneser, Judah. Afterwards they returned by degrees ;
who carried away the inhabitants into captivity, and when Esarhaddon came against thern, they
ami introduced colonies into their place from were carried away entirely. From the time of
Babylon, Cuthah, Ava, Hamath, and Sephar- Ksarhaddon there wire none but heathens in the
vaim. These new inhabitants carried along with land. The Samaritans were wholly of heath&n
them their own idolatrous worship; and on being origin. Hence they requested the Assyrian king
infested with lions, sent to Esarnaddon, king of to send them an Israelite priest (Beitrage zur
Assyria. A priest of the tribe of Levi was accord Einleit. ins alte Testam. i. 177 ; ii. 3, &c).
ingly dispatched to them, who came and dwelt in Want uf space prevents us from detailing the
Bethel, teaching the people how they should fear grounds of this view, or from entering into its
the Lord. Thus it appears that the people were a refutation. It has been ably combated by Kalkar
mixed race. The greater part of the Israelites had (in Pelt's Mitarbeilen for *1810, drittes Ilrft, n.
been carried away captive by 1 lie Assyrians, in 21, Ac), to whom the reader is referred. We
cluding the rich, the strong, and such as were able cannot bu! reject the novel hypothesis, notwith
to bear arsis. But the poor and the feeble had standing the ability wiih which it has l>een put
been left. The country had not been so entirely forward.
depopulated as to ]>ossess no Israelite whatever. The With the remnant above referred to a corre-
dregs of the populace, particularly those who ap spondence was formerly maintained by several
peared incapable of active service, were not taken learned Kuropeans, but without leading to any im
072 SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH.
portant result. It wu commenced by Joseph character to which they were accustomed. In
Scaliger, in 1559; and resumed, after a century, proof of this hypothesis it has been affirmed, that
by several learned men in England, in 1675 ; and the variations in the Samaritan copy from the
bv the great Ethiopic scholar, Job Lmlolf, in 1664. Hebrew are such as were occasioned in the tran
1*lie illustrious Orientalist, De Sacy, also held scription by mistaking letters similar in Hebrew,
correspondence with them. All their letters to but unlike in the Samaritan, This supposition
England and France, and all that was then known has been completely set aside by Kopp, in his
respecting them, he published in a work entitled, Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit; and by Hup-
Correspondance des Samaritains, &c. in Notices feld, in his Beleuchtung dtinkler Siellen, u. s. w,
et Extr. des M8S. de la Biblioth. du Roi, torn, (Studien und Kritiken, 1830), in which it is
xii.). The best accounts of them given by modem convincingly shown that the present Hebrew
travellers are by Pliny Fisk (American Mission square character had no existence till long after
ary Herald for 1824^ who visited them in 1823; Ezra; and that, so far from owing its origin to
and by Robinson and Smith, who visited them in Chaldsea and having been introduced by Ezra, it
1838 (see Biblical Researches and Travels in was merely the gradual work of time. When
Palestine, iii. 113-116;.S. D. Manasseh fled from Jerusalem, the Samaritan
SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. The Sa and Hebrew characters must have been substan
maritan Pentateuch was mentioned by the fathers tially the same.
Eusebius, Cyril of Alexandria, Procopius of 4th] y. Others are of opinion that copies of the
Gaza, Diodorus, Jerome, and others. After it Pentateuch must have been in the hands of Israel
had lain concealed for upwards of a thousand from the time of Rehoboam, as well as amoug-
years, its existence began to be doubted. At JuaaJi; that they were preserved by the former
length Peter Delia Valle, in 1616, procured a equally as by the latter. This hypothesis, first
complete copy, which De Sancy, then French advanced by Morin, has been adopted by Houbi-
ambassador at Constantinople, sent to the library gant, Cappellus, Kennicott, Michael is, Eichhorn,
of the Oratoire at Paris, in 1623. It was Hrst Bauer, Bertholdt, Stuart, and others, and appears
described by Morin, and afterwards printed in the to be the true one. The prophets, who frequently
Paris Polyglott. Not long after, Archbishop iuveigh against the Israelites for their idolatry and
Ussher jwocured six copies from the East ; and so their crimes, never accuse them of being destitute
great was the number in the time of Kennicott, of the law, or ignorant of its contents. It is wholly
that lie collated sixteen tor his edition of the He improbable, too, that the people, when carried
brew Bible. captive into Assyria, took with them all the copies
In regard to the antiquity of the Samaritan of the law. Thus we are brought to the conclu
Pentateuch, and the source from which the docu sion, that the Samaritan, as well as the Jewish
ment came, various opinions have been entertained. copy, originally flowed from the autograph of
1st. The hypothecs maintained by Ussher was, Moses. The two constitute, in fact, different
hat the Samaritan Pentateuch was the production recensions of the same \corkt and coalesce in
of an impostor named Dositheus, the founder of a point of antiquity.
sect among the Samaritans, and who pretended to If this account of the Samaritan codex be cor
be the Messiah. It is thought that he compiled this rect, it is easy to perceive the reason why the
copy of the Pentateuch fr.m the Hebrew and the Samaritans did not receive all the Jewish books
Septtiagint, adding, expunging, and altering, ac previously written. When the schism of the
cording to his pleasure. Ussher appeals to Origeu tribes took place, the Pentateuch was commonly
and Photins, whose testimony, however, when circulated, and usually regarded as a sacred
examined, affords no evidence or the truth of this national collection, containing all their laws and
statement. It is well known that the Alexan institutions. Though David's Psalms and some
drian Samaritans opposed Dositheus, and would of Solomon's compositions may also have been
not have received such a compilation. Besides, written at that time; yet the former were chiefly
bad he corrupted any passages, it is natural to in the hands of the Levites who regulated the
think that he would have perverted those relating Temple music, and were employed in the public
to the Messiah, that they might be more easily service of Jehovah; while the latter were doubt
referred to himself. But places of this nature in less disliked by the ten tribes on account of their
the Samaritan copies agree with the Hebrew ; and author, who lived at Jerusalem, and were rare
we may be farther assured, that the Jews would from the non-transcription of copies. The pro
not have filled to mention such a fact as a just phets must have been unwelcome to the Israelites,
ground of accusation against the Samaritans. because they uttered many things against them,
2ndly, Le Clerc and Poncet imagined, that affirming that Jehovah could not be worshipped
this copy of the law was made by the Israelitish with acceptance in any other place than Jeru
priest who was sent by the king of Assyria to in salem. This circumstance was sufficient to prevent
struct the new inhabitants in the religion of the that people from receiving any of the prophetical
country. This is a mere hypothesis, unsupported writings till Ezra's lime, when their hatred to him
by historical testimony. It was not necessary for and his associates was so great, that they would
the priest to compote a new system, but to instruct not have admit ted any collection of the Scriptures
the people out of the Pentateuch as it then existed. coming through such hands. Whatever other
When the existing copy was sufficient for his books, besides the Pentateuch, were written in the
purpose, he would not have undertaken the labour time of Rehol>oam must have been comparatively
of preparing an entirely new work. unknown to the mass of the people. This fact, in
3rdly. It was the opinion of Hott'inger, Pri- connection with political considerations, was suf
deaux, Fitzgerald, and others, that Manasseh ficient to lead the Israelites to reject most, except
transcribed one of Ezra's corrected copies which those of Moses.
be took with him from Jerusalem, into the old Jia addition to the Pentateuch, the Samaritan*
SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. 67
nave the book of Joshua, but it did not always It thus appears that the Samaritan Pentateuch
form part of their canon. Their Joshua doei not cannot be ascribed to a later ]>eriod than that
appear to be the same as the Old. Testament book. of the schism between the tribes. All the argu
On the contrary it must have tieen composed long ments adduced by Gesenius (in his Commentatio
after, out of the inspired records of Joshua, Judges, dc Pentatcuchi Samaritani Origine, Indole, et
and Samuel, to which have been added Tables and Auctoritate) are not sufficient to disprove its
Oriental traditions. Such a compilation can truth. For opposite and convincing statements
have no claim to be regarded as the authentic we refer to the last edition of Eichhoru's Intro
Jewish writing. duction to the Old Testament, and Professor
But, it may be asked, what is the reason why Stuart's review of Gesenius, in the second volume
this people have not tl>e hooks of Joshua and of the American Biblical Repository. The name
Judges, in addition to the Mosaic ? The question Samaritan was first given to that mixed multitude
is of difficult solution. Hengstenberg affirms that composed of the heathen introduced by Shalma-
the problem is inexplicable ou the common hypo neser into the kingdom of Israel, and of the lower
thesis. If the people were a mixed race, he sup classes of the ten tribes whicli bad not been car
poses that no rational account can be given why ried away. Whatever civil jealousies may have
Joshua and Judge* should not have been always previously existed between them and the Jews,
received by them along with the Pentateuch. their religious animosities were first excited when
These bonks had been written and were cm rent Ezra and his countrymen, returning from exile,
among the people long tiefore the se{juration of the refused to allow their co-operatiou in building the
tribes. We do not see, however, that Hengsteu- Temple. Subsequent events, far from allaying
berg's own view materially lessens the difficulty. their mutual hatred, only raised it to a higher
I m heathen Samaritans received the Pentateuch pitch, giving it that permanent, durable form in
from the kingdom of tlte ten tribes, or rather from which it was continued through succeeding cen
these trills in Assyrian captivity, why did they turies.
ask for no more than the Pentateuch, or why was With respect to the authority and value of the
it alone sent to them? Samaritan Pentateuch, there has been mucn va
For the solution of the question it should be riety of sentiment. Gesenius, however, has very
considered, that the priests, or such as were in ably shown that little value should he assigned to
possession of the sacred hooks, had been carried the characteristics of its text. He has proved that
away, together with the persons Itest acquainted no critical reliance can be placed on it, and that
with such writings, who may lie supposed to have it is wholly unjustifiable to use it as a source of
had the great majority of the copies then current. correcting the Hebrew text. He lias divided the
The holy books, too, were not generally circu various readings it exhibits into different classes,
lated among the j>eople, many of whom may have under each of which numerous examples are ad
been unable to read them. The lower orders in duced. By a most minute investigation of par
particular were de|>entlent for their religious in ticulars he has shown that it cannot be employed
formation on the prophets and priests; for parents in emendation, as Ketmicott, Morin, and Bauer
bad not fulfilled the Mosaic law in diligently sup]osed. This masterly dissertation has ruined
teacrtlng their children. He*ides, the same cir the credit of the Samaritan codex in the critical
cumstance that led them to reject the subsequent world. The purity of the Hebrew is not to be
books would incline them, at least, to reject corrupted by additions or interpolations from
Joshua and Judges. There was in t lie latter too such a document. The original text of the Old
much of the historical, and that closely connected Testament cannot be established by any weight
with the succeeding events of Jewish history, all attaching to it.
which centred in Jerusalem. Whatever copies, The various peculiarities of the Samaritan text
therefore, of these historical books may have been have been divided into the following classes :
among the remnant, and these could have been 1. The first class consists of such readings as
but few. were suffered to fall into neglect, so that exhibit emendations of a merely grammatical
they liecame almost unknown when the heathen nature. Thus in orthography the matres lectionis
majority introduced their idolatrous worship. It are supplied, the full forms of verbs substituted
was far more natural to stop with the Pentateuch for the ajKicoputed, the usual forms of the pro
when it was deemed necessary to reject some nouns given instead of the unusual. In forming
Jewish i -. ks, than to stop after Judges. In this a noun, the ptragogic letters yod and vau affixed
way their canon, imperfect us it would be, would to the governing noun are almost always omitted.
have the ap|>earauce of greater completeness in In construing a noun, the Samaritan transcribers
i'self, than if they had arbitrarily and abruptly make frequent mistakes in relation to gender, by
terminated it after Judges. In addition to these changing nouns of the common gender into the
remarks it may be affirmed with Ilengsfejiberg, masculine, or into the feminine alone. In the
that the Samaritans could not be contented with syntax of verbs the infinitive absolute is often
the fact that Joshua and Judges contained nothing altered.
which directly testified against them. Their pa 2. The second class consists of glosses received
triotic fabrications, if the phrase be allowable, into the text. These glosses furnish explanations
began with Joshua; and had they admitted the of more difficult terms by such as are more intel
two books, they could have ventured to forge ligible.
nothing except what they should lie able to prove 3. The third class comprehends those readings
out of them. Hence it was thought more desir in which plain modes of expression are substituted
able to allow the few-copies current among them in place of such as appeared difficult or obscure.
to go into oblivion in the first instance, while it 4. The fourth class consists of those readings
was afterwards deemed a politic measure not to in which the Samaritan copy is corrected or
admit them at all into their canon. supplied from parallel passages '1 o this class
vol. is.
S74 SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH.
belong Gen. 1. 25, where the Samaritan adds with "Kennicott. Of all the peculiar readings in the
you, reading' Ye shall carry up my bones with Samaritan Pentateuch, four only are considered
you from hence.' The addition is taken from by Gesenius as preferable to the Hebrew; these
Exod. xiii. 19, and does not belong, as Gerard are Gen. iv. 3; xxii. 13; xlix. 14; xiv. 14.
thinks, to the jiresent place. Perhaps even these should be reckoned infe
5. The fifth class consists of larger additions or rior to the corresponding Hebrew readings. We
repetitions respecting things said or done, which shall notice them individually.
are interpolated from parallel places and again Gen. iv. 8 ; the Hebrew text, literally trans
recorded in the same terms, so as to make the lated, reads thus 'And Cain said to Abel- his
readings in question. brother; and il came to pass when iliey were in the
6. Corrections framed to remove what was field/ &c. Here the Samaritan supplies what ap
offensive in sentiment, or whatever conveyed ideas pears to I* wanting by inserting the words 'let us
improbable in the view of the correctors. Thus go into the field,' mPTl H3^3. So also the Sep-
in the antediluvian genealogies, none is repre tuagint. Vulgate, and Syriac versions. Aquila
sented by the Samaritan Pentateuch as having is doubtful. Perhaps, however, this clause was
begotten his first son after he is one hundred and
fifty years old. On the contrary, in the post borrowed from 1 Sam. xx. 11. If the verb ION
diluvian genealogies, none is allowed to have he put absolutely for *Q1, the meaning will be
begotten a sou until alter he is fifty years old. In that Cain spoke to his brother Abel, viz. what
the former case, (lie Samaritan codex usually God had previously said to the former.
takes a hundred years from the genealogies as Gen. xxii. 13; instead of UIX the Samaritan
found in the Hebrew ; while in the latter one hun reads 'And Abraham lifted up his eyes
dred years are commonly added, at least to all and looked; and behold a ram caught/ &c. in
whom the Hebrew copy represents to have chil stead of * Behold a ram behind him/ &c. The
dren under fifty years of age, except to Nahor. Samaritan reading is sanctioned by the Septua-
Such changes could not have been accidental. gint ami Syriac, and all the versions except
They are manifestly the effect of design. To Jerome's, by forty-two manuscripts, and two
this class belongs Gen. xxtx. 3, 8: 'And thither printed editions. Onkelos, Saadias, and the Per
were all the flocks gathered : and they rolled the sian have both readings together. This use, how
stones ftc. And they said, We cannot, until all ever, of the numeral adjective for the indefinite
the flocks be gathered together, and till they roll article, belongs rather to the later than the earlier
the stone, Ac.' Here the subject of the verb roll Hebrew. In Exod. xxix. 3, the use of inX is
is understood not expressed * the shepherds scarcely similar, though quoted as such by Gese
rolled.1 But lecause the preceding subject is all nius. On the whole we are inclined, with Nol-
the flocks, and therefore they are apiaren'ly said dius and Kavius, to abide by the common read
to roll away the stone, and to water, the word ing, notwillislanding the circumstances adduced
D*nj7P| flocks, was altered into D'JHn, shep against it by Gesenius.
herds. The Sept. follows the reading of the Sa Gen. xlix. 14 ; in this passage the Hebrew has
maritan ; and strange to say, Houbigant and D13 "iDn, the ass of a bone, i.e. 'a strong ass.'
Kennicott contend that it is the true reading. It Instead of D"1J the Samaritan has D*13 ; theSense
is very usual with the Old Testament writers to is the same.
change the subject, and leave the new nominative Gen. xiv. 14; instead of p"W the Samaritan
to tie supplied from the context. As an example reads p"VV The meaning of the former ishe
of this Gesenius (p. 51) adduces Isa. xxxvi. 36. led forth his trained servants; of the latter, he
7. The seventh class consists of those words and surveyed or numbered. The former is equally
forms of words in which the pure Hebrew idiom good as the latter.
is exchanged for that of the Samaritan. This The Samaritan codex cannot he put in compa
respects many cases of orthography, and some of rison with the Hebrew. The difference between
the forms belonging to verbs. the two recensions chiefly consists in additions to
8. The eighth class embraces such passages the Samaritan text. An omission may lie made
as contain alterations made to produce con inadvertently, but an insertion evinces design.
formity to the Samaritan theology, worship, or When, therefore, we usually meet with words and
exegesis. Thus, where the Hebrew has a plural clauses in the Samaritan that are not found in the
verb with elokim, the Samaritan has substituted a Hebrew, it is much more probable that they
verb in the singular (Gen. xx. 13; xxxi. 53; should have been inserted in the one, than pur
xxxv. 7; Exod. xxii. 9), lest there should be an posely omitted in the other. In all cases, perhaps,
appearance of infringing on the divine unity. So the Samaritan should be placed below the Hebrew
also voces honestiores have been put where there in the value of its readings. Where othi r autho
was a fancied immodesty. To this head Gese rities concur with the Idrmer against the latter,
nius has referred tiie notable passage in Deut. there may be reason for following it ; hut tins does
xxvii. 4, where the Samaritans changed Khal into not rest, on t\_ ground that it is superior to the
Gerizim, to favour their own temple built on the Hebrew,
latter mountain. Some, indeed, as YVhiston and We might also mention, in favour of this esti
Kennicott, have endeavoured to show that the cor mate of the two codices, the general character of
ruption ought to he charged on the Jews ; but they Israel and Judah. The one was far more wicked
have not been successful in recommending their than the other. Wickedness is usually associated
opinion to general acceptance. Various writers of with forgetfulness or corruption of the inspired
ability have refuted this notion, especially Ver- writings, and inattention to their coutcuts.
schuir (in the third of his Dissertationes Philolog- But the New Testament writers usually quota
exeget. Leovard. et Francq. 1773, 4to), who com from the Sept., which version agrees with the Sa
pletely set aside the attempted reasoning of maritan, in preference to the Hebrew codex. Doea
SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. SAMOTHRACE. 675
Dot this attach a superior value to the Samaritan? Onkelos is remarkable. Winer and De Wette,
In reply to such a question it may be observed, however, deny that the translator used Onkelos,
that the New Testament does not coincide witli because tiie hatred subsisting between the Jews
the Samaritan and Septuagint in opposition to and Samaritans renders that circumstance im
the Hebrew. There are indeed two, or. at the possible; yet it may be questioned whether the
most, three instances of this nature ; hut the vari national enmity was participated in by every
ation is so slight in these, that nothing can be built single individual of the Samaritans or of the
ujxm it. There is one reading of the Samaritan Jews. To say that it has been interpolated from
tb which we deem it right to allude, l>ecause it is Onkelos will scarcely account for the peculiar
generally preferred to the Hebrew. ItisinExod. character of the version, although it is probable
xii. 40 : * Now the sojourning of the children of that it has passed through several hands, and lias
Israel, who dwelt in Egypt, was 430 years.' The consequently been altered from its* original form.
Samaritan has 'The sojourning of the children of This version has been printed in the Paris and
Israel and of their fathers who dwelt in the land of London Polyglotts : more accurately in the latter
Canaan ami in the land of Egypt was 430 years.' than in the former, but yet with many imjxrfeo
The Hebrews abode 215 years in Egypt; and from tions and errors. The Latin version in both is of
the call of Abraham to the extnlus was 430 years. no utility. (Winer, De Versionis Pcntateuchi
This passage presents no real difficulty in the way Samaritanx Indole, Lips. 1817, 8vo. ; Walton's
of chronology, although the Samaritan corrector Prolegomena; Gesenius, DePentaL Samar. Ori-
thought, that, as it stands in the Hebrew codex, it gine, Sfc. p. 18; the Introdtwtions of Eichhom,
is not true. Yet it is not said that the sojourniug Bertholdt, Havernick, De Wette; and Davidson's
of the children of Israel in Egypt was 430 years. Lectures on Biblical Criticism.)
It is simply stated that their sojourning continued
for that period. The clause * who dwelt in Egypt,* Tb ScuxcuiciVikok. This name has been given
is incidental^ not essential to the sentence. The to the fragments of a supposed Greek version of
sojourning of the Israelites in various -places be the Samaritan Pentateuch. It is not certain,
ginning at the time when Abraham was called of however, whether they be the remains of an old
Jehovah, and ending with the departure of his Greek translation, or glosses made upon the Sep
^posterity out of Egypt, occupied 430 years. Had tuagint by Origen. These fragments have been
the words stood thus, 'the sojourning of the chil collected by Morin, Hottinger, and Montfaucon,
dren of Israel who dwelt in Egypt was 430 years out of the Greek fathers. It iB probable that they
in that country,1 there would have been a chrono are the remains of a real Greek version from the
logical difficulty. At present, however, there is Samaritan, although from their paucity they are
none. This example is discussed by Gesenius, of little use. (See the Introductions of Eich
under the sixth class. hom, Havernick, and De Wette ; Gesenius, De
Thus the Samaritan Pentateuch is not a source Pentat. Samarit.. Jrc ; and Davidson's Lectures
of emendation. Other independent authorities, on Biblical Criticism.)S. D.
provided they he sufficient, may and ought to be SAMMINS. [Spices.]
taken as means of emendation ; but this codex by SAMOS (Zd/jLos), an island in the j^gean Sea,
itself cannot l>e used in correcting the text, nor near the coast of Lydia, in Asia Minor, and sepa
can it be employed for the name purpose along rated only by a narrow strait from the promontory
with versions or quotations manifestly borrowed which terminates in Cape Trogyllium. This
from it. strait, in the narrowest part, is not quite a mile in
The utility of the copy consists in confirming width (Plin. Hist. Nat. v. 'M ; Strabo, xiv. p.
the authenticity of a reading when it agrees with 634 ; comp. Leake*s map of Asia Minor). The
the Hebrew. In such a case there are two inde island is sometimes stated to have i>een famous
pendent witnesses. for its wines; but, in fact, the wine of Samos was
It also dissipates the rigid notions entertained in ill repute. Strabo says expressly that the
by the Boxtort's and others resecting the vowel- island was ovk ctioiwr : it now, however, ranks
points and letters. It proves that the points and high aiming Levantine wines, and is largely ex-
accents were not coeval with the consonants. )>orted, as are also grapes and raisins. The apostle
Besides the works referred to in the course of this Paul touched at the island in his voyage from
article, the reader may consult the Introductions Greece to Syria (Acts xx. 15). Samos con
of Jahn, Eichhom, Bertholdt, De Wette, and tained, some years ago, about 60,000 people, in
Havenlick ; Steudel s treatise .in Bengal's Archiv. habiting eighteen large villages, and about twenty
tii. 326, sq. ; Mazade, Sar VOrigin*, V Age, small ones. Vathi is the chief town of the island
et I'Etat Critique du Pent. Sam. Oenf. 1830, in ev ery respect, except that it is not the residence
8vo; Tholuck's Lit. Anzcig. for 1833, p 303, of the governor, who lives at Colonna, which
sq. : Lee's Prolegomena to Baxters Polyglott ; takes its name from a solitary column (about fifty
Professor Stuart, in the North American lieview feet high and six in diameter), a remnant of the
for 1826, and Biblical depository for 1832; and ancient temple of Juno, of which some insignifi
Davidson's Lectures on Biblical Criticism cant remains are lying near. For further infor
Samaritan Version ok the Pentateuch. mation, see the travels of Pococke, Clarke, Dalla-
Tlie author and date of this version are both way, and Turner.
unknown. Probably it belongs to the first or SAMOTHRACE (2ap.o9pdK<n), an island in
second century of the Christian era. It follows the north-east part of the JR^ean Sea, above the
the Hebrsu-Samaritan text word for word, gene Helles|ont, with a lofty mountain, and a city of
rally furnishing the same additions and pecu the same name. It was anciently called Dar-
liarities as its parent exhibits. To this, however, dana, Leucania, and also Samos; and to dis
there are several exceptions. Its agreement with tinguish it from the other Samos, the name of
G76 SAMSON. SAMSON.
