Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
OBJECTIVE:
SCOPE:
-Meaning of industrial architecture, scope ,context. Impact of industrial revolution,
-To study of old industrial module or structure and new industrial structure.
-To study of comparison between old and new construction techniques in industrial
architecture.
-To study new techniques of erecting of factory or industry modules with the help of case
studies.
.
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-Study sustainable design for factories i.e. processing of solid waste as a source of
energy.
LIMITATION:
-Study only important knowledge of planning and design features.
- Study only based on architectural design. It will not deals with details of factory and
machineries.
- Automation system, electrical layout and details of other machineries are not be part of
study .
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CONTENTS:
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1. HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:
The Industrial Revolution, which began in England about 1760, led to
radical changes at every level of civilization throughout the world. The growth of heavy
industry brought a flood of new building materialssuch as cast iron, steel, and glass
with which architects and engineers devised structures hitherto undreamed of in function,
Palladianism turned late 18th-century designers and patrons toward the original Greek
and Roman prototypes. Selective borrowing from another time and place became
fashionable. Its Greek aspect was particularly strong in the young United States from the
early years of the 19th century until about 1850. New settlements were given Greek
pediments, mostly transmuted into white-painted wood, were applied to public buildings
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the
This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new
power, the increasing use of steam power, and the development of machine tools. It also
included the change from wood and other bio-fuels to coal. Textiles were the dominant
industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital
invested; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods. Daily
life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to
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Standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first
time in history. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and spread to Western
Europe and the United States within a few decades. The precise start and end of the
Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and
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2. EARLY DEVELOPMENTS PRE-WWI DEVELOPMENT
OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE:
The germ of the industrial aesthetic is seen in the simple mill buildings from
late 1700, precursors of the modern factory, were straightforward wooden or masonry
buildings with repetitive forms and rhythmic openings. As long buildings, these mills fit
into the landscape, their scale and materials making little impact on their surroundings.
The conglomeration of these mills monopolized and blocked the rivers and canals that
fed the millwheels that provided power for their machines. These first mills reflected
building technology of their time and responded to the realities of fire and workplace
safety. In the day before electricity, flooding workspace with as much daylight as
possible was the most important. Long and narrow, these buildings had open and
Their narrowness not only allowed light into their centres, but also efficiently
enabled machines on both sides of the building to be powered from a single central shaft
down the floor.Early industrial buildings were simple because their utilitarian nature
placed them low in the social and therefore aesthetic hierarchy. From the earliest times,
buildings generally reflected their social importance. While the buildings of higher
reputation, such as churches, public buildings, and royal structure, the more ornament
had used, the service buildings had been strictly no-frills. Most industrial buildings of
XIX c. were multi-storied buildings that combined brick or masonry bearing walls with
heavy timber structural frames to obtain the largest column-free interior spaces possible.
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Fig 2.1 Massachusetts Waltham Mills Buildings dates from 1816
Fig 2.2 Interior of the typical cotton mill factory, Great Britain, mid-1830
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As the ultimate utilitarian places, their design features not only encouraged an efficient
work process but aimed to prevent fires. The fear of fire was so prevalent that insurance
companies shaped much of the early architecture. They discouraged interior wall
to facilitate extinguishing fires; suggested flat roofs and discouraged the attics;
encouraged large windows to facilitate fire suppression; and recommended flat floor
areas be separated from interior stairs. The resulting stair towers that punctuated flat
facades punctuated become a familiar building type. Whatever ornament, if any, was
located at the towers, which were sometimes capped with characteristic roof tops or
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3. INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE
Industrial architecture has always had two main goals: efficiency and safety.
Improved economy in turning raw goods into manufactured items and in the construction
of the buildings themselves, as well as the prevention of fire with the resulting loss of life
and materials shaped the design of warehouses and factories. The history of industrial
architecture is beyond the scope of this paper; however, a short review will be given.
