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Rheology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Rheology (/rildi/; from Greek rh, "flow" and -o, -logia, "study of") is the study of the flow of
matter, primarily in a liquid state, but also as 'soft solids' or solids under conditions in which they respond with
plastic flow rather than deforming elastically in response to an applied force.[1]

The term rheology was coined by Eugene C. Bingham, a professor at Lafayette College, in 1920, from a
suggestion by a colleague, Markus Reiner.[2][3] The term was inspired by the aphorism of Simplicius (often
attributed to Heraclitus), panta rhei, "everything flows",[4][5] and was first used to describe the flow of liquids
and the deformation of solids. It applies to substances that have a complex microstructure, such as muds,
sludges, suspensions, polymers and other glass formers (e.g., silicates), as well as many foods and additives,
bodily fluids (e.g., blood) and other biological materials or other materials that belong to the class of soft matter
such as food.

Newtonian fluids can be characterized by a single coefficient of viscosity for a specific temperature. Although
this viscosity will change with temperature, it does not change with the strain rate. Only a small group of fluids
exhibit such constant viscosity. The large class of fluids whose viscosity changes with the strain rate (the relative
flow velocity) are called non-Newtonian fluids.

Rheology generally accounts for the behavior of non-Newtonian fluids, by characterizing the minimum number of
functions that are needed to relate stresses with rate of change of strain or strain rates. For example, ketchup
can have its viscosity reduced by shaking (or other forms of mechanical agitation, where the relative movement
of different layers in the material actually causes the reduction in viscosity) but water cannot. Ketchup is a shear
thinning material, like yogurt and emulsion paint (US terminology latex paint or acrylic paint), exhibiting
thixotropy, where an increase in relative flow velocity will cause a reduction in viscosity, for example, by stirring.
Some other non-Newtonian materials show the opposite behavior, rheopecty: viscosity going up with relative
deformation, and are called shear thickening or dilatant materials. Since Sir Isaac Newton originated the concept
of viscosity, the study of liquids with strain rate dependent viscosity is also often called Non-Newtonian fluid
mechanics.[1]

The experimental characterization of a material's rheological behaviour is known as rheometry, although the
term rheology is frequently used synonymously with rheometry, particularly by experimentalists. Theoretical
aspects of rheology are the relation of the flow/deformation behaviour of material and its internal structure (e.g.,
the orientation and elongation of polymer molecules), and the flow/deformation behaviour of materials that
cannot be described by classical fluid mechanics or elasticity.

Contents
1 Scope
2 Rheologist
3 Viscoelasticity
4 Applications
4.1 Materials science
4.1.1 Polymers
4.1.2 Biopolymers
4.1.3 Sol-gel

4.2 Geophysics
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4.2 Geophysics
4.3 Physiology
4.4 Food rheology
4.5 Concrete rheology
4.6 Filled polymer rheology
5 Measurement
6 Dimensionless numbers
6.1 Deborah number
6.2 Reynolds number
7 See also
8 References
9 External links

Scope
In practice, rheology is principally concerned with extending continuum mechanics to characterize flow of
materials, that exhibits a combination of elastic, viscous and plastic behavior by properly combining elasticity and
(Newtonian) fluid mechanics. It is also concerned with establishing predictions for mechanical behavior (on the
continuum mechanical scale) based on the micro- or nanostructure of the material, e.g. the molecular size and
architecture of polymers in solution or the particle size distribution in a solid suspension. Materials with the
characteristics of a fluid will flow when subjected to a stress which is defined as the force per area. There are
different sorts of stress (e.g. shear, torsional, etc.) and materials can respond differently for different stresses.
Much of theoretical rheology is concerned with associating external forces and torques with internal stresses and
internal strain gradients and flow velocities.[1][6][7][8]

Elasticity
Describes materials that return to their rest shape after applied
Solid mechanics stresses are removed.
The study of the physics of
Continuum continuous materials with a Plasticity
mechanics defined rest shape. Describes materials that
permanently deform after a
Rheology
The study of the
The study of materials
physics of sufficient applied stress.
with both solid and fluid
continuous Non-Newtonian fluids do not characteristics.
materials Fluid mechanics undergo strain rates proportional
The study of the physics of
to the applied shear stress.
continuous materials which
deform when subjected to a force. Newtonian fluids undergo strain rates proportional to the
applied shear stress.

