Strength of Materials

Introduction
Strength of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the
behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types of loading. The solid bodies
considered in this book include axially loaded members, shafts in torsion, thin
shells, beams, and columns, as well as structures that are assemblies of these
components.

Objective
Usually the objectives of our analysis will be the determination of the
stresses, strains, and deflections produced by the loads. If these quantities can be
found for all values of load up to the failure load, then we will have a complete
picture of the mechanical behavior of the body.
A thorough understanding of mechanical behavior is essential for the safe
design of all structures, whether buildings and bridges, machines and motors,
submarines and ships, or airplanes and antennas. Hence, mechanics of materials
is a basic subject in many engineering fields. Of course, statics and dynamics are
also essential, but they deal primarily with the forces and motions associated
with particles and rigid bodies. In mechanics of materials, we go one step further
by examining the stresses and strains that occur inside real bodies that deform
under loads. We use the physical properties of the materials (obtained from
experiments) as well as numerous theoretical laws and concepts, which are
explained in succeeding sections of this book.

Mechanical Properties of engineering materials

To finalize the material for an engineering product / application, we should
have the knowledge of Mechanical properties of materials. The mechanical
properties of a material are those which affect the mechanical strength and
ability of material to be molded in suitable shape. Some of the typical mechanical
properties of a material are listed below-
I. Strength
II. Toughness
III. Hardness
IV. Hardenability
V. Brittleness
VI. Malleability
VII. Ductility
VIII. Creep and Slip
IX. Resilience
X. Fatigue

Strength
It is the property of material which opposes the deformation or breakdown
of material in presence of external forces or load.
Toughness
It is the ability of material to absorb the energy and gets plastically
deformed without fracturing. Its numerical value is determined by the amount of
energy per unit volume. It unit is Joule/ m 3. Value of toughness of a material can
be determined by stress-strain characteristics of material. For good toughness
material should have good strength as well as ductility. For example: brittle
materials, having good strength but limited ductility are not tough enough.
Conversely, materials having good ductility but low strength are also not tough
enough. Therefore, to be tough, material should be capable to withstand with
both high stress and strain.
Hardness
It is the ability of material to resist to permanent shape change due to
external stress.
Hardenability
It is the ability of a material to attain the hardness by heat treatment
processing. It is determined by the depth up to which the material becomes hard.
Brittleness
Brittleness of a material indicates that how easily it gets fractured when
it is subjected to a force or load. When a brittle material is subjected to a stress is
observes very less energy and gets fractures without significant strain.
Brittleness is converse to ductility of material. Brittleness of material is
temperature depended. Some metals which are ductile at normal temperature
become brittle at low temperature.
Malleability
Malleability is property of solid material which indicates that how easily
a material gets deformed under compressive stress. Malleability is often
categorized by the ability of material to be formed in the form of a thin sheet by
hammering or rolling. This mechanical property is an aspect of plasticity of
material. Malleability of material is temperature dependent. With rise of
temperature, the malleability of material increases.
Ductility
Ductility is a property of a solid material which indicates that how easily
a material gets deformed under tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized by
the ability of material to get stretched into a wire by pulling or drawing. This
mechanical property is also an aspect of plasticity of material and temperature
dependent. With rise of temperature, the ductility of material increases.
Creep and Slip
Creep is the property of material which indicates the tendency of
material to move slowly and deform permanently under the influence of external
mechanical stress. It results due to long time exposure to large external
mechanical stress with in limit of yielding. Creep is more severe in material that
are subjected to heat for long time.
Slip in material is a plane with high density of atoms.
Resilience
Resilience is the ability of material to absorb the energy when it is
deformed elastically by applying stress and release the energy when stress is
removed.
Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed
without permanent deformation. The modulus of resilience is defined as the
maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without permanent
deformation. It can be determined by integrating the stress-strain cure from zero
to elastic limit. Its unit is joule/m3.

Fatigue
Fatigue is the weakening of material caused by the repeated loading of
material. Eventually the crack reached to a critical size. This crack propagates
suddenly and the structure gets fractured. The shape of structure affects the
fatigue very much. Square holes and sharp corners lead to elevated stresses
where the fatigue crack initiates.
What is Hardness?
Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic
deformation, usually by penetration. However, the term hardness may also refer
to resistance to bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting.
Measurement of Hardness:
Hardness is not an intrinsic material property dictated by precise
definitions in terms of fundamental units of mass, length and time. A hardness
property value is the result of a defined measurement procedure.
Hardness of materials has probably long been assessed by resistance to
scratching or cutting. An example would be material B scratches material C, but
not material A. Alternatively, material A scratches material B slightly and
scratches material C heavily. Relative hardness of minerals can be assessed by
reference to the Mohr's Scale that ranks the ability of materials to resist
scratching by another material. Similar methods of relative hardness assessment
are still commonly used today. An example is the file test where a file tempered
to a desired hardness is rubbed on the test material surface. If the file slides
without biting or marking the surface, the test material would be considered
harder than the file. If the file bites or marks the surface, the test material would
be considered softer than the file.
The above relative hardness tests are limited in practical use and do not
provide accurate numeric data or scales particularly for modern day metals and
materials. The usual method to achieve a hardness value is to measure the depth
or area of an indentation left by an indenter of a specific shape, with a specific
force applied for a specific time. There are three principal standard test methods
for expressing the relationship between hardness and the size of the impression,
these being Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell. For practical and calibration reasons,
each of these methods is divided into a range of scales, defined by a combination
of applied load and indenter geometry.

Experiment No.1
Date
Rockwell Hardness test
Objective
To determine the hardness the Hardness of the
given specimen using Rockwell hardness test.
Materials and equipments required
Rockwell hardness testing machine. Black diamond cone indenter, Hard steel
specimen.
Theory Rockwell test is an indentation test used for smaller specimens and
harder materials. In this test indenter is forced into the surface of a test piece
in two operations, measuring the permanent increase in depth of an
indentation from the depth increased from the depth reached under a datum
load due to an additional load. Measurement of indentation is made after
removing the additional load. Indenter used is the cone having an angle of 120
degrees made of black diamond.
Precautions
1. Thickness of the specimen should not be less than 8 times the depth of
indentation to avoid the deformation to be extended to the opposite surface of a
specimen.
2. Indentation should not be made nearer to the edge of a specimen to avoid
unnecessary concentration of stresses. In such case distance from the edge to the
center of indentation should be greater than 2.5 times diameter of
indentation.
3.
Rapid rate of applying load should be avoided. Load applied on the ball may rise
a little because of its sudden action. Also rapidly applied load will restrict plastic
flow of a material, which produces effect on size of indentation.
Procedure
1. Examine hardness testing machine (fig.1).
2. Place the specimen on platform of a machine. Using the elevating screw raise
the platform and bring the specimen just in contact with the ball. apply an initial
load until the small pointer shows red mark.
3. Release the operating valve to apply additional load. Immediately after the
additional load applied, bring back operating valve to its position.
4. Read the position of the pointer on the C scale, which gives the hardness
number.
5. Repeat the procedure five times on the specimen selecting different points for
indentation.
Observation
1. Take average of five values of indentation of each specimen. Obtain the
hardness number from the dial of a machine.
2. Compare Brinell and Rockwell hardness tests obtained.