The Industrial Revolution had introduced or popularized the use of steel, plate
crime.
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4.CONTRIBUTION OF PETER BEHRENS TO
DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE:
Peter Behrens (Figure 1) was born 14 April 1868 in Hamburg and died in
and modern industrial design. But before he became an architect he was a painter in his
youth and Art Nouveau designer of decorative and graphic art. He inherited considerable
wealth so was able to afford to study between the years 1886 until 1891 at art schools in
Karlsruhe, Dusseldorf and Munich. Year after his studies he became one of the founders
of a new wave formed in Munich called Munich Secession. From 1890 he worked as a
In 1893 Behrens is one of the founding members of Munich Secession. Behrens was the
Schmutzler (1962, p. 205) his earliest works in Jugendstil are ornament drawings like
the delicate sketch of butterflies alighting on lily pads framed by rushes (Figure 2), and
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5. CRYSTAL PALACE (1851):
erected in Hyde Park, London, England, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851. More
than 14,000 exhibitors from around the world gathered in the Palace's 990,000 square
feet (92,000 m2) of exhibition space to display examples of the latest technology
developed in the Industrial Revolution. Designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, the Great
Exhibition building was 1,851 feet (564 m) long, with an interior height of 128 feet
(39 m). Because of the recent invention of the cast plate glass method in 1848, which
allowed for large sheets of cheap but strong glass, it was at the time the largest amount of
glass ever seen in a building and astonished visitors with its clear walls and ceilings that
The name Crystal Palace came from the playwright Douglas Jerrold. On 13
July 1850 he wrote in the satirical magazine Punch as 'Mrs Amelia Mouser' about the
forthcoming Great Exhibition of 1851, referring to a palace of very crystal, a name that
was subsequently picked up and repeated even though the building had not been
After the exhibition, the building was rebuilt in an enlarged form on Penge
Common, at the top of Penge Peak next to Sydenham Hill, an affluent South London
suburb full of large villas. It stood there from 1854 until its destruction by fire in 1936.
Paxton's modular, hierarchical design reflected his practical brilliance as a designer and
conventional building could match and, above all, embodied the spirit of British
innovation and industrial might that the Great Exhibition was intended to celebrate.
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5.2 Partial front (left) and rear (right) elevations of the Crystal Palace.
The geometry of the Crystal Palace was a classic example of the concept of form
following function - the shape and size of the whole building was directly based around
the size of the panes of glass made by the supplier, Chance Brothers of Birmingham.
These were the largest available at the time, measuring 10 inches wide by 49 inches long.
Because the entire building was scaled around those dimensions, it meant that nearly the
whole outer surface could be glazed using millions of identical panes, thereby drastically
reducing both their production cost and the time needed to install them.
rectangular hall. A huge open gallery ran along the main axis, with wings extending
down either side. The main exhibition space was two stories high, with the upper floor
stepped in from the boundary. Most of the building had a flat-profile roof, except for the
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central transept, which was covered by a 72 foot wide barrel-vaulted roof that stood 168
feet high at the top of the arch. Both the flat-profile sections and the arched transept roof
were constructed using the key element of Paxton's design - his patented ridge-and-
furrow roofing system, which had first use at Chatsworth. The basic roofing unit, in
essence, took the form of a long triangular prism, which made it both extremely light and
very strong, and meant it could be built with the minimum amount of materials.
Paxton set the dimensions of this prism by using the length of single pane
triangle with a length-to-height ratio of 2.5:1, whose base (adjacent side) was 4 feet long.