Rheology unites the seemingly unrelated fields of plasticity and non-Newtonian fluid dynamics by recognizing
that materials undergoing these types of deformation are unable to support a stress (particularly a shear stress,
since it is easier to analyze shear deformation) in static equilibrium. In this sense, a solid undergoing plastic
deformation is a fluid, although no viscosity coefficient is associated with this flow. Granular rheology refers to
the continuum mechanical description of granular materials.

One of the major tasks of rheology is to empirically establish the relationships between deformations (or rates of
deformation) and stresses, by adequate measurements, although a number of theoretical developments (such as
assuring frame invariants) are also required before using the empirical data. These experimental techniques are
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known as rheometry and are concerned with the determination with well-defined rheological material
functions. Such relationships are then amenable to mathematical treatment by the established methods of
continuum mechanics.

The characterization of flow or deformation originating from a simple shear stress field is called shear rheometry
(or shear rheology). The study of extensional flows is called extensional rheology. Shear flows are much easier
to study and thus much more experimental data are available for shear flows than for extensional flows.

Rheologist
A rheologist is an interdisciplinary scientist or engineer who studies the flow of complex liquids or the
deformation of soft solids. It is not a primary degree subject; there is no qualification of rheologist as such. Most
rheologists have a qualification in mathematics, the physical sciences (e.g. chemistry, physics, biology),
engineering (e.g. mechanical, chemical, materials science and engineering or civil engineering), medicine, or
certain technologies, notably materials or food. Typically, a small amount of rheology may be studied when
obtaining a degree, but a person working in rheology will extend this knowledge during postgraduate research or
by attending short courses and by joining a professional association (see below).

Viscoelasticity
Fluid and solid character are relevant at long times:
We consider the application of a constant stress (a so-called creep experiment):
if the material, after some deformation, eventually resists further deformation, it is considered a
solid
if, by contrast, the material flows indefinitely, it is considered a fluid
By contrast, elastic and viscous (or intermediate, viscoelastic) behaviour is relevant at short times
(transient behaviour):
We again consider the application of a constant stress:[9]
if the material deformation strain increases linearly with increasing applied stress, then the material
is linear elastic within the range it shows recoverable strains. Elasticity is essentially a time
independent processes, as the strains appear the moment the stress is applied, without any time
delay.
if the material deformation rate increases linearly with increasing applied stress, then the material is
viscous in the Newtonian sense. These materials are characterized due to the time delay between
the applied constant stress and the maximum strain.
if the materials behaves as a combination of viscous and elastic components, then the material is
viscoelastic. Theoretically such materials can show both instantaneous deformation as elastic
material and a delayed time dependent deformation as in fluids.
Plasticity is the behavior observed after the material is subjected to a yield stress:
A material that behaves as a solid under low applied stresses may start to flow above a certain level of
stress, called the yield stress of the material. The term plastic solid is often used when this plasticity
threshold is rather high, while yield stress fluid is used when the threshold stress is rather low. However,
there is no fundamental difference between the two concepts.

Applications

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Rheology has applications in materials science engineering, geophysics, physiology, human biology and
pharmaceutics. Materials science is utilized in the production of many industrially important substances, such as
cement, paint, and chocolate, which have complex flow characteristics. In addition, plasticity theory has been
similarly important for the design of metal forming processes. The science of rheology and the characterization of
viscoelastic properties in the production and use of polymeric materials has been critical for the production of
many products for use in both the industrial and military sectors. Study of flow properties of liquids is important
for pharmacists working in the manufacture of several dosage forms, such as simple liquids, ointments, creams,
pastes etc. The flow behavior of liquids under applied stress is of great relevance in the field of pharmacy. Flow
properties are used as important quality control tools to maintain the superiority of the product and reduce batch
to batch variations.

Materials science

Polymers

Examples may be given to illustrate the potential applications of these principles to practical problems in the
processing[10] and use of rubbers, plastics, and fibers. Polymers constitute the basic materials of the rubber and
plastic industries and are of vital importance to the textile, petroleum, automobile, paper, and pharmaceutical
industries. Their viscoelastic properties determine the mechanical performance of the final products of these
industries, and also the success of processing methods at intermediate stages of production.

In viscoelastic materials, such as most polymers and plastics, the presence of liquid-like behaviour depends on
the properties of and so varies with rate of applied load, i.e., how quickly a force is applied. The silicone toy
'Silly Putty' behaves quite differently depending on the time rate of applying a force. Pull on it slowly and it
exhibits continuous flow, similar to that evidenced in a highly viscous liquid. Alternatively, when hit hard and
directly, it shatters like a silicate glass.