Experiment No.2
Title Brinell hardness test.
Aim To determine the hardness of the given specimen using Brinell hardness
test. Materials and equipments required
 Brinell hardness tester Aluminum specimen Ball indenter.
Precautions
1. Thickness of the specimen should not be less than 8 times the depth of
indentation to avoid the deformation to be extended to the opposite surface of
a specimen. 2. Indentation should not be made nearer to the edge of a
specimen to avoid unnecessary
concentration of stresses. In such case distance from the edge to the center of
indentation should be greater than 2.5 times diameter of indentation.
3. Rapid rate of applying load should be avoided. Load applied on the ball may
rise a little because of its sudden action. Also rapidly applied load will restrict
plastic flow of a material, which produces effect on size of indentation.
4. Surface of the specimen is well polished, free from oxide scale and any
foreign material. Theory Hardness of a material is generally defined as
Resistance to the permanent indentation under static and dynamic load.
When a material is required to use under direct static or dynamic loads, only
indentation hardness test will be useful to find out resistance to indentation.
In Brinell hardness test, a steel ball of diameter (D) is forced under a load (F)
on to a surface of test specimen. Mean diameter (d) of indentation is
measured after the removal of the load (F).
Observation
1. Take average of five values of indentation of each specimen. Obtain
the hardness number from equation

2. Compare Brinell and Rockwell hardness tests obtained.

Procedure
1.Load to be applied for hardness test should be selected according to
the expected hardness of the material. However test load shall be kept equal
to 30 times the square of the diameter of the ball (diameter in mm) F=30D 2
Where ball diameter, generally taken as 10 mm. For guidelines
hardness range for standard loads given below
Range
Ball diameter Load (kg)
of Brinell hardness
3000 96 to 600
10 1500 48 to 300
500 16 to 100
2. Apply the load for a minimum of 15 seconds to 30 seconds. [If ferrous
metals are to be tested time applied will be 15 seconds and for softer metal
 30 seconds] 3. Remove the load and measure the diameter of indentation
nearest to 0.02 mm using microscope (projected image) .
4. Calculate Brinell hardness number (HB). As per IS: 1500.
5. Brinell hardness number

Where D is the diameter of ball indenter and

d is the diameter of indentation.
Hardness numbers normally obtained for different materials are given
below (under 3000 kg and 10 mm diameter ball used)
Ordinary steels medium carbon 100 to 500
Structural steel 130 to 160
Very hard steel 800 to 900
Note: Brinell test is not recommended for then materials having HB over
630. It is necessary to mention ball size and load with the hardness test
when standard size of ball and load are not used. Because indentation done
by different size of ball and load on different materials are not geometrically
similar. Ball also 7 undergoes deformation when load is applied. Material
response to the load is not same all the time.
6. Brinell hardness numbers can be obtained from tables 1 to 5 given in IS:
1500, knowing diameter of indentation, diameter of the ball and load applied
.
Result
The Brinell hardness number of the specimen is
The impact test is a method for evaluating the toughness and notch sensitivity of
engineering materials. It is usually used to test the toughness of metals, but
similar tests are used for polymers, ceramics and composites. Metal industry
sectors include Oil and Gas, Aerospace, Power Generation, Automotive, and
Nuclear.

The notched test specimen is broken by the impact of a heavy pendulum or

hammer, falling at a predetermined velocity through a fixed distance. The test
measures the energy absorbed by the fractured specimen.
An impact test is used to observe the mechanics that a material will exhibit when
it experiences a shock loading that causes the specimen to immediately deform,
fracture or rupture completely. To perform this test the sample is placed into a
holding fixture with the geometry and orientation determined by the type of test
that is used and then a known weight generally but not always in the shape of a
pendulum is released from a known height so that it collides with the specimen
with a sudden force. This collision between the weight and specimen generally
results in the destruction of the specimen but the transfer of energy between the
two is used to determine the fracture mechanics of the material.
The purpose of an impact test is to determine the ability of the material to absorb
energy during a collision. This energy may be used to determine the toughness,
impact strength, fracture resistance, impact resistance or fracture resistance of
the material depending on the test that was performed and the characteristic
that is to be determined. These values are important for the selection of
materials that will be used in applications that require the material to undergo
very rapid loading processes such as in vehicular collisions.
For a single impact test the three most popular types of test are the Charpy V-
notch test, the Izod test and the Tensile Impact test. These three tests all
essentially determine the same characteristics of the material but differ in the
orientation of the test sample which causes the sample to be stressed in different
directions and involve a known weight released from a known height colliding
with the specimen in its test fixture. All of these tests are useful in determining
the impact mechanics of the test specimen.
Charpy Impact Test
A test specimen is machined to a 10mm x 10mm (full size) cross-section, with
either a "V" or "U" notch. Sub-size specimens are used where the material
thickness is restricted. Specimens can be tested down to cryogenic temperatures.

