Case Study
The application of tourist gaze
Correspondence:
Eko Nursanty
Department of Architecture,
Faculty of Engineering,
University of 17 Agustus 1945
(UNTAG), Semarang, Indonesia
E-mail: santy@untagsmg.ac.id
2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
theory to support city branding
in the planning of the historic
city Surakarta, Indonesia
Received (in revised form): 5th August 2016
Eko Nursanty
is currently a full-time student in the Doctorate Program in Architectural and Urban Engineering at Diponegoro University,
Semarang, Indonesia. She earned her undergraduate degree in 1998 from the Department of Architecture, University of 17
Agustus 1945 (UNTAG), Semarang, and completed her postgraduate degree from the Department of Architecture, Diponegoro
University in 2000. Her doctoral dissertation focuses on the Competitive Advantages of the city of Surakarta. Since 2000 she has
been a permanent lecturer at the Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, University of 17 Agustus 1945 (UNTAG),
Semarang, Indonesia. The following is a list of some of her research projects: Developing A Citys Competitiveness Using Natural
Potential towards Sustainable Branding; Architecture and Its Life as Branding Elements in the City of Cultural Heritage in Solo;
Travel by Design as a Part of Lifestyle in Architecture; Accessible Tourism, Tourism without Barriers in Architecture and Tourism
Design.
Atik Suprapti
is a permanent lecturer and the secretary of the Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Diponegoro University
(UNDIP), Semarang, Indonesia. She earned her undergraduate degree in Architecture in 1991 from Diponegoro University,
Semarang, Indonesia. She completed her postgraduate degree in Architectural Engineering and Doctorate in Architecture from
Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia. The following is a list of some of her research projects: The Tradition and
Changes in the Muslim Settlement in the North Coast of Java and the Spatial Phenomenon of Walisanga Pilgrimage Site as
Tourism Assets.
Joesron Alie Syahbana
is an Associate Professor and the Chief of the postgraduate program in Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Engineering,
Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia. He earned his undergraduate and postgraduate degree from Bandung Institute of
Technology in 1980 and 1992, respectively. A Doctor of Philosophy degree was conferred upon him from Universitas Gadjah
Mada in 2003. His research focuses on the following areas: Management of Urban Development, Social Planning, and Spatial
Planning. Some of his publications are as follows: The Effectiveness of Spatial Planning in Directing Infrastructure Development;
Community Participation in the Provision of Urban Infrastructure through Community Contracts in Pontianak City; Towards
Effective Community Empowerment-Based Urban Infrastructure Management.
ABSTRACT Globalization has led to increasingly fierce intercity competition. At the
same time, it has motivated these cities to grow and develop by building their own
local uniqueness spatially displayed in urban spaces. However, poor understanding
of the utilization of local values makes cities in Indonesia compete using identical
methods without bringing out their respective uniqueness. As a result, their ongoing
city branding efforts often become futile, short lived, and even, sometimes, confusing
for the society. This paper attempts to examine the city branding processes of a
historic city in which the tourist gaze can be involved directly in the development of
such processes by considering all the elements of society actively. This is a case
study of Surakarta City, Central Java Province, which is better known as Solo City.
The research was undertaken in a historic area in Jalan Rajiman and Jalan Slamet
Riyadi. What makes these findings unique is the identification of the three stages of
the tourist gaze occurring consecutively in each spatial zone. In terms of the
www.palgrave.com/journals
Nursanty et al
architecture, the sequence of those three gaze stages can be connected directly to the current
urban space and architectural establishment.
Place Branding and Public Diplomacy (2016). doi:10.1057/s41254-016-0037-3
Keywords: tourist gaze; city branding; competitive advantages; city heritage
INTRODUCTION
According to Koltringer and Dickinger (2015),
research in city branding, place marketing, and
destination imaging has gained enormous
attention among researchers and the industrial
circle. City tours in some aspects have generated
added values with regards to the way urban spaces
are presented, which in turn will provide a
meaningful gaze to viewers as well as provide
added values as an attempt to improve city
branding. Initially, the concept of city branding
was used only by city marketing professionals.
This research attempts to discover the relationship
between the role of urban spaces in city branding
in improving a citys competitiveness, both in
terms of physical and non-physical aspects.
Zenker and Martin (2011) state that the new
existing condition of measurable factors may also
facilitate successful spatial marketing. According
to Zenker, the success of spatial marketing can be
measured using parameters indicating satisfaction
and fulfillment of the rights of the community,
which in this case are customer-centered
parameters. Research conducted by Kavaratzis
(2004) describes city marketing implementation.
City marketing relies heavily on the construction,
communication, and management of the
perceived city image along with the convergence
of the perceptions and the images of the urban
spaces. The object of city marketing is the citys
image which begins with building city branding.
According to Kavaritzis, the most important
concept to understand regarding city marketing is
developing the city brand concept by ways of
modification and application in a city. As a sample
case in Solo, they have collected a variety of
unique local community activities (ways of
modification) that have been carried out for
generations; one of them is to make batik. They
collected a thousand batik makers and created
2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
batiks with a thousand dancers dressed in batik
an interesting event conducted to build brand
Solo and Solo Batik Tourism.
In the view of Anholt, based on the history of
the world economy, a great number of small
countries that seem promising, manage to become
extremely rich. On the other hand, countries
with vast and fertile land are unable to develop a
quality city. Various types of city branding which
exist to date are merely elements of values created
according to the governments desire; even in
some countries, they simply serve as a symbol
applied universally (Anholt, 2005). A brand
should provide an intangible added value to a
product in an effort to maintain it.
Tourist gaze
The Tourist Gaze theory originated from peoples
need for an atmosphere of having fun, leaving their
daily activities and going traveling. Such a trip
usually raises the need for various things, both
goods and services which they usually do not need
in their daily life. They pay for these things because
they pursue an experience of happiness which is far
different from their everyday life. Such different
experiences include, among other things, the view