Thrace was added from its vicinity to that coun Timnath, whom he besought his ]inrents to pro
try. Hence 2auo$ Qpatcns, and by contraction cure for him in marriage, assigning as a reason
Sauotfpcfinr, Samothrace. The island was cele that she * pleased him well,' Heb. HX*
brated for the mysteries of Ceres ami Proserpine, Kin, She is right in mine eyes, where the original
and was a sacred asylum (IXiod. Sic. iii. 55 ; v. for righf is not an adjective, having the seme of
47; Ptolem. Geoff, v. 11; Plin. Hist. Xat. iv. beautiful, engaging, attractive, but a verb, con
23). Paul touched at this island on his first veying, indeed, the idea of right, but of right
voyage to Kurope (Acts xvi. 11). The island is relative to an end, purpose, or object ; in other
now called Samandrachi. It is but thinly peo words, of fitness or adaptation (see Gous?eV
pled, and contains only a single village. The Lexicon, s v. ; and comp. 2 Sam. xvii. 4 ; 1
mountain is described in the Missionary Herald Kings ix. 12: 2 Chron. xii. 80) Num. xxviii.
for 1836, p. 246; comp. Kichter, Waltfahrt, p. 2*7). This afWds, we believe, the true clue to
438, sq. Samson's meaning, when he says, * She is right in
SAMSON flte^pCt Shimshon; Sept. 2au</^) mine eyes;* i.e. adapted to the end which 1 have
in view -. she may be used, she is available, foe a
the name of the celebrated champion, deliverer, purjiose entirely ulterior to the immediate con
and judge of Israel, equally remarkable for his nection which I propose. That lie entertained u
supernatural Imdily prowess, his moral infirmi genuine affection for the woman, notwithstanding
ties, and his tragical end. He was the son of the policy by which he was prompted, we may
Manoah, of the tribe of Dan, and Itorn a.m. 2S48, doubtless admit; but that he intended, at (he
of a mother whose name is no where given in the same time, to make this alliance subservient to
Scriptures. The circumstances under which his the great purpose of delivering his country from
birth was announced by a heavenly messenger oppression, and that in this he was acting under
gave distinct presage of an extraordinary cha the secret control of Providence, would seem to be
racter, whose endowments were to be of a nature clear from the words immediately following, when,
suited to the providential exigencies in which he in reference to the objection of bis parents to such
was raised up. The burden of the oracle to his a union, it is said, that they 'knew not that it was
mother, who had been long larren, was, that the of the Lord that he sought an occasion against
child witb winch she was pregnant was to be a the Philistines.' It is here worthy of note, that
son, who should be a Nazarite from his birth, the Hebrew, instead of 'against the Philistines^
ujjon whose head no razor was to come, and who has ' of or from the Philistines,' clearly imply
was lo prove a signal deliverer to his people. She ing that the occasion sought should be one that
wa* directed, accordingly, to conform her own originated on the side of the Philistines. This
regimen to the tenor of the Nazarite law, and occasion he sought under the immediate prompt
strictly abstain from wine and all intoxicating ing of the Most High, who *aw fit, in this
liquor, and from every species of impure food indirect manner, to bring about the accom
[Nazarite]. According to the * prophecy going plishment of his designs of retribution on his
before upon liim,' Samson was botn in the follow enemies. His leading purpose in this seems to
ing year, and his destination to great achieve have been to baffie the jtotccr ofthe whole J^hilis-
ments began to evince itself at a very early age tine nation try the prowess ofa single individual.
by tlte illapses of superhuman strength which The champion of Israel, therefore, was not ap
came from time to time upon him. Those speci pointed so much to be the leader of an army, like
mens of extraordinary prowess, of which the slay the other judges, as to be an army in himself.
ing of the lion at Timnath without weapons was In order then that the contest might be carried on
one, were doubtless the result of that special influ in 1 his way, it was necessary that the entire oppo
ence of the Most High which is referred to in Judg. sition of the Philistines should be concentrated, as
xiii. 2i> :'And the spirit of 1 lie Lord began to far as possible, against the person of Samson.
move him at times in the camp of Dan, between This would array the contending parties in pre
Zorah and Kshtaol.' The imjxirt of the original cisely such an attitude as to illustrate most sig
word (DJttsV) for moved is peculiar. As DJfQ, nally the |>ower of God in the overthrow of his
the radical form, signifies an anvil, the metaphor enemies. But how could this result be brought
is probably drawn from the repeated and some about except by means of some private quarrel
what violent strokes of a workman with his ham between Samson and the enemy with whom he
mer. It implies, therefore, a rjeculiar urgency, was to Contend 1 And who shall say that the
an impelling influence, which he could not well scheme now projected was not the very best that
resist in himself, nor others in him. But we do could have been devised for accomplishing the
not know that this attribute, in its utmost degree, end which God bad in view? To what extent
constantly dwelt in him. Samson himself foresaw the issue of this transac
As the position of the tribe of Dan, bordering tion, or how far he hail a plan distinctly laid
upon the territory of the Philistines, exposed them corres]H>nding with the results that ensued, it is
especially to the predatory incursions of this people, difficult to say. The probability, we think, is,
it was plainly the design of heaven to raise up a that he hail rather a general stro?ig impression,
deliverer in that region where he was most needed. wrought by the Spirit of Goo!, than a definite con-
The Philistines, therefore, l>ecame very naturally ception ofthe train of events that were to transpire.
the objects of that retributive course of proceed- It was, however, a conviction as to the issue suf
t tugs in which Samson was to be the principal ficiently powerful to warrant both him and his
uctor, and upon which he could only enter by ]>arents in going forward witli the measure. They
seeking some occasion of exciting hostilities that were, in someway, assured that they were engaged
would bring the two peoples into direct collision. in a proceeding which God would overrule to the
Such an occasion was afforded by his meeting furtherance of his designs of mercy to his people,
with one of the daughters of the Philistines at and of judgment to their oppressor!.
SAMSON. SAMSON.
From this point commences that career of ing in our version1 God clave a hollow place in
achievements and prodigies on the part of this Is- the jaw'is unhappy, as the original is Tib Lehu
raelitish Hercules, which rendered him the terror the very term which in the final clause is rendered
of h is enemies and the wonder of all ages. At his * in Lehi.' The place received its name from the
wedding- feast, the attendance of a large company circumstance of bis having then so effectually
of paronymphs, or friends of the bridegroom, wielded Hiejaw-bone
convened ostensibly for the purpose of honouring1 The Philistines were from this time held in
his nuptials, but in reality to Keep an insidious such contempt by their victor, that he went
watch upon his movements, furnished the occasion openly into the city of Gaza, where lie seems
of a common Oriental device for enlivening enter to have suffered himself weakly to be drawn
tainments of this nature. He propounded a into the company of a woman of loose character,
riddle, the solution of which referred to his ob the yielding to whose enticements exposed him to
taining a quantity of honey from the carcase the most imminent peril. His presence being
of a slain lion, and the clandestine manner in soon noised abroad, an attempt was made during
which his guests got ]>ossession of the clue to the the night forcibly to detain him, by closing the
enigma cost thirty Philistines their lives. The gates of the city and making them fast; but
next instance of Ms vindictive cunning was Samson, apprised of it, rose at midnight, and
prompted by the ill-treatment which he had re breaking away Iwilts, bars, and binges, departed,
ceived at the hands of his father-in law, who, upon carrying the gates upon his shoulders, to the top
a frivolous pretext, had given away his daughter of a neighbouring bill that looks toward Hebron
in marriage to another man, and was executed
by securing a multitude of foxes, or ratherjackals (p"Qn h]J ; Sept. iirl irpocrwirov rov Xtfipwv,
(QvJAV shualim), and, by tying firebrands to facing Hebron). The common rendering * be
fore Hebron" is less appropriate, as the distance
their tails, setting fire to the cornfields of his between the two cities is at least twenty miles.
enemies. The indignation of the Philistines, on The hill lay doubtless somewhere l>etween the
discovering the author of the outrage, vented itself cities, and in full view of both. After this his
upon the family of his father-in-law, who had enemies strove to entrap him by guile rather than
te**n the remote occasion of it, in the burning of by violence; and they were too successful in the
their house, in which both father anil daughter end. Falling in love with a woman of Sorek,
perished. This was a fresh provocation, for which named Delilah, he became so infatuated by his
Samson threatened to be revenged ; and thereupon passion, that nothing but his bodily strength could
falling upon them without ceremony he smote equal his mental weakness. The princes of the
them, as it is said, * hip and thigh with a great Philistines, aware of Samson's infirmity, deter
slaughter.* The original, strictly rendered, runs, mined by means of it to get possession, if possible,
'he smote them leg upon thigh'apparently a of his person. For this purpose they propose a
proverbial expression, and implying, according to tempting bribe to Delilah, and she enters at once
Gcsenius, that he cut them to pieces, so that their into the treacherous compact. She employs all
limbs, their legs and thighs, were scattered and her art and blandishments to worm from him the
heaped promiscuously together; equivalent to secret of his prodigious strength. Having for
saying that he smote and destroyed them wholly, some time amused her with fictions, lie at last, in
entirely. Mr. Taylor, in his edition of Calmer, a moment of weakness, disclosed to her the fact
recognises in these words an allusion to some that it lay in his hair, which if it were shaved
Ubii of wrestling combat, in which jjerhaps the would leave him a mere common man. Not that
slaughter on this occasion nay have commenced* his strength really lay in his hair, for this in fact
Having subsequently taken up his residence in had no natural influence upon it one way or the
tlte rock Ktam, lie was thence dislodged by con other. His strength arose from his relation to
senting to a pusillanimous arrangement on the God as a Nazarite, and the preservation of his
part of his own countrymen, by which lie agreed hair unshorn was the mark or sign of his Naza-
to surrender himself in boxadi provided they would riteship, and a pledge on the |>art of God of the
not themselves fall upon him ami kill him. He continuance of Ins miraculous physical powers.
probably gave into this measure from a strotig If he lost this sign, tin: badge of his consecration,
inward assurance that the issue of it would be, to he broke his vow, and consequently forfeited the
aflbrd him a new occasion of taking vengeance thing signified. God abandoned him, and he
upon his foes. Being brought in this apparently was thenceforward no more, in this respect, than
helpless condition to a place called from the event, an ordinary man. Mis treacherous paramour
Lehi, a jaw, his preternatural potency suddenly seized the first opportunity of putting his declara
put itself forth, and snapping the cords asunder, tion to the test. She shaved his head while he
and snatching up the jaw-bone of an ass, lie dealt lay sleeping in her lap, and at a concerted signal
so effectually about him, that a thousand men were Ik; was instantly arrested by his enemies lying in
slain on the spot. That this was altogether tine wait. Hereft of his grand endowment, and for
work, iRt of man, but of God, was soon demon saken of God, the champion of Israel could now
strated. Wearied with his exertions, the illustrious well adopt the words of Solomon ;' I find more
Danite became faint from thirst, and as there was bitter than death the woman whose heart is snares
no water in the place, l>e prayed that a fountain and nets, and herbands are bands; whoso pleaseth
might be opened. His prayer was heard ; God God shall escape from her; but the sinner shall
caused a stream to gush from a hollow rock hard be taken by her.' Having so long presumptuously
by, and Samson in gratitude gave it the name of played with his ruin, Heaven leaves him to him
En-hakker, a word that signifies 4 tlic well of him self, as a punishment for his former guilty indul
that prayed," and which continued to be the de gence. He is made to reap as he had sown, and
signation of the fountain ever after. The render is consigned to the bands of his relentless foes.
67ft SAMSON. SAMUEL.
His punishment was indeed severe, though he afford to most minds an additional proof of how
amply revenged it, at well as redeemed in a much the ancient mythologies were a distorted
measure his own honour, by the manner in which reflection of the Scripture narrative.G. B.
nc met his death. The Philistines having de
prived him of sight, at first imtnured him in a SAMUEL 5 Sept. Somoi^A), the last
pi . - , and made him grind at the mill like a of those extraordinary regents that presided over
slave. As this was an employment which in the the Hebrew commonwealth under the title of
East usually devolves on women, to assign it to Judges. The circumstances of his birth were
such a man as Samson was virtually to reduce ominous of his future career. His father, El-
him to the lowest state of degradation and shame. kanah of Ramathaim-Zophim, of Mount Ephraim,
To grind com fur others was, even for a woman, * had two wives, the name of the one was Hannah,
a proverbial term expressive of the most menial and the name of the other Peninnah ; and Pe-
and oppressed condition. How much more for ninnah had children, but Hannah had no
the hero of Israel, who seems to have been made children.1 The usual effect of polygamy was
grinder-general for the prison-house ! felt in Elkauah's household. The sterility of
In process of time, while remaining in this Hannah brought upon her the taunts and ridicule
confinement, his hair recovered its growth, and of her conjugal rival, who ' provoked her sore, to
with it such a profound repentance seems to have make her fret, because the Lord had shut up her
wrought in his heart as virtually re-invested him womb' (1 Sam. i. 6). The jealousy of Peninnah
with the character and the powers he had so cul- was excited also hy the superior affection which
pahly lost. Of this fact his enemies were not was shown to Hannah by her husband. To
aware. Still exulting in their possession of the Hannah he gave a worthy portion; for he loved
great scourge of their nation, they kept him, like Hannah' (i. 5). More especially at the period
a wild beast, for mockery and insult. On one of of the sacred festivals did the childless solitude
these occasions, when an immense multitude, in of Hannah create within her the most poignant
cluding the princes and nobility of the Philistines, regrets, when she saw her husband give ]>ortions
were convened in a large amphitheatre, to cele to all the sons and daughters of Peninnah, who,
brate a feast in honour of their god Dagon, who exulting in maternal pride and fondness, took
had delivered their adversary into I heir hands, advantage of these seasons to subject the favourite
Samson was ordered to be brought out to be made wife to a natural feminine retaliation. Hannah's
a laughing-stock to his enemies, a butt for their life was embittered, 1 she wept and did not eat'
scoffs, insults, mockeries, and merriment. Se (i. 7). On one of these occasions, during the
cretly determined to use his recovered strength annual solemnity at Shiloh, whither Elkauah's
to tremendous effect, he persuaded the Uiy who family hail travelled, ' to worship and to sacri
guided his steps to conduct him to a sjtot where fice,1 so keen was the vexation of Hannah, that
he could reach the two pillars upon which the she left the domestic entertainment, went to the
roof of the building rested. Here, after pausing tabernacle, and in the extremity of her anguish
f*" a short time, while he prefers a brief prayer to implored Jehovah to give her a man-child, ac
Heaven, he grasps the massy pillars, and bowing companying her supplication with a peculiar
with resistless force, the whole building rocks and pledge to dedicate this gift, should it be conferred,
totters, and the roof, encumbered with the weight to the service of Jehovah ; vowing to present the
of the spectators, rushes down, and the whole as child in entire unreserved consecration to the
sembly, including Samson himself, are crushed Lord all the days of his life, and at the same
to pieces in the ruin ! time to bind him to the special obligations and
Tints terminated the career of one of the most austerities of a Nazarite. In her agony of earnAl
remarkable personages of all history, whether iiess Iter lip moved, but articulated no words, so *
acred or profane. The enrolment of his name by that Eli, the high priest, who had observed her
art apostolic pen (Heb. xi. 32) in the list of the frantic ap[>earance from his seat by a jKist of the
ancient worthies, * who h;ul hy faith obtained an temple, 1 thought she had been drauken,1 and ,
excellent repute,' warrants us undoubtedly in a sharply rebuked her. Her pathetic explanation
favourable estimate of his character on the whole, removed his suspicion, and he gave her his solemn
while at the same time the fidelity of the inspired benediction. Her spirit was lightened, and she
narrative has |>erpetunted the record of infirmities 4 went her way.' The birth ofa son soon fulfilled
which must for ever mar the lustre of 11is noble her ho|>e8, ami this child of prayer was named, in
deeds. It is not improbable that the lapses with memory of the prodigy, Samuej., hkakd of God.
which he was cliargeable arose, in a measure, from In conseuuence of his mother's vow, the boy was
the very peculiarities of that physical tempera from his early years set apart to the service of
ment to which his prodigies of strength were Jehovah, under the immediate tutelage of Eli.
owing ; but while this consideration may palliate, His mother brought him to the house of the
it cannot excuse the moral delinquencies into Lord in Shiloli, and introducing herself to the
which he was betrayed, and of which a just Pro pontiff, recalled to his memory the peculiar cir
vidence exacted so tremendous a penalty in the cumstances in which he had first seen her. So
circumstances of his degradation and death. 1 Samuel ministered before the Lord, being a
Upon the parallel between the achievements of child, girded with a linen ephod' (ii. IS).
Samson and those of the Grecian Hercules, and The degeneracy of the people at this time was
the derivation of the one from the other, we cannot extreme. The tribes seem to have administered
fiere enter. The Commentary of Adam Clarke their affairs as independent republics, the national
presents us with the results of M. De Lavour, an confederacy was weak and disunited, and the
ingenious) French writer on this subject, from spirit of public patriotic enterprise had been worn
winch it will be seen that the coincidences are out by constant turmoil and invasion. The
extremely striking, and such as would perhaps theocratic influence was also scarcely felt, tti
SAMUEL. SAMUEL.
peculiar ministers being withdrawn, and it3 ordi tual, and the principles of the theocracy again
nary manifestalions, except in the routine of the triumphed (vii. 4). The tribes were summoned
Levitical ritual, having ceased ; ' the word of the by the prophet to assemble in Mizpeh, and at this
Lord was precious in those days, there was no assembly of the Hebrew comitia, Samuel seems
open vision1 (iii. 1). The young devotee, * the to have been elected regent (vii. 6). Some of
child Samuel,' was selected by Jehovah to renew the judges were raised to political power, as ttie
the deliverance of his oracles. As he reclined in reward of their military courage and talents, but
his chamber adjoining the sacred edifice, the Samuel was raised to the lofty station of judge,
Lord, by means adapted to his juvenile capacity, from Ins prophetic fame, his sagacious dispen
made known to him his first and fearful com sation of justice, his real intrepidity, and his
municationthe doom of Eli's apostate house. success as a restorer of the true religion. His
Other revelations speedily . followed this; the government, founded not on feats of chivalry or
frequency of God's messages to the young prophet actions of dazzling enterprise, which great emer
established his fame; and the exact fulfilment of gencies only call forth, but resting on more solid
them secured his reputation. The oracle of qualities, essential to the^rowth and development
Sliiloh became vocal again through the youthful of a nation's resources in times of peace, laid the
hierophant (iii. 19-21). The fearful fate pro foundation of that prosjierity which gradually
nounced on the head and family of the pontificate elevated Israel to the jiosition it occupied in the
was soon executed. Eli had indulgently tole days of David and bis successors.
rated, or leniently palliated, the rapacity and pro This mustering of the Hebrews at Mizpeh on
fligacy of his sons. Through their extortions the inauguration of Samuel alarmed the Philis
and impiety * men abhorred the offering of the tines, and their * lords went up against Israel/
Lord,' and Jehovah's wrath was kindled against Samuel assumed the functions of the theocratic
tiie sacerdotal transgressors. They became the viceroy, offered a solemn oblation, and implored
victims of their own folly ; for when the Philistines the immediate protection of Jehovah. He was
invaded the land, an unworthy superstition among answered with propitious thunder. A fearful
the Hebrew host clamoured for the ark to be storm burst upon the Philistines, the elements
brought into the camp and into the field of warred against them. * The Highest gave his
battle. Hophni and Phinehas, Eli's Bons, in voice in the heaven, hailstones and coals of fire.*
dulging this vain and puerile fancy, accompanied The old enemies of Israel were signally defeated,
the ark as its legal guardians, and fell in the and did not recruit iheir strength again during
terrible slaughter which ensued. Their father, the administration of the prophet-judge. The
whose sin seems to liave been his easiness of dis grateful victor erected a stone of remembrance,
position, his ]jassive and quiescent temper, sat and named it Ebenezer. From an incidental
on a sacerdotal throne by the wayside, to gather allusion (vii. 11) we learn too, that about this
the earliest news of the battle, for his ' heart time the Amorites, the Eastern foes of Israel,
trembled for the ark of God;1 and as a fugitive were also at peace with themanother triumph of
from the scene of conflict reported to him the sad a government 'the weapons of whose warfare
disaster, dwelling with natural climax on its were not carnal.1 The presidency of Samuel
melancholy particulars-Israel routed and fleeing appears to have been eminently successful. From
in panic, Hophni and Phinehas both slain, and the very brief sketch given us of his public life,
the ark of God takenthis lastand overpowering we infer that the administration of justice occu
intelligence so shocked him, that he fainted and pied no little share of his time and attention.
fell from his seat, and in his fall, from the He went from year to year in circuit to Bethel,
imbecile corpulence of age, 1 brake his neck and Gilgal, and Mizpeh, places not very far distant
died' (iv. 18). When the feeble administration from each other, but chosen perhaps, as Winer
of Eli, who had judged Israel forty years, was suggests, because they were the old scenes of
concluded by his death, Samuel was too young worship (lleal-tc'ort.y ii. 444).
to succeed to the regency, and the actions of this The dwelling of the prophet was at Ramah,
earlier portion of his life are left unrecorded. where religious worship was established after the
The ark, which had been captured by the Philis patriarchal model, and where Samuel, like Abra
tines, .soui j vindicated its majesty, and after being ham, built an altar to the Lord, Such procedure
detained among them seven months, was sent was contrary to the letter of the Mosaic statute.
back to Israel. It did not, however, reach Sliiloh, But the prophets had power to dispense with or
in consequence of the fearful judgment of Beth- dinary usage (De Wette, Bib. Dogmat. 70;
shemesh (vi. 19), but rested in Khjath-jearim Kuobel, Der Prophetism. d. Heb. i. 39 ; Koester,
for no fewer than twenty years (vii. 2). It is l)er Proph. d. A. & N. T.$c. p. 52). In this case
not till the expiration of this period that Samuel the reason of Samuel's conduct may be found in
appears again in the history. Perhaps during the the stale of the religious economy. The ark yet
twenty years succeeding Eli's death, his authority remained at Kirjath-jearim,, where it had been
was gradually gathering strength, while the office left in terror, and where it lay till David fetched
of supreme magistrate may have heen vacant, it to Zion. There seems to have been no place of
each tribe being governed by its own hereditary resort for the tribes, the present station ofthe ark not
{jhylarch. Tins long season of national humi- having been chosen for its convenience as a scene
iatton was to some extent improved. ' All the of religious assembly. The shrine at Sliiloh,
house of Israel lamented after the Lord,* and which had been hallowed ever since the settle
Samuel, seizing upon the crisis, issued a public ment in Canaan, had been desolate from the date
manifesto, exposing the sin of idolatry, urging on of the death of Eli and Ins sonsso desolate as to
the people religious amendment, and promising become in future years a prophetic symbol of
political deliverance on their reformation. The divine judgment (Jer. vii. 12-14; xxvi. 6). In
people obeyed, the oracular mandate was effec such a period of religious anarchy and confusion,
SAMUEL. SAMUEL.