Izod Impact Test

The test specimen is machined to a square or round section, with either one , two
or three notches. The specimen is clamped vertically on the anvil with the notch
facing the Hammer.
Nearly all materials may benefit from impact testing, but the most common types
used are metals, plastics, woods, composites, ceramics, and polymers. Generally
these materials take the form of sheets of varying thicknesses or short rods
depending on the test. However, most materials will experience either ductile or
brittle failure depending of the type of test, the rate of loading and the
temperature of the sample. Brittle failure of a material requires a small amount
of energy to begin the crack or to cause the crack to grow until the sample fails.
On the other hand, ductile failure of a material requires a much higher load to
initiate and propagate the crack until failure.
Charpy Impact Test
PRINCIPLE
The Charpy impact test is a dynamic test in which a test piece U-notched or V-
notched in the middle and supported at each end, is broken by a single blow of a
freely swinging pendulum (Fig.1). The energy absorbed is measured. This
absorbed energy is a measure of the impact strength of material.
Izod Impact Test
PRINCIPLE
The Izod impact test is a dynamic test in which a test piece V-notched test piece,
gripped vertically, is broken by a single blow of a freely swinging pendulum (Fig.4).
The blow is struck on the same face as the notch and at the fixed height above it. The
energy absorbed is measured. This absorbed energy is a measure of the impact
strength of material.
Experiment No.3
_______________________________________________________________________
Title Impact test
Aim To determine the Impact toughness (strain energy) through
Izod test and Charpy test
Theory
In a impact test a specially prepared notched specimen is fractured by a single
blow from a heavy hammer and energy required being a measure of
resistance to
impact.
Impact load is produced by a swinging of an impact weight W (hammer) from
a
height h. Release of the weight from the height h swings the weight through
the arc
of a circle, which strikes the specimen to fracture at the notch (fig..
Kinetic energy of the hammer at the time of impact is mv 2 /2, which is equal
to the
relative potential energy of the hammer before its release. (mgh),where m is
the
mass of the hammer and v = 2 gh is its tangential velocity at impact, g is
gravitational acceleration (9.806 m/s 2 ) and h is the height through which
hammer
falls. Impact velocity will be 5.126 m/s or slightly less.
Here it is interesting to note that height through which hammer drops
determines
the velocity and height and mass of a hammer combined determine the
energy.
Energy used can be measured from the scale given. The difference between
potential energies is the fracture energy. In test machine this value indicated
by
the pointer on the scale. If the scale is calibrated in energy units, marks on
the
scale should be drawn keeping in view angle of fall () and angle of rise (.
Height h1
and h2 equals,
h1= R (1cos
q) and h2= (1cos
q).
With the increase or decrease in values, gap between marks on scale showing
energy also increase or decrease. This can be seen from the attached scale
with
any impact machine.
Energy used in fracturing the specimen can be obtained approximately as
Wh1Wh2
This energy value called impact toughness or impact value, which will be
measured, per unit area at the notch.
Izod introduced Izod test in 1903. Test is as per the IS: 1598
Charpy introduced Charpy test in 1909. Test is as per the IS: 1499.
9
a. Izod test
Specimen and equipment
1. Impact testing machine.(fig.3)
2. Specimen and v notch is shown in the fig.4. Size of the specimen is 10mm
X 10mm X 75mm
Mounting of the specimen:
Specimen is clamped to act as vertical cantilever with the notch on tension
side.
Direction of blow of hammer is shown in fig. (). Direction of blow is shown in
fig
Procedure
1. Measure the dimensions of a specimen. Also, measure the dimensions of
The notch.
2. Raise the hammer and note down initial reading from the dial, which will
be
energy to be used to fracture the specimen.
3. Place the specimen for test and see that it is placed center with respect to
hammer. Check the position of notch.
4. Release the hammer and note the final reading. Difference between the
initial and final reading will give the actual energy required to fracture the
Specimen.
5. Repeat the test for specimens of other materials.
6. Compute the energy of rupture of each specimen.
Observation
Initial and final reading of the dial.
Result Strain energy of given specimen is

b.
Charpy test
Specimen and equipment:
1. Impact testing machine. (Fig.6)
2. U notch is cut across the middle of one face as shown in (fig.5).
Mounting of specimen
Specimen is tested as a beam supported at each end (fig.7). Hammer is
allowed to
hit then specimen at the opposite face behind the notch.