of a variety of urban spaces and landscapes and the
life atmosphere therein which they do not see in
their everyday life. On a visit to a new place, they
may see a new environment enthusiastically and
with great curiosity. This describes the way one
appreciates or at least considers a place to be visited.
The initial concept of gaze stems from a purely
human perspective. Humans see the world through
a filter in forms of ideas, skills, excitement, and
expectations, all of which are restricted by social
classes, gender, nationality, age, and education
(Berger, 1972). Gazing in certain circumstances
can also be individually conditioned by ones
experience and memory, and restricted by habits
 Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding
and styles just like the circulation of the drawings
and writings on other spaces and places of the same
kind (Urry, 2002).
In fact, a gaze does not only belong to tourists
who come to visit a city. Instead, everyone has
their own gaze (Maoz, 2006). Tourists have their
own gaze of a city and the way its society behaves.
The citys inhabitants also have their own gaze of
the visitors who come to their city. Neither of
them is more dominant or dominated. Both are
interconnected simultaneously (Cheong and
Miller, 2000). Urry (2002) argued that photog-
raphy raises an improvement in taste, especially in
terms of sensory perception such as sight, touch,
smell, and hearing. This leads to the location and
dislocation phenomenon in the feeling of a space
and the experience of being in the space (Bruno,
2002). According to Mahn (2014), research on
the stereotypes of the lives of the people of
Greece revealed that tourists have had a virtual
picture of the life in the location they will visit the
first time they arrive in Greece. It proves true as
many of them brought with them two important
things while visiting Greece, namely a travel
guide book and a pair of glasses to watch opera
(Mahn, 2014). Tourist gaze differentiates seeing
from Gaze; for example, the world can see Solo
city through the gaze of an architect as a historic
city because of the many heritage buildings in
Solo. Solo can also show the world a unique
fashion city through the gaze of batik fashion fans.
This Gaze is limited by social class, gender,
nationality, age, and education (Urry and Larsen,
2011). According to Urry and Larsen, Tourist
Gaze is equally the strong forces of uniqueness in
general and uniqueness based on the individuals
viewpoints. Among these two forces, there is a
distance that limits them, namely social factors
such as class and gender.
City branding
City branding as a system can enhance a citys
ability to compete with the other cities around it.
A number of studies have been conducted, some of
which discuss consistent brand unification of the
outskirts to produce an interregional brand that
brings together regions into a unified perception
2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
captured by tourists as well as uniting and
strengthening these adjacent regions (Cai, 2002).
Thus, this increased brand power will enhance the
attractiveness of the region in the eyes of investors
(Marzano and Scott, 2009). In the field of tourism,
it is necessary to implement a strategy of sustained
understanding accounting for the governments
evaluation in attempts to promote tourism (Pastras
and Bramwell, 2013). Beijing has made efforts to
improve city branding through the 2008 Olympic
event. The city branding concept reveals that the
relationship between this identity and the main
value which Beijing convey as a city has is based on
the experience of visitors, not compatibility
(Zhang and Zhao, 2009). However, the existence
of sports events can raise the rating of the activities
in a city if such an event is also combined with
recreational activities that are fun and not in haste
(Xing and Chalip, 2006). A feeling of awe in a city
can arise positively on its own within a community
based on a sense of security experienced simulta-
neously at various levels of the economy of a city
(Russell et al, 2009).
Initially, the city branding concept was an
imagineering description. This sort of thing
should be fully understood by city managers to
effectively build the brand framework and its
strategy (Kavaratzis and Ashworth, 2005). This
imagineering description should truely refer to the
significant and potential process of a citys symbols
and apply to the different experiences of com-
munities (Konig, 2011). The field of urban
planning demonstrates that city branding can
build unity among the satellite regions around the
major city (Merrilees et al, 2013). To ensure that a
city branding effort is fruitful, we need to com-
pare it with other cities around in terms of the
core competencies which each of these locations
has (Jarvisalo, 2012).
In Torino City, Italy, the city branding is based
on the creative culture of this citys community
which has created a city with a creative environ-
ment using the products of creative industries to
compete with other cities at the international level
(Vanolo, 2008). As part of a city, natural landscapes
can be a citys brand if they are abundant and
unique and can become a real resource as a place of
community gathering (Tobias and Wahlb, 2013).
Nursanty et al
The green city concept is a sustainable environ-
ment concept with green spaces created creatively,
either by professionals or the local community
producing a brand for the sustainable life of a city
(Gulsrud et al, 2013).
City branding affects tourists in deciding their
tourist destination. Regional branding requires
spaces and greater needs with different types of
tourists. Meanwhile, to be the brand of a country
requires the emotional parts of the regions to
represent their brand (Caldwell and Freire, 2004).
Humans as inhabitants of a city can undertake city
branding using their abilities, both individually and
in groups, by establishing creative industries in
accordance with their original environment and
life (Merrilees et al, 2013). The existing social
forces constitute the power of a tourist destination
as perceived by tourists because therein the power
processes of the various values of life in the city are
described (Marzano and Scott, 2009). Buildings
which serve as a citys icon can contribute through
their special meaning to the positive image of the
city as reflected in the good habits and the high
level of satisfaction of both the visitors and the local
community. These buildings illustrate the unique
spaces and activities which significantly affect
human comfort (Riza et al, 2012).
The relationship
between creative economy
and a creative city
The Quality of Life must be considered when
making comparisons between different cities. The
Quality of Life refers to a feeling of welfare and
satisfaction felt by the majority of the population or
visitors of particular place (Andrews, 2001). There
is a positive relationship between the image and the
satisfaction of tourists. A strong and clearly iden-
tified image will positively affect visitors satisfac-
tion. Thus, the role of iconic buildings is to
identify the image of a city or place (Jencks, 2005).
The basic theory of creative cities was initially
criticized as it generates a double meaning in the
policy process. However, in some cases, it indeed
becomes a key element in the process of planning
and marketing of a city (Vanolo, 2008). In general,