Samuel, a theocratic guardian, might, without any I defrauded? whom have I oppressed f or of
violation of the spirit of the law, superintend the whose hand have I received any bribe to blind
public worship of Jehovah in the vicinity of his mine eyes therewith? nnd I will restore it you.*
habitation (Knobel, Prophet, der Heh. ii. 32). The whole multitude responded in unanimous;
In Samuel's old age two of his sous were ap approval of his honesty and intrepidity (xii. 3, 4).
pointed by him deputy-judges in IJeersheha. Then he, still jealous of God's prerogative and
These young men possessed not their father's in the civil rights of his people, briefly narrated
tegrity of spirit, but * turned aside after lucre, took their history, showed them how they never wanted
bribes, and perverted judgment ' (1 Sum. viii. 3). chieftains to defend them when they served God,
The advanced yean of the venerable ruler Uimselt and declared that it was distrust of God's raising
and his approaching dissolution, the certainty that up a new leader in a dreaded emergency that
none of his family could till his office with advan excited the outcry for a king. In proof of this
tage to the country, the horror ofa peiiod of anar chargea charge which convicted ihem of great
chy which his death might occasion, the necessity wickedness in the sight of Godhe apjwaled to
of having some one to put an end to tribal jealou- Jehovah, who answered in a fearful hurricane of
ties and concentrate the energies of the nation, thunder and rain. The terrified tribes confessed
especially as there appeared to be symptoms of their guilt, and liesought Samuel to intercede
renewed warlike prejiarations on the part of the for them in his disinterested patriotism.
Ammonites (xii. l*X)these considerations seem to It is said (vii. 19) that Samuel judged Israel
have led the elders of Israel to adopt the bold all the days of his life. Theassertion may mean
step of assembling at liamali and soliciting that even after Saul's coronation Samuel's power,
Samuel 1 to make a king to judge them.' The though formally abdicated, was yet actually felt
projxised change from a republican to a regal and exercised in the direction of state affairs
form of government displeased Samuel for various (Havemick, Einleit. in dag A. 7% 166). No
reasons. Besides its being a departure from the enterprise could l>e undertaken without Samuel's
first (Ktlitical institute, nnd so far an infringement concurrence. His was an authority higher than
on the rights of the divine head of the theocracy, the king's. We find Saul, having mustered his
it was regarded by the recent as a virtual charge forceB, about to inarch against the Philistines,
against himself, and might apjiear to him us one yet delaying to do so till Samuel consecrated the
of those examples of popular fickleness and in undertaking. He came not at the time appointed,
gratitude which the history of every realm ex as Sanl thought, and the impatient monarch pro
hibits in profusion. Jehovah comforts Samuel ceeded to oiler sacrificea fearful violation of the
in this respect by saying, ' They have not rejected national law. The prophet arrived as the reli
thee, but they have rejected me.' Being warned gious service was concluded, and rebuking Saul
of God to accede to their request for a king, and for his presumption, distinctly hinted at the short
yet to remonstrate with the people, and set before continuance of his kingdom. Again we tiud
the nation the perils and tyranny of a monarchical Samuel charging Saul with the extirpation of the
government (viii. 10), Samuel proceeded to the Amalekites. The royal warrior proceeded on
election of a sovereign. Saul, sou of Kish, 'a the expedition, but olieyed not the mandate of Je-
choice young man and a goodly,' whom he had huvah. His apologies, somewhat craftily framed,
met unexpectedly, was pointed out to him by for his inconsistencies, availed him not with the
Jehovah as the king of Israel, and by the prophet prophet, and he was by the indignant seer
was anointed and saluted as mouaich. Samuel virtually dethroned. He had forfeited his crown
again convened the nation at Mizpeh, again with by disobedience to God. Yet Samuel mourned
honest seal condemned their project, but caused for him. His heart seems to have been set on
the sacred lot to lie taken. The lot fell on Saul. the bold athletic soldier. But now the Lord
The prophet now formally introduced him to directed him to make provision for the future
the i*Hple, who shouted in joyous acclamation, government of the country (xvi. 1). To prevent
4 God save the king/ strife and confusion it was necessary, in (he cir
Not content with oral explanations, this last of cumstances, that the second king should Ik? ap-
the republican chiefs not only told the people the }M)inted ere the first sovereign's demise. Samuel
manner of the kingdom, ' but wrote it in a book went to Bethlehem and set ajiart the youngest of
and laid it up before the Lord.' What is here the sons of Jesse, * and came to see Saul no more
asserted of Samuel may mean, that he extracted till the day of his death.* Vet Saul and he met
from the Pentateuch the recorded provision of once again nt Naiotli, in Hamah (xix 24\ when
Moses for a future monaichy, and added to it such the king was pursuing David. As on a former
warnings, and counsels, and safeguards as his occasion, the spirit of God came upon him as he
inspired sagacity might suggest. Saul's liist approached the company of the prophets with Sa
battle bring so successful, and the preparations muel presiding over them, and * he prophesied and
for it displaying no ordinary energy and prompti lay down naked all that day and all that night,1
tude of character, his popularity was suddenly A religious excitement seized him, the contagious
advanced, and his throne secured. Taking ad influence of the music and rhapsody fell upon his
vantage of the general sensation in favour of nervOUt, susceptible temperament, and overjlower
Saul, Samuel cited the jieople to meet again in ed him. At length Samuel dietI (xxv. 1), and
Gilgal, to renew the kingdom, to ratify t he new all Israel mourned for him, and buried him in his
constitution, and solemnly instal the sovereign house at Ramah. The troubles of Saul increased,
(xi. 1 1). Here the upright judge made a rwmer- and there was none to give him counsel and
ful apjieal to the assembly in vindication of his solace. Jehovah answered him not in the ordi
government. * Witness against me befure the nary mode of oracular communication, 4 by
Lord, and before his anointed ; whose ox have I dreams, 1 n m. or prophets.' His chafed and
taken? or whose ass have 1 taken t or whom have melancholy spirit could find no rest and re
SAMUEL. SAMUEL. - l
sorted to the sad expedient of consulting * a find that the Kohathites, to whom Samuel be
woman that had a familiar spirit' (xxviii. 3-7). longed, had t heir lot in Mount Ephraim (Josh,
The sovereign in disguise entered her dwelling, xxi. 5-20), where D*"1BK VI signifies, not the hill
and he of whom the proverb was repeated, 1 Is Saul of Ephraim, but the hill-country of Ephraim
also among the prophets i ' was found in consult (Geseuius, Thesaur. sub voce). The family of
ation with a sorceress. This is not the place to Zoph, living in the hill-country of Ephraim,
enter into a discussion of this subject [Saul]. might he termed Ephrathife, whiletheir ancestor's
We follow the inspired narrative, and merely say name distinguished their 8|>ecial locality, as Ra-
that Saul strangely wished to see Samuel recalled mathaim-Zophim. The geography of this place
from the dead, that Samuel himself (Kin ^NIDE?) has been disputed [Ramah]. Eusebius and
made his ap|>earaiice suddenly, and, to (lie great Jerome confound it with Aritnathea of the New
terror of the necromancer, heard the mournful com Testament (Onomast. art. Annatha Suphtm).
plaint of Saul, and pronounced his speedy deal lion The Seventy render it 'Ap/xaOaHp. 2w^>/i- Cod. A.,
an ignoble Held of loss and massacre (Henderson, or Cod. B. 'App-adalp. 2,t<pa. For an account of
On Divine Inspiration, p. 165 ; Hales' Chronology, the place now and for long called Neby Samwfel,
vol. ii. p. 323 ; Scott, On the Existence of Evil and the impossibility of its being the ancient
Spirits, &c, p. 232). Ramah, see Robinson's Palestine, ii- 141 : and for
We have reserved a few topics for discussion, an interesting discussion as to the site of Ramath-
that we might not interrupt the brief narrative. Zophim, the latter name being yet retained in
It is almost superfluous to say that the derivation the Arabic term S6buh, the curious reader may
of the prophet's name to which we have referred consult the same work (ii. 830), or Robinson's
is preferable to others which nave been proposed Bibliotheca Sacra, p. 46. The hilly range of
such as ?K Dfe?, nime ofGod ; asked Ephraim extended southward into other cantons,
of God; or DIE', Dew posuit. The opinion while it bore its original name of QHBM "in ; and
was in former times very current, that Samuel so the inhabitants of Ramathaim-Zophim might
was a priest, nay, some imagine that he suc be termed Ephrathiles, just as Mahlou and
ceeded Eli in the pontificate. Many of the Chilion are called ' Ephrathites of Beth-lehem-
fathers inclined to this notion, but Jerome affirms judah' (Ruth i. 2).
(Advert. Jovin.) : Samuel Prophetafuit. Judex Specific data are not afforded us for deter
fuit, Levita fuit, non Pontifex, ne Sacerdos mining the length of either Samuel's life or his
quidem (Ortlob, Samuel Judex el Propheta non administration. Josephus mentions that lie was
Pont, aut Sacerd. Sacrificans ; Thesaurus Xovut twelve years of age when his first oracle was com
Theol. Philol. Hasaei et Ikenii, i. 587 ; Sehlen, municated to him. As the calculation of the
De Success, ad Pontiff., lib. i. c. ' 4). That duration of Samuel's life and government depends
Samuel was a Levite is apparent from 1 Chron. vi. u|)on the system of Chronology adopted, the
22-28, but there is no evidence of his being a reader may turn to the article Judges, and to
priest. The sacerdotal acts ascribed to him the comparative chronological table which is
were performed by him as an extraordinary legate there given.
of heaven. The American translator of De Samuel's character presents itself to us as one of
Wettes Introduction to the Old Testament (ii. uncommon dignity and patriotism. His chief
21) says he was a priest, though not of Levitical concern was his country's weal. Grotius com
descent, slighting 'he information of Chronicles, pares him to Aristides, and Saul to Alcibiades
and pronouncing Samuel at the same time to be (Opera Theol. torn. i. p. 119). To preserve the
only a mythical character. Samuel's birth-place worship of the one Jehovah, the God of Israel, to
was Ramathaim-Zophim ; the dual form of the guard the liberties and rights of the people, to
first term, according to some, signifying one of secure them frum hostile invasion and internal
the t-ro Ramahs.to wit, that of the Zophites (Light- disunion, was the grand motive of his life. His
foor, vol. ii. 162, ed. 1632); and the second term patriotism was not a Roman love of conquest or
' C*21V . according to others, meaning specula- empire. The subjugation of other jjeople was
tores, i.e., prophets, and denoting, that at this place only sought when they disturlied the peace of his
was a scliool of the prophetsan hypothesis sup country. He was loath indeed to change the
ported by the Chaldee paraphrast, who renders it, form of government, yet he did it with con
* Klkanah a man of Kamatha, a disciple of the summate policy. First of all he resorted to the
divine mode of appeal to the Omniscient Ruler
prophets ' (J0K3J TD^nD). Others mid in the a Bolemn sortilegeand brought Saul so chosen
dual form of D^HO"! a reference to the shape of before the jtcople, and pointed him out to them as
Ihe city, which was built on the sides of two hills ; peerless in his form and aspect. Then, waiting
md in the word Zophim, see an allusion to some till Saul should distinguish himself by some
match-towers, or places of observation, which the victorious enterprise, and receiving him fresh
fcigh situation of the city might favour (Clerici from the slaughter of the Ammonites, he again
Opera* ii. 175). Others again affirm that the word confirmed him in his kingdom, while the national
D*D1X is added because Ramah or Ramatha was enthusiasm, kin- 1 in! by his triumph, made him the
inhabited by a clan of Levites of the family of popular idol. Samuel thus, for the sake of future
*]1V (Calmet, sub voce). Winer asserts (Real- ]>eaoe, touk means to show that Saul was both
vwrt. art. 'Samuel') that the first verse of the chosen of God and yet virtually elected by the
book declares Samuel to be an Ephraimite people. This procedure, so cautious and so
(*mSK). This term, however, if the genealogy generous, proves how little foundation there is for
in Chronicles remain undisturbed, must signify the remarks which have been made against Samuel
not an Ephraimite by birth, but by abode, 'domi by some writers, such as Schiller (Xeue Thalia,
cilii ratiuiit- non sanguinis ' (Selden, /. c). We iv. 94), Vatke (Bibl Theol. p. 360), and the in
082 SAMUEL, BOOKS OF. SAMUEL, BOOKS OF.
famous Wolfenbiittel Fragmentist (p. 200, ed. to a few of the introductory chapters. Jewish
Schmidt). opinion is divided on the reason of the Hebrew
The power of Samuel with God, as an interces name. It it affirmed in Baba Bathra (fol. 15,
sor for the jreople, is compared to that of Muses cap. i. , that Samuel wrote the book so called, and
(Jer. xv. 1 ; Ps. xcix. 6). He was the first of a also Judges and Ruth ; and Abarbane) argues that
series of prophets that continued in an unbroken these compositions are named after Samuel be-
line till tlie close of tlie Old Testament Canon cause the events narrated in them may be referred
(Acts iii. 24 ; Augustin. i > Ctv. Dei, 1. xvii.). It to him, either as a person or as a chief instrument,
is in the days of Samuel that mentiou is first made for Saul and David, lieing both anointed by the
of the schools of the prophets. It is natural to prophet, became 'opus veluti manuum' (Prtrf.
suppose that lie was to some extent their originator. in lib. Sam. fol. 74, col. i.) Tlie source of tbe
In the prospect of a regal form of government he appellation. {SaxTtXtwv or $afft\< iwv, Regum, is
seem? to have made the prophetic office a formal to be found in the historic resemblance of the
institute in the Jewish nation. These Acade books of Samuel to those which come after them,
mies were famous for the cultivation of poetry and to which they serve as an introduction. On
and music, and from among their members God the other hand, it was desirable to have short
might select his special servants (Gramberg, names for tbe books of Scripture ; and as Samuel
Religions-id. ii. 264 ; Vitringa, Synag. Vet. i. was a prophet of such celebrity, and had such
2, 7 ; Werenfels, Diss, de Scholis Prophetar.; De influence in changing the form of giwemment
Wette, Comm. ttb. d. Psalm, p. 9). For a different under which the son of Ki>h and the sou of Jesse
view of the schools see Tholuck's Literar. An- became sovereigns, it was natural to name after
zeiger, 1831, i. 38. We are informed (1 Chron. him the biographical tracts in which the life and
ix. 22) that the allocation of tbe Levites times of these royal chieftains are briefly sketched :
for the temple-service was made by David and especially as they at the same time contain
Samuel the seer, i.e., that David followed some striking descriptions of tlie miracle of his own
plan or suggestion of the deceased prophet. It birth, the oracles of his youth, and tlie impressive
is stated also (xxvi. 2S) that the prophet had actions of his long career. The selection of this
made some munificent donations to the tabernacle, Jewish name might also be strengthened by the
which seems to have been erected at Nob, and national belief of the authorship of a large ]tort ion
afterwards at Uibeon, though the ark was in of the work, founded on the language of 1 Chmn.
Kirjath-jearim. Lastly (xxix. 29), the acts of xxix. 29.
David the king are said to be written in the book Contents.The contents of the books of Sa
of Samuel the seer. The high respect in which muel belong to an interesting period of Jewish
Samuel was held by the Jewish natiou in after history. The preceding book of Judges refers to
ages, may be learned from the eulogy pronounced tlie affairs of the republic as they were admi
upon him by the son of Sirach (Eccles. xlvi. nistered after the Conquest, when the nation was
13-20). His fame was not confined to Israel. a congeries of independent cantons, sometimes
The remains of Samuel, according to Jerome partially united for a season under an extraordi
(Advers. figil.), were, under the emperor Ar- nary dictator. As, however, the mode of govern
cadius, brought with great pomp to Thrace ment was changed, and remained monarchical till
(D'Herbelot, Bibl. Orient, pp. 735, 1021 ; Hot- the overthrow of tlie kingdom, it was of natioual
tinger, Histor. Oriental, i. 3).J. E. imjtortance to note the time, method, and means
SAMUEL, BOOKS OF. The two books of the alteration. This change happening under
of Samuel were anciently reckoned as but one the regency of the wisest and best of their sages,
his life became a topic of interest. Tlie first l>ook
among the Jews, ^fcODC IBD. That they of Samuel gives an account of his birth and early
form only one treatise is apparent from their call to the duties of a seer, under Eli's pontificate;
structure. Tlie present division into two books, describes tlie low and degraded condition of the
common in our Hebrew Bibles since the editions I*eople, oppressed by foreign enemies ; proceeds
of Bomberg, was derived from the Septuagint to narrate the election of Samuel as judge ; his
and Vulgate, in both which versions they are prosperous regency ; the degeneracy of his sous ;
termed the First and Second Books of Kings. the clamour for a change in the civil constitution ;
Thus Origen (apud Euseb. Hist. Eccles. vi. 25), the installation of Saul ; his rash and reckless
in his famous catalogue of the Hebrew Scriptures, character; his neglect of, or opposition to, the
names the books of SamuelfiatnMlwv trpum\ theocratic elements of the government. Then
SevrV/ja, irap* avrens $v StuiovijA, 6 &c6k\jjtos ; and the historian goes on to relate God's choice
Jerome thus describes thern (Prolog. Galeatus), of David as king; his endurance of long and
* tertius sequitur Samuel, quern nos regnm primum liarassing persecution from the reigning sove
et secundum dicimus.' None of these titles, reign; the melancholy defeat and death of Saul
ancient or modem, is very felicitous. To call on the field of Gilboa ; the gradual elevation of
thern Hooks of Samuel is, if we follow the analogy the man 'according to God's owu heart' to uni
of the phrases, Books of Moses, Book of Isaiah, versal dominion ; his earnest efforts fo obey and
to assert the prophet to be their author, though a follow out the principles of the theocracy ; his
great portion of the events recorded in them hap formal establishment of religious worship at Jeru
pened after his death. The title Books of Kings, salem, now the capital of tlie nation ; and his
or Kingdoms, is by no means an accurate indi series of victories over all the enemies of Juda?a
cation of their contents, as they refer only to two that were wont to molest its frontiers. The an
monarchs, and the narrative does not even include nalist records David's aberrations from the ]>ath
the death of David. But if they be named after of duty ; the unnatural rebellion of his son
Samuel, as he was a principal agent in tlie events Absalom, and its suppression; bis carrying into
recorded in them, then the title is only appropriate effect a census of bis domiuions, and tlie Di
SAMUEL. BOOKS OF SAMUEL, BOOKS OF. 683
vine punishment which this act incurred ; and mon in Kings, are absent from Samuel [Kings,
concludes with a few characteristic sketches of Books of].
his military staff. The second book of Samuel, 5. The concluding chapters of the second book
while it relates the last words of David, yet stops of Samuel are in the form of an appendix to the
short of his death. As David was the real founder worka proofof its completeness. The connection
of the monarchy and arranger of the religious between Samuel and Kings is thus interrupted.
economy ; the great hero, legislator, and poet of It appears, then, that Samuel claims a distinct
his country ; as his dynasty maintained itself on authorship from the Books of Kings. Stahelin, iu
the throne of Judah till the Babylonian invasion ; Tholuck's Literar, Anz*9 1838, supposes that the
it is not a matter of wonder that the description division between the two treatises has not been
of his life and government occupies so large a correctly made, and that the two commencing
portion of early Jewish history. The books of chapters of 1 Kings belong to Samuel. This lie
Samuel tlins consist of three interlaced biographies argues on philological grounds, because the terms
those of Samuel, Saul, and David. ntam 'JTOm (l Kings i. 38), fi?D3 ote (i.