In addition, conventional rubber undergoes a glass transition, (often called a rubber-glass transition). E.G. The
Space Shuttle Challenger disaster was caused by rubber O-rings that were being used well below their glass
transition temperature on an unusually cold Florida morning, and thus could not flex adequately to form proper
seals between sections of the two solid-fuel rocket boosters.

Biopolymers

Sol-gel

With the viscosity of a sol adjusted into a proper range, both optical quality glass fiber and refractory ceramic
fiber can be drawn which are used for fiber optic sensors and thermal insulation, respectively. The mechanisms
of hydrolysis and condensation, and the rheological factors that bias the structure toward linear or branched
structures are the most critical issues of sol-gel science and technology.

Geophysics

Geophysics includes the flow of molten lava and debris flows (fluid mudslides). Also included in this disciplinary
branch are solid Earth materials which only exhibit flow over extended time scales. Those that display viscous
behaviour are known as rheids. E.G. granite can flow plastically with a negligible yield stress at room
temperatures, (i.e. a viscous flow). Long term creep experiments (~ 10 years) indicate that the viscosity of
granite and glass under ambient conditions are on the order of 1020 poises.[11][12]

Physiology
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Physiology includes the study of many bodily fluids that

have complex structure and composition, and thus
exhibit a wide range of viscoelastic flow characteristics.
In particular there is a specialist study of blood flow
called hemorheology. This is the study of flow properties
of blood and its elements (plasma and formed elements,
including red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets). Blood viscosity is determined by plasma
viscosity, hematocrit (volume fraction of red blood cell,
which constitute 99.9% of the cellular elements) and
mechanical behaviour of red blood cells. Therefore, red
blood cell mechanics is the major determinant of flow
properties of blood.[13]

Food rheology
Linear structure of cellulose -- the most common
Food rheology is important in the manufacture and component of all organic plant life on Earth. * Note
the evidence of hydrogen bonding which increases
processing of food products, such as cheese[14] and
the viscosity at any temperature and pressure. This
gelato.[15] is an effect similar to that of polymer crosslinking,
but less pronounced.
Thickening agents, or thickeners, are substances which,
when added to an aqueous mixture, increase its viscosity
without substantially modifying its other properties, such
as taste. They provide body, increase stability, and
improve suspension of added ingredients. Thickening
agents are often used as food additives and in cosmetics
and personal hygiene products. Some thickening agents
are gelling agents, forming a gel. The agents are
materials used to thicken and stabilize liquid solutions,
emulsions, and suspensions. They dissolve in the liquid
phase as a colloid mixture that forms a weakly cohesive
internal structure. Food thickeners frequently are based
on either polysaccharides (starches, vegetable gums, and
pectin), or proteins.[16][17]

Concrete rheology

Concrete's and mortar's workability is related to the

rheological properties of the fresh cement paste. The
mechanical properties of hardened concrete increase if
less water is used in the concrete mix design, however
reducing the water-to-cement ratio may decrease the
ease of mixing and application. To avoid these undesired
effects, superplasticizers are typically added to decrease
Polymerization process of tetraethylorthosilicate
the apparent yield stress and the viscosity of the fresh
(TEOS) and water to form amorphous hydrated
paste. Their addition highly improves concrete and silica particles (Si-OH) can be monitored
mortar properties.[18] rheologically by a number of different methods.

Filled polymer rheology

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The incorporation of various types of fillers into polymers is a common means of reducing cost and to impart
certain desirable mechanical, thermal, electrical and magnetic properties to the resulting material. The advantages
that filled polymer systems have to offer come with an increased complexity in the rheological behavior.[19]

Usually when the use of fillers is considered, a compromise has to be made between the improved mechanical
properties in the solid state on one side and the increased difficulty in melt processing, the problem of achieving
uniform dispersion of the filler in the polymer matrix and the economics of the process due to the added step of
compounding on the other. The rheological properties of filled polymers are determined not only by the type and
amount of filler, but also by the shape, size and size distribution of its particles. The viscosity of filled systems
generally increases with increasing filler fraction. This can be partially ameliorated via broad particle size
distributions via the Farris effect. An additional factor is the stress transfer at the filler-polymer interface. The
interfacial adhesion can be substantially enhanced via a coupling agent that adheres well to both the polymer and
the filler particles. The type and amount of surface treatment on the filler are thus additional parameters affecting
the rheological and material properties of filled polymeric systems.