the image of the city brings a meaning and idea to
2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
the spaces established, not only visually but also by
several other elements (Shields, 1991). These
include aspects related to symbols which contain
similarities to the cities components such as roads,
monuments, and buildings. A sense of community
is also an important aspect, and despite its con-
ceptual basis, affects the image delivered by tour
guides, in films and slogans as well locally con-
ducted tourist promotions.
Another important aspect is non-phsyical
property. All these are a symbolic construction of a
citys image that is generally analyzed using two
different perspectives, internally and externally
(Lalli, 1992). Internally, the image of the city is the
perception held by the local actors of a city that can
be identified through the geographic boundaries of
a space. Externally, the image of the city refers to
the description of a city perceived by the com-
munity or an organization which at first is not a
habit but later develops into the local life and local
symbol. Externally, a citys image often constitutes
the subtle and abstract part and has a simple form,
such as the assumptions about a citys positive or
negative values which do not commonly occur.
Most of those perceptions are important as they
can be used as a source of information which later
will be organized and then structured in terms of
their general formulation. Afterward, estimation
will be made regarding the most appropriate steps
which can be done, for example, for tourists or
investors. This is what underlies the importance for
cities of branding (Kavaratzis and Ashworth, 2005).
The positive and fascinating image is the main tool
to raise the number of visitors and investors glob-
ally in an attempt to enhance local development
(Gold and Ward, 1994).
A creative city is believed to play a major role
in creating ones tourist gaze. In accordance with
several existing literature, there are three stages of
Tourist Gaze processes, namely before one arrives
in a location for the first time as in the example of
the tourists who visit Greece with guidebooks and
glasses to watch opera (Armstrong, 1893). Urry
and Larsen (2011) further state that while visiting
a location, tourists will be confronted with two
contradictory things, i.e., uniqueness of the
location in general and their personal experience
which is usually influenced by their social class
 Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding
and gender. However, according to Urry, pho-
tography will give further effects after one returns
from the location depicted in photos, which is
known as growing separation of the sense. invasion. Officially, the new palace of Mataram
Reinforced by Garrington (2010), who describes
a phenomenon where ones sensory experience
will improve into a new form, which brings
together several sensors such as touch, smell, and
various kinesthetic experiences appreciated by
body movements.
SOLO: THE SPIRIT OF JAVA
AS AN EFFECTIVE SUSTAINABLE
METHOD IN THE DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS OF SURAKARTA
Solo is one of the cities located in Central Java
Province. Its official name in the government is
Surakarta. The name Solo itself is a great name designation of Solo: the Spirit of Java. This was
known by the general public during the
seventeenth century. This region is part of the
Kingdom of Surakarta Sunnanate, based in Solo
Village. The great name of Solo is considered to
still have historic power as a legacy of the largest
kingdom in the island of Java, i.e., Mataram.
Figure 1 shows Mataram areas since 1613 until
1830 which have a long history.
In 16131645, the kingdom of Mataram
covered the entire area of Java Island. However,
as the VOC (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie), a
Dutch chartered company monopolizing trading
activities in Asia, arrived, Mataram areas split into
smaller areas. Another cause for the fragmentation
of Mataram areas was civil war. The winners were
usually supported by the VOC, and in return they
gave a prize, namely part of their territory.
In 1757, Mataram was only one third of its
initial area. Mataram was divided into five
sections through the Treaty of Giyanti: (1) The
Great Country of Surakarta, (2) Haryo Surakarta,
(3) Haryo Yogyakarta, (4) Mangkunegaran, and
(5) VOC. In 1830, the remaining areas of
Mataram shrunk further, covering four areas
which still exist today: (1) The Sunnanate of
Surakarta, (2) The Sultanate of Yogyakarta, (3)
Mangkunegaran, and (4) Pakualaman.
In 1745, Sunan Pakubuwono II, the King of
the Sultanate of Mataram, moved the royal
2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
location from Kartasura to Sala Village, a village
not far from the banks of Bengawan Solo because
Kartasura palace had been destroyed by a rebel
was named the Sunnanate of Surakarta
Hadiningrat and began to be occupied on
February 17, 1745 in Solo Village. This date was
later defined as the anniversary of the City of
Surakarta (Solo).
Currently, Solo or Surakarta City is an
autonomous region with city status under Central
Java Province, Indonesia. Solo city has an area of
44 km2 and a density of 13,636/km2. Figure 2
shows the position of Solo city in Java Island,
Indonesia as a part of Central Java region.
Tracing the long history behind the inception
of Solo City justifies the choice by the
government of Solo City of a brand using the
launched in 2005. Various attempts were then
made to apply this brand into definite steps
toward the economic development of Solo City
and the satellite cities around it, namely Solo
Raya, consisting of one municipality and six
regencies which formerly were the Surakarta
residency: (1) Surakarta (Solo), (2) Boyolali, (3)
Sukoharjo, (4) Karanganyar, (5) Wonogiri, (6)
Sragen, and (7) Klaten.
In an attempt to market and develop regions,
regional branding serves as a strategic tool to foster
competitiveness. An increasing number of regions
have adopted the concept of building regional
branding, for example in Australia, Brazil,
Colombia, and Spain by performing the strategy
of regional branding (Garcia et al, 2012). The
model for the existing concept and the application
process of spatial branding were developed at
different speeds. Several empirical studies have
been conducted; for example, Pike who has
identified 33 out of 74 regional brands, focused
on a case study taking place between 1998 and
2007. This research shows briefly that these
empirical cases are influenced by the fact that
regional branding is greatly influenced by
stakeholders (Pike, 2009). Based on Berrys
findings, the adaptation model of regional
branding draws on three aspects of stakeholders,
namely entrepreneurs, local community, and
Nursanty et al
Figure 1: Maps illustrating Mataram Areas since 1613 until 1830.
Figure 2: The position of Solo (Surakarta) City in Indonesia.
visitors. The success of a brand can be further
specified into a form of four pyramid
constructions (Berry, 2000).
Of the various theories about cities
competitiveness, the majority of reviews argue
that the existing research has always focused just
on the ability to compete in economic terms
(Vanolo, 2008). No one had started to consider
natural resources in a multidimensional manner
with regard to a citys competitiveness, using an