Age and Authorship.The attempt to ascer
tain the authorship of tins early history is attended 12), and 6?J HID (i. 29), are found nowhere
with difficulty. Ancient opinion is in favour of in Kings but in the first two chapters, while they
the usual theory, that the first twenty-four chap occur once and again iu Samuel. There is cer
ters were written by Samuel, and the rest by tainly something peculiar iu this affinity, though
Nathan and Gad. Aharbanel, however, and it may be accounted for on the principle, that
Grotins, supjxxse Jeremiah tone the author (Grot. the author of the pieces or sketches which form
Prof, in 1 Sam.). The peculiar theory of Jalin the basis of the initial portions of 1 Kings, not
is, that the four books of Samuel and Kings weie only composed those which form the conclusion
written by the same ]>erson, and at a date so recent of Samuel, but also supervised or published the
astde 30th year of the Babylonish captivity. His whole work which is now called by the prophet's
arguments, however, are more ingenious than name.
solid (Introduction, Turners Translation, $ 4ti). Thus the books of Samuel have an authorship
The fact of all the four treatises being named of their ownan authorship belonging to a very
Books of Kings, Jahn insists upon as a proof early period. While their tone and style are very
that i hey were originally undivided and formed different from the later records of Chronicles,
a single work a mere hypothesis, since the they are also dissimilar to the books of Kings.
similarity of their contents might easily give They bear the impress of a hoary age in their
rise to this general title, while the more language, allusions, and mode of composition.
ancient appellation for the first two was The The insertion of odes and snatches of poetry,
Hooks of Samuel. Jahn also lays great stress on to enliven and verify the narrative, is common
the uniformity of method in all the books. But to them with the Pentateuch. The minute
this uniformity by no means amounts to any proof sketches and vivid touches with which they
of identity of authorship. It is nothing more abound, prove that their author * speaks what he
than the same Hebrew historical style. The more knows, and testifies what he has seen.' As if the
minute and distinctive features, so far from being chapters had been extracted from a diary, some
similar, are very different. The hooks of Samuel portions are more fully detailed and warmly
and Kings may be contrasted in many of those coloured than others, according as the observer
peculiarities which mark a different writer : was himself impressed. Many of the incidents,
1. In the books of Kings there occur not a few iu their artless and natural delineation, would
references to the laws of Moses, while in Samuel forma fine study for a painter; so truly does
not one of these is to be found. De Wette (Einleit. 178) remark, that the book
2. The Iwoks of Kings repeatedly cite au abounds in 'lively pictures of character/
thorities, to which appeal is made, and the reader Besides, it is certainly a striking circumstance,
h directed to the ' Acts of Solomon,' * the book of that the books of Samuel do not record David's
the Chronicles of Kings,1 or 'Judah.' But in death, though they give his last wordshis last
the hooks of Samuel there is no formal allusion inspired effusion (Havernick, Einleit. 167). We
to any such sources of information. should reckon it natural for an author, if he had
3. The nature of the history in the two works is lived long after David's time and were writing
very different. The plan of the books of Samuel his life, to finish his history with an account
is not that of the books of Kings. The books of of the sovereign's death. Had the books of Samuel
Samuel are more of a biographical character, and Kings sprung from the same source, then
and are more limited and personal in their view. the abrupt conclusion of one portion of the work,
They may be compared to such a work as containing David's life down to his last days,
Tytler's Henry VIII., while Kings bears an and yet omitting all notice of his death, might
analogy to such general annals as are found in be ascribed to some unknown capricious motive of
Hume's history of Kngland. the author. But we have seen that the two trea
4. There are in the books of Kings many tises exhibit many traces of a different authorship.
later forms of language. For a collection of What reason, then, can be assigned for the writer
some of these the reader is referred to De Wette of Samuel giving a full detail of David's life, and
{Einleit, in das A. T. . 185, note e). Scarcely actions, and government, and yet failing to record
any of those more recent or Chaldaic forms occur his decease V The plain inference is, that th#
in Samuel. Some |>ecu)iarities of form are noted document must have been composed prior to the
by De Wette ($. 180), but they are not so nume monarch's death, or at least about that period.
rous or distinctive as to give a geueral character If we should find a memoir of George the Third,
to the treatise (Hirzel, De Chaldaismi BibL entering fully into his private and family history,
irigint, 1830). Many modes of expression, com as well as describing his cabinets, councillors,
684 SAMUEL, BOOKS OF. SAMUEL, BOOKS OF.
and parliaments, the revolutions, and wars, and It is said in 1 Chron. xxix. 29, ' N
state of feeling under bis government, and ending of David the king, first and last, I
with an account of the appointment of a regent, written in the book of Samuel the seer, and in
and a reference to the king's lunacy, our con the hook of Nathan the prophet, and in the book
clusion would be, that the history was composed of Gad the seer.' The old opinion as to the
before the year 1H20. A history of David, down to authorship of Samuel, to which we have already
the verge of his dissolution, yet not including that alluded, was founded on this quotation. The
event, must have been written before the monarch prophets were wont to write a history of their own
* slept with liia fathers.' We are therefore inclined times. Tint Samuel did so in reference to the
to think that the books, or at least the materials great events of his life, is evident from the state
out of w|jch they have been formed, were con ment that i.e ' wrote the manner of the kingdom
temporaneous with the events recorded ; that the in a book, ami laid it up before the Lord' (1 Sam.
document out of which the sketch of David's life x. 25). The phrase, ^M1t& **Ot may not refer
was compiled was composed and finished before
his death. to our present Samuel, which is not so compre
Against this opinion as to the early age of the hensive as this collection seems to have lM?en.
books of Samuel various objections have Iteen It does not, like the treatise to whit;h the author
brought. The phrase 'unto this day' is often em of Chronicles refers, include 'the acts of David,
ployed in them to denote the continued existenceof first and last.'
customs, monuments, and names, whose origin has The annals which these three seers compiled
been described by the annalist (1 Sam. v. 5 ; vi. 18; were those of their own times in succession
xxx. 25). This phrase, however, does not always (Kleiuert, Aechthcit d. Jes. Pt. L p- 83) ; so
indicate that a long interval of time elajised that there existed a history of contemporary events
between the incident and such a record of its dura- written by three inspired men. The portion
tion. It was a common idiom. Joshua (xxii. 3) written by Samuel might include his own life,
uses it of the short time mat Reuben, Gad, and and the greater part of Saul's history, as well as
the half-tribe of Manasseh, had fought in concert the earlier portion of David's career. Gad was
with the other tribes in the subjugation of Canaan. a contemporary of David, and is termed his seer.
So, again, he (xxiii. 9) employs it to specify the Probably also he was one of his associates in
time that intervened between the entrance into his various wanderings (1 Sam. xxii. 5). In
Canaan, and his resignation of the command on the latter part of David's reign Nathan was a
account of his approaching decease. Matthew, prominent counsellor, and assisted at the coro
in his Gospel (xxvii. S, and xxviii. 15), uses it nation of Solomon. We have therefore prophetic
of the period between the death of Christ and materials for the books of Samuel. Havemick
the composition of his book. Reference is made ($ 161) supposes there was another source of in
in Samuel to the currency of a certain proverb formation to which the author of Samuel might
(1 Sam. x. 12), and to the disuse of the term resort, namely, the annals of David's reigna
seer (1 Sam. ix. 9), but in a manner which by conjecture not altogether unlikely, as may be
no means implies an authorship long posterior to seen by his reference to 2 Sam. viii. 17, com
the time of the actual circumstances. The pro pared with 1 Chron. xxvii. 24. The accounts
verb, ' Is Saul also among the prophets V was one of David's heroes and their mighty feats, with
which for many reasons would obtain rapid and the estimate of their res]>ective bravery, have the
universal circulation : and if no other hypothesis appearance of a contribution by Seruiah, the
be considered satisfactory, we may suppose that scribe, or principal secretary of state. We do not
the remark about the term ' seer ' becoming affirm that the various chapters of these books
obsolete may be the parenthetical insertion of a may be definitely portioned out among Samuel,
later hand. Or it may be that in Samuel's days Gad, and Nathan, or that they are a composition
the term fc<*33 came to be technically used in his proceeding immediately from these persons. We
school of the prophet*. hold them to be their production in the sense of
More opposed to our view of the age of these primary authorship, though, as we now have
books is the statement made in 1 Sam. xxvii. 6 them, they bear the marks of being a compilation.
* Ziklag pertaineth unto the kings of Judah unto Another evident source from which materials
this day' a form of language, according to De have been brought, is a collection of ]>oetic com
Wette ($ 1^0). which could not have been em positionssome Hebrew anthology. We have,
ployed before the separation of the nation into first, the song of Hannah, the mother of Samuel,
the kingdoms of Judah and Israel. Hilvernick which is not unlike the hymn of the Virgin re
remarks, however ( 169 I, that Ziklag belonged corded by Luke. That song is by no means an
first to Judah, and then to Simeon, ere it fell into anachronism, as has been rashly supj>osed by
the hands of the Philistines; and the expression de some critics, such as Hensler (Erl&uter d. 1 B*
notes not that the city reverted to its former owners, Sam. 12), and the translator of De Wette (ii. 222).
but that it became the property of David, and of The latter considers it entirely inappropriate, and
David's successors as sovereigns of the territory regards its mention of King and Messiah, a* be
of Judah. Judah is not used in opposition to the traying its recent and spurious birth. The Song
ten tribes; and the writer means to say that is one of ardent gratitude to Jehovah. It pourtrays
Ziklag became a royal possession in consequence hissovereign dispensations, asserts the character of
of its being a gift to David, and to such as might his government to be, that he 'resisteth the proud,
have rrgal power over Judah. The names Israel and giveth grace to the humble/ and concludes
and Judah were used in the way of contrast even with a prophetic aspiration, in pious keeping with
in David's time, as De Wette himself admits the spirit of the theocracy, and with the great pro
(I Sam. xviii. 16 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. I ; v. 15 ; xix. mise, which it so zealously cherished (Heugsten*
41-43; xx. 2). berg, Die Authentic des Ventat. ii. 1 15). 2
SAMUEL, BOOKS OF. SAMUEL, BOOKS OF. 8*9
i. 18, also contains an extract from the book of vour of two narratives, named by him A. and B.,
Jasher, viz. a composition of the sweet singer of and Staheliu partially acquiesces in his view.
Israel, named 'the Song of the Bow.' Besides, Such theories have nothing else to recommend
there is the chorus of a poem which was sung on them but the ingenious industry which framed
David's return from the slaughter of the Philistine them. It is said, however, that there are evident
giant (1 Sam.xviii.7). There are also three hymns vestiges of two different sources being used and
of David (2 Sam. vii. 18-29), in which the king intermingled in Samuel ; that the narrative is
oners up his grateful devotions to Jehovah (2 Sam. not continuous ; esjwcially, that it is made up of
xxii.); a triumphal ode, found with some altera duplicate and contradictory statements. Such
tions hi the 18th Psalm and in 1 Sam. xxiii. 1-7, vestiges are alleged to be the following : in 1
which preserve* the last words of the * anointed of Sam. x. 1, Samuel is said to have anointed Saul,
the God of Jacob.' To these may be added the whereas in x. 20-25 the prophet is described as
remains of a short elegy on the deatli of Abner having chosen him by lot. The reason of this two
(2 Sam. iii. 3-J-i). Whether all these effusious, fold act we have already given in our remarks
as well as the lament over David and Jonathan, OD Samuel in the preceding article. The former
were taken from Jasher, we know not. It may was God's private election, the latter his public
be thai they were drawn from this common source, theocratic designation. Again, it is affirmed that
this national collection of the Hebrew muse. At two different accounts are given of the cause why
least, some critics, who compare the long hymn the i>eop!e demanded a king, the one (I Sam.
found in 2 Sam. xxii., and which forms the viii. 5) being the profligacy of Samuel's sons, and
eighttenih psahn, and note the variations of the the other (xii. 12-13) a menaced invasion of the
text, are inclined to think that the one has not Ammonites. Both accounts perfectly harmonize.
btej eopfod from the other, but that both have been The nation feared the inroads of the children of
taken from a very old common source: a conjec Amnion, and they felt that Samuel's sons could
ture f.tr more natural than the ordinary hypothesis, not command the respect and obedience of the
namely, that David either published a second various tribes. It was necessary to tell the old
edition of bis jioem, or that the varur lectiones are judge that his sons could not succeed him ; for
the errors of transcribers. Atall events the com he might have pointed to them as future advisers
piler uf the books ofSamuel lias evidently used as and governors in the dreaded juncture.
oneof his sources some collection of |K>etry Such The accounts of Saul's death are also said to
collections often contain the earliest history of a differ from each other (1 Sam. xxxi. 2-6, and
riatinn, and they seem to have abounded among 2 Sam. i. 2-12). We admit the difference, the
the susceptible people of the East. first account being the correct one, and the second
Tims, from such sources, public and acknow being merely the invention of the cunning Ama-
ledged, has the compiler fetched his materials, in lekile, who framed the lie to gain the favour of
the shape of connected excerpts. The last of the Saul's gteat rival, David. It is recorded that twice
prophetic triumvirate might be the redactor 07 did David spare Sard's lil'e(l Sam. xxiv. and
editor of the woik, and we would not date its xxvi.). The fact of the repetition of a similar deetl
publication later than the death of Nathan, while of generosity can never surely give the narrative
the original biographies may have I teen finished a legendary character. The miracle which mul
at the period of David's decease. But, after all, tiplied the loaves anil the fishes was twice wrought
certainty on such a subject is not to be attained. by Jesus. The same remark may be made as to
"We can hope only for un approximation to the the supposed double origin of the proverb, 1 Is Saul
truth. Probability is all that we dare assert. also among the prophets?* In 1 Sam. x. 11 its
But in opposition to our hypothesis it has been real source is given, and in xix. 24 another reason
argued, that in these books there are traces of and occasion tire assigned lor its national currency.
several documents, which have been clumsily and Especially has gre.il stress been laid on what are
inconsiderately put together, not only by a late, supposed to be different records of David's intro
but a 1 -hindering compiler. The German critics duction to Saul, contained in 1 Sam. xvi. 1H-22,
are fond ofa peculiar species of critical chemistry, and in the following chapter. That there is diffi
by w btek they disengage one portion of a book culty here cannot be denied, but to transpose the
from the surrounding section*. They have ap- passages, on the supposition that David's encounter
plieu it to Genesis, to the Pentateuch generally, with Goliath was prior to his introduction to Saul
and to t rie books of Joshua and Judges. The as musician, will not remove the difficulty. For if
elaborate theory of Eichhorn on the present sub Said became so jealous of David's popularity as
ject {Einleit.1 iii. p. 47o), is similar to that he is represented, no one of his domestics would
which lie has developed in his remarks on have dared to recommend David to htm as one
Chronicles, viz., that the basis of the second possessed of high endowments, and able to charm
book of Samuel was a short life of David, which away his melancholy. The Vatican MS. of the
was augmented by interpolated additions. The Sept. omits no less than twenty-live verses in
first Utok of Samuel is referred by him to old these chapters. Yet the omission does not effect a
written sources, but in most parts to tradition, reconciliation. Some critics, such as Houhigant,
botli in the life of Samuel anil Saul. Berthohtt Michaelis, Dathe, and Kennicott, regard the en
(Einleit. p. 894) modifies this opinion by affirm tire passage as an interpolation. VVe are inclined
ing that in the first book of Samuel there are three to receive (he chapters as they stand. David is
independent documents, chaps, i.-vii., viii.-xvi., fir^t spoken of as introduced to Saul as a min
xvii.-xxx., containing respectively Samuel's his strel, as becoming a favourite of the sovereign,
tory. Saul's life, and David's early biography ; and being appointed one of his aid-de-camps.
while in reference to the second book of Samuel, Now the fact of this previous introduction is al
he gen-rally admits the conjecture of Kichhorn. luded to in the very passage which creates the
Gramberg {Die Chronik, vol. ii. p. 80) is in fa difficulty; for after, in minute Oriental fashion,
686 SAMUEL, BOOKS OF. SAMUEL, BOOKS OF.
(Ewald, Komposition der Genes., p. 148) David ments a consecutive history, not dwelling on all
and his genealogy are again brought, before the events witli equal interest, but passing slightly
reader, it is said, 'and David went and returned over some, and formally detailing others with
from Saul to feed his father's sheep at Bethlehem.' national relish and delight f
The only meaning this verse can have, is, that Scope.The design of these books is not very
David's attendance at court was not constant, different from that of the other historical treatises
especially as Saul's evil spirit may have left him. of the Old Testament. The books of Kings are a
The writer who describes the combat with Goliath history of the nation as a theocracy ; those of
thus distinctly notices that David hail already Chronicles have sjweial reference to the form and
been introduced to Saul; nay,' farther, specific ministry of the religious worship, as bearing upon
allusion is again made to David's standing at its re-establishment after the return from Babylon.
court. * And it came to pass ou the morrow, that Samuel is more biographical, yet the theocratic
the evil spirit from God came upon Saul, and he element of the government is not overlooked. It
prophesied in the midst of tlte house ; anil David is distinctly brought to view in the early chapters
played with his ham!, as at other times* (1 Sam. concerning Kli and his house, and the fortunes ot
xviii. 10). The phrase, * as at other times,' must the ark ; in (lie passages which describe the change
refer to the notices of the former chapter. Yet, of the constitution ; in the blessing which rested
after the battle, Saul is represented as being igno on the house of Obed-Edom ; in the curse which
rant of the youth, and as inquiring after him. fell on the Uethshem'ites, and Uuah and Saul, for
And Abner the general declares that he does not intrusive interference with holy tilings. The book
know the youthful hero. Can we imagine any shows clearly that God was a jealous God ; that
ordinary writer so to stultify himself as this author obedience to him secured felicity ; that the nation
is supposed to have done, by intimating that sinned in seeking another king; that Saul's spe
David had been with Saul, and yet that Saul did cial iniquity was his impious oblivion of his
not know him? No inconsistency must have station as only Jehovah's vicegerent, for he con
I>een apparent to the annalist himself. It is temned the prophets and slew the priesthood ; and
therefore very probable that David had left Saul that David owed his prosperity to his careful
for some time before his engagement with Goliath; culture of the sacred principle of the Hebrew
that the king's tits of gloomy insanity prevented administration. This early production contained
him from obtaining correct impressions of David's lessons lioth for the people and for succeeding
form and j>erson, the period of David's life, when monaichs, bearing on it the motto, 4 Whatsoever
the youth passes into the man, being one which things were written aforetime were written for
is accompanied with considerable change of ap our learning.1
pearance. The inquiry of Saul is more about Relation to Kings and Chronicles.Samuel
the young warrior's parentage than about himself. is distinctly referred to in Kings, and alsoquoted.
It has sometimes struck us that Abner's vehement (Compare 1 Sam. ii. 33 with 1 Kings ii. 26;
profession of ignorance is somewhat suspicious ; 2 Sam. v. 5 with 1 Kings ii. 11; 2 Sam. vii. 12
* As thy soul liveth, O king, I cannot tell a with 1 Kings ii. 4, and 1 Chron. xvii. 24, 25). The
response too solemn for a question so simple. We history in Kings presupposes that contained in
cannot pursue the investigation farther. We would Samuel. The opinion of Eichhoni and liertholdt,
not in such a passage positively deny all difficulty, that the author of Chronicles did not use our
like H:ivemick( 166): we only venture to sug bosln of Samuel, appears contrary to evident fact,
gest that no sane author would so far oppose himself as may be seen by a comparison of the two his
in a plain story, as some critics suppose the author tories. Kven Keil (ApoUyctischer Versuch > bcr
of Samuel to Itave done. Appeal has also been die Chronik* p. 200) sup|oses that die chronicler
made to David's two visits to Achish, King of Kzra, did not use the memoirs in Samuel and
Gath : but they happened in circumstances very Kings; but Movers {Kritisch (Jntcrsxtch. uber
dissimilar, and cannot by any means be regardeil die Bibl. Chronik) proves that these books were,
as a duplicate chronicle of the same event. umoug others, the sources which the chronicler
Lastly, attention is called to 1 Sam. xv. 35 drew from lb the formation of a large portion of
where it is said, that * Samuel came no more to his history.
see Saul again till the day of his death,' as if ihe Credibility.-The authenticity of the history
statement were contradictory of xix. 21, where found in the books of Samuel rests on sufficient
Saul met with Samuel, and * lay naked all day grounds. Portions of them are quoted in the
and all night before him.' De Wette's translator New Testament (2 Sam. vii. 14, in Hen. i. 5;
before referred to (vol. is. p. 222) dishonestly 1 Sam. xiii. 1 1, in Acts xiii. 22j. Reference*
affirms that the first verse says, 1 Samuel did not to them occur in other sections of Sciipture, es
see Saul till his death," that is, he never saw him pecially in the Psalms, to which they often afl'urd
again ; when as the language is, * Samuel came no historic illustration. It has Urn argued against
more to set? Saul," that is, no lunger paid him any them that they contain contradictory statements.
visit of friendship or ceremony, no longer sought The old objections of Hohl>es, Spinoza, Simon,
him out to afford him counsel ur aid. This decla and LeClerc, are well disposed of by Carpsovius,
ration cannot surely l>e opjiosed to the following (Introductio, p. 215). Some of these supjioeed
portion uf the record, which states that Saul ac contradictions we have already referred to, and
cidentally met Samuel; for he pursued David for a solution of others, especially of seeming con*
to Ramah, where the prophet dwelt, and so came trariety lietween the lKK)ks of Samuel and Chro
in contact with his former benefactor. May we nicies, we refer with satisfaction to Davidson's
not therefore conclude that the compiler has not Sacred lfermenrtttics, p. 544, &c. Some of the
i'oined two narratives of opposite natures very objections of Vatke, in his Bibl. Theot.^cujus
oosely together, or overlapped them in various mentio est refutalioarc summarily dis|xx>ed of
places; but has framed out ofauthoritative docu by Hengstenberg {Die AuthmUie des Pcntat., vol.
8ANBALLAT. SANDAL. 687
ii. p. 1 15), who usually chastises such adversaries noted by the word translated 1 shoe 1 in the
with a whip of scorpions. Discrepancies in num Authorized Version. It was usually a sole of
bers, and sometimes in pro|>er names, are the hide, leather, or wood, bound on to the toot by
most common ; and it is well known that textual thongs ; but it may sometimes denote such shoes
errors in numeration are both must frequently and buskins as eventually came into use. Thus
and most easily committed. [David; Chro the word fortfStyia, which literally means 'what
nicles; Saul.] is bound under,' i. e. the foot, and certainly in
Commentaries.Yictorini Strigelii Comm. the first instance denoted a sanilal, came to be
in quatuor Libr. Reg. et Paralipp., 1624, folio; also applied to the Roman calccus, or shoe co
N. Serrarii Comm. in libr. Josuer, Jud., Ruth, vering the whole foot. Josephus (De Bell*
Reg., et Paralipp., 1609, folio; Seb. Schmidt, Jud. vi. 1-8) so uses it of the caliga, the thick
In Lib. Sam. Comm. 168-1-89, 4to ; Jac. Bon- nailed shoe of the Roman soldiers. This word
frerii Comm. in libr. quat. Reg., &c, 1643; occurs in the New Testament (Matt. iii. 11 ; x.
Clerici .Comm. in libr. Sam.; Opera, T. ii.; 10; Mark i. 7 ; Luke iii. 1G; x. 4; John i. 27 ;
Jo. Drusii Annotat. in Locos diffic. Jos., Jud.$ Acts vii. 33; xiii. 25), and is also frequently
Sam., 1618; Hensler, Ertduterungen des I. B. used by the Sept. as a translation of the Hebrew
Sam. &c. 1795 ; Maurer, Comment. Critic, p. 1 ; term ; but it appears in most places to denote a
Kxegetische Handbuch des A. T. st. iv. v.; Chan sandal. Hence the word rendered 1 shoe-latchet *
dler's Critical History of the Life of David, (Gen. xiv. '23, and in most of the texts just cited),
2 vols. 1786.J. B. means properly a sandal thong.
SANBALLAT (tt^D ; Sept. 2aFfu3aAAdV), Ladies of rank apj>eur to have paid great atten
a native of Horonaim, beyond the Jordan (Neh. tion to the beauty of their sandals (Cant, vii. 1);
ii. 10), and probably also a Moabitish chief, whom though, if the bride in that book was an Egyptian
(probably from old national hatred) we find princess, as some suppose, the exclamation, ' How
united in council with the Samaritans, anil active beautiful are thy feet with sandals, O prince's
in attempting to deter the returned exiles from daughter may imply admiration of a luxury
fortifying Jerusalem (Neh. iv. 1, sq. ; vi. 1, sq.). properly Egyptian, as the ladies of that country
Subsequently, during the absence of Nehemiah were noted for their sumptuous sandals (Wilkin
in Persia, a son of Joiada, the high priest, was son, Anc. Egypt, iii. 364). But this taste was
married to his daughter (Neh. xiii. 28). Whether probably general; for, at the presenl day, the
Sanballat held any public office as governor over dress slippers of ladies of rank are among the
the Moahites, or over the Samaiitans, the record richest articles of their attire, being elaborately
doe-* not state. Such a character is usually embroidered with flowers and other figures wrought
ascribed to him on the supposed authority of a in silk, silver, and gold.
passage of Josephus, who speaks of a Sanballat, It does not seem probable that the sandals of
a Cuthean by birth, who was sent by the last the Hebrews differed much from those used in
Darius as governor of Samaria (Antiq. x'\. 7. 2). Egypt, excepting, perhaps, that from the greater
The time assigned to this Sanballat is 120 years roughness of their country, they were usually of
later than that of the Sanballat of Nehemiah, more substantial make and materials. The
and we can only identify the one with the other Egyptian sandals varied slightly in form : those
by supposing that Josephus was mistaken both in worn by the upper classes, and by women, were
the age and nation of the individual whom he usually pointed and turned up at the end, like
mentions. Some admit this conclusion, as Jose our skates, and many of the Eastern slippers at the
phus goes on to state how this jwrson gave his
daughter in marriage to a son of the high-priest,
which high-priest, however, he tells us was Jaddua,
in accordance with the date he has given. The
son of the high-priest thus married to the daughter
of Sanballat was named Manasseh, and is further
stated by Josephus to have become the high-priest
of the schismatical temple, which his father-in-law
established for the Samaritans in Mount Gerizim
JSaharitans]. Upon the whole, as the account
in Josephus is so circumstantial, itseems probable
that, notwithstanding the similarity of name and
other circumstances, his Sanballat is not to t>e
understood as the same that obstructed the labours
of Nehemiah. It is just possible that the Jewish
historian, who does not mention this contemporary 481. [Ancient Egyptian Sandals.)
of Nehemiah purpose1 y, on account of some present day. They were made of a sort of woven
similar circumstance, transferred the history and or interlaced work of palm-leaves and papyrus-
name of Nehemiah's Sanballat to fill up the ac stalks, or other similar materials, and sometimes
count of a later personage, of whose name ami ot leather; and were frequently lined with cloth,
origin he may have been ignorant. But there is on which the figure of a captive was painted ,
much obscurity and confusion in that part of his that humiliating position being considered suited
work in which he has lost the guidance of the to the enemies of their country, whom they hated
canonical history, and has not acquired that of and despised. It is not likely that the Jews
the books nf Maccabees. adopted this practice ; but the idea which it ex
SANDAL (SjB; Sept and N. T., faftijpa, pressed, of treading their enemies under their feet
TavUdKiovj, a covering for the feet, usually de- was familiar to them (Josh. x_ 24.) Those of
686 SANDAL. SANHEDRIM.
the middle classes who were in the habit of wear another conventional mark of a servile con*
ing sanilals, often preferred walking barefooted. dition, to bear the sandals of another (Matt
Shoes, or low boots, are sometimes found at iii. 1!).