By mirroring this triangle he obtained the 8-foot-wide gables that formed the vertical
faces at either end of the prism, each of which was 24' long. With this arrangement,
Paxton could glaze the entire roof surface with identical panes that did not need to be
trimmed. Paxton placed three of these 8' x 24' roof units side-by-side, horizontally
supported by a grid of cast iron beams, which was held up on slim cast iron pillars. The
resulting cube, with a floor area of 24'x 24', formed the basic structural module of the
building
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6. PETER BEHRENS:TURBINE FACTORY (BURLIN):
6.1 Shape and height of the building axis are given by the three joint ties.
The AEG turbine factory was built around 1909, in the Berlin district of Moabit,
the best known work of architect Peter Behrens. It is an influential and well-known
example of industrial architecture. Its revolutionary design features 100m long and 15m
tall glass and steel walls on either side. It was a bold move and world first that would
The turbine hall was built in 1909 under Peter Behrens as lead architect and
engineer Karl Bernhard at the angle of the Huttenstrae (12-16) with the
12.5 m in width, a height of 25 m and a length of 123 m. Behrens' design provided a neo-
classical look to the industrial building, with weighty (but non-functional) gableends
to the north. The whole building has been developed to function as a production site for
turbines. It is now part of Siemens, which still operates a gas turbine plant there. This
factory was actually designed with such foresight, that it still serves the same purpose of
The other factories that AEG had at that time, mostly known as "crenellated
design. Among the requirements and expectations of the AEG was the intent to design an
architecture for the industry that came out of the clamp of hiding behind historic facades
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7. CONTRIBUTION OF ALBERT KAHN TO
DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE:
New ways of producing energy enhanced the growth of both buildings and
machinery, necessitating structures that could support more weight, span greater
demanding more flexible and adaptable layouts. The answer would come from a material
that had been known centuries before but needed enhancement: concrete and iron.
.
Figure 7.1 Albert Kahn's Packard Building , 1903 (left); Chrysler's Tanks Arsenal, Warren
Township, Michigan,1941(right)
One of a few architects that were most influenced the aesthetics and
development of industrial buildings and the glorification of the functional design was
Albert Kahn. He created the 1903 Packard Building No.10 (see Figure 3-left), the first
automobile factory to use reinforced concrete. The building of 30 foot spans provided
great flexibility for changes in production on the interior. This concrete frame, clearly
expressed on the exterior, had glazed openings to the ceiling permitting as much daylight
onto the factory floor as possible. Kahn designed buildings with an eye toward interior
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During these early days of manufacturing there were two main theories of
designed for those operations or having the entire plant in one building. Kahn preferred
the later as it allowed for more flexibility, and due to reduced number of exterior walls,
these larger buildings were cheaper to build. Building factories in which workflow
determined operations demanded flexible layouts that could change as the manufacturing
process changed. Kahn soon championed single-story buildings for their flexible and
adaptable use. Light entered through clerestories or monitors on the roofs which were
These buildings required more acreage and also a change material thus
raised the use of steel. Steel not only was mass produced but could span great distances
compared to cast iron or concrete, thereby providing the flexibility required for the ever-
developed for the heavy steel and automobile industries allowed greater flexibility for
buildings and their location. Soon the one-story factory that spread over many acres was
seen more efficient than multi-storied buildings. Industry indelibly changed the
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landscape and population patterns by moving outside compact cities to where land was
plentiful. This demanded a new and expanded road and rail system for materials and
workers.
Fig 7.3 Albert Kahn's Chrysler Half-Ton Truck Plant - Export Building, 1937, interior
the direction of early modern architecture. Industry and its processes inspired and
continue to engage the imagination of the artists and architects: from the voice against
ornament by Adolf Loos to the design explorations of the Bauhaus and the sleek lines of
the International Style to the explicit expression of construction elements in the work of
Richard Rogers and his partners. Industrial architecture showed a simplicity that was
expressed on the exterior by undecorated flat surfaces, whether in brick, stone or wood.
While these buildings were obviously required for the rise of industry, their designers
were often anonymous and these structures remained outside the scope of traditional
architectural practices. Until the beginning of the twentieth century, architectural theory
residences.
architectural theory emerged to respond to the challenges that this development posed.