Procedure
1. Measure the dimensions of a specimen. Also, measure the dimensions of
The notch.
2. Raise the hammer and note down initial reading from the dial, which will
be
energy to be used to fracture the specimen.
3. Place the specimen for test and see that it is placed center with respect to
hammer. Check the position of notch.
4. Release the hammer and note the final reading. Difference between the
initial and final reading will give the actual energy required to fracture the
Specimen.
5. Repeat the test for specimens of other materials.
6. Compute the energy of rupture of each specimen.
Observation
Initial and final reading of the dial.
Result Strain energy of given specimen is
Study of Universal Testing Machine (U.T.M.) OBJECT: - To Study the
various component parts of the Universal Testing Machine (U.T.M.) &
test procedures of various practical have to be performed.
APPARATUS: - Universal Testing Machine with all attachment i.e.
shears test Attachment, bending attachment, tension grips,
compression test Attachment etc. DIAGRAM:-
THEORY: - The Universal Testing Machine consists of two units. 1)
Loading unit, 2) Control panel. LOADING UNIT: - It consists of main
hydraulic cylinder with robust base inside. The piston which moves
up and down. The chain driven by electric motor which is fitted on
left hand side. The screw column maintained in the base can be
rotated using above arrangement of chain. Each column passes
through the main nut which is fitted in the lower cross head. The
lower table connected to main piston through a ball & the ball seat is
joined to ensure axial loading. There is a connection between lower
table and upper head assembly that moves up and down with main
piston. The measurement of this assembly is carried out by number
of bearings which slides over the columns. The test specimen each
fixed in the job is known as Jack Job. To fix up the specimen
tightly, the movement of jack job is achieved helically by handle.
CONTROL PANEL:- It consists of oil tank having a hydraulic oil level
sight glass for checking the oil level. The pump is displacement type
piston pump having free plungers .Those ensure for continuation of
high pressure. The pump is fixed to the tank from bottom. The
suction & delivery valve are fitted to the pump near tank electric
motor driven the pump is mounted on four studs which is fitted on
the right side of the tank. There is an arrangement for loosing or
tightening of the valve. The four valves on control panel control the
oil stroke in the hydraulic system. The loading system works as
described below. The return valve is close, oil delivered by the pump
through the flow control valves to the cylinder & the piston goes up.
Pressure starts developing & either the specimen breaks or the load
having maximum value is controlled with the base dynameters
consisting in a cylinder in which the piston reciprocates. The
switches have upper and lower push at the control panel for the
downward & upward movement of the movable head. The on & of
switch provided on the control panel & the pilot lamp shows the
transmission of main supply. METHOD OF TESTING:- Initial
Adjustment: - before testing adjust the pendulum with respect to
capacity of the test i.e. 8 Tones; 10 Tones; 20 Tones; 40 Tones etc. For
ex: - A specimen of 6 tones capacity gives more accurate result of 10
Tones capacity range instead of 20 Tones capacity range. These
ranges of capacity are adjusted on the dial with the help of range
selector knob. The control weights of the pendulum are adjusted
correctly. The ink should be inserted in pen holder of recording
paper around the drum & the testing process is started depending
upon the types of test as mentioned below. TENSION TEST:- Select
the proper job and complete upper and lower check adjustment.
Apply some Greece to the tapered surface of specimen or groove.
Then operate the upper cross head grip operation handle & grip the
upper end of test specimen fully in to the groove. Keep the lower left
valve in fully close position. Open the right valve & close it after
lower table is slightly lifted. Adjust the lower points to zero with the
help of adjusting knob. This is necessary to remove the dead weight
of the lower table. Then lock the jobs in this position by operating job
working handle. Then open the left control valve. The printer on dial
gauge at which the specimen breaks slightly return back &
corresponding load is known as breaking load & maximum load is
known as the ultimate load. COMPRESSION TEST:- Fix upper and
lower pressure plates to the upper stationary head & lower table
respectively. Place the specimen on the lower plate in order to grip.
Then adjust zero by lifting the lower table. Then perform the test in
the same manner as described in tension test. FLEXURAL OR
BENDING TEST:- Keep the bending table on the lower table in such a
way that the central position of the bending table is fixed in the
central location value of the lower table. The bending supports are
adjusted to required distance. Stufers at the back of the bending
table at diferent positions. Then place the specimen on bending
table & apply the load by bending attachment at the upper stationary
head. Then perform the test in the same manner as described in
tension test. BRINELL HARDNESS TEST:- Place the specimen on the
lower table & lift it up slightly. Adjust the zero fixed value at the
bottom side of the lower cross head. Increase the load slowly ultimate
load value is obtained. Then release the load slowly with left control
valve. Get the impression of a suitable value of five to ten millimeter
on the specimen & measure the diameter of the impression correctly
by microscope & calculate Brinell hardness. SHEAR TEST:- Place the
shear test attachment on the lower table, this attachment consists of
cutter. The specimen is inserted in roles of shear test attachment &
lift the lower table so that the zero is adjusted, then apply the load
such that the specimen breaks in two or three pieces. If the specimen
breaks in two pieces then it will be in angle shear, & if it breaks in
three pieces then it will be in double shear STUDY OF
EXTENSOMETER:- This instrument is an attachment to Universal /
Tensile Testing Machines. This measures the elongation of a test
place on load for the set gauge length. The least count of
measurement being 0.01 mm, and maximum elongation measurement
up to 3 mm. This elongation measurement helps in finding out the
proof stress at the required percentage elongation. WORKING OF
THE INSTRUMENT:- The required gauge length (between 30to 120) is
set by adjusting the upper knife edges (3) A scale (2) is provided for
this purpose. Hold the specimen in the upper and lower jaws of
Tensile / Universal Testing Machine. Position the extensometer on
the specimen. Position upper clamp (4) to press upper knife edges on
the specimen. The extensometer will be now fixed to the specimen by
spring pressure. Set zero on both the dial gauges by zero adjusts
screws (7). Start loading the specimen and take the reading of load
on the machine at required elongation or the elongation at required
load. Force setter accuracies mean of both the dial gauge (8) readings
should be taken as elongation. It is very important to note & follow
the practice of removing the extensometer from the specimen before
the specimen breaks otherwise the instrument will be totally
damaged. As a safety, while testing the instrument may be kept
hanging from a fixed support by a slightly loose thread. TECHNICAL
DATA:- Measuring Range: 0 3 mm. Least Count: 0. 01 mm. Gauge
Length adjustable from: 30 120 mm Specimen Size: 1 to 20mm
Round or Flats up to 20 x 20 mm
Curve A shows a brittle material. This material is also strong because
there is little strain for a high stress. The fracture of a brittle
material is sudden and catastrophic, with little or no plastic
deformation. Brittle materials crack under tension and the stress
increases around the cracks. Cracks propagate less under
compression. Curve B is a strong material which is not ductile.
Steel wires stretch very little, and break suddenly. There can be a lot
of elastic strain energy in a steel wire under tension and it will
whiplash if it breaks. The ends are razor sharp and such a failure is
very dangerous indeed. Curve C is a ductile material Curve D is a
plastic material. Notice a very large strain for a small stress. The
material will not go back to its original length.
Experiment No.4
__________________________________________________________________
Title: Tension test
Aim: To determine the tensile strength of specimen
Specimen and equipments
Universal testing machine (fig7.a)
Specimen as shown in the( fig7.b)
Of different ferrous and non ferrous materials

Theory
The tensile test is most applied one, of all mechanical tests. In this test ends
of a
test piece are fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a
loadmeasuring
device. If the applied load is small enough, the deformation of any solid
body is entirely elastic. An elastically deformed solid will return to its original
position as soon as load is removed. However, if the load is too large, the
material
can be deformed permanently. The initial part of the tension curve (fig.8),
which is
recoverable immediately after unloading, is termed as elastic and rest of the
curve,
which represents the manner in which solid undergoes plastic deformation is
termed plastic. the stress below which the deformation is essentially entirely
elastic
is known as the yield strength of material. In some materials (like mild steel)
the
onset of plastic deformation is denoted by a sudden drop in load indicating
both an
upper and lower yield point. However, some materials do not exhibit a sharp
yield
point. During plastic deformation, at larger extensions strain hardening
cannot
compensate for the decrease in section and thus the load passes trough a
maximum and then begins to decrease. As this stage the Ultimate strength ,
which
is defined as the ratio of the specimen to original cross sectional area,
reaches a
maximum value. Further loading will eventually cause neck formation and
rupture.
Usually a tension test is conducted at room temperature and the tensile
load is applied slowly. During this test either round or flat specimens (fig.7)
may be
used. The round specimens may have smooth, shouldered or threaded ends.
The
load on the specimen is applied mechanically or hydraulically depending on
the
type of testing machine.
Procedure
1. Measure the dimensions of a specimen
Diameter=d= ,
Total length of a specimen,
Cross sectional area = Ao= ,
Mark gage length (Lo) at three different portions on the specimen,
covering effective length of a specimen.(this is required so that
necked portion will remain between any two points of gage length
on the specimen.)
2. Grip the specimen in the fixed head of a machine. (Portion of the specimen
has to be gripped as shown in the fig.7.
3. Fix the extensometer within the gauge length marked on the specimen.
Adjust the dial of extensometer at zero.
4. Adjust the dial of a machine to zero, to read load applied.
5. Select suitable increments of loads to be applied so that corresponding
elongation can be measured from dial gauge.
6. Keep speed of machine uniform. Record yield point, maximum load point,
point of breaking of specimen.
7. Remove the specimen from machine and study the fracture observes type
of fracture.
8. Measure dimensions of tested specimen. Fit the broken parts together and
measure reduced diameter and final gage length.
Observations
Specimen prepared from M.S bar/CI/Al
1. Diameter = d = mm
2. Gage length (lo)= 5Xd= mm
3. Original cross sectional area of the specimen
= Ao = mm
2
4. Final gage length obtained= Lo=
5. Final diameter obtained = mm
S.No. Load Applied Area of the Stress Modulus of
specimen Elasticity