Thebes ; but these are believed by Sir J. G. Wil
kinson to have been of IateN date, and to have SANHEDRIM, more properly Sanhedbjn
belonged to Greeks, since no {arsons are repre (pTIHJD, trvvfofHov), the supreme judicial coun
sented in the paintings as wearing them, except cil of the Jews, especially for religious affairs.
foreigners. They were of leather, generally of It was also called ]V3, House of Judgment ;
a green colour, laced in front by thongs, which and in the Apocrypha and New Testament the
passed through small loop on either side, and appellations yfpoua'ta and irpffffivrtptov seem also
were principally used, as tn Greece and Etruria, to be applied to it (comp. 2 Mace. i. 10; iv. 44;
by women (Wilkinson, iii. 374-367). Acts v. 21 ; xxii. 5 ; 1 Mace. vii. 33 ; xii. 35,
This council consisted of seventy members.
Some give the number at seventy-two,* but for
this there appears no sufficient authority. To
this number the high priest was added, ' provided
he was a man endowed with wisdom ' (JVH DN
nDDrU *ltt\ Maimouid. Sanhed. c. 2). Re
garding the class of the Jewish people from which
these were chosen, there is some uncertainty.
Maimonides (Sanhed. c. 2) tells us, that this
council was composed ' of Priests, Levitea, and
Israelites, whose rank entitled them to be as
sociated with priests.* Dr. Jost, the learned his
torian of his nation, simply says : 'the members
of the council were chosen from among the peo
ple;* and more particularly in another place he re
marks : * these judges consisted ofthe most eminent
priests, and of the scribes of the people, who were
482. [Greek and Roman Sandals.] chosen for life, but each of whom had to look to
his own industry for his support" (Geschichte der
In transferring a possession or domain, it was Israeliten sett der Zeit der Makkabaer, tli. i.
customary to deliver a sandal (Ruth iv. 7), as in s.49; iii. 86). The statement in this latter
our middle ages, a glove. Hence the action of passage corresponds with the terms used in Matt,
throwing down a shoe upou a region or territory, ii. 4, where the council convened by Herod, in
consequence of what the- wise men of the East
1was
Upoua the
symbol
land ofof occupancy. So myPs. sandal
lx. 10:;f
Edom do I cast had told him, is described as compose!1 of 'all
i. e. I possess, occupy it, claim it as my own. the chief priests and scribes of the people;' the
In Ruth, as aliove, the delivering of' a sandal sig former of whom Lightfoot (Hor. Bcb. et Talm.
nified that the next of kin transferred to another in loc.) explains as the clerical, the latter as the
a sacred obligation; and lie was hence called laical members of the Sanhedrim. In other
* sandal-loosed." A sandal thong (Gen. xiv. 23), passages of the New Testament we meet with the
or even sandals themselves (Amos ii. 6 ; viii. 6), threefold enumeration, Priests, Elders,' and
are put fur anything worthless or of little value; Scribes (Matt. xvi. 21; xxvi. 2, 57, ate.); and
which is perfectly intelligible to those who have this is the description which most frequently occurs.
witnessed the extemporaneous maimer in which a By the first are to be understood, not such as had
inau will shape two pieces of hide, and fasten sustained the office of high-priest, but the chief
them with thongs to the soles of his feet thus men among the priests ; probably the presidents
fabricating in a few minutes a pair of sandals of the twenty-fonr classes into which the priest
which would be dear at a penny. hood was divided (1 Chron. xxiv. 6; comp. the
It was undoubtedly the custom to take off the use of the phrase D^rtDH ^TC? in 2 Chron. xxxvi.
sandals on holy ground, in the act of worship, 14). By the second, we are probably to under
and in the presence of a superior. Hence the com stand the select men of the peoplethe Alder
mand to take the sandals from the feet under men,persons whose rank or standing letl to their
such circumstances (Exod. iii. D ; Josh. v. 15). being raised to this distinction. And by the last
This is still the well-known custom of the East are designated those, whether of the Levitical
an Oriental taking off his shoe in cases in which family or not, who gave themselves to the pursuit
a European would remove his hat. The shoes of learning, especially to the interpretation of
of the modem Orientals are, however, made to Scripture, and of the traditions of the fathers.
slip off easily, which was not the case with To this general description we may add what
sandals, that required to be unbound with some Maimonides lays down as to the qualifications
trouble. This ojwration was usually performed required in those who were eligible to this office.
by servants ; and hence the act of unloosing the These were1. that they should possess much and
sandals of another became a familiar symbol of varied learning; 2. that they should be free from
servitude (Mark i. 7 ; Luke iii. 16 ; John i. 27 ; every bodily defect, such as lameness, blindness,
Acts xiii. 25). So also when a man's sandals ftc. ; 3. that they should be of such age as should
had been removed, they were usually left in afford them experience, and yet not expose them
charge of a servant. In some of the Egyptian to the feebleness of dotage; 4. that they should
paintings servants are represented with their not be eunuchs; ft. that they should be fathers,
master's sandals on their arm : it thus became 6. that they should possess the moral qualities
SANHEDRIM. SANHEDRIM. 689
M fitrth in Exod. xviii. 21; Deut L 13-16 they appointed sacred rites, they imposed tri
ftanked, c. 2). A number of persons were al butes, they decreed war, they judged in capital
ways in the condition of candidates for admission
cases ; in short, they engrossed the supreme au
i/ito this honourable body, from among whom thority, legislative, executive, and judicial. In
/acancies were supplied as they occurred. The this mere is no small exaggeration; at least,
jew member was installed by the im (Ration of none of t he historical facts which have come down
lands, the company chauuting the words *Lo! to us conh'rm this description of the extent of the
x baud is ujwn thee, and the power is given theepowers of the Sanhedrim; whilst some of these
of exercising judgment, even in criminal cases' tacts, such as the existence of civil officers armed
(Sanhed. c. 4). with appropriate authority, seem directly opposed
to it. In the notices of this body, contained in
In the council the office of president belonged
to the high priest, if be was a member of it; the New Testament, we find nothing which would
when he was not, it is uncertain whether a sub lead us to infer that their powers extended beyond
matters of a religious kind. Questions of blas
stitute was provided, or his place occupied by J he
oerson next in rank. He bore the title of phemy, of sabbath-breaking, of heresy, are those
alone which we find referred to their judicature
chief or president ; and it was his prerogative to
-ummon the council together, as well as to preside
(comp. Matt. xxvi. 57-65 ; John v. 11, 16; Matt,
over its deliberations. When he entered the xii. I4,sq.; Acts v. 17, sq., &c). On those guilty
assembly, all the memliers rose, and remained of these crimes they could pronounce sentence of
standing until he requested them to sit. Next death ; but, under the Uoman government, it was
in rank to him was the vice-president, who borenot competent for them to execute this sentence:
the title of JH JV3 DN, Father of the House of their power terminated with the pronouncing of a
decision, and the transmission of this to the pro
Judgment ; whose duty it was to supply the place
curator, with whom it rested, to execute it or not
of the president in case he should lie prevented
by any accidental cause from discharging his as he saw meet (Joint xviii. 31 ; Mutt. xxvu. 1, 2).
duties himself. When the president was present, Hence the unseemly readiness of this council to
call in the aid of the assassin for the purpose of de
this officer sat at his right hand. The third grade
of rank was that of the D2P1, or sapet whose bu stroying those who were obnoxious to them (AcU
siness was to give counsel to the assembly, and v. 33; xxiii. 12-15). The case of Stephen may
who was generally selected to his office on ac seem to furnish an objection to this statement ;
count of bis sagacity and knowledge of the law ;but as his martyrdom occurred at a time when the
his place was on the left hand of the president.Roman procurator was absent, and was altogether
The assembly, when convened, sat in the form of a tumultuous procedure, it cannot l)e allowed to
a semi-circle, or half-moon, the president occu stand for more than a casual exception to the
pying the centre. At each extremity stood a general rule. Josephus informs us, that alter the
scribe, whose duty it was to record the sentencetleath of Festus, aud before the arrival of his suc
pronounced by the council. There were certain cessor, the high priest Anauns, availing himself
of the oppor'unity thus afforded, summoned a
officers, called D*"101C\ whose business seems to
have been somewhat unalogons to that of our meeting of the Sanhedrim, and condemned James
policemen: they were armed with a baton, kept the brother of Jesus, with several others, to Miller
death by atoning. This licence, however, was
order in the street, aud were under the direction
of the Sanhedrim. viewed with much displeasure by the new
procurator, Albinos, and led to the deposition of
The meetings of this council were usually held
in the morning. Their place of meeting was a Anauns from the office of high priest I \\
9. 1, 2).
hall, close by the great g.ite of the temple, and
leading from the outer court of the women tu the At what period in the history of the Jews the
Sanhedrim arose, is involved in much uncer
holy place ; from it - (lavement of jvolished stone,
it was called ITn rDB^.* A Tal mudic tainty. The Jews, ever prone to invest with the
honours of remote antiquity all the institutions of
tradition affirms that, forty years before the de
their nation, trace this council to the times of
struction of Jerusalem, the Sanhedrim were com Moses, and find the origin of it in the appoint
pelled by the Romans to forsake this hall, and ment of a body of elders as the assistants of
nohl their meetings in raves on the east side of the
M -> - in the discharge of his judicial functions
hill on which the temple stood; hut as the (Num. xi. 1G, 17). There is no evidence, how
Mischna is silent in regard to this, and as the ever, that this was any other than a temporary
New Testament history seems incompatible with arrangement for the lienefit of Moses ; nor do
iff truth, we must resolve this tradition into the
we, in the historical books of the Old Testament,
generalization of some solitary case into a regular
detect any traces whatever of the existence of
practice. In coses of urgency the Sanhedrim this council in the times preceding the Babylonish
might be convened in the house of the high priest
captivity, nor in those immediately succeeding
(Matt. xxvi. 3). the return of the Jews to their own land. The
The functions of the Sanhedrim were, accord earliest mention of the existence of this council
ing to the Jewish writers, co-extensive w*h by Josephus, is in connection with the reign
the civil and religious relations of the |*ople. In
of Hyrcanus II., b.c. 69 (Antiq. xiv. 9. 3).
their hands, we are told, was placed the supreme It is probable, however, that it existed before
authority in all things; they interpreted the law,
this timethat it arose gradually after the cessa
tion of the prophetic office in Judah, in conse
* This must not t>e confounded with the quence of the felt want of some supreme direction
XtBicrpunos, where Pilate sat in judgment on aud judicial authoritythat the number of itf
Christ, and which was evidently a place in his members was fixed so as to correspond with that
own dwelling (John xix. 13). of the council of elders appointed to assist Moses
VOL. II.
690 SAPPHIRA. SARAH.
and that it first assumed a formal and influential sapphire is next in hardness and val to tbe dia
existence in the later years of the Macedo-Grecian mond, and is mostly of a blue colour of various
dynasty. This view is confirmed by the allusions shades. But the stone which Pliny describes
made to it in the Apocryphal books (2 Mace. r. under the name of sapphire (Hist. Nat. xxxvii.
10; iv. 44; xiv. 5; Judith xi. 14, &c.);and 39), In agreement with Theophrastus (De Lapid.
(tertians, also, by the circumstance that the use of 23), is manifestly the lapis lazuli. It is opaque,
the name cvviipiov, from which the Hebrews inclines often to the deep blue colour of the
formed their word Sanhedrim, indicates a Mace violet, and has sometimes pebble-spots of a golden
donian origin (comp. Livy, xlv. 32). yellow hue. This stone, however, is not suffi
The Talmudical writers tell us, that, besides ciently valuable for Job xxviii. 16; and Pliny
the Sanhedrim properly so called, there was in says that it is ' inutilis sculpture,' which does
every town containing not fewer than one hundred not apply to the sap])hir of Exod. xxviii. 18),
and twenty inhabitants, a smaller Sanhedrim which was engraved. It seems, therefore, likely
(i"I3Dp pTliT30)| consisting of twenty-three that, notwithstanding the classical appropriation
members, before which lesser causes were tried, of I he name to the lapis lazuli, the true sapphire,
and from the decisions of which an appeal lay to or rather that which we call such, is the stone
the supreme council. Two such smaller councils mentioned in Scripture. It is often found in
are said to have existed at Jerusalem. It is to collections of ancient gems.
ill is class of tribunals that our Lord is sup|>osed SARABIM. [Thoiins.]
to allude, under the term Kptais, in Matt. v. 22.
Where the number of inhabitants was under one SARAH (rntS*, a princess^ a noble lady, being
hundred and twenty, a cotincil of three adjudi the fern, of sor, 'a prince,' *a nobleman ;" Sept.
cated in all civil questions. What brings insu 2ap/Sa), the wife of Abraham, i and mother of
perable doubt upon this tradition is, tiiat Josephus, Isaac. She was at first called VTC> Sarai, the ety
who must from his position have len intimately
acquainted with all the judicial institutions of mology and signification of which are olacure.
his nation, not only does nut mention these small Ewald (Gram. $ 324) explains it to mean con
er councils, but says, that the court next below tentions, quarrelsome (from the root HTC*), which
the Sanhedrim was composed of seven members. is perhaps the most natural sense; and the mere
Attempts have been made to reconcile the two change of the name to one more honourable, may
accounts, but without success; and it seems imply that there was something unpleasant in the
now very generally agreed, that the account of one previously borne (Gen. xvii. 5, sq.). As
Josephus is to tie preferred to that of the Mischna ; Sarah never appears but in connection with some
and that, consequently, it is to the tribunal of circumstance in which her husband was princi
the seven judges that our Lord applies the term pally concerned, all the facts of her history have
Kplais, in the passage referred to (Tholuck, Berg- already been given in the article Auhaiiam, and
predigt, in loc, Kug. Transl. vol. i. p. 241 ; Kui- her conduct to Hagar is considered in tbe article
noel, in loc.). which bears her name. These facts being fami
Comp. Otho, Lexicon Rabbinico-Philolog. in liar to the reader, a few supplementary remarks
voce ; Selden, l)e Synedriis Veterum Ebraiontm, on particular (Mints are alone required in this
ii., 95, sq. ; Reland, Antiq. ii. 7; Jalui, Arclwe- place.
ohgie, ii. 2. $ 186; Pareau, Antiq. Heb. lit, There are two opinions with respect to the
1.4; Lightfoot, Works, pinr. locis ; Hartmann, parentage of Sarah. Many interpreters suppose
Enqe Verbiudung des Alien Test, mitdern Neuen, that she was the daughter of Haran. the elder
s. !06, fi\, &cW. L. A. son of Abraham's father Terah (probably by a
SAPPHIRA (Sainjwipn), the wife of Ananias, former wife), and the same person with the Iscah
and his accomplice in the sin for which he died who is named as one of the daughters of Haran
(Acts v. 1-10). Unaware of the judgment which (Gen. xi. 29). In this case she was niece of
had befallen her husband, she entered the place Abraham, although only ten years younger than
about three hours after, probably to I(K>k for him; her husband, and the sister of Milcah and of Lot.
and being there interrogated by Peter, rejieated and The reasons for this conclusion are of much
nersiste<^ in the * lie unto the Holy Ghost/ which weight. It is certain that Nahor, the surviving
had destroyed her husband ; on which the grieved brother of Abraham, married Milcah, the other
apostle made known to her his doom, and pro daughter of Haran, and the manner in which
nounced her own' Behold, the feet of those Abraham's marriage with Sarah is mentioned,
who have buried thy husband are at the door, would alone suggest tiiat he took the remaining
anil shall carry thee out.* On hearing these awful daughter. * Abrain and Nahor took them wives ;
words, she fell dead at his feet. The cool ob ihe name of Abrain's wife was Sarai ; ami the name
stinacy of Sapphira in answering as she did the of Nahor's wife Milcah, the daughter of Haran,
questions which were probably designed to awaken the father of Milcah, and the father of Iscah '
her conscience, deepens the shade of the foul (Gen. xi. 29). Here most of the Jewish writers
crime common to her and her husband ; and has say that Iscah is Sarai ; and without supposing
suggested to many the probability that the plot this to be the case, it is difficult to understand
was of her devising, and that, like another Eve, for what reason it should lie so (tointedly noted
she drew her husband into it. But this is mere that Haran, who was the father of Milcah, was also
conjecture [Ananias]. the father of Iscah. Resides, il'Sarai is not Iscah,
no account is given by Moses ofher descent ; and
SAPPHIRE (TBD ; Sept. and N. T. irdV- it can hardly be supposed that he would omit
r-- , a precious stone, mentioned in Kxod. it, as it must have been agreeable to a people
xxiv. 10; xxviii. 18; Job xxviii. 16; Ezek. so careful of genealogy to know whence they were
xxviii. 13; Rev. xxi. 19. That which we call descended, both by the father and mother's side.
SARAH. SARDIS. 691
Again, when Terah leaves Ur of the Chaldees, it in following her first thoughts, and in proceeding
is said that ' Terah took Abram his son, and Lot upon the impulse of her first emotions. 1 Upon
his son's son, and Sarai his daughter-in-law, his the whole, Sarah scarcely meets the idea the
son Abram 's wife; and they went forth,' &c. imagination woufd like to form of the life-com
(Gen. xi. 31) ; on which Aben Ezra observes panion of so eminent a person as Abraham.
that if Sarai had been (as some suppose) the Nevertheless, we cannot fail to observe that she
daughter of Terah and sister of Abram, the text was a most attached and devoted wife. Her hus
would doubtless have run: 'Terah took Abram band was the central object of all her thoughts;
his son, and Sarai his daughter, the wife ot and he was not forgotten even in her lirst transjMirts
Abram.* The double relationship to Lot whicli of joy at becoming a mother (Gen. xxi. 7). This
auch an alliance would produce, may also help to is her highest eulogium.
the l>etter understanding of some points in the Isaiah is the only prophet who names Sara.,
connection between Lot and Abraham. Against (ch. li. 2). St. Paul alludes to her hope of be
this view we have to produce the assertion of coming a mother (Rom. iv. 19); and afterwards
Abraham himself, that Sarai was his half-sister, cites the promise which she received (Rom. ix.
the daughter of my father, but not the daughter 9) ; and Peter eulogises her submission to her
of my mother* (Gen. xx. 12): but this is held husband (1 Pet. in. 6).
by many to mean no more than that Haran her SARDIS (2apxii), the capital of the ancient
father was his half-brother ; for the colloquial kingdom of Lydia, situated at the foot of Mount
usage of the Hebrews in this matter, makes it Tmolus, in a fine plain watered hy (he river Pac-
easy to understand that he might call a niece a tolus (Herod, vii. 31 ; Xenophon, Cyrop. vii,
sister, and a grand-daughter a daughter. In 2-11; Pliny, Hist. Nat.; Strabo, xiii. p. 625).
general discourse 1 daughter 1 comprised any and It is in N. lat. 38 30'; E. long. 27 57'. Saidis
every female descendant, and ' sister ' any and was a great and ancient city, and from its wealth
every consanguineous relationship. and importance was the object of much cupidity
That Sarah had great beauty appears from and of many sieges. When taken by Cyrus,
the precautions winch Abraham took to guard under Croesus, its last, king, who has become pro
himself and her from the dangers it was likely to verbial for his riches, Sardis was one of the most
occasion. And that his was not too partial an splendid and opulent cities ofthe East. After their
estimate of her attractions, is evinced by the victory over Antiochus it passed to the Romans,
transactions in Egypt and at Gerar (Gen. xii. under whom it rapidly declined in rank and im
15 ; xxi. 2). In the former case the commenda portance. In the time of Tiberius it was de
tions which the princes of Pharaoh bestowed stroyed by an earthquake (Strabo, xii. p. 579), hut
upon the charms of the lovely stranger, has been was rebuilt by order of the emperor (Tacit. Annal.
supposed by some to have been owing to the con ii. 47). The inhabitants of Sardis bore an ill
trast which her fresh Mesopotamia!! complexion repute among the ancients for their voluptuous
offered to the dusky hue of their own )>eauties. habits of life. Hence, perha|, the point of the
But so far as climate is concerned, the nearer phrase in the Apocalyptic message to the city
Syria could offer complexions as fair as hers; 'Thou hast a few names, even in Sardis, which
and, moreover, a people trained by their habits have not defiled their garments' (Rev. iii. 4). The
to admire * dusky ' beauties, were not likely to be place that Sardis holds in this message, as one
inordinately attracted by a fresh complexion. of the 'Seven Churches of Asia,' is the source of
It is asked whether Sarah was aware of the the peculiar interest with wliich the Christian
intended sacrifice of Isaac, the son of her long- reader regards it. From what is said it appears
deferred hopes. The chronology is uncertain, and that it had already declined much in real reli
does not decide whether this translation occurred gion, although it still maintained the name and
before or after her death. She was probably alive; external aspect of a Christian church, ' having a
and if so, we may understand from the precau name to live, while it was dead* (Rev. iii. 1).
tions employed by Abraham, that she was not Successive earthquakes, and the ravages of the
acquainted with the purpose of the journey to the Saracens and Turks, have reduced this once flou
laud of Moriah, and, indeed, that it was the object rishing city to a heap of ruins, presenting many
of these precautions to keep from her knowledge a remains of its former splendour. The habitations
matter which must so deeply wound her heart. of the living are confined to a few miserable
He could have the less difficulty in this, if his cottages, forming a village called Sart. This,
faith was such as to enable him to believe that with the ruins, are still found on the true site of
be should bring back in safety the son lie was Sardis, at the foot of Mount Tmolus, or Bouz-dag,
commanded to sacrifice (Heb. xi. 19). As, how as the Turks call it. The ruins are chiefly those of
ever, the account of her death immediately fol the theatre, stadium, and of some churches. There'
lows that of this sacrifice, some of the Jewish are also two remarkable pillars, supposed to have
writers imagine that the intelligence killed her, belonged to the temple of Cybele; and, if so, they
and that Abraham found her dead on his return are among the oldest monuments now existing
(Targ. Jonatk.y and Jarchi on Gen. xxiii. 2; in the world, the temple having been built only
Pirke Eliezcr, c. 52). Hut tlisre seems no au 300 years after that of Solomon. The acropolis
thority for such an inference. Beems well to define the site of the city. It is a
Sarah is so rarely introduced directly to our marked object, being a tall distorted rock of soft
notice, that it is difficult to estimate her cha sandstone, rent as if by an earthquake. A
racter justly, for 'want of adequate materials. countless number of sepulchral hillocks, beyond
She is seen only when her presence is indispen the Hermus, heighten the desolateness of a spot
sable; and then she appears with more of sub which the multitudes lying there once made
mission, and of simplicity, than of dignity, and busy by their living presence and pursuits. See
ma: au unwise but not unusual promptitude Smith, Hartley, Macfarlane, and Arundel 1, seve*
2y2
892 SAREPTA. SATAN.
483. [Sardii.]
rally, On the Seven Churches of Asia; Arundell, Satan is the Hebrew word ft^l? transferred to
Discoveries in Asia Minor; Storch, Dissert, de the English. It is derived from the verb
Sept. Urb. Asia in Apocal, ; Richter, Wallfahr- which means * to lie in wait,* * to oppose, 'to
ten; Schubert, Morgenland, &c. be an adversary/ Hence the noun denotes an
SARDIUS. TOdkm.] adversary or opposer. The word in its generic
SARDONYX^ [Yahalom.] sense occurs in I Kings xi. 14 : 'The Lord raited
SAREPTA (Sapeirra. Luke iv. 26; Hebrew, up an adversary (ftOC'J against Solomon," t. e. Ha
dad the Edomite. In the 23rd verse the word oc
Zarephathj nSyiV)* a Phoenician town between curs again, applied to Rezan. It is used in thr
Tyre anil Sidon, mentioned in I Kings xvii. 9, same sense in 1 Sam. xxix. 4. where David ii
10 ; Obad. xx. It is the place where Elijah went termed an adversary ; and in Num. xxii. 22, wher*
to dwell, and where he performed the miracle of theaangel * stood in the way for an adversarj
multiplying the barrel uf meal and cruse of oil, (jOE^) to Balaam,' i e. to opjxise him when lie wen*
and where he raised the widow's son to life. It with i lie princes of Moab. See also Ps. cix. 6.
still subsists as a large village, under the name In Zecli. iii. 1, 2, the word occurs in its specijU
of Sarafend. The crusaders made Sarepta a sense as a proper name: 'And he showed mi
Latin bishopric in the arclnepiscopale of Sidon, Joshua the high-priest standing before the ange*
and erected near the ]>ort a small cliapel over the of the Lord, and Satan (JOBTl) standing at itii
reputed site of Elijah's miracle (Will. Tyr. xix.