It is important to take into consideration wall slip when performing the rheological characterization of highly filled
materials, as there can be a large difference between the actual strain and the measured strain.[20] .

Measurement
Rheometers are instruments used to characterize the rheological properties of materials, typically fluids that are
melts or solution. These instruments impose a specific stress field or deformation to the fluid, and monitor the
resultant deformation or stress. Instruments can be run in steady flow or oscillatory flow, in both shear and
extension.

Dimensionless numbers
Deborah number

On one end of the spectrum we have an inviscid or a simple Newtonian fluid and on the other end, a rigid solid;
thus the behaviour of all materials fall somewhere in between these two ends. The difference in material
behaviour is characterized by the level and nature of elasticity present in the material when it deforms, which
takes the material behaviour to the non-Newtonian regime. The non-dimensional Deborah number is designed to
account for the degree of non-Newtonian behaviour in a flow. The Deborah number is defined as the ratio of the
characteristic time of relaxation (which purely depends on the material and other conditions like the temperature)
to the characteristic time of experiment or observation.[3][21] Small Deborah numbers represent Newtonian
flow, while non-Newtonian (with both viscous and elastic effects present) behaviour occurs for intermediate
range Deborah numbers, and high Deborah numbers indicate an elastic/rigid solid. Since Deborah number is a
relative quantity, the numerator or the denominator can alter the number. A very small Deborah number can be
obtained for a fluid with extremely small relaxation time or a very large experimental time, for example.

Reynolds number

In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number is a measure of the ratio of inertial forces (v s) to viscous forces ( L )
and consequently it quantifies the relative importance of these two types of effect for given flow conditions.
Under low Reynolds numbers viscous effects dominate and the flow is laminar, whereas at high Reynolds
numbers inertia predominates and the flow may be turbulent. However, since rheology is concerned with fluids
which do not have a fixed viscosity, but one which can vary with flow and time, calculation of the Reynolds
number can be complicated.
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It is one of the most important dimensionless numbers in fluid dynamics and is used, usually along with other
dimensionless numbers, to provide a criterion for determining dynamic similitude. When two geometrically
similar flow patterns, in perhaps different fluids with possibly different flow rates, have the same values for the
relevant dimensionless numbers, they are said to be dynamically similar.

Typically it is given as follows:

where:

us mean flow velocity, [m s1]

L characteristic length, [m]
(absolute) dynamic fluid viscosity, [N s m2] or [Pa s]
kinematic fluid viscosity: = , [m2 s1]
fluid density, [kg m3].

See also
Bingham plastic
Die swell
Glass transition
Liquid
List of rheologists
Microrheology
Rheological weldability for thermoplastics
Rheopectic
Solid
Thixotropy
Transport phenomena
Viscosity