S.No. Contraction Deformation Lateral Linear Poisson

in diameter in length strain strain Ratio

Note
1. Use vernier caliper to measure diameter, gage length etc. for the specimen.
2. If C.I. specimen is to be tested only one observation will be taken at failure.
Results
1. Calculate stress and strain for every interval of applied load.
Draw stressstrain
curve as shown in the Fig.()
2. Compute the following
a. Modulus of elasticity
Hooks law states that stress is always proportional to strain within elastic
limit. The ratio of stress and strain is constant, called modulus of elasticity
or youngs modulus (E)
E= Stress/strain =Constant=E= ,
b. Yield stress (fy);
The point, at which strain increases without increase in stress, is known as
Yield point. Stress measured at yield point is called yield stress.
 c. Tensile strength:
Maximum carrying capacity of a material in tension is called tensile
18
strength
Tensile strength= maximum tensile load/ original cross sectional
Area.
d. Percentage elongation:
The extension produced in a gage length, expressed as a percentage
of its original value(LO)
% Elongation=[(LO Lo)/Lo] X 100
where Lo is final gage length after fracture.
e. Percentage reduction in area:
= [(AoAo)/
Ao ] X100
where Ao is final reduced cross sectional area after fracture.
Compression tests are used to determine how a product or material reacts when
it is compressed, squashed, crushed or flattened by measuring fundamental
parameters that determine the specimen behavior under a compressive load.
These include the elastic limit, which for "Hookean" materials is approximately
equal to the proportional limit, and also known as yield point or yield strength,
Young's Modulus (these, although mostly associated with tensile testing, may
have compressive analogs) and compressive strength.
Compression tests can be undertaken as part of the design process, in the
production environment or in the quality control laboratory, and can be used to:
Assess the strength of components e.g. automotive and aeronautical
control switches, compression springs, bellows, keypads, package seals,
PET containers, PVC / ABS pipes, solenoids etc.
Characterise the compressive properties of materials e.g. foam, metal, PET
and other plastics and rubber

Assess the performance of products e.g. the expression force of a syringe or

the load-displacement characteristics of a tennis ball

Types of Compression Testing

Types of compression testing include:

Flexure/Bend
Spring Testing

Top-load/Crush
Benefits of Compression Testing
Compression testing provides data on the integrity and safety of materials,
components and products, helping manufacturers ensure that their finished
products are fit-for-purpose and manufactured to the highest quality.
The data produced in a compression test can be used in many ways including:

To determine batch quality

To determine consistency in manufacture

To aid in the design process

To reduce material costs and achieve lean manufacturing goals

To ensure compliance with international and industry standards

Materials Under Compression

Certain materials subjected to a compressive force show initially a linear
relationship between stress and strain. This is the physical manifestation of
Hooke's Law, which states:
E = Stress (s) / Strain (e)
where E is known as Young's Modulus for compression. This value represents
how much the material will deform under applied compressive loading before
plastic deformation occurs. A material's ability to return to its original shape
after deformation has occurred is referred to as its elasticity. Vulcanized rubber,
for instance, is said to be very elastic, as it will revert back to its original shape
after considerable compressive force has been applied.
Once a certain force or stress threshold has been achieved, permanent or plastic
deformation will occur and is shown on graphs as the point where linear
behavior stops. This threshold is known as the proportional limit and the force at
which the material begins exhibiting this behavior is called the yield point or
yield strength. A specimen will then exhibit one of two types of behavior it will
either continue to deform until it eventually breaks, or it will distort until flat. In
either case a maximum stress or force will be evident, providing its ultimate
compressive strength value.
Each of these parameters offers useful information relating to the physical
characteristics of the material in question.
Some materials, such as a PET bottle, distort during a compression test and are
measured by the degree of distortion, whereas other materials such as ceramics
fracture, produce a definitive compressive strength value.
Applications of Compression Testing
Compression testing is used to guarantee the quality of components, materials
and finished products within a wide range industries. Typical applications
of compression testing are highlighted in the following sections on:

Aerospace and Automotive Industry

Construction Industry

Cosmetics Industry

Electrical and Electronic Industry

Medical Device Industry

Packaging Industry

Paper and Board Industry

Plastics, Rubber and Elastomers Industry

Safety, Health, Fitness and Leisure Industry

Aerospace and Automotive Industry

Applications of compression testing in the aerospace and automotive industry
include:

Actuation tests on pedals, switches and solenoids

Spring testing

Construction Industry
Applications of compression testing in the construction industry include:

Measuring the flexural strength of sheet construction materials, insulation

boards and roofing panels
Penetration tests on plasterboard, pipes and shotcrete
Compression Test

A compression test is any test in which a material experiences opposing forces that push
inward upon the specimen from opposite sides or is otherwise compressed, squashed,
crushed, or flattened. The test sample is generally placed in between two plates that
distribute the applied load across the entire surface area of two opposite faces of the test
sample and then the plates are pushed together by a universal test machine causing the
sample to flatten. A compressed sample is usually shortened in the direction of the applied
forces and expands in the direction perpendicular to the force. A compression test is
essentially the opposite of the more common tension test.

Purpose of Compression Tests:

The goal of a compression test is to determine the behavior or response of a material while it
experiences a compressive load by measuring fundamental variables, such as, strain, stress,
and deformation. By testing a material in compression the compressive strength, yield
strength, ultimate strength, elastic limit, and the elastic modulus among other parameters
may all be determined. With the understanding of these different parameters and the values
associated with a specific material it may be determined whether or not the material is
suited for specific applications or if it will fail under the specified stresses.
Learn about Compression Test Fixtures...

Types of Compression Tests:

In general a compression test for a material involves at least two opposing forces directed
towards each other applied to opposite face of the test sample so that the sample is
compressed. However, there are many different variations to this basic test setup that involve
any combination of different variables. The more common compression tests involve forces
applied to more than one axis of the specimen as well as the testing of the sample at elevated
and lowered temperatures. Uniaxial, biaxial, triaxial, cold temperature, elevated
temperature, fatigue and creep are all examples of different compression tests that may be
performed upon a material.

Types of Compression Testing materials:

Typically materials subjected to compression testing have a compressive strength generally
accepted to be high and a tensile strength (e.g tensile test) that is considered to be of a lower
value. Almost all materials can experience compressive forces in one way or another
depending upon their application, but the most common materials are composites, concretes,
wood, stone, brick, mortars, grouts, polymers, plastics, foam and metals among many others.

Compression Test: Machines used for compression testing are basically similar to those used for tensile
testing often the same machine can be used to perform both tests.