14; Jacob de Virriacus, ch. 44). It is clear lhat right hand to resist 1 to lat&iitse him ')
the Sarepta of the crusaders stood on the sea ' And the Lord said unto Satan (JOKTi) Hi
shore; and, therefore, the present village bearing Lord rebuke thee, O Satan.' Here it is manifest
the same name, which stands upon the adjacent hoth from the context and the use of (he artier*
hills, must have been of more recent origin. that some |>articular adversary is denoted.
^See Nau, Nov. Voyage, p. 514 ; Pococke, ii. 85; In the 1st and 2nd chanters of Job, the same n*
Robinson, Bib. Researches, iii. 413,414; Rau- of the word with the article occurs several limes
mer. PalUstina, p. 140). The events in which Satan is represented a* liw
SARGON, king of Assyria rAssyria], agent contirm this view. He was a distinguished
SARON. [Sharon.]' adversary and tempter. See also 1 Chum. x\i. 1.
SATAN. The doctrine of Satan and of Satanic When we pass from the Old to the Nev Testament,
agency is to be made out from revelation, and this doctrine of an invisible evil agent nines
frjm reflection in agreement with revelation. more clear. With the advent of Christ an I the
Scripture Names or Titles of Satan. lies ides oj.ening of the Christian dispensation, the great
Satan, lie is called the Devil, the Dragon, the Evil opposer of that kingdom, the particular adversary
One, the Angel of the Bottomless Pit, the Prince and antagonist of tlie Saviour, would naturally
of this World, the Prince of the Power of the Air, become more active and more known. The anta
the God of this World, Apollyon, Al^addon, Be gonism of Satan and his kingdom to Christ and
lial, Peelrebub. Satan and Devil are the names bis kingdom runs through the whole of the New
by which he is oftener distinguished than by any Testament, as will appear from the following
other, the former being applied to him about forty passages and their contexts : Matt. iv. 10 ; xii. 26 ;
timet, and the latter about fifty times. Mark iv. 15; Luke x. 18; xxii. 3, 31 ; Acta
SATAN. SATAN. 693
ttri. 18 ; Rora. xvi. 20 ; 2 Cor. xi, 14 ; Rev. ii. applied to the demons, but only to their prince;
13; xii. 9. Peter is once called Satan, because thus showing that the one is used definitely as a
his spirit and conduct, at a certain time, were so proper name, while the others are used indefinitely
much in opposition to the spirit and intent of as generic terms. The sacred writers made a dis
Christ, and so much in the same line of direction tinction, which in the English version is lost.
with the wmkings of Satan. This is the only In this, our translators followed the German ver
application of the word in the New Testament to sion : teufel, like the term devil, being applied to
any but the prince of the apostate angels. both b*id@Q\os and haifxmv.
Devil (AidfSoXos) is the more frequent term of Personality of Satan.We determine the per
designation given to Satan in the New Testament. sonality of Satan by the same criteria that we use
Both Satan and devil are in several instances a|h in determining whether Caesar and Napoleon were
plied to the same being (Hev. xii. 9), 'That old real, personal beings, or the personifications of
serpent, the devil and Satan. Christ', in the abstract ideas, viz., by the tenor of history con
temptation (Matt, iv.), in his repulse of the cerning them, and the ascription of personal attri
tempter, calls him Satan ; while the evangelists butes to them. All the forms of ]>ersonal agency
distinguish him by the term ' devil.1 Devil is the are made use of by the sacred writers in setting
translation of 5taoAos, from the verb 5(aj8oAA., forth the character and conduct of Satan. They
* to thrust through,' 4 to carry over,' and, tropically, describe him as having power and dominion,
* to inform against/ * to accuse.' He is also called messengers and followers. He tempts and resists;
the accuser of the brethren (Hev. xii. 10). The he is held accountable, charged with guilt ; is to
HWirew term Satan is more generic than the be judged, and to receive final punishment. On
Greek tiidftokos. The former expresses his cha the supposition that it was the object of the sacred
racter as an npposer of all good ; the latter denotes writers to teacli the pro]>er personality of Satan,
more particularly the relation which he bears they cotdd have found DO more express terms than
to the saints, as their traducer and accuser. those which they have actually used. And on
Atd&o\os is the uniform translation which the the supposition that they did not intend to teacli
S.-piuagint gives of the Hebrew |tX>, when used such a doctrine, their use of language, incapable
with the article. Farmer says that the term of communicating any other idea, is wholly inex
Satan id not appropriated to one particular person plicable. To suppose that all this semblance of a
or spirit, but signifies an adversary or Opponent real, veritable, conscious moral agent, is only a
in general. This is to no purpose, since it is trope, a proso]K>]reia, is to make the inspired jien-
also applied to the devil as an adversary in par men guilty of employing a figure in such a way
ticular. There are four instances in the New that, by no ascertained laws of language, it
Testament in which the word oid&o\os is applied could be known that it was a figure,in such a
to human beings. In three out of the four, it is way that it could not be taken to l>e a figure,
in the plural number, expressive of quality, and without violence to all the rhetorical rules by
not personality (1 Tim. iii. 11 ; 2 Tim. iii. 3; which they on other occasions are known to have
Tit. ii. 3). in the fourth instance (John vi. 70), been guided. A personification, protracted through
Jesus lays "to his disciples, ' Have not I chosen such a hook as the Bible, eveu should we supjwse
you twelve, and one of you is a devil f (StdfioXos). it to have been written by one penounever
This is the only instance in the New Testament dropped in the most simple and didactic portions
of its application to a human being in the singular never explained when the most grave and im
number; and here Dr. Campbell thinks it should portant truths are to be inculcated, and when men
not be translated ' devil.' The translation is, how the most ignorant and prone to superstition are to
ever, of no consequence, since it is willi the use of be the readersa personification extending from
the original word that this article is concerned. Genesis to Revelation,this is altogether ano
The obvious reasons for this application of fjtd- malous and inadmissible. But to suppose that
flo\os to Judas, as an exception to the general the several writers of the different books of the
rule, go to confirm the rule. The rule is that, in Bible, diverse in their style and intellectual
the New Testameut usage, the word in tlte singular habits, writing under widely differing circum
number denotes individuality^ and is applied to stances, through a period of nearly two thousand
Satan as a proper name. By the exception, it is years, should each, from Mose3 to John, fall into
applied to Judas, from his resemblance to the the use of the same personification, and follow
devil, as an accuser and hetrayer of Christ, and it, too, in a way so obscure and enigmatical,
from his contributing to aid him in his designs that not one in a hundred of their readers would
against Christ. With these exceptions, the ustts escaiw the error which they did not mean to
loquetuti of the New Testament shows 6 Aid0o\os teach, or apprehend the truth which they wished
to be a proper name, applied to an extraordinary to set forth,to supjwse this, is to require men to
being, whose influence upon the human race is believe that the inspired writers, who ought to
great and mischievous (Matt. iv. 1-11; Luke have done the least violence to the common laws
viii. 12; John viii. 44; Acts xiii.10; Epbes. vi. of language, have really done the most. Such
11; 1 Pet. v. 8; 1 John iii. 8; Uev. xii. 9). uniformity of inexplicable singularity, on the part
The term devil, which is in the New Testament of such men as the authors of the several books of
the uniform translation of BidfOoKos, is also fre the Bible, could be accounted for only on the
quently the translation of oa.ifj.wv ami Baifx6vtov. hypothesis that they were subject to an evil as
Between these Word* and StijSoAo* the English well as a good inspiration. On the other hand,
translators have made no distinction The former such uniformity of appellations and imagery, and
are almost always used in connection with de such identity off characteristics, protracted through
moniacal jmssessions, and are applied to the jws- such a series of writings, go to confirm the received
sessing spirits, but never to the prince of those doctrine of a real personality.
spirits. On the other hand, dtdf3o\os is never But there are other d i faculties than these general
694 SATAN. SATAN.
ones, by which the theory of personification ig Bible is silent ; and where it is silent, we should
encumbered. This theory supposes the devil to be silent, or speak with modesty. Some suppose
be the principle of evil. Let it be applied in the that they were called into existence after the crea
interpretation of two or three passages Off Scripture. tion of the world ; among whom is Dr. John Dick.
1 Then was Jesus led up of the Spirit into the Others have supposed tliat they were created just
wilderness, to I* tempted of the devil' (Matt, anterior to the creation of man, and for purposes
iv. 1-11). Was Jesus tempted by a real, personal of a merciful ministration to him. It is more
being? or was it by tlte principle of evil ? If by probable, however, that as they were
the latter, in whom or what did this principle in rank among the creatures of God, so they were
reside? Was it in Jesus? Then it could not l>e the first in the order of time ; and that they may
true that in him was DO sin. The very principle have continued for ages in obedience to their
of sin was in him, which would have made him Maker, before the creation of man, or the fall of
the tempter of himself. This is bad hermeneutics, the apostate angels.
producing worse theology. Let it also be remem The Scriptures are explicit as to the apostacy
bered that this principle of evil, in order to be of some, of whom Satan was the chief and leader.
moral evil, must inhere in some conscious moral * And the angels which kept not their first estate
being. Sin is evil, only as it implies the state or or principality, but left their own habitation,' &c.
action of some jyersonal and accountable agent. (Jude, ver. 6). ' For if God spared not the angels
Who was this agent of evil in the Temptation? that sinned,' &c. (2 Pet. ii. 4). Those who fol
Was it to a mere attraction that the Saviour lowed Satan in his apostacy are descril>ed na
said, *Tbou shall not tempt the Lord thy God belonging to him. The company is called the
' Get thee behind rue, Satan?' Or was it to a real devil and his angels (rq? biaftaKt? teal rats iwyi*
person, having desires and purposes and volitions, Kots abrov, Matt. xxv. 41 ). The relation marked
evil, because these desires and purposes and I'Te denotes the instrumentality which the devil
volitions were evil? There is but one intelligible may have exerted in inducing those called his
answer to such questions. And that answer shows angels to rebel against Jehovah and join them
how perfectly untenable is the position that the selves to his interests. How Satan and his fol
devil, or Satan, is only the personification of evil. lowers, being created so high in excellence and
Again : 1 He was a murderer from the beginning, holiness, became sinful and fell, is a question
and abode not in the truth : he is a Har and the uixm which theologians have differed, but which
father of it* (John viii. 41). With what pro they have not settled. The difficulty has seemed
priety could these sjiecific acts of guilt lie charged so great to Schleiennacher and others, that they
upon an abstraction? An abstraction a murderer ! have denied the fact of such an apostacy. They
a liar! The principle of evil abode not in the have untied the knot by cutting it. Still the
truth! Seriously to aftirm such things of the difficulty remains. The denial of mystery is not
mere abstraction of evil is a solemn Action; the removal of it. Even philosophy teaches vis to
while, to assert them of a fallen angel, who believe sometimes where we cannot understand.
beguiled Kve by falsehood, and brought death It is here that the grave question of the introduc
upon all the race of man, is an intelligible and tion of evil first meets as. If we Jdmit the fact
affecting truth. What necessity for inspired men of apostacy among ihe angels, as by a fair inter
to write that the devil sinned from the beginning, pretation of Scripture we are constrained to do,
if he \*e only the principle of evil ? What con the admission of such a fact in the case of human
sistency, on this hy|>othesis, in their saying that beings will follow more easily, they being the
he transforms himself into an angel of light, if he lower order of creatures, in whom defection would
has no volition, no purpose, no craft, no ends or be less surprising. As to what constituted the
agency? If there are such things as personal first sin of Satan and his followers, there has
attributes, it must be conceded that the facred been a diversity of opinions. Some have supposed
writers do ascribe them to Satan. On any other that it *.wi.s the beguiling of our first parents.
supposition, the writers of the New Testament Others have believed that the first sin of the
could more easily be convicted of insanity than angels is mentioned in Gen. vi. 2. The sacred
believed to be inspired. The principle of inter* writers intimate very plainly that the first trans
pretation by which the personality of Satan is gression was pride, and that from this sprang open
discarded, leads to the denial of the jiersonality of rebellion. Of a bishop, the apostle says (I Tim.
the Deity. iii. 6), 1 He must not be a novice, lest, being
Natural History. The class of beings to which puffed up with pride, he fall into the condemnation
Satan originally belonged, and which constituted of the devil.' From which it appears that pride
a celestial hierarchy, is very numerous : ' Ten was the sin of Satan, and that for this he was con
thousand times ten thousand stood before him1 demned. Tins, however, marks the quality of the
(Dan. vii. 10). They were created and dependent sin, and not the act.
(John i. 3). Analogy leads to the conclusion In his physical nature, Satan is among those
that there are different grades among the angels that are termed spiritual beings ; not as excluding
as among other races of beings. The Scri[H necessarily all idea of matter, but as opposed
tures warrant the same. Michael is described rather to the animal nature. It is the TrvfufiariK6s,
as one of the chief prince* (Dan. x. 13); as chief in opposition lo the ^M\^6i. The good angels are
captain of the host of Jehovah (Josh. v. 14). all ministering spirits, trvev^ora (Heh. i. 14).
Similar distinctions exist among the fallen angels Satan is one of the angels that kept not their first
(Col. ii. 15 ; Kph. vi. 12). It is also reasonable principality. The fall produced no change in his
to suppose that they were created susceptible of physical or metaphysical nature. Paul, in warn
improvement in all res]>ccts, except moral purity, ing the Ephesians against the wiles of tlie devil
as they certainly were capable of apostacy. As (ra$ fieOoBeias rod Stafiokov), tells them (Eph,
to the time when they were brought into being, the vi. 12) that they contended not against tlesv
SATAN. SATAN.
and blood, mere human enemies, but against Quenstedt says that 1 some angels are called evil,
principalities and powers, against the rulers of not by reason of their essential constitution, but,
the darkness of this world, against spiritual first, from an evil act, that is apostacy from God ;
wickedness in high places ; irpoj ra nvtupuTiKa secondly, from an habitual perverseness which
ttjs worrjplas iv toIs iirovpavioi^ in which the followed this act of apostacy ; thirdly, on account
contrast is between human and superhuman foes, of an irreclaimable persistency in evil.' Evil ii
the r* wvtvfiaTtKh. being for tot <pvcus irvtvpa- his fixed state, in which he is confirmed hy the
rucds, or t& rrvtvpctTOt spiritual natures, or invincibility of his dispositions to sinan invin
apiritSy in opposition to flcsli and blood (Rosen - cibility which no motives can ever overcome.
muller, in he.). Satan is not pure spirit in the This confirmation of evil is denoted by the ever
sense that God is spirit, nor necessarily to the lasting chains of darkness in which the apostate
exclusion of body ; but that body, if he has any, angels are reserved unto the judgment of the
is ethereal, pneumatic, invisible. He is unlike great day (Judc, ver. 6). The immutability of Ins
God, because finite and dej>endent ; and, in his evil character precludes the idea of repentance,
ethereal physical nature, aud the rapidity with and therefore the possibility of recovering grace.
which he moves unseen from place to place, he is * He possesses an understanding which misappre
unlike to man. He is immortal, but not eternal; hends exactly that which is most worthy to be
neither omniscient nor omnipresent, hut raised known, to which the key fails without which
high above the human race in knuwledge and nothing can be understood in its true relations,
power. The Persian mythology, in its early stage, an understanding darkened, however deep it may
and, subsequently, the Gnostics and Manicheans, jttnetrate, however wide it may reach. He if
ranked the evil principle as coeval and co-ordi thereby necessarily unblessed ; torn away from
nate, or nearly so, with God, or the good principle. the centre of life, yet without ever finding it in
The doctrine of the Jewish church always made himself; from the sense of inward emptiness,
him a dependent creature, subject to the control continually driven to lite exterior world, imd yet
of the Almighty. By the modifications which witli it, as with himself, in eternal contradiction ;
Zoroaster subsequently introduced, the Persian for ever fleeing from God, yet never escaping him ;
angelology came more nearly to resemble that uf constantly labouring to frustrate his designs, yet
tlit* Jews. Some have ascribed to Sulan the power always conscious of being obliged to promote
of working miracles, contending that there are them ; instead of enjoyment in the contemplation
two series of antagnnistical miracles running of his excellence, the never satisfied desire after
through the fiible. To the miracles of Moses an object which it cannot attain; instead of hope,
were opposed those of the Egyptian magicians; a ]>en>etual wavering between doubt and de
and to those of Christ and his apostles, the signs spair; instead of love, a powerless hatred against
and wonders of false prophets and Antichriststhe God, against his fellow-beings, against himself'
Divine and the Satanic. Olshauseu maintains (Twesten).
this view ; as do some of the older commentators Agency.The agency of Satan extends to all
(Bibluchen Commentary vol. i. p. 242). The evi that he does or causes to be done : * Qui facit per
dence in support of such a belief lias not been alium facit ]>er se.' To this agency the following
sufficient to procure for it general accepiauce restrictions have been generally supposed to exist:
(see Rosenmuller and Calv in on Matt. xxiv. it is limited, first, by the direct power of God ;
24; 2 Thess. ii. 9; Hengstenlnrg's Egypt and he cannot transcend the power <m which he is de
the Book* ofMoses, ch. lit ; also Koseiimuller and pendent for existence ; secondly, by the linitenesf
Bush on Kxod., ch. vii.). With a substantial of his own created faculties ;thirdly, by the esta
presence in only one place at une time, yet, as blished connection of cause and eflect, or the laws
the head of a spiritual kingdom, he is virtually of nature. The miracles, which he has been sup
present wherever his angels or servants are exe posed to have the power of working, are deno
cuting his will. minated lying signs and wonders, oTjucfois teal
His character is evil, purely and entirely so rtpacrt ^evSous (2 Tliess. ii. 9). With these re
(1 John iii. S; John viii. J I His character is strictions, too devil goes about like a roaring lion.
denoted by his titles, Satan, Adversary, Oialxilos, His agency is moral and physical. First, moral.
False Accuser, Tempter, ike. All the represent He beguiled our first |>arents, and thus brought
ations of him in Scripture show him to have un sin and death upon them and their posterity
mixed and confirmed evil as the basis of his (Gen. iii.). He moved David to number the
character, exhibiting itself in respect to God in people (1 Chron. xxi. 1). He resisted Joshua
assuming to be his equal, and in wishing to the high-priest (Zech. iii. 1). He tempted Jesus
transfer the homage and service, which lielung (Matt, iv.); entered into Judas, to induce him
only to God to himself ; and in respect to men, to betray bis master (Luke xxii. 3); instigated
in efforts to draw them away from God and Ananias and Sapphiia to lie to the Holy Ghost
them to his kingdom. The evil <levelo|>es (Acts v. 3); hindered Paul and Bainal>as on
in all (KMsible ways and by all jinsstble their way to the Thessahmians (1 Thes-. ii. 18).
means of opposition to God, and to those wlto are He is the spirit that now workeih in the children
striving to establish and extend his dominion. of disobedience (Eph. ii.2); and he deceiveth the
K. i! is so transcendent in him, titat his whole whole world (Rev. xii. 9).
intellectual and moral nature is subordinated to The means which he uses are variously called
it. His character is symmetrical. It has a wiles, darts, depths, snares, all deceivableness of
dreadful consistency, from the concurrence in unrighteousness. He darkens (he understanding!
evil, and subjection to it, of all the powers of his of men, to keep them in ignorance. He jterverU
being. It is unique and complete in evil, made tlieir judgments, that he may lead them into error.
so by the act of apoetacy, and continued so by He insinuates evil thoughts, and thereby awakens
a pertinacious adherence to evil as his good. in them unholy desires. He excites them to
696 SATAN. SAUL.
pride, anger, and revenge ; to discontent, re- they are capable of adducing is in agreement with
pinings. and rebellion. He labours to prop up the Scripture representation on the subject. If
false systems of religion, and to corrupt and God communicates with good men without their
overturn the true one. He came into most direct consciousness, there is no apparent reason why
and determined conflict with the Saviour in the Satan may not, without their consciousness, com
temptation, hoping to draw him from his allegiance municate with bad men. And if good men he-
to Gudt and procure homage for himself: but be come letter by the influence of good beings, it is
failed in his j'wiflintt. Next, be instigated the equally easy to suppose that bad men may Ijecome
Jews to put him to death, thinking thus to thwart worse by the influence of evil lieings. Such an
bis designs and frustrate his plans. Here too he influence no more militates against the MBerb-
failed, .md was made to subserve the very ends boo* of God, than does the agency of wicked men.
which he Blast wished to prevent. Into a similar or the existence of moral evil in any form. Rvfl
conflict does he come with all the saints, and agents are as really under the divine control as
with like ultimate ill success. God uses his are good agents. And out of evil, God will
temptations as the means of trial to bis people, cause good to come. He will make the wrath of
and of st length by trial, and points them out as a devils as well as of men to praise him, and the
motive to watchfulness and prayer. Such are the remainder He will restrain.E- A. L.
nature and mode of his moral influence and SAUL Sept. and New Test. Xooilx).
agency. son of Kish, of the trilte of Benjamin, was the
But his efforts are directed against the (todies first king of the Israelites. The corrupt adminis
of men, as well as against their souls. That the tration ofjustice hv Samuel's sons furnished an
agency of Satan was concerned in producing occasion to the Hebrews for rejecting that theo
physical diseases the Scriptures plainly teacli cracy, of which they neither appreciated the
(Job ii. 7; Luke xiii. 16). Peter says of Christ, value, nor, through their unfaithfulness to it, en
that he went about doing good and healing joyed the full advantages (I Sam. viii.). An in
(l&fitvos) all that were oppressed of the devil vasion by the Ammonites seems also to have con
(rou Sta&6\ou) (Acts x. 3S). Hymeneus and spired with the cause just mentioned, and with a
Alexander were delivered to Salan, that they love of novelty, in prompting the demand for a
might learn not to blaspheme (I Tim. i. 20); king (1 Sam. xii. 12)an oflicer evidently alien
where physical suffering by the agency of Satan, to the genius of the theocracy, though contem
as a divine chastisement, is manifestly intended. plated as an historical certainty* and provided
Farmer seems to have been among the first in Nt by the Jewish lawgiver (1 Sam. xii. 17-20;
modern times who adopted the rationalistic, or Deut. xvii. 1 1-20 ; on which see Grotius's note;
accommodation principle of interpretation, upon also De Jure !'". &c. i. 1. 6, with the remarks
the subject of demoniacal possessions. Semlei of Gro'novius, who (as Puflendorf also does) con
introduced his work on Demoniacs into Germany, troverts the views of Grotius). An explanation of
and the German neologists adopted substantially the nature of this request, as not only on instance
his vfor. For a refutation of this system of inter of ingratitude to Samuel, but of rebellion against
pretation, see Twesten's Dogmatik% Olshauseti s Jehovah, and the delineation of the manner in
Commentary Storr and Flatt's Biblical Theol., which their kingsnotwithstanding the restric
and Appleton's Lectures ; and for a general slate>- tions prescnlwd in the lawmight le expected
ment of th*> arguments on Ixttli sides see the articles to conduct themselves ("^DH tDDCO, Sept.