indicator, namely either the amount of income or
productivity. It certainly cannot fully explain the
estimated competitiveness (Gardiner et al, 2004).
Discovering the uniqueness
of Solo through the brand Solo:
the Spirit of Java
Satisfaction and the quality of life for a citys
population and its visitors are greatly influenced
by the image of the city and its spaces created by
the historic and monumental buildings (Riza et al,
2012). On the other hand, in its development, a
city is always striving to discover new efforts to
promote itself. With the rapid growth of tech-
nology, a city changes what at first was only a
local environment, into a global environment.
Cities start to compete with one another in an
2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
effort to attract tourists in various ways. In addi-
tion to making itself into a tourist destination a
city also needs to be a decent place to work and
do business and be a culturally rich environment
that attracts residents, among other things (Kotler
and Gertner, 2002). Kavaratzis (2004) adds a view
that the increased competition between cities can
be seen as one of the effects of globalization. It is
seen in a variety of forms and types of activities.
Modern cities constantly improve themselves on a
sustainable basis, among other things, by building
a strategy to facilitate such self-development
attempts, selling the added value they have, and
promoting themselves to the global market.
Several studies show that there are three main
approaches to city promotion: (1) cultural events
(cultural festivals), (2) restoration, and (3) pro-
motion of the historic district areas and iconic
building (Hankinson, 2006).
Solo has made many efforts to promote itself,
including through cultural events which have
taken place over hundreds of years and remain
preserved until now. Generally, such cultural
events or festivals become increasingly integrated
with the lives of the local community according
to the development and needs of the community.
Cultural events in Solo City can be said to be
sustainable and continuous with the social
 Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding
development of the community. For example, the
Grebeg Maulud ceremony was originally rou-
tinely performed to welcome the Islamic New
Year; people also regularly held the Sudiro Gre-
beg ceremony to welcome the Chinese New
Year (see Figure 3).
The spatial planning of Solo City
Kirsch has explored the idea that attention visually
contributes to the distortion of perception (Kirsch,
2015). It follows that to plan movement orienta-
tion will largely determine the direction of ones
visual center that in turn will determine the final
outcome of such movement. It can be concluded
that by facilitating the visual process in the targeted
locations, the eye movement process can be
planned (Dube et al, 1998). In fact, planning action
processes is very closely related to ones visual
attention. At the time ones attention does not
have any particular orientation, the activities
undertaken still have the motor sensor circle. In
other words, the result of the motor process is
consistent with what the premotor sensor of the
attention has suggested (Rizzolatti et al, 1994).
Figure 3: Grebeg Sudiro in Solo.
2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
This research focused on two magnet spaces in
Solo City which result from the existence of two
main roads, namely Jalan Rajiman as the road
built in Solo City when Surakarta Palace was
moved from Kartasura to Solo and a road built by
the VOC, namely Jalan Slamet Riyadi.
Jalan Rajiman was the first built road in Solo
City, serving as an opening road for the center of
Solo City from its inception. Around Jalan Raji-
man is the area of cultural heritage which has a
significant historic value for Solo City, which we
call The Power of the Past. Jalan Slamet Riyadi built
under the Dutch colonization provides an access
to the new modern urban space, which we call
The Power of the Present areas, with planning that
emphasizes the role of the tourist gaze therein. A
combination of these two magnets is expected to
create power that coalesces into The Power of the
Future which will also serve as the power of
competitiveness (competitive advantage) for Solo
City. In Figure 4 below, The Power of the Past
areas are indicated in blue, The Power of the Present
areas are indicated in yellow, and The Power of the
Future areas are indicated in green and located in
the upper layer of both the blue and yellow zones.
Nursanty et al
Figure 4: Maps illustrating the spatial power hierarchy of Solo City.
Rajiman area and development
of creative economy
Based on Figure 4 above, it can be seen that
there are two main areas in Solo city center,
which are separated by Jalan Slamet Riyadi. The
area considered to have The Power of the Past is
the area of the initial establishment of Solo city
with Jalan Rajiman situated at the central part of
the area, it has been used to guide the city
development since its inception. In the north of
Jalan Slamet Riyadi lies the area of The Power of
the Present, which is dominated by modern
businesses such as hotels, shopping centers,
restaurants, and banks.
Solos city branding The Spirit of Java is very
familiar among the population in the area of The
Power of the Past. The findings of the field research
identified 3 zones with their own characteristics as
illustrated in zones A, B, and C in Figure 5.
Zone A illustrated in Figure 3 is an area located
very close to the center of Solo Palace. Since the
city of Solo was first established in 1745 until
now, this area has been designated as the center
for a variety of activities and has supported the
citys economy to this date. The major units in
Zone A include the following: (i) The Palace as
the remnants of the Kingdom of Surakarta; (ii)
Klewer Market which was originally a place next
to the Palace where sales and purchase
2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
transactions took place spontaneously. It still plays
a vital role for activities of the batik trade in
Indonesia which also serves as a shopping desti-
nation Solo city; (iii) The Great Mosque of Sur-
akarta Hadiningrat Palace, which was the center
of Islamic learning built by courtiers of the Palace
who had completed their study in Islamic teach-
ings in Egypt. They taught and spread religious
teachings to society both inside the palace and
outside the palace; and (iv) Kauman Batik
Tourism Village, which is a neighborhood where
the families of the Palace courtiers reside. Hus-
bands teach Islam and develop Islamic education
while wives make batik for the royal family as an
economic activity that continues until today. The
current condition of zone A is displayed in
Figure 6.
Zone B is the mixed or transitional zone which
was formerly an area where artists lived. How-
ever, nowadays this area has changed. The artists
left to live in other areas. The majority of the
existing buildings have been purchased by inves-
tors to build hotels, department stores, and so on.
The current condition of zone A is displayed in
Figure 7.
Zone C is an area situated the furthest from the
center of Solo Kingdom. However, it still has its
original function as Kauman Batik Tourism Vil-
lage. Its ability to survive to the present is
 Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding

Figure 5: A map of Rajiman and creative economy areas.

Figure 6: An image of the unit of area in Zone A.

Figure 7: An image of the unit of area in Zone B.

supported by the existence of rivers around this
area which facilitate batik business and trade
through rivers traffics and Jalan Rajiman passing
through this area. The difference between the
Kauman Batik Tourism Village around the Palace
area and the one in this area lies in the actors. The
Kauman Batik Tourism Village around the Palace
area is run by educated and prominent people as
part of the Palace which lacks access to a river.
Meanwhile, situated furthest from Surakarta
Palace, the Laweyan Tourism Village is managed
by ordinary people with the ability to utilize
natural resources (silk) to create batik with con-
temporary designs. Batik from Laweyan does not
rely on traditional motifs but it managed to gen-
erate merchants who indeed could provide
financial contributions during the critical period
of the Surakarta Kingdom providing assistance in
the early days of the founding of the Republic of
Indonesia in 1945. They are still able to survive
even making use of communications technology
to support the development of their designs and

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Nursanty et al
their trading network to foreign countries. The
current condition of zone A is displayed in
Figure 8.
THE CITY BRANDING OF SOLO
CITY AND ITS IMPLEMENTATION
IN SPATIAL PLANNING
A city is the center of everything. A variety of
things happen therein, activities full of talents,
ideas, and special uniqueness. These all are very
important things in life. They give a city a soul
(Mead, 2013).
Cities making innovations in order to develop
and offer wealth and jobs to its population should
adapt to space. Therefore, knowledge and
creativity can be developed simultaneously.
Culture is also often included here. Not only as a
condition to attract the creativity of artists, but
also as a key economic sector that is intertwined
with other economic sectors (Musterd and
Ostendorf, 2004).
Surakarta City was founded in 1745 beginning
with the establishment of the Surakarta Palace to
replace Kartosuro Palace devastated by war and
rebellion. The Kartosuro Palace representatives
managed to end the war with the rebels with the
assistance from the VOC, and ultimately they
were bound by the Treaty of Giyanti which
divided their region into two, namely the
Sunnanate of Surakarta and the Sultanate of
Yogyakarta.
Surakarta City currently has an area of 44 km2,
with a density of 13,636/km2. Its main line is
Jalan Slamet Riyadi which connects the main axis
of the city from Purwosari Train Station to the
Slamet Riyadi Monument. This new road of Jalan
Figure 8: An image of the unit of area in Zone C.
2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
Slamet Riyadi was built by the Dutch
government with a view to moving the Center of
Solo City, which formerly was located within the
palace area (Location 1), to the area around the
Vastenberg Fort (Location 2) is displayed in
Figure 9.
The moving of Surakarta Palace, which was
originally located in Kartasura, to a new location
in Sala Village was carried out by way of a
purpose-built road, namely Jalan Dr. Rajiman.
Figure 10 shows a variety of typical spaces and
activities around Jalan Dr. Rajiman which can be
found today, including Surakarta Palace, Alun
Alun Kidul (the South Square), Klewer Market,
Artists Village of Kemlayan, Batik Village of
Kauman, Sriwedari Park, Sriwedari Stadium,
Sondakan Village, and the Great Mosque of
Surakarta Palace.
Figure 11 shows two current magnet areas in
Solo City. The area indicated using the number 1 is
the area which we call The Power of the Past (TPs)
containing economic and cultural activities which
have existed since the establishment of Surakarta
City and the relocation of Kartosura Palace to
Surakarta or which we now call Solo City. Zone 1,
which we call the TPs, passed by the first road built
in Solo City, i.e., Jalan Dr. Rajiman, established in
1745. The Jalan Rajiman is considered as the
abstract symbol of royal power and creates a very
strategic space for the kings power as this road,
when it was established, used an axis of worshipping
Mount Merapi, the most feared mountain in the
Island of Java at that time as shown in the macro
land placement is displayed in Figure 12.
Later, the VOC tried to change Solo City in a
systematic manner by building a new road, the
one which is now called Jalan Slamet Riyadi, the
 Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding

Figure 9: The sketch showing the location of Jalan Rajiman and Jalan Slamet Riyadi, Solo.