Shape of the specimen: The shape of the machine to be used for the different materials are as follows:

(i) For metals and certain plastics: The specimen may be in the from of a cylinder
(ii) For building materials: Such as concrete or stone the shape of the specimen may be in the from of a
cube.
Shape of stress stain diagram
(a) Ductile materials: For ductile material such as mild steel, the load Vs compression diagram would be
as follows

1) The ductile materials such

as steel, Aluminum, and copper have stress strain diagrams similar to ones which we have for tensile test,
there would be an elastic range which is then followed by a plastic region.
(2) The ductile materials (steel, Aluminum, copper) proportional limits in compression test are very much
close to those in tension.
(3) In tension test, a specimen is being stretched, necking may occur, and ultimately fracture fakes place.
On the other hand when a small specimen of the ductile material is compressed, it begins to bulge on sides
and becomes barrel shaped as shown in the figure above. With increasing load, the specimen is flattened
out, thus offering increased resistance to further shortening ( which means that the stress strains curve
goes upward ) this effect is indicated in the diagram.
Brittle materials ( in compression test )
Brittle materials in compression typically have an initial linear region followed by a region in which the
shortening increases at a higher rate than does the load. Thus, the compression stress strain diagram has
a shape that is similar to the shape of the tensile diagram.
However, brittle materials usually reach much higher ultimate stresses in compression than in tension.
For cast iron, the shape may be like this
 Experiment
No. 8
_______________________________________________________________________
Title Compression test
Aim To find the compressive strength of given specimen.
Material and Equipment
Universal testing machine,
Compression pads,
Given specimen,
Theory
This is the test to know strength of a material under compression. Generally
compression test is carried out to know either simple compression
characteristics
of material or column action of structural members.
It has been observed that for varying height of member, keeping
crosssectional
and the load applied constant, there is an increased tendency towards
bending of
a member.
Member under compression usually bends along minor axis, i.e, along least
lateral
dimension. According to column theory slenderness ratio has more functional
value. If this ratio goes on increasing, axial compressive stress goes on
decreasing and member buckles more and more. End conditions at the time of
test have a pronounced effect on compressive strength of materials. Effective
length must be taken according to end conditions assumed, at the time of the
test.
As the ends of the member is made plain and fit between two jaws of the
machine,
 fixed end is assumed for calculation of effective length. Effective length is
taken as
0.5 L where L is actual length of a specimen
Observation
Cross sectional area of the specimen perpendicular to the load=A=mm 2
Load taken by the specimen at the time of failure, W=. (N)
Strength of the pin against shearing (s) = [W/A ] N/mm 2
Procedure
1. Place the specimen in position between the compression pads.
2. Switch on the UTM
3. Bring the drag indicator in contact with the main indicator.
4. Select the suitable range of loads and space the corresponding weight in
the pendulum and balance it if necessary with the help of small balancing
weights
5. Operate (push) the button for driving the motor to drive the pump.
6. Gradually move the head control ever in left hand direction till the
specimen
fails.
7. Note down the load at which the specimen shears
8. Stop the machine and remove the specimen.
9. Repeat the experiment with other specimens.
Precautions
1. Place the specimen at center of compression pads,
2. Stop the UTM as soon as the specimen fails.
3. Cross sectional area of specimen for compression test should be kept large
as compared to the specimen for tension test: to obtain the proper degree
of stability.
Result
Compressive strength of the specimen N/mm2

Closed Coiled helical springs subjected to axial loads:

Definition: A spring may be defined as an elastic member whose primary function is to deflect or distort
under the action of applied load it recovers its original shape when load is released.
or
Springs are energy absorbing units whose function is to store energy and to restore it slowly or rapidly
depending on the particular application.
Important types of springs are:
There are various types of springs such as
(i) helical spring: They are made of wire coiled into a helical form, the load being applied along the axis of
the helix. In these type of springs the major stresses is torsional shear stress due to twisting. They are both
used in tension and compression.
7.1.1 Definition of spring: Spring act as a flexible joint in between two parts or
bodies 7.1.2 Objectives of Spring Following are the objectives of a spring when
used as a machine member: 1. Cushioning , absorbing , or controlling of
energy due to shock and vibration. Car springs or railway buffers To control
energy, springs-supports and vibration dampers. 2. Control of motion
Maintaining contact between two elements (cam and its follower) In a cam
and a follower arrangement, widely used in numerous applications, a spring
maintains contact between the two elements. It primarily controls the motion.
Creation of the necessary pressure in a friction device (a brake or a clutch) A
person driving a car uses a brake or a clutch for controlling the car motion. A
spring system keep the brake in disengaged position until applied to stop the
car. The clutch has also got a spring system (single springs or multiple
springs) which engages and disengages the engine with the transmission
system. Restoration of a machine part to its normal position when the applied
force is withdrawn (a governor or valve) A typical example is a governor for
turbine speed control. A governor system uses a spring controlled valve to
regulate flow of fluid through the turbine, thereby controlling the turbine
speed. 3. Measuring forces Spring balances, gages Version 2 ME, IIT
Kharagpur 4. Storing of energy In clocks or starters The clock has spiral type
of spring which is wound to coil and then the stored energy helps gradual
recoil of the spring when in operation. Nowadays we do not find much use of
the winding clocks. Before considering the design aspects of springs we will
have a quick look at the spring materials and manufacturing methods. 7.1.3
Commonly used spring materials One of the important considerations in
spring design is the choice of the spring material. Some of the common spring
materials are given below. Hard-drawn wire: This is cold drawn, cheapest
spring steel. Normally used for low stress and static load. The material is not
suitable at subzero temperatures or at temperatures above 1200C. Oil-
tempered wire: It is a cold drawn, quenched, tempered, and general purpose
spring steel. However, it is not suitable for fatigue or sudden loads, at subzero
temperatures and at temperatures above 1800C. When we go for highly
stressed conditions then alloy steels are useful. Chrome Vanadium: This alloy
spring steel is used for high stress conditions and at high temperature up to
2200C. It is good for fatigue resistance and long endurance for shock and
impact loads. Chrome Silicon: This material can be used for highly stressed
springs. It offers excellent service for long life, shock loading and for
temperature up to 2500C. Music wire: This spring material is most widely
used for small springs. It is the toughest and has highest tensile strength and
can withstand repeated loading at high stresses. However, it can not be used
at subzero temperatures or at temperatures above 1200C. Normally when we
talk about springs we will find that the music wire is a common choice for
springs. Stainless steel: Widely used alloy spring materials. Phosphor
Bronze / Spring Brass: Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur It has good corrosion
resistance and electrical conductivity. Thats the reason it is commonly used
for contacts in electrical switches. Spring brass can be used at subzero
temperatures. Experiment Number: 7
Title of the Experiment: Compression Test on Open Coil Helical Spring
Date of the Experiment:
STEP 1: OBJECTIVE (AIM) OF THE EXPERIMENT
To determine the stiffness of spring, modulus of rigidity of the spring wire
and maximum
strain energy stored.
STEP 2: FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a.)Facilities required to do the experiment:-
S.No. Facilities required Quantity
1 Spring testing machine 1
2 Open coil spring 1
3 Vernier caliper 1
b.)Theory:- This is the test to know strength of a material under
compression. Generally
compression test is carried out to know either simple compression
characteristics of
material or column action of structural members. It has been observed that
for varying
height of member, keeping cross-sectional and the load applied constant,
there is an
increased tendency towards bending of a member. Member under compression
usually
bends along minor axis, i.e, along least lateral dimension. According to
column theory
slenderness ratio has more functional value. If this ratio goes on increasing,
axial
compressive stress goes on decreasing and member buckles more and more.
End
conditions at the time of test have a pronounced effect on compressive
strength of
materials. Effective length must be taken according to end conditions
assumed, at the
time of the test. As the ends of the member is made plain and fit between two
jaws of the
machine, fixed end is assumed for calculation of effective length. Effective
length is
taken as 0.5 L where L is actual length of a specimen.
c.)Procedure for doing the experiment:-
Step No. Details of the step
1. By using vernier caliper measure the diameter of the wire of the
spring and also the diameter of spring coil.
2. Count the number of turns
3. Insert the spring in the spring testing machine and load the spring by a
suitable weight and note the corresponding axial deflection in
compression.
4. Increase the load and take the corresponding axial deflection readings.
5. Plot a curve between load and deflection.
6. The shape for the curve gives the stiffness of the spring.
d.)Tabulation:-
S.No Load Length of the Deflection Stifness Modulus
Spring of
Rigidity
In In N Initial Final mm N/mm N/mm2
Kg
e.) Observation and Calculation: -
(i) Inner diameter of spring di =
(ii) Outer diameter of spring do=
(iii) Length of th spring l =69 mm
(iv) Number of turns n= 10
(v) Material of spring=steel
(vi) Youngs modulus =2105
1. Deflection (d) = 64 WR3N Sec a [ cos2a / N + 2Sin2a /E] N/mm2
d2
d=424-423=1 mm
Where,
W=Load applied in Newton
R=Mean radius of spring coil = (D-d) / 2
N= Number of turns
a=Helix angle of spring
N=Modulus of rigidity of spring Material
E=Youngs modulus of the spring material
2. Tan a = pitch / 2R
=tan-1(6.3/2 x13.25)
=3.18
3. Pitch = (L-d) / n
=(69-3)/10
=6.3
Where,
d=Dia of spring wire in mm
L=Length of spring in mm
N=no of turns in spring
4. Stiffness of spring (K)=w / d
=15/1
=15
Where,
d=Deflection of spring in mm
W=Load applied in Newtons
Dr.NNCE MECH/IV SEM SOM LAB -LM
27
5. Maximum energy stored = 0.5 x Wmax x dmax
=0.5 x47 x3
=70.5
Where,
Wmax=Maximum load applied
dMax=Maximum deflection
f.)Precautions:-
1. Place the specimen at center of compression pads,
2. Stop the machine as soon as the specimen fails.
3. Cross sectional area of specimen for compression test should be kept large
as
compared to the specimen for tension test: to obtain the proper degree of
stability
g.)Result:-
Under compression test on open coil helical spring
1. Rigidity Modulus (N) =3.1105 N/mm2
2.Stiffness of spring (K)= 15.66 N/mm
3. Maximum energy stored =70.5
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define principal stresses and principal plane?
Principal Stresses: The magnitude of normal stress, acting on a principal
plane is
known as principal stresses.
Principal Plane: The planes which have no shear stress are known as
principal planes.
2. What is the radius of Mohrs circle?
Radius of Mohrs circle is equal to the maximum shear stress.
3. What is the use of Mohrs circle?
Dr.NNCE MECH/IV SEM SOM LAB -LM
28
This chapter provides fundamental knowledge of torsion test and significant
parameters such as torque, modulus of rupture in torsion and angle of rotation will
be highlighted. Different types of torsion failures will be evaluated and
differentiated from tension failures.
Torsion test is not widely accepted as much as tensile test. Torsion tests are made
on materials to determine such properties as the modulus of elasticity in shear, the
torsion yield strength and the modulus of rupture. Often used for testing brittle
materials and can be tested in full-sized parts, i.e., shafts, axles and twist drills
which are subjected to torsional loading in service.
Examples: Driveshaft is subjected to torsion in service.
Torsion-testing equipment consists of 1) A twisting head, with a chuck for gripping
the specimen and for applying the twisting moment to the specimen. 2) A weight
head, which grips the other end of the specimen and measures the twisting moment
of torque.
Specimen used A circular cross section specimen is normally used since in the elastic
range, shear stress varies linearly from a value zero at the centre of the bar to a
maximum value at the surface.
Determination of torsion test Determination is made of the angular displacement
(or degree of rotation) of a point near one end of the test section of the specimen with
respect to a point on the same longitudinal element at the opposite end (using
Troptometer).
Generally, torsion occurs when the twisting moment or torque is applied to a member
according to figure 1. The torque is the product of tangential force multiplied by the
radial distance from the twisting axis and the tangent, measured in a unit of N.m. In
torsion testing, the relationship between torque and degree of rotation is graphically
presented and parameters such as ultimate torsional shearing strength (modulus of
rupture), shear strength at proportional limit and shear modulus (modulus of
rigidity) are generally investigated. Moreover, fracture surfaces of specimens tested
under torsion can be used to determine the characteristics of the materials whether
it would fail in a brittle or a ductile manner.
In order to study the response of materials under a torsional force, the torsion test is
performed by mounting the specimen onto a torsion testing machine as shown in
figures 2-4, and then applying the twisting moment till failure. The torque and
degree of rotation are measured and plotted as shown in figure 5. It can be seen that
higher torsional force is required at the higher degrees of rotation. Normally, the test
specimens used are of a cylindrical rod type since the stress distribution across the
section of the rod is the simplest geometry, which is easy for the calculation of the
stresses. Both ends of the cylindrical specimen are tightened to hexagonal sockets in
which one is fitted to a torque shaft and another is fitted to an input shaft. The
twisting moment is applied by turning the input handwheel as illustrated in figure 3
to produce torque until the specimen fails.
elastically deformed and the recovery of the specimen to its original shape is possible
if the specimen is unloaded. However, if a high degree of rotation is applied passing a
proportional limit, the specimen starts to deform plastically and will not return to its
original shape when the input handwheel is turned anti-clockwise. The degree of
rotation can be read out from two protractors, elastic and plastic range protractors.
First, an elastic range protractor scale is fitted on the input handwheel connected to
the input shaft of the gear box. This protractor scale provides an accurate reading of
0.1o and thus one revolution represents 6o . A resettable revolution counter is fitted
to the gearbox to record the overall input revolutions. When the twisting moment is
large, the second protractor scale is required for the readouts in the plastic range of
deformation. The second protractor is fitted onto the output shaft and provides a
reading of 1o with one revolution representing 360o .
Considering a cylindrical bar with one end being twisted as shown in figure 6, the
twisting moment MT is resisted by the shear stress existing across the specimen
section. This shear stress is zero at the center of the bar, increases linearly with its
radius and finally reaches its maximum value at the peripheral of the bar. If the
cylindrical bar with a length of L, the twisting moment can be related to the shear
stress as follow
. Materials and equipment 2.1 Test specimens 2.2 Micrometer or vernia
caliper 2.3 Permanent pen 2.4 Torsion testing machine 3. Experimental
Procedure 3.1 Measure initial diameter, initial length and initial gauge length
of the specimen. Record these parameters on the table provided. 3.2 Draw a
line using a permanent pen along the length of the test specimen. This line
will help to notice the degree of rotation during applying the twisting
moment. 3.3 Calibrate the testing equipment following section 1.3. 3.4 Grip
the test specimen on to the torsion testing machine using hexagonal sockets
and make sure the specimens are firmly mounted. Fit both ends of the
specimen to input and torque shafts and set reading on the torque meter to
zero. 3.5 Start twisting the specimen at strain increment of 0.5o until failure
occurs. Record the received data rotation in the table provided for the
construction of torque and degree relationship 3.6 Construct the relationship
between shear stress and shear strain. Determine maximum shear stress,
shear stress at proportional limit and modulus of rigidity. 3.7 Sketch fracture
surfaces of failed specimens and described their natures in the table provided.
3.8 Discuss and conclude the obtained experimental results.
Torsion test on mild steel rod. OBJECT: -To conduct torsion test on mild steel or cast
iron specimens to find out modulus of rigidity APPARATUS: - 1. A torsion testing
machine. 2. Twist meter for measuring angles of twist 3. A steel rule and Vernier
Caliper or micrometer