DbmOM; Dkmoniacs. cjiKatuua rov $afft\4ws ; 1 Sam. viii. 11 : x. 25),
Whatever the demons may have been, they having failed to move the people from their reso
were considered by the New Testament writers as lution, the Lord sent Said, who had left home in
belonging to the kingdom of Satan. They are quest of his father*! asses, which had strayed, to
called unclean spirits, evil demons. They are Samuel, who having informed Saul of the divine
conscious of being under condemnation (Mutt,
viii. 2'1). Christ came to destroy the works of purpose regarding him, and having at a feast
Satan ; and he refers to his casting out demons shown him a preference, which, no doubt, the
by the finger of God as proof that he was exe other guests understood, privately anointed him
cuting that work. And when charge*1 with cast king, and gave him various tokens, by which he
ing them out by the prince of demons, he meets might be assured that his designation was from
the charge by (he assertion that this would lie Jehovah (1 Sam. ix. x.). Moved by the autho
dividing the kingdom of SatanSatan casting rity of Samuel, and by the fulfilment of the***
out Satan, i. e. casting out his own subjects; signs, Saul's reluctance to assume the office to
the irresistible inference from which is, that Satan which lie was called was overcome; which may lie
and the demons are one hou-tc, pertain to one and the meaning of the expression irttoS (1 Sam. x.
the same kingdom. V\ though his hesitation afterwards returned (ver.
It is ofno avail that there are difficulties connected 21, 32). On his way borne, meeting a comitfiny
with the agency ascribed to Satan. Objections are of prophets, he was seized with the prophetic
of little weight when brought against well-authen afflatus, and so gave occasion to a proverb after
ticated facts. Any objections ru'sed against the wards in use among the Jews, though else
agency of Satan are equally valid against his where a different origin is assigned to the saying
existence." If lie exists, he must act; and if lie (I Sam. xix. 21). Immediately after. Saul was
is evil, his agency must be evil. The fact of such elected at Mizjtah in a solemn assembly by the
an agency being revealed, as it is, is every way as determination of the miraculous lota method
consonant with reason and religious consciousness of election not confined to the Hebrews (Aristot.
as are the existence and agency of good angels. PoUt. vi. 1 1 ; and Virg. JEn ii. ( Laocoon lectus
Neither reason nor conscious!teas could by them Nepluni sorte sacerdos); and both previously to
selves establish such a fact ; but all the testimony that election (x. 16), and subsequently, when in
SAUL. SAUL.
suited by the worthless portion of the Israelites, he events happened in the second yearwhich may
showed tliat modesty, humility, ami forbearance be the meaning of the latter clause.
which seem to have characterized him till cor Saul's first trial and transgression.The
rupted In the possession of power. The pnaOH restrictions on which he held the sovereignty had
thus set apart to discharge the royal function, pos (1 Sam. x. 25) been fully explained as well to
sessed at least those corporeal advantages which Saul as to the people, so that he was not ignorant
must ancient nations desiderated in their sove of his true position as merely the lieutenant of Je
reigns (the eZSos Qiov rvpavvilos. Eurip.V His hovah, king of Israel, who not only gave all the
person was tall and commanding, and he soon laws, but whose will, in the execution of them, was
showed that his courage was not inferior to his constantly to be consulted and complied with.
strength fl Sam. ix. If x. 2.3). His belonging The first occasion on which his obedience to this
to Benjamin also, the smallest of the tribes, constitution was put to the test brought out those
though of distinguished bravery, prevented the defects in his character which showed his unfit
mutual jealousy with which either of the two ness for his high office, and incurred a threat of
great tribes, Judah and Kphraim, would have re that rejection which his subsequent conduct, con
garded a king chosen from the other; so that his firmed (1 Sam. xiii. 13). Saul could not under
election was receive*! with general rejoicing, and stand his proper position, as only the servant of
a number of men, moved by the authority of Sa Jehovah speaking through his ministers, or con
muel (x. 20), even attached themselves to him as fine himself to it; and in this resjiect he was not,
u body guard, or as counsellors and assistants. what David, with many individual and pri
In the mean time the Ammonites, whose invasion vate faults and crimes, wasa man after God's
nad hastened the appointment of a king, having own heart, a king faithful to the principles of the
besieged Jabesh in Gilead, and Naiiash their theocracy.
king having proposed insulting conditions to Having organized a small standing army,
them, the elders of that town, apparently not part of which, under Jonathan, had taken a fort
aware of Saul's election (1 Sam. xi. 3), sent mes of the Philistines, Saul summoned the people to
sengers through the land imploring help. Saul withstand the forces which their oppressors, now
acted with wisdom and promptitude, summoning alarmed for their dominion, would naturally as
the people, en masse, to meet him at Bezek ; and semble. But so numerous a host came against
having at the head of a vast multitude totally Saul, that the people, panic-stricken, fled to rocks
routed the Ammonites (ver. 11), and obtained a and caverns for safetyyears of servitude having
higher glory, by exhibiting a new instance of extinguished their courage, which the want of
clemency, whether dictated by principleor policy arms, of which the policy of the Philistines had
* Novum imperium inchoantibus utilis de deprived them, still further diminished. The
mentia} fama" (Tac. Hist. iv. 63), ' For lowliness is number of chariots, 30,000, seems a mistake ; un
young ambition's ladder he and the people be less we suppose, with Le Clerc, that they were
took themselves, under thedirection of Samuel, to not war-chariots, but baggage-waggons (an im
Gilgal, there with solemn sacrifices to reinstal probable supposition), so that 3000 may be the
the victorious leader in his kingdom (1 Sam. xi.). true number. Apparently reduced to extremity,
If the numlierset down in the Hebrew text,of those and the seventh day being come, but not being
who followed Saul (i Sam. xi. 8),can be depended ended, the expiration of which Samuel had en
on (the Sept. more than doubles them, and Jose- joined him to wait, Saul at least ordered sacri
phus outgoes even the Sept.), it would appear fices to be otteredfor the expression (1 Sam. xiii.
that the tribe of Judah was dissatisfied with 9) does not necessarily imply that lie intruded
Saul's election, for the soldiers furnished by the into the priest's office (2 Sam. vi. 13 ; 1 Kings
other tribes were 300,000, while Judah sent only iii. 2-4), though that is the most obvious meaning
30,000; whereas the jwpulation of the former, of the text. Whether that which Saul now dis
compared with that of Judah, appears, from other regarded was the injunction referred to ( 1 Sam.
passages, to have been as about five to three x. 8), or one subsequently addressed to him, this
(2 Kings xxiv. 9). And yet it is strange that is evident, that Saul acted in the full knowledge
this remissness is neither punished (1 Sam. xi. 7) that he sinned (xiii. 12); and his guilt, in that
nor noticed. At Gilgal Saul was publicly act of conscious disobedience, was probably in
anointed, and solemnly installed in the kingdom creased by its clearly involving an assumption of
by Samuel, who took occasion to vindicate the authority to conduct the war according to ins own
purity of his own administrationwhich he vir judgment and will. Samuel having denounced
tually transferred to Saulto censure the people the displeasure of Jehovah and its consequences,
for their ingratitude and impiety, and to warn both left him, and Saul returned to Gibeah (the ad
them and Saul of the danger of disobedience to the dition made to the text of the Sept. ver. 15,
commands of Jehovah (1 Sam. xii.). These were where after * from Gilgal,' the clause, 1 aud the
the principal transactions that occurred during the rest of the people went up after Saul to meet the
first year of Saul's reign (which we venture to enemy from Gilgal to Gibeah,' &c., being re
assign as the meaning of the first clause of chap. quired apparently by the sense, which, probably,
has been the only authority for its insertion). Left
xiii. 1D^D3 ^>lfc? rtiC }1, 1 the son of a year to himself, Saul's errors multiplied apace. Jo
wa.i Saul in his reigning'the emendation of nathan, having assaulted a garrison of the Phi
Origen, *Saul was thirty years old,' which the listines (apparently at Michmash, 1 Sam. xiv.
chronology contradicts, for he seems now to have 31, which, therefore, must have been situated neai
been forty years old, and the omission of the Migron in Gibeah, ver. 1, and within sight of it,
whole first verse by the Sept., being evidently ver. 15), Saul, aided by a panic of the enemy,
arbitrary, and, therefore, inadmissible expedients an earthquake> and the co-operation of his fugi
for solving a difficulty) ; and the subsequent tive soldiers, effected a great slaughter ; but by a
698 SAUL. SAUL.
rasn and foolish denunciation, he (1) impeded his the demoniacs mentioned in the New Testament
success (ver. 30), (2) involved the people in a [Dkuonia.cs]. David was recommended to Saul
violation of the law (ver. 33), and (3), unless pre on account of his skill as a musician ( 1 Sam. xvi.
vented by the more enlightened conscience of the 16-23), though the narrative of his introduction
people, would have ended with putting Jonathan to Saul, his subsequently killing Goliath, Saul's
to death for au act which, being done in invin ignorance of David's person after he had been
cible ignorance, could involve no guilt. This his attendant and armour-bearer, with various
success against the Philistines was followed, not other circumstances in the narrative (1 Sam. xvi.
only by their retirement for a time within their 14-23; xvii. xviii. 1-4), present difficulties which
own territory, but by other considerable successes neither the arbitrary omissions in the Sept., nor
against the other enemies of his countryMoab, the ingenuity of subsequent critics, have suc
Amnion, Edom, the kings of Zohah, the Amalek- ceeded in removing, and which have led many
ites, and the Philistines, all ofwhom he harassed, eminent scholars to supinse the existence of ex
but did not subdue. These wars may have occu tensive dislocations in this part of the Old Tes
pied Hve or six years, till the tenth or eleventh tament. Certainly the solutions offered by those
year of Saul's reign, rather than the sixteenth, as who would reconcile the narrative as it now stands
marked in the Bible chronology. in the Hebrew text, demand too much ingenuity,
SattTs second transgression. Another trial and appear very unsatisfactory. That proposed,
was afforded Saul before his final rejection, the by Hales and others seems to be the most feasible,
command to extirpate the Amalekites, whose which would place the passage, xvi. 14-23, after
hostility to the people of God was inveterate xviii. 9; yet why should Saul's attendants need
Deut. xxv. IS; Exod. xvii. 8-16; Num. xiv. to describe so minutely a jwrson whom he and
42-45; Judg. iii. 13; vi. 3), and who had not all Israel knew so well already ? Also, how can
by repentance averted that doom whicli had been we conceive that Saul should love so much (xvi.
delayed 550 years (1 Sam. xiv. 48). They who 21) a person against whom his jealousy and
represent this sentence as unworthy of the God of hatred had l>eeu so powerfully excited as his pro
the whole earth, should ask on what principle the bable successor in the kingdom? (xviii. 9). lie-
execution ofa criminal under human governments sides, David had occupied already a much higher
can be defended1? If men judge that the welfare position (xviii. 5) ; and, therefore, his being made
of society demands the destruction of one of their Saul's armour-l>earer must have been the very
fellows, surely God, who can better judge what the opposite of promotion, which the text (xvi. 21)
interests ofhis government require, and has a more supposes it was.
perfect right to dispose of men's lives, may cut off Though not acquainted with the unction of
by the sword of His servants the person* whom, David, yet having received intimation that the
without any imputation of injustice, he might kingdom should he given to another, Saul soon
destroy by disease, famine, or any such visitation. susj>ected from his accomplishments, heroism,
It is more to our present purpose to remark, that wisdom, and popularity, that David was his des
the apparent cruelty of this commission was not tined successor ; and, instead of concluding that
the reason why it was not fully executed, as his resistance to the divine purpose would only
Saul himself confessed when Samuel upbraided accelerate his own ruin, Saul, in the spirit of
him, * I feared the people and obeyed their voice* jealousy and rage, commenced a series of mur
(1 Sam. xv. 24). This stubbornness in persisting derous attempts on the life of his rivul, that
to rebel against the directions of Jehovah was now must have lost him the respect and sympathy of
visited by that final rejection of his family from his jreople, which they secured for the object of
succeeding him on the throne, which had before his malice and envy, whose noble qualities also
been threatened (ver.23; xiii. 13, 14), and which they both exercise* L and rendered more con
was now significantly represented, or mystically spicuous. He attempted twice to assassinate him
predicted, by the rending of the prophet's mantle. with his own hand (xviii. 10, 11; xix. 10); he
After this second and flagrant disobedience, Saul sent him on dangerous military expeditions (xviii.
received no more public countenance from the 5, 13, 17); he proposed that David should marry
venerable prophet, who now left him to his sins first his elder daughter, whom yet he gave to
and bis punishment; 1 nevertheless, he mourned another, and then his younger, that the procuring
for Saul,* and the Lord repented that he had made of the dowry might prove fatal to David ; and
Saul king (xv. 35). (hen he sought to make his daughter an instru
Soul's conduct to David.The denunciations ment of her husband's destmction ; and it seems
of Samuel sunk into the heart of Saul, and pro probable, that unless miraculously prevented, he
duced a deep melancholy, which either really would have embrued his hands in the blood of
was, or which his physicians (1 Sam. xvi. 14, 15 ; the venerable Samuel himself (1 Sam. xix. 18),
corap. Gen. 1. 2) told him, was occasioned by an while the text seems to intimate (xx. 33) that
evil spirit from the Lord ; unless we understand even the life of Jonatlian was not safe from his
the phrase njH nil subjectively, as denoting the fury, though the subsequent context may war
condition itself of Saul's mind, instead of the rant a doubt whether Jonathan was the party
cause of that condition (Isa. xxix. 10; Num. v. aimed at by Saul. The slaughter of Ahimelech
14; Rom. xi. 8). We can conceive that music the priest (1 Sam. xxii. ), under pretence of his
might affect Saul's feelings, might cheer his being a partisan of David, and of eighty-five
despondency, or divert his melancholy ; but how other priests of the house of Eli, to whom nothing
it should have the power to chose away a spi could be imputed, as well as the whole inhabitants
ritual messenger whom the Lord had sent to of Nob, was an atrocity perhaps never exceeded ;
chasten the monarch for his transgressions, is not and yet the wickedness of the act was not greater
so easily understood. Saul's case must probably than its infatuation, for it must have inspired his
W judged of by the same principles as that of subjects not only with abhorrence of their king as
SAUL. SAUL. 699
an inhuman tyrant, but with horror of him as an the phantom, whatever it was, which appeared in
inpious and sacrilegious monster. This crime the form and spoke in the character of Samuel,
r*f Saul put David in possession of the sacred lot, and that the predictions uttered by the spectre
which Abiathar, the only surviving member of were real oracles, implying distinct and certain
Eli's priestly family, brought with him, and by foreknowledge, as the event proved (see Hales,
which he was enabled to obtain oracles directing vol. ii., who has discussed this subject very judi
him in his critical affairs (xxii. 21-23 ; xxiii. ciously).
1, 2). Assured of his own death the next day, and
Having compelled David to assume the posi that of his sons ; of the ruin of his army, and the
tion of an outlaw, around whom gathered a num triumph of his most formidable enemies, whose
ber of turbulent and desperate characters, Saul invasion had tempted him to try this unhallowed
might persuade himself that he was justified in be expedient,all announced to him by that same
stowing the hand of David's wife on another, and authority which had foretold his possession of the
in making expeditions to apprehend and destroy kingdom, and whose words had never been falsi
him. A portion of the people were base enough fiedSaul, in a state of dejection which could not
to minister to the evil passions of Saul (1 Sam. promise success to his followers, met the enemy
xxiii. 19; xxvi. 1), and others, perhaps, might next day in Gilboa, on the extremity of the great
colour their fear by the pretence of conscience plain of Esdraelon ; and having seen the total rout
(xxiii. 12). Hut his sparing Saul's life twice, of his army, and the slaughter of his three sons, of
when he was completely in his power, must have whom the magnanimous Jonathan was one; and
destroyed all colour of right in Saul's conduct in having in vain solicited death from the hand of
the minds of the people, as it also did in his his armour-bearer (Doeg the Edomite, the Jews
own conscience (xxiv. 3-7 ; xxvi.) ; which two say, ' A partner before of his master's crimes, and
passages, though presenting many points of simi now of his punishment'), Saul perished at last by
larity, cannot be referred to the same occasion, his own hand. * So Saul died for his transgression
without denying to the narrative all historic accu which he committed against the word of the Lord,
racy and trustworthiness. Though thus degraded which he kept not, and also for asking counsel of
and paralysed by the indulgence of malevolent one that had a familiar spirit, to inquire of it ;
passions, Saul still acted with vigour in repelling and inquired not of the Lord, therefore the Lord
the enemies of his country, and in other affairs slew him, and turned the kingdom unto David*
wherein his jealousy of David was not concerned (1 Chron. x. 13, 14).
(xxiii. 27,-28). When the Philistines came on the morrow to
The Bible chronology, as does also Ussher, plunder the slain, they found Saul's body and
dates David's marriage with Hichal, a.m. 2491, the bodies of his sons, which, having beheaded
the same year in which Goliath was slain. Hales, them, they fastened to the wall of Bethshan ; but
with apparent reason, makes it five years later, the men of Jabesh-gilead, mindful of their former
when David had attained the age of twenty-five. obligation to Saul (1 Sam. xi.), when they heard
The same year Mephibosbeth wiisborn; which of the indignity, gratefully and heroically went
seems to be alluded to in 2 Sam. iv. 4 ; and about by night and carried them off, and buried them
five years more appear to have elapsed before the under a tree in Jabesh, and fasted seven days.
death of Saul. Samuel's death had taken place It is pleasing to think that even the worst men
not long before, as the statement in 1 Sam. xxviii.3 have left behind them those in whom gratitude
implies. Probably two years are sufficient to and affection are duties. Saul had those who
allow time for the intermediate transactions mourned him, as some hand was found to have
(1 Sam. xxv.-xxxi.), instead of four, as set down strewed flowers on the newly-made grave of Nero.
in the Bible chronology. From Jabesh the bones of Saul and of his sons
Saul's third qffence and death.The measure were removed by David, and buried in Zelah, in
of Saul's iniquity, now almost full, was completed the sepulchre of Kish his father.
by an act of direct treason against Jehovah the There is not in the sacred history, or in any
God of Israel (Exod. xxii. IS ; Lev. xix. 31 ; other, a character more melancholy to contem
xx. 27; Deut. xviii. 10, U). Saul, probably in plate than that of Saul. Naturally humble and
a tit of zeal, and perhaps as some atonement for modest, though of strong passions, he might have
his disobedience in other respects, had executed adorned a private station. In circumstances
the penalty of the law on those who practised which did not expose him to strong temptation,
necromancy ami divination (1 Sam. xxviii. 3). he would probably have acted virtuously. But
Now, howtffer, forsaken of God, who gave him no his natural rashness was controlled neither by a
oracles, and rendered, by a course of wickedness, powerful understanding nor a scrupulous con
both desperate and infatuated, he requested his science ; and the obligations of duty, and the ties
attendants to seek him a woman who had a fami of gratitude, always felt by him too slightly, were
liar spirit (which is the loose rendering in the totally disreganled when ambition, envy, and
English Bible of the expression occurring twice jealousy had taken possession of his mind. The
diabolical nature of these passions is seen, with
in ver. 7, D1K l"6j)3 flCX, ' a woman a mis frightful distinctness, in Saul, whom their in
tress of Ob ;' ' habens Pythonem,' Vulg.), that he dulgence transformed into an unnatural and
might obtain from her that direction which Je blood-thirsty monster, who constantly exhibited
hovah refused to all'ord him. The question as to the moral infatuation, so common among those
the character of the apparition evoked by the who have abandoned themselves to sin, of think
witch of Endor, falls more properly to be con ing that the punishment of one crime may be
sidered under other articles [Divination ; escaped by the perpetration of another. In him
Witch] ; but we may remark that the king also is seen that moral anomaly or contradic
vmself manifestly both saw and convened with tion, which would be incredible, did we not
700 SCARLET. SCHOOLS, EDUCATION.
10 often witness it, of an individual pursuing ha tinually isolated and apart from other nations,
bitually a course which his better nature pro and not possessing in their own territory resources
nounces not only flagitious, but insane (1 Sam. of any kind for the advancement of education,
xxiv. 16-22). Saul knew tltat that person should should, nevertheless, have mustered such an host
be king whom yet he jiersisted in seeking to de of sages and learned men ? It must indeed jjerplex
stroy, and so accelerated his own ruin. For it can those who are initialed in the Hebrew litera
hardly he doubted that the distractions and dis ture to discover by what means learning, thought,
affection occasioned by Saul's jiersecution of David and inquiry weie, under sucli circumstances,
produced that weakness in his government which fostered and cultivated : and it will be asked,
encouraged the Philistines to make the invasion In what connection stood the so-called great sy
in which himself and his sous perished. * I gave nagogue, under Ezra and Zerubahel, with the
thee a king in mine anger, and took him away schools of the prophets in previous limes? And
in my wrath' (Hos. xii. 11). In the prolonged how did John, the herald of Christ, and Paul the
troubles and disastrous termination of this first Apostle, receive that education which made the
reign, tUe Hebrews were vividly shown how former the teacher of his own nation, and the
vain was their favourite remedy for the mis latter that of so many nations and ages ? The so
chiefs of foreign invasiou and intestine discord. lution of these questions we may find in the esta
R.L. blishment of an institution among the later Is
SCAPE-GOAT. [Goat, Scape.] raelites, unique in its kind, and eventually brought
SCARLET. [Purpj,k.] to a high degree of perfection ; namely, the pub
lic meetings of the learned men, for the purpose
SCEPTRE. The Hebrew word thus rendered of expounding the sacred writings and of giv
is tD3K>, which in its primary signification denotes ing instruction in practical philosophy. We
a stall' of wood (Ezek. xix. 1 1), about the height shall bring together some of the scattered records
of a man, which the ancient kings and chiefs bore concerning this institution, to show its powerful
as an insigne of honour i. 23f, 243; ii. influence upon education in general.