Figure 10: The point of interest of Jalan Rajiman and Jalan Slamet Riyadi.

development process began in the early Palace to VOCs Fort. For that reason, Solo City
nineteenth century. The intention was to move which at first was a kutho raja or a royal city
the center of Surakarta City situated in Surakarta changed into a kutho kolonial or colonial city.

2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
Nursanty et al

Figure 11: Two magnet areas in Solo City.

Figure 12: A map of macro land placement.

Moreover, the construction of Jalan Slamet
Riyadi is also aimed at facilitating transportation
lines between VOCs fort in Surakarta and the
resident head in Semarang City. In 2008, the
government of Surakarta City built Jalan Slamet
Riyadi into an area with the brand of having the
longest citywalk in South East Asia, 7 km in
length.
Thus, the construction of Jalan Slamet Riyadi
creates a new magnet area, namely the area No. 2,

2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
 Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding
which we call The Power of the Present (TPr) with
its modern economic activities like other cities in
Indonesia, such as malls, wholesale, hotels, and
restaurants.
METHOD
This is a case study of the historic city of
Surakarta, Indonesia. Surakarta City, in an
attempt to create its branding, prefers to use its
original name Solo, given upon the citys
establishment. The current branding is Solo: the
Spirit of Java, including its surroundings, 1
municipality and 6 regencies which formerly
constituted the Residency of Surakarta.
The research employed a case study method. It
used a combination of inductive and deductive
approaches, a qualitative analysis technique. The
data was obtained from in-depth interviews with
users of the space in Jalan Slamet Riyadi and Jalan
Rajiman. Mapping was carried out with regard to
zones of the space and their role in creating
visitors perceived gaze before, during, and after
visiting the said space. The mapping process was
focused on the historic road, namely Jl. Rajiman,
by placing the points of surviving heritage spaces
that are familiar in local and national society and
even in some cases with an international
relationship, is displayed in Figure 13 in the
facade of building. The points observed were
analyzed based on what is currently happening
and the way the processes therein have developed
so far in an effort to create a creative economy for
Solo city. Interviews were conducted at different
times and locations thus different answers were
sometimes generated despite a similar age group.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Nowadays, the existence of a city is not only
important for the growth of the national economy
but it also plays a role in the growth of the world
economy. Major cities such as New York,
London, and Tokyo focused largely on improving
their competitiveness at international level. Other
major cities, such as Hong Kong, have managed
to place themselves globally. Nevertheless, these
2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
cities still have to compete with Chinas newly-
emerging cities, such as Guangzhou and Shanghai
(Jiang and Shen, 2010). City marketing has been
widely used in most cases as an attempt to make
changes in economic, political, and social areas
(Kavaratzis and Ashworth, 2005). The
organization system of city marketing is crucial.
To measure it, not only the components of city
marketing but also all the important elements
which contribute to city branding should be
considered (Kavaratzis, 2004).
Surakarta City in this regard attempts to build
its city branding using the potential power of its
past history, namely Solo the Spirit of Java. Solo is
the name firstly used at the time the city was
officially designated as the center for the Kingdom
of Surakarta Sunanate in 1745. The history
describes the changing needs in space influenced
by the political conditions at that time. The
Government of the Dutch East Indies built the
road of Jalan Slamet Riyadi in the hope that this
space would get a new function and role to
replace the function and role of the kingdom-
centered space. Currently, the Slamet Riyadi area
plays a role as a magnet for The Power of the Present.
A great number of activities and modern facilities
can be found here, even though they are similar
to those found in the area nearby, i.e.,
Yogyakarta. However, this area has a fairly high
rate of growth, as presented in Table 1. Soloraya
accounted for 13.64 % of the total revenue gained
by Central Java Province and 0.94 % of the
national revenue. A number of business sectors
also contribute to the resulting Gross Regional
Domestic Product, namely agriculture, mining,
and the processing industry.
In relation to the spatial pattern, the findings
reveal a tourist gaze pattern influenced by each
spatial element in the two different zones. In the
zone with The Power of the Past, there are five
elements of city branding found, each of which
can create a gaze into the space users minds: (1)
Jalan Rajiman as a historic road for the
establishment of Solo City, which began with
moving the Palace of Surakarta Sunanate from
Kartasura to Solo. (2) The Palace Kasunanan
which formerly was the center of the royal city,
Nursanty et al

Figure 13: The facade of the buildings in the city area.

Table 1: The gross regional domestic product of Soloraya by sector in 2013

Business fields PDRB Soloraya PDRB DIY Pangsa PDRB ADHB 2013
(Triliun Rp) (Triliun Rp)
Soloraya thd Soloraya thd DIY thd
Jateng (%) Nasional (%) Nasional (%)

AGROBISNIS 19.59 8.86 17.16 1.49 0.68

MINING 0.66 0.42 11.10 0.06 0.04
PROCESSING INDUSTRY 19.24 8.77 9.47 0.89 0.41
ELECTRICITY, GAS, & WATER 1.39 0.80 21.08 1.98 1.13
COMMERCE, HOTEL, & RESTAURANT 18.86 13.15 14.59 1.45 1.01
FINANCIAL, RENTAL, ETC 4.65 6.54 19.99 0.68 0.96
SERVICES 10.92 12.84 16.42 1.09 1.28
PDRB 85.10 63.69 13.64 0.94 0.70

Source: Indonesian Bank presentation, 2013, made by researcher.