A torsion test is quite instrumental in determining the value of modulus of rigidity of

a metallic specimen. The value of modulus of rigidity can be found out thought
observations made during the experiment by using the torsion equation
PROCEDURE:- 1. Select the driving dogs to suit the size of the specimen and
clamp it in the machine by adjusting the length of the specimen by means of a
sliding spindle. 2. Measure the diameter at about three places and take the
average value. 3. Choose the appropriate range by capacity change lever 4. Set
the maximum load pointer to zero. 5. Set the protector to zero for convenience
and clamp it by means of knurled screw. 6. Carry out straining by rotating the
handweel in either direction. 7. Load the machine in suitable increments. 8.
Then load out to failure as to cause equal increments of strain reading. 9. Plot
a torque- twist (T- ) graph. 10. Read off co-ordinates of a convenient point
from the straight line portion of the torque twist (T- ) graph and calculate
the value of C by using relation

RESULT:- i) Modulus of rigidity of mild steel rod is ------------- N/mm2 ii) Modulus of
rigidity of Aluminum rod is ------------- N/mm2
Experiment Number: 8
Title of the Experiment: Torsion Test on Mild Steel
Date of the Experiment:
STEP 1: OBJECTIVE (AIM) OF THE EXPERIMENT
To find the modulus of rigidity.
STEP 2: FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a.)Facilities required to do the experiment:-
S.No. Facilities required Quantity
1 A torsion testing apparatus. 1
2 Standard specimen of mild steel . 1
3 Twist meter for measuring angles of
twist.
1
4 A steel rule and calipers and
micrometer.
1
b.)Theory:- A torsion test is quite instrumental in determining the value of
rigidity (ratio of
shear stress to shear strain) of a metallic specimen. The value of modulus of
rigidity can be
found out through observations made during the experiment by using the
torsion equation.
T/ Ip =C /L or C=TL/I
Where T=torque applied,
Ip= polar moment of inertia,
C=modulus of rigidity,
= Angle of twist (radians), and
l= gauge length.
In the torque equipment refer fig. One end of the specimen is held by a fixed
support and the other end to a pulley. The pulley provides the necessary
torque to
twist the rod by addition of weights (w). The twist meter attached to the rod
gives the
angle of twist.
c.)Procedure for doing the experiment:-
Step No. Details of the step
1. Prepare the testing machine by fixing the two twist meters at some
constant lengths from fixed support.
2. Measure the diameter of the pulley and the diameter of the rod
3. Add weights in the hanger stepwise to get a notable angle of twist for T1
and T2
3. Using
Deflection of beams
To determined youngs modulus of elasticity of material of beam simply supported at
ends. OBJECT:-To find the values of bending stresses and youngs modulus of
elasticity of the material of a beam simply supported at the ends and carrying a
concentrated load at the centre. APPARATUS: - 1.Deflection of beam apparatus 2.
Pan 3. Weights 4. Beam of different cross-sections and material (say wooden and
Steel beams).
THEORY:- If a beam is simply supported at the ends and carries a concentrated load
at its centre, the beam bends concave upwards. The distance between the original
position of the beams and its position after bending at different points along the
length of the beam, being maximum at the centre in this case. This difference is
known as deflection in this particular type of loading the maximum amount of
deflection () is given by the relation W =Load acting at the center, N L =Length of
the beam between the supports mm E =Youngs modulus of material of the beam,
N/mm2
I =Second moment of area of the cross- section (i.e., moment of Inertia) of the beam,
about the neutral axis, mm.4 BENDING STRESS Where, M = Bending moment, N-
mm I = Moment of inertia, mm.4 b = Bending stress, N/mm2, and Y = Distance of
the top fiber of the beam from the neutral axis
PROCEDURE: 1. Adjust cast- iron block along the bed so that they are symmetrical
with respect to the length of the bed. 2. Place the beam on the knife edges on the
block so as to project equally beyond each knife edge. See that the load is applied at
the centre of the beam 3. Note the initial reading of vernier scale. 4. Add a weight of
20N (say) and again note the reading of the vernier scale. 5. Go on taking readings
adding 20N (say) each time till you have minimum six readings. 6. Find the
deflection () in each case by subtracting the initial reading of vernier scale. 7. Draw
a graph between load (W) and deflection (). On the graph choose any two convenient
points and between these points find the corresponding values of W and . putting
these Values in the relation 8. Calculate the bending stresses for different loads
using relation WI 3/48 I = Calculate the value of E MY/I b = as given in the
observation table
RESULT: 1. The youngs modulus for steel beam is found to be----- N/mm2. 2. The
youngs modulus for wooden beam is found to be----- N/mm2