185, sq. : Amos i. 5 ; Zech. x. 1 1 ; Ezek. xix. For the later period of Jewish civilization, from
11 ; Wisd. x. 14; enmp. Gen. xlix. 1U; Num. Ezra and Nehemiah to the destruction of Jeru
xxiv. 17; Isa. xiv. 5). As such it appears to salem by Titus, and the collection of the Talmud
have originated in the shepherd's stafl", since the in the second century after Christ, a grt numl>er
first kings were mostly nomade princes (iitrabo, of philosophical and religious aphorisms are found
xvi. 783 ; comp. Ps. xxix). There were, however, collected in the Talmud, as originating with
some nations among whom the agricultural life the men of those learned assemblies in various
must have been the earliest known ; and we should epochs, and in which we may trace the spirit of
not among lliem expert to find the shepherd's many passages even of the New Testament.
staff advanced to symbolical honour. Accord In the Babylon Talmud (Tr. Sanhedrin)
ingly, Diodorus Siculus (iii. 3) informs us, that those desirous of knowledge are exhorted to repair
the sceptre of the Egyptian kings bore the shape of to the learned meetings of certain celebrated
a plougha testimony confirmed by existing rabbies who taught in Lydda, Burin, Pekun,
monuments, in which the long stall' which forms Jabneh, Benebarak, Rome, Sikni, Zipporira, or
the sceptre, terminates in a form obviously in Nesibls; and in t lie land of captivity to the great
tended to represent a plough. teacher in Beth-shaarim, and to the sages who
A golden sceptre, that is, one washed or plated taught m the hall GaaziUi. The Talmud also
with gold, is mentioned in Ezek. iv. 11 (comp. mentions many other seals of the learned, such
Xenoph. Cyrop. viii. 7, 13 ; Iliad, i. 15 ; ii. 268 ; as Jerusalem, Caisarea, Bethshan, Acco, Bether,
Odyss. xi. 91). Other decorations of* Oriental Magdala, Ushah, Raccat (Tiberias), and Alex
ceptres are noticed, by Strabo (xvi. 746). In andria in Egypt. In Tiberias the most learned
clining the sceptre was a mark of kingly favour men of the age assembled to compose that fa
(Esth. iv. 11), and the kissing it a token of sub mous monument of Jewish learning, the Talmud
mission (Esth. v. 2). Saul appears to have car [Talmud]. Gamaliel (Paul's master) was head
ried his javelin as a mark of superiority (1 Sam. of the learned assembly or college at Jabneh
xv. 10; xxii. 6). (Jamnia), which, it is stated, numbered not fewer
than 3$0 students. At Zipporim in Galilee also,
SCHOOLS, EDUCATION. Before the exile, where the celebrated R. Judah Hakkadosh passed
the Jews, like the ancient Romans, seem to have the latter part of his life, there is said to have
had no notion whatever of public and national been several of these schools, and eminent teach
schools, since the sphere of our present elementary ers, all of whom are mentioned by name. In Tr.
knowledge, reading and writing, was confined to Sanhedrin, we further read : ' There were three
but a few. Children were usually taught the sim teachers at Bether, and in Jabneh four R. Elie-
ple doctrines of religion by their parents, by means zer, R. Akibab, R. Joshua, and R. Simon; the
of aphorisms, sacred stories and rites (Deut. vi. 7, last spoke in the presence of the others, although
20, sq ; xi. 19; Prov. vi. 20), while the children he still sat upon the ground 'that is, he was pre
of kings seem to have had tutors of their own sent as an auditor merely, although occasionally
(2 Sam. xii. 25). Even alter the exile, national allowed to act as a teacher. In the same tract it is
instruction was chiefly limited to religiou, as said-1 the meeting rests upon men \ on which the
might naturally be expected from a nation whose gloss is, 4 Wherever there are ten men whose occu
political institutions were founded uti theocratic pations do not prevent them from devoting their
principles. whole time to sacred learning, a house for their
The question naturally suggests itself here, meetings must be built.' In the Jerusalem Talmud
How did it, then, happen that the Jews, con (Tr. Chetub.), a tradition is alleged that there had
fined to so small a territory in Syria, living con been at Jerusalem 460 synagogues, each of which
SCHOOLS, EDUCATION. SCHOOLS, EDUCATION. 70\
contained an apartment for the reading of the law, Christian assemblies ; but, on comparing it with
and another for the meeting of men for inquiry, the other passages, it will appear that the first
deep research, and instruction. Such a meeting- Christian teachers had retained many of the regu
hall is called by the Talmudists Belh-Midrash lations of the Jewish assemblies. The Ajiocryphal
(B^TTD n3). that is, an apartment where lectures books of the Old Testament, which belong to this
were given, or conversations held on various sub period, contain some curious and distinct intima
jects of inquiry. There were three of these meet tions to the same purport, and illustrative of the
ing-places in the Temple (Tr. MegUlah)^ and general subject. See in particular, Wisd. viii. 8f
in all of them it was the custom for the students 10; Sirach xxxv. 3, sq. ; xxxix. 2, 3; xliv.
to sit on the floor, while the teachers occupied 3-5 ; 1 Mace. vii. 11 ; 2 Mace. vi. 18.
raised seats (T. Hieros. Tr. Taanith) ; hence Paul From the above, and from sundry olher jias-
describes himself as having, when a student, 'sat sages of the same import, winch we have not
at the feet of Gamaliel* (Acts xxii. 3). thought it necessary to produce, we may safely
There are many hints in the Talmud which draw the following conclusions :
throw light upon the manner of proceeding in 1. That soon after the Babylonian exile, as
these assemblies. Thus, a student asked Gamaliel semblies of the learned not only existed, but
whether the evening prayer was obligatory by the had increased to a considerable extent.
law, or not. He answered in the affirmative; on 2. That these meetings took place not only at
which the student informed him that K. Joshua Jerusalem, but also in other places, remote from
had told him it was not obligatory. * Well," said the capital of Palestine, such as Galilee, the
Gamaliel, * when he appears to-morrow in the frontiers of idumsa, Lebanon, and even in heathen
assembly, step forward and ask him the question countries.
again/ He did so, ami the expected answer 3. That the meeting-places of the wise stood
raised a discussion, a full account of which is mostly in connection with the synagogues ; and
given. It appear! that these learned men deli that the wise or learned men usually met soon
vered their dicta and arguments in Hebrew to an after divine worship and reading were over, in the
interpreter at their side, who then explained them upper apartment of the synagogues, in order to
in the vernacular dialect to the audience. This discuss those matters which required more research
is the explanation given of an anecdote, that a and inquiry.
celebrated teacher was unable to proceed for want 4. That the Beth-Midrash was a place where
of an interpreter, till Rabh volunteered his services subjects of religious philosophy and various para
(Tr. Yomak). In such meetings there was one doxes * from the moral and material world were
who was recognised as president or chief professor, treated, serving as a sort of academical lectures
and another as vice-president (Tr. llorayoth). for those higher students who aspired to fill in
These teachers and professors, who were the time the place of teacher themselves. These in
' lawyers 1 and * doctors 1 of the New Testament, stitutions may therefore be fairly likened to the
formed no mean opinion of their own dignity and academies, or learned societies, so famous in
imjjortance, as indeed the Gospels evince. It is ancient Greece and Rome.
said, * A wise man (more particularly a chief pro 5. That these assemblies of the wise were quite
fessor) is of more consequence than a king; for different from those of ihe priests, who occupied
when the former dies there is (often) no one to themselves merely with investigations on the reli*
replace him, but any one may replace the latter. gious rites and ceremonies, &c. ; as also from those
A wise man, even though a bastard, ranks even where civil laws were discussed, and law-suits de
above i lie high-priest, if the latter be one of the cided, ]V3, Beth-din^ * court ofjudgment') ;
unlearned.' Even the students under these person though many of the learned priests were no doubt
ages claimed tube regarded with respect; they memIters of the literary assemblies, and probably
were called the 'holy people* (C-'lTp DV), as often proposed in the Beth-Midrash questions of a
opfxwed to the masses, who are contemptuously character more suited to a sacred than to a phi
designated J'lXH DJ7, ' people of the earth.* losophical society.
Philo (De Vita Contemp.\ shaking of the 6. That such societies (assemblies of the wise)
nieelin^sof the Esseues, who are supposed to have chose their own president from amongst the most
observe the regulations of the ancient prophets, distinguished and learned of their members; and
ays, 'After the head teacher had finished his consisted of more or fewer memtiers, but certainly
ex|hBition to the assembly, upon a proposed ques not less than ten, capable of partaking in a dis
tion, he stands up and begins losing (a hymn or cussion on some proposed learned question.
p3alm), in which the choirs join at certain inter It is perhaps worth notice that we may trace in
vals; aud the audience listen quietly till the some of the fragments which have descended to
rejietition of the leading theme, when all join us from those assemblies, ten different 6|ieakers or
in it.* lecturers; see, ex. gr., Eccles. i. 3 to iv. lti, where
Now the practices mentioned in the preceding
citations entirely correspond with the intimations Paradoxes^ or inquiries on such subjects
of the New Testament, and with them may be as concern the spirit of the philosophy of the
taken into the series of facts illustrative of the age, will surprise no one who sees in those assem
condition of learning and education and the mode blies something more than mere popular instruc
of instruction among the Jews, for the period tion. Nor do we lack in the New Testament
considerably before and long after the time of traces of esoteric and exoteric systems in teaching ;
Christ. The following passages in particular may ex. gr. Mark iv. 33, sq.
ue indicated in this connection Luke ii. 46; f This is what is commonly called Sanhedrim,
Acts vi. 9, 10; xix. 8, 9; xxii. 3; 1 Cor. xiv. aud which, according to the Talmud, consisted
26-33 ; 2 Tim. ii. 2. In the last but one of of a quorum of three, twenty-three, or seventv-one
these, it is true, the description applies to the persons [Sanhedrim].
70* SCHOOLS, EDUCATION. SCHOOLS, EDUCATION.
ihe following sections evidently l>ear the character34 ; vi 29 ; Luke i. 76 ; xi. I ; John i. 36-41 ;
of different speakers anil different subjects : (1) iii. 25 ; Acts iii. 22-25 ; xi. 27 ; xiii. 1 ; xv. 32;
ch. i. 3-7; (2) Mil (3) ch. xii. 2-26; (4) ch. xxi. 9, 10.
iii. 1-8; (5) 9 15; (6) 16-22; (7) ch. iv. 1-6 ; Specimens of the matters discussed in those
(8) 7-8; (9) 9-12; (10) 13-16. Again we can dis assemblies in this latter period, are found in the
tinguish another assembly and different speakers Talmud, in the collections of Baruch and Jesus
(son of Sirach), and more es])ecialty in the Rook
in the following verses of Eccles. : (1) cb. viii. 8-
10; (2) 11-13; (3) 14, 15; (4)16, 17; (5) ch. of Wisdom. Perhaps some expressions of John
ix. 1; (6)2-4; (7) 4-6; (8) 7-10; (9) 11,' 12; the Baptist aud some speeches of Christ might
10) 13; ch. x. 1. be comiwired with them. Even the frequent pas
7. That the president or head of the assem sages hi the New Teslument, in which Christ and
bly usually brought forward tlie question or the apostles warn the people against tlie sophis
subject at issue very briefly, and sometimes even tries, subtleties, idle questions, and vain researches
in a very low voice, so as not to l>e heard by the of the so-called wise, show us (hat these imjmrlant
whole assembly, but only by those close at his institutions had greatly degenerated in the latter
elbow, who then detailed anil delivered it at large part of the period under our notice (John x. 34 ;
in a louder voice to the meeting. xi. 34 ; xv. 25 ; Col, ii. 8 ; 1 Tim. i. 4, 6 ; iv. 7 ;
vi. 4, 20 ; Tit. iii. 9). And so we find it in reality,
Truces of the develoj>ed details of subjects thus
briefly projnwed by the president of the assembly, when we examine with attention tlie scanty ma
cannot escape the eye of the inquiring reader of terials which exist for the history of this time
Kcclesiastes and the Hook of Wisdom. Thus, in (Ex. gr. T. Bab. Tr. Uagigah).
the counter-songs in Kcclesiastes, perha|ts tlie in The originally useful objects of this institution
troduction, the few laconic words, 4 vanity of vani were soon lost sight of in the ambitious views of
ties, all is vanity !* constituted the sentence withthe sages on whom its character depended to shine,
which the president opened tlie subject orquestion. aud 1o say something new aud original, however
So also in the Book of Wisdom vi. 22; ix. 17; absurd and jmradoxical, a mania visible already in
where |>erhajM the naked question, * What is the second |iart of the iJo;;A o/ Wisdom, ami which
wisdom ? whence does it come?' belonged to the soon contributed and lent charms to the cabalistic
president, who in this brief manner opened tlie researches and interpretations, and art of extra
subject, leaving the discussion and enlargement vagant speculation, which supplanted even in
to the other able members. Cump. also v, 23 the first ]>eriod of our Christian era all other solid
with vi. 1-21 ; and see 1 Cor. xiv. 27, 28. researches among tlie Jews, and caused the down
8. That tlie pupils or students in those assem fall of those assemblies.
blies were not mere boys coming to be instructed This mauia of distinction also led to lianterings
in the rudiments of knowledge, but men or and quarrels among the little Jewish academies
youths of more or less advanced education, who or literary societies, thus dividing them into va
came thither either to protit by listening to the rious sects or parties.
learned discussions, or even to particulate in them The mosttiolent of these schisms were those
themselves: thus paving the way and preparing which broke out between the Pharisees and Sad-
themselves for tlie office of the presidency at some ducees. Tlie Pharisees soon obtained, it is true,
future time. the mastery over their opponents, but they them*
9. That these meetings were public, admitting selves were also split into many jiarties by the
any one, though not a member, and even allowing disputes between the school of the celebrated
him to propose questions. teacher Ilillel, and that of Sfuimmaty the for
10. That the subjects prnjinuiided in those mer advocating the right of the traditional law
assemblies were of a manifold characters (1) even in opposition to that of Moses, while the latter
songs, in which the audience now ami then (like Christ) attached hut little weight to tra
joined ; (2) counter-songs, in which several of the ditions whenever they were found to clash with <4*>
learned members delivered their thoughts and the Mosaical law. These disputes between the
opinions on n certain proposed question; (3) various schools of the Jewish doctors at the close of
adages; (4) solutions of obscure questions and that period, were often carried not only to gross
problems (euV/y/mTa). personalities, but even to bodily assaults, and
1 1. That the principal task of these assembliesmurder (Tr. Sabbath and $hebuath)\ and it hail J
was to preserve the remain*] of the sages of olden at last become a proverb * that even Elijah the w
times by collecting and writing them down. Tishbite would not t>e able to reconcile the adhe- I
This office probably procured for Ezra (the rents of Uillci and Shammui.' What the one
president of such an assembly) the distinguished party permitted the Other was sure to prohibit, M
title of * scribe' (Ezra vii. 6, 11, 12). and vice versa. The school of Hillel, however,
12. That these assemblies and meetings were had from an early period always numbered a last
still in existence in the times of Christ and his majority in its favour, so that the modern Jewish
apostles.* UahbU are uniformly guided by the opinion of *i.
Comp., moreover. Matt. xi. 2, 9; xiii. 57; that school in their decisions. -*
xxi. 1 1 ; xxiii. 29-39 (v. 31 Ttpo^raty ao<pol, and Now, as the Talmud contains (with the excej>-
ypafxfxarfi^ stand as synonymous) ; Mark iv. 33, tion of a few genuine Kft^tjKta from the treasures
of the early periods, which are now and then found
* Even in the present day, indeed, an imitation in the heavy volumes of useless researches) for tlie
of these assemblies exists among all Jewish con most ]iart only the opinions and disputes of those
gregations throughout Poland and Germany, and schools concerning the traditional laws, glossed
locale bears the name of Beth-Midnuh, where over with cabalistic subtilties and sophistical spe
Jhe rabbi of the place lectures on tlie various sub culations, it is very natural that but little of real
jects of the law. interest is to be found in it.
SCHOOLS, EDUCATION. SCHOOLS, EDUCATION. 703
Nevertheless some remnants of the researches ing out, inspired (singers),* Thus are Miriam
of the * Assemblies of the Wise' from the earlier (Exod. xv. 20) and Deborah (Judg. iT. 4) styled
periods, have also descended to us in the Book of nK*33, * prophetesses/ because they uttered in
Wisdom, and in the collections of the son of spired, enthusiastic songs. Also (1 Kings xviii.
Sirach, showing1 us those colleges in their dignified 29) if is said that the priests of Baal IttlJJVI,
and mure pure aspect. From this source we may * prophesied,' while in 1 Chr. xxv. 1 occurs the ex
collect the following intimations : pression 0^0331 m-Om ' to prophesy
1. That the object of these assemblies in the
earlier periods was chiefly to exercise the minds of with harp and psalteries,' which is illustrated
those who had devoted themselves to the higher (ver. 0) by 1111331 D^333 TO 4 for song
branches of studies, and furnish them with matter with psalteries and harps' (ver. 7) by
for reflection and opportunities to develope their * instructed in song ;' so that ' prophet,*
thoughts. It is true that no specimens are extant (ver. 2, 3) may also be rendered singer. f
from that ]>eriod exhibiting the solution of obscure 2. That the places where these prophets or in
problems (JlWn, alviypara), which were admir spired singers (who among other people would
ably calculated in that early stage of civilization, have been called thinkers or philosophers') met,
and m that climate, for the dcvelopement of the were Uamali (I Sam. xix. 18-24), Bethel (2 Kings
thinking faculties; yet there can be no doubt, as ii. 3), Jericho (ii. 5), Gilgal (iv. 38; vi. 1). By
we have shown above, (hat such had come under comparing I Kings xviii. 30 with 2 Kings ii. 25,
their consideration. All that has been preserved tiiere seems to have been another such place some
are, Songs, Counter-songs, and Adages. where in Mount Carmel.
2. That the Counter-songs, which seem to have 3. That the schools of the prophets, or assem
constituted the main debates in those assemblies, blies of the wise, were unions of menj distin
were by no means founded on egotism, or a spirit of guished by learning and wisdom, or who strove
contradiction, but simply on tlie desire of mutual tor tliat distinction, and were competent to appear
information and instruction ; and it is manifest as public orators or singers, animated declama
in many of them that tlx* authors had truth for tion and song being identical in their origin.
their object, both in advancing their own original 4. That these institutions were chiefly in
ideas, and in refuting those of their colleagues. tended
3. That these discourse* had at first assumed a. To rouse, develope, and strengthen the powers
the poetical tone so peculiar to that time and of thought, by mutual instruction, commu
climate, when and where the song comprised all nication, criticism, and controversy.
that can be said and thought; but that gradually b. To hear public teachers, counsellors, and
that tone was lowered to a poetical prose, traces leaders of the people and the monarchs.
of which we still discover in many of the sayings c. To save from oblivion the sayings and
in the New Testament. speeches of ancient times, by collecting them
1. That these discourses treated of subjects in proper order ; and, fc
bearing on religious philosophy, and the worship of d. To rear from among them teachers and
God ; recommending virtue and morals, exhorting' writers for the public.
to wisdom, laying down principles for practical 5. That the subjects treated of in these schools
life, not omitting, however, still higher object*, or assemblies, comprised everything that might
such as the immortality of the soul, and the con appear important to the philosophers ofthose times
dition of the bad and good after death, &c. and that country, and, more especially, songs
In the middle period of the Jewish history of of praise to Jehovah, observations on man and
civilization, from the time of Samuel to that of nature, exhortations to morality and virtue, warn
Jeremiah and Ezra, these philosophic assemblies ings against idolatry and enmity towards their
occur under a double appellation : 1, Schools of fellow-citizens, &c.
the Prophets, in the first part of that period, and 6. That the form of those discourses, in both
2, Assemblies of the Wise, in the latter part. the schools of the prophets and assemblies of the
Of the existence of such schools or meetings so wise, may be divided into
early as the time of Moses but faint traces are
found, in comparing Exod. xviii. 1326, with rt Quintilian observes, that in the early stages
Num. xi. 2429, where the eminent men whom of civilization, the performers on musical instru
Moses used to consult on important affairs re ments (as such are first described the * prophets/
ceive the same designation (of 1 prophets') as the 1 Sam. x.) were identical with wise men, inspired
MSJUihuil of the prophet-schools in the subsequent singers, and seers. Quia ignorat musicen tanturn
ages. Hut in the time of Samuel we find more jam illis antiquis temjroribua, iron studii modo
distinct proofs of their existence (1 Sam. ix. verum etiam venerationis babuisse, ut iidem
9; x. 5-11 ; xix. 18 sq. j 1 Chron. xxv. 6, 7; Musici et Vates et Sapientes judicarentur, (mit-
1 Kings ii. 3 ; iii. 15, 16 ; iv. IB, 43 ; Isa. viii. tam alios) Orpheus et Linus (lust. i. 10).
16-19 ; Prov. i. 2-6; xxv. 1 ; Eccles. i. 2; xii. 8; f Even the Chaldee translates 4 they
vii.27; xii. 9-11). prophesied,' in 1 Sam. xix. 20, * they sang songs
By paying a little attention to the passages of praise." In the same sense must we also take
which we have quoted above regarding these as TTpoiptrrtvuv, in 1 Cor. xi. 4, 5.
semblies in the two periods, the following results I That the so-called (sons) pupils of the pro
may fairly be deduced from them : phets were not boys, but grown men, is evident
1. That the schools of theprophets in the earlier from 1 Kings xx. 35, sq. ; 2 Kings ii. 15, 16; where
periods were identical with the assemblies of the
tcise of the later periods, both in design and form. mention is made of fifty strong men (b^ft *03),the
This will not appear doubtful when we trace pupils of the prophets, who had assembled at
the term K*OJ 'prophet' to its etymologyflou> Jericho; as also from 2 Kings iv. 40.
704 SCHOOLS, EDUCATION. SCHOOLS, EDUCATION. f
a. Sayings of the wise. 8. That the members of these literary unions
6. Songs mid counter-songs (flUy? D'TP, Ps. comprised also laymenex. gr. Saul and David
lxxxviii. 1 ; Sept. <rrpocf>al Xbyuv, Prov. i. though Levites were frequently not only mem-
3) ; containing thoughts lending to reflection lers but even founders of such schoolsex. gr.
Samuel, &c. To judge, however, from many
and further investigation passages when censure is passed on the too strict
(TKOTfivhs \6yot). nljservance of outward ceremony as demanded
c. Oliscure questions (mTn, tuvlypLwra), and by the priests, as also on their arrogance of de
their solutions. spotic |K>wer, it would Kern that such unions
7. That the president of the assembly opened were just forming a sort of opposition to those
the meeting with a sentence or question, which evils, trying to out-argue them, and showing by
was left to the various speakers to develope or their own example, in the selection of a president
discuss. and other distinguished meml>ers, that more re-