References
1. W. R. Schowalter (1978) Mechanics of Non-Newtonian Fluids Pergamon ISBN 0-08-021778-8
2. James Freeman Steffe (1 January 1996). Rheological Methods in Food Process Engineering (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=LrrdONuST9kC). Freeman Press. ISBN 978-0-9632036-1-8.
3. The Deborah Number (http://rrc.engr.wisc.edu/deborah.html)
4. Barnes, Jonathan (1982). The presocratic philosophers. ISBN 978-0-415-05079-1.
5. Beris, A. N.; Giacomin, A. J. (2014). " : Everything Flows" (http://doi.org/10.3933/ApplRheol-24-529
18). Applied Rheology. 24: 52918. doi:10.3933/ApplRheol-24-52918 (https://doi.org/10.3933%2FApplRheol-24
-52918).
6. R. B. Bird, W. E. Stewart, E. N. Lightfoot (1960), Transport Phenomena, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-
07392-X
7. R. Byrin Bird, Charles F. Curtiss, Robert C. Armstrong (1989), Dynamics of Polymeric Liquids, Vol 1 &2 ,
Wiley Interscience, ISBN 0-471-51844-1 and 978-0471518440
8. Faith A. Morrison (2001), Understanding Rheology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-514166-0 and 978-
0195141665
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9. William N. Findley, James S. Lai, Kasif Onaran (1989), Creep and Relaxation of Nonlinear Viscoelastic
Materials, Dover Publications
10. A. V. Shenoy and D. R. Saini (1996), Thermoplastic Melt Rheology and Processing, Marcel Dekker Inc., New
York. (http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9780824797232)
11. Kumagai, N., Sasajima, S., Ito, H., Long-term Creep of Rocks, J. Soc. Mat. Sci. (Japan), Vol. 27, p. 157
(1978) Online (https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=ja&u=http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110002299397/&sa
=X&oi=translate&resnum=4&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3DIto%2BHidebumi%26hl%3Den)
12. Vannoni, M.; Sordoni, A.; Molesini, G. (2011). "Relaxation time and viscosity of fused silica glass at room
temperature". Eur. Phys. J. E. 34 (9): 914. doi:10.1140/epje/i2011-11092-9 (https://doi.org/10.1140%2Fepje%
2Fi2011-11092-9).
13. The ocular Vitreous humor is subject to rheologic observations, particularly during studies of age-related
vitreous liquefaction, or synaeresis. Baskurt OK, Meiselman HJ; Meiselman (2003). "Blood rheology and
hemodynamics". Seminars in Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 29 (5): 435450. doi:10.1055/s-2003-44551 (http
s://doi.org/10.1055%2Fs-2003-44551). PMID 14631543 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14631543).
14. S. Gunasekaran, M. Mehmet (2003), Cheese rheology and texture, CRC Press, ISBN 1-58716-021-8
15. Silaghi, Florina (et al) (July 2010). "Estimation of rheological properties of gelato by FT-NIR spectroscopy" (htt
p://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0963996910001602). Food Research International. 43 (6):
16241628. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2010.05.007 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foodres.2010.05.007). Retrieved
7 July 2016.
16. B.M. McKenna, and J.G. Lyng (2003). Texture in food Introduction to food rheology and its measurement (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=wM1asp1LL8EC&pg=PA130&dq=Food+Rheology&q=Food%20Rheology).
ISBN 978-1-85573-673-3. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
17. Nikolaev L.K., Nikolaev B.L., "EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF RHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
MELTED CHEESE MILK" (http://processes.ihbt.ifmo.ru/en/article/10760/Experimental_study_of_rheological
_characteristics_of_melted_cheese_%C2%ABMilk%C2%BB.htm), Processes and equipment for food
production, Number 4(18), 2013
18. Ferrari, L; Kaufmann, J; Winnefeld, F; Plank, J (2011). "Multi-method approach to study influence of
superplasticizers on cement suspensions". Cement and Concrete Research. 41 (10): 1058.
doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.06.010 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cemconres.2011.06.010).
19. Aroon V. Shenoy (1999), Rheology of Filled Polymer Systems, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands. (htt
p://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9213-0)
20. C. Feger, M. McGlashan-Powell, I. Nnebe, D.M. Kalyon, Rheology and Stability of Highly Filled Thermal
Pastes, IBM Research Report, RC23869 (W0602-065) 2006.
http://domino.research.ibm.com/library/cyberdig.nsf/papers/7AAC28E89CA36CC785257116005F824E/$File/rc23869.
21. Reiner, M. (1964). "The Deborah Number". Physics Today. 17 (1): 62. Bibcode:1964PhT....17a..62R (http://ads
abs.harvard.edu/abs/1964PhT....17a..62R). doi:10.1063/1.3051374 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3051374).
ISSN 0031-9228 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9228).

External links
The dictionary definition of rheology at Wiktionary
The Origins of Rheology: A short historical excursion (http://www.rheology.org/sor/publications/rheology
_b/jan02/origin_of_rheology.pdf) by Deepak Doraiswamy, DuPont iTechnologies
French Society of Rheology (http://www.legfr.fr/)
Romanian Society of Rheology (http://reologie.ro/)
European Society of Rheology (http://www.rheology-esr.net/)
British Society of Rheology (http://www.bsr.org.uk/)
Nordic Rheology Society (https://nordicrheologysociety.org/)
Australian Society of Rheology (http://www.rheology.org.au/)
American Society of Rheology (http://www.rheology.org/sor/)
Korean Society of Rheology (https://www.rheology.or.kr/)
Rheologica Acta (http://link.springer.com/journal/397)
Journal of Rheology (http://www.journalofrheology.org/)

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Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics (http://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-non-newtonian

-fluid-mechanics/)
Applied Rheology (http://www.ar.ethz.ch/)
RHEOTEST Medingen GmbH (http://www.rheotest.de/english/company/history/?logout=1) History
and Collection of rheological instruments from the time of Fritz Hppler

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