(3) Klewer Market as a historic market in Solo
City and at the beginning was a place where
society around the palace gathered. At first,
society around this area did simple trade
transactions by hanging batik they made for sale.
(4) Four traditional villages established as the
development and growth of the city began to
facilitate the populations needs for settlements,
namely the Batik Villages of Laweyan,
Sondakan, Kemlayan, and Kauman. Each village
has its own distinctive and different characters,
specifically Laweyan is known as the village of
batik merchants. Sondakan is known as a tourist
village. Kemlayan is known as the village of
artists and Kauman is known as the village of
Muslims.
As for the zone with The Power of the Present,
there are also some elements supporting the brand

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 Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding
found that can be arranged into a series of city
branding: (1) Jalan Slamet Riyadi which became
the longest citywalk in Southeast Asia in 1980,
i.e., 8,5 km in length. (2) There are 32 hotels
with various classes of service. (3) There are five
department stores in this area. (4) Central offices,
the Governors official residence and banks are
situated along this road. (5) There are a variety of
public services such as museums, conference halls,
and various modern services.
The interviews with and observations of the
existing spatial actors, revealed that there are
several types of areas as presented in Figure 14.
What makes these findings unique is that the
tourist gaze consists of three stages of periods
whose processes occur consecutively, each of
which can be connected directly to the urban
space and architecture, as shown in Figure 14 and
explained in detail in Table 2.
In more detail, for the zone with The Power of
the Past located around the area in Jalan Rajiman,
a tourist gaze has been formed even before visitors
arrive at this location, and they already have their
own perception relating to the historic uniqueness
its space conveys. The existing space so far is still
representing the uniqueness of the past as
displayed in the local architecture that
accommodates the activities carried out for
generations such as making batik and doing
musical or artistic activities, even undertaking a
countryside tour by studying the existing culture
of the tourist village. From a total of 24 local
tourists, coming either from or outside Solo city,
even outside Java island, aged 17 to 47 years, who
participated in an event exploring Solo old town
organized by the traveler community of Solo city;
92.64 % of them stated that they participated in
the event exploring areas around Rajiman, the
palace, and the heritage area of the city as they
wanted to view first-hand the historical remnants
of the city hundreds of years ago. When seeing
directly on site many historic buildings which
were poorly maintained, damaged, and even
demolished for building new and different
buildings, they said that such conditions did not
surprise them.
On a different occasion, the survey was
conducted in a different zone, namely Slamet
2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
Riyadi, and we found answers that are also unique
and different.
The zone with The Power of the Present is
located around Jalan Slamet Riyadi. This area
offers various facilities for its visitors to conduct
business activities and entertainment through
modern facilities of its urban space, such as
accommodation, business trading, and formal
business conference halls. Its citywalk is one of the
citys elements which can provide an overview of
the present Solo City to anyone crossing this city
on foot along the road of Jalan Slamet Riyadi.
The survey was conducted through interviews
with people aged 13 to 35 years and revealed that
they could easily find information about the
locations in Slamet Riyadi area via online media
such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. Besides
utilizing the trading facilities they have already
known through social media and the Internet,
they also spent much time meeting and
interacting with one another in some parts of the
roads in the citywalk.
The other zones are areas developed to
strengthen Solo Citys future competitiveness.
These areas are the development of Solo City to
accommodate the needs for space due to increase
in the number of space users and the supporting
activities of a modern city. Society tries to solve
problems relating to urban spaces in a creative
way, including using various urban spaces in this
area for events such as live music, movie
screenings, puppet shows, and umbrella festivals.
This is done to optimize the urban space by
involving public participation. In interviews with
a number of customers of the hotels around this
location, respondents said that they chose this
location as the rate of exclusive hotels in this area
is far cheaper than the rate of hotels of the same
class located downtown. On average, they stayed
for more than 5 days so that they decided to stay
here as an alternative. On the other hand, some
other visitors were large family groups coming
together. They used many rooms and brought
their own vehicles. According to them, a deluxe
hotel would create its own impression for the
family atmosphere which they built together with
some relatives. They did not mind even though
the hotel was located far away from the city
Nursanty et al

Figure 14: The zone of the tourist gaze stage process.

Table 2: The spatial zone and the tourist gaze power di Kota Solo

Zone Location Strength position of the Activity Space

area tourist gaze

Blue (A) The zone of Rajiman area Has the power of history
and its surroundings which provides a strong
image before one visits
this location
Green (B) The zone of Rajiman dan Has the power to make one
Slamet Riyadi areas can enjoy a visit to this
location through a variety
of modern activities it has,
such as the longest
citywalk in Southeast Asia
Yellow (C) The zone of Solo areas, Has the gaze power which
excluding Rajiman dan visitors will not easily
Slamet Riyadi areas, forget when their visit to
especially the area of this place ends area
Solo Baru and its because of the ease of
surroundings modern services and
trade which provide
sustainable opportunities
through the information
technology which it
adopts and continues to
develop
Trade and services, both
formal and informal ones,
involving local values and
heritage, such as batik
villages, blangkon
centers, traditional
markets and centers for
traditional dance
General and modern trade
and services, both formal
and informal ones, which
are often similar to and
look like those found in
other cities around it
The activities undertaken
here are varied, not only
trade and services but
also educational activities
such as the
understanding and
introduction of history
The existing spaces still
have a distinctive
character of the life taking
place in accordance with
the historic ritual and
lasting for generations
The existing spaces are
multifunctional and
flexible modern spaces for
a variety of activities that
exist today and possibly
in the future
The spaces established are
creative ones created by
the community to solve
spatial problems such as
utilizing public spaces as
a place to watch movies
outdoors

because they always traveled in groups using their companies competing with each other occurred.
own vehicles. Generally, they attempted to beat the competition
The concept of competitiveness was first by optimizing productivity and profits (Jiang and
used in business when the phenomenon of Shen, 2010). For a city, competitiveness may have

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 Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding
a different meaning. Cities are merely an
economic forum. Environment, both the physical
environment and the social system therein, is
generally derived from existing economic
activities. However, it is not solely based on the
costs and profits arising from such a process
(Dahlman, 1979). Initially, the understanding of a
citys competitive ability (competitive advantages)
is largely influenced by the growth rate. A
description relating to the advantages of the
economic growth is the main promise given.
However, the meaning of the term
competitiveness began to shift. Society began to
demand growth at a different level, i.e., a better
quality life along with a better environment of the
city (Gibbs, 1997). City marketing efforts are
defined as a way to design a city with a view to
fulfilling the needs of the targeted market. Such
efforts are deemed successful if society and
business actors in the city feel satisfied with their
community and the expectations of the visitors
and those of the investors converge (Gasco-
Hernandez and Torres-Coronas, 2009).
CONCLUSION
This research attempts to explain that the tourist
gaze theory, formerly a psychological theory, is
used by the tourism industry to support city
marketing efforts. Nowadays, the tourist gaze
theory is also used by city planners to build a citys
competitive ability through urban space planning
built entirely using the tourist gaze processes.
Such processes begin with introducing the city to
tourists online through descriptions of spaces and
the life therein, using advertisements and
multimedia. Then, to enjoy the spaces, an
attractive and efficient system of city services is
employed. Ultimately, tourists will be able to
remember a great number of urban spaces
simultaneously with the activities therein in their
mind even though they might have left the city.
Solo City has launched its city branding Solo:
the Spirit of Java. This city branding attempts to
generate opportunities for Solo City regarding
historic uniqueness which strengthens the urban
spaces it has. Starting from the historic power in
most areas of the city, Solo is expected to
2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
reinforce the power of such urban spaces through
the economic activities creatively so as to
compete with other cities in the future.
Based on its history, Solo has two magnets
which are regions with their own uniqueness,
namely a magnet around the citys area in Jalan
Slamet Riyadi and that in Jalan Rajiman. The
uniqueness of these two magnets can be seen,
both in terms of the types of the spaces, the
activities of the spaces, and peoples perceptions of
these two areas. The formula for the combination
of the tourist gaze and development of city
branding elements in Solo City is expected to
raise its competitive ability in the future based on
the concept of creative city development, both
with regard to the city population, solutions to
the citys problems, as well as implementation of
the attempts to improve the citys quality.
The three tourist gaze stages in Solo City occur
before, during, and after visiting Solo City. These
three stages can occur one after another in the urban
space as the urban space has unique potential. In a
sequential order, the gaze perceived relating to Solo
Citys urban space begins before the visitors come to
visit an area. Visitors have their own gaze of the area
with The Power of the Past, i.e., the area around Jalan
Rajiman. This area has a gaze, especially relating to
the great history of Mataram Kingdom, the greatest
kingdom in Java Island, and its spatial relics which
still exist today. The relics of the existing space are
still considered complete as a royal city which
represents the element of space as the power center,
i.e., the Palace. Moreover, the supporting spatial
element in the form of traditional villages along with
the supporting public facilities still exists. The urban
space in this area has already had its gaze built even
before one visits it as in this area, activities which
many people have been familiar with have been
carried continuously out for generations. The
second stage of the tourist gaze processes occurring
in Solo takes place in the area with The Power of the
Present with the ease of the citys overview through
the longest citywalk in Southeast Asia. The ease of
the spatial overview can be done simply by walking
along Jalan Slamet Riyadi. Modern city facilities
such as accommodation services, services delivery,
and trading services can be found easily and use
sophisticated technology, in this location. As for the
Nursanty et al
other areas, excluding those two zones above, are the
areas expected to create a gaze in the mind of the
visitors after they leave from this Solo City. The
activities carried out are creative efforts to use space
by involving the role and participation of the public.
In the urban space with The Power of the
Past, three different levels are found, in which
the closer it is to the center of the citys historic
power in the past (the Palace), the stronger it is.
The further the area is from the Palace, the more
it changes from its original function, even
changing into a modern economic area (hotels,
shops, department stores, and the like). The
other areas located the furthest from the Palace
managed by ordinary people who were not the
royal family in the past is indeed growing
increasingly nowadays owing to its natural
conditions (the river) and highways passing
through this area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of
Research, Technology, and Higher Education of
the Republic of Indonesia, particularly the
Directorate General of Higher Education, which
has given scholarships through the Sandwich
Like program to the author to complete the
process of writing this publication in Germany.
We also would like to express our sincere
gratitude to the Prof. Dr. Peter Andreas Gotsch
from Technische Universitat Darmstadt,
Germany who has provided assistance in terms of
research professionals team, room facility, and
support as well as assistance in the form of
discussion forums so that this paper can be
finished well. Our appreciation goes to the city
government of Surakarta (Solo) as well as its
society and communities for their openness to
share data, information, spirit, and expectation for
the purpose of our research. We express our
sincere gratitude to all the authors of artworks in
this paper: Fendy Fawzy Alfiansyah for his
picture, Much Anang Syahroni for his maps, Ir.
Ahyani, M.A. from BAPPEDA Surakarta, and
Surya Triwijaya from Solo Digital Map for their
permission in this paper.
2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
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