Charged with defining new forms for the everchanging factories, industrial storage and
transport facilities, architects carved pathways toward defining the future. Around the
early 1900s, the factory was seen as a building type deserving of architectural treatment
in order to enhance the production of goods and dignify the workplace, as well as forge
founded to improve the quality and design of Germans manufactured goods, although
was originally based upon craft and art, many of Germans most influential architects
passed through it including Peter Behrens, Walter Gropius, Mies van der Rohe. During
its existence, two influential industrial buildings were designed by its members: Peter
Behrens AEG Turbine Factory and Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyers Fagus Shoe Last
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Factory. Behrenss AEG factory, regarded as a temple to industrial power, had a
monumentality based upon neoclassical principles. For the Fagus factory, Gropius and
Meyer eschewed this masking of structure, striving to clearly express its materials, an
Fig 8.1 Peter Behrens AEG Turbine Factory Berlin, 1907 (left); Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyers Fagus Shoe Last
Factory, Alfeld on the Leine, 1911(right)
Exploring how to respond to industry continued at the Bauhaus. Although it had several
phases and its aesthetics approach was not monolithic, its influence is still seen in
spare lines and structural expression still infuse discussions of modern design.
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Intensively increased investments in industry after the World War II initiated
urban growth of industrial centres in the middle of XX century, especially in the 50s and
fulfilling demands on labour force, consequently housing areas, services areas, roads and
other infrastructural and communal facilities have expanded. This growth, mainly
focused on free land on the cities outskirts leaded to increase in traffic and in additional
pressure on the road network that expand too. Architectural aesthetic of this period is still
under the influence of Modern movement and the International style; intensive is usage
of modern materials as reinforced concrete, iron and glass, but also some entirely new
ones such as asbestos, later plastic, etc. Although this period has given some great
architectural works, among all building types, they always have had difficulties to be
permanent, have poor resistance to the passage of time. However, this architectures
worst enemy still remains the indifference, indeed the contempt that it continues to
arouse among the public. This is due, in particular, to the banality of a large part of the
production of the period, in which the examples of quality become lost. A policy for the
protection of the major works of the post-war period is being organized across Europe
and wider (Docomomo and others initiatives). The goodwill of owners who are aware of
the quality of their asset also constitutes an effective driver for the protection of the
urgently needed in order to preserve the fragile balance on which their appeal rests.
Industrial buildings of the post-war period shared the destiny of the other buildings of the
However, industrial heritage from this period is the greatest and most common
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Fig 9.1 Diemme Filtrations, Lugo, Italy, from '60s (left); Saarinen's IBM Rochester building from
1958 (right)
The end of XX century had brought many causes that leaded to the
matrix of the cities. Deindustrialization, share of total employment and total investments
other supporting companies. Globalization, economic changes that influenced the urban
structure of cities is not limited anymore to national and regional borders. Production
facilities are being relocated intensively to other regions that offer suitable economic
incentives, lower production costs in form of cheaper labour force and lower taxes. Shifts
concepts lead to functional concentration, efficient land use and higher productivity,
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Most modern industries have large warehouses or warehouse-like facilities
that contain heavy equipment used for assembly line production. Large factories tend to
be located with access to multiple modes of transportation, with some having rail,
highway and water loading and unloading facilities. Factories may either make discrete
products or some type of material continuously produced such as chemicals, pulp and
called plants and may have most of their equipment like tanks, pressure vessels, chemical
reactors, pumps and piping outdoors and operated from control rooms.
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11. MODERN INDUSTRIAL CONSTRUCTION
TECHNIQUES:
- PORTAL FRAME:
The vast majority of single storey, steel framed buildings are portal
frames. These were first widely used in the 1960s. During the 1970s and early 1980s
they developed rapidly to become the predominant form of single storey construction.
Using plastic design techniques first developed at Cambridge University, for spans up to
about 50m portal frames are the most economical solution available. Large column-free
areas can be achieved at relatively low cost. Often on multi-span frames the intermediate
valley columns are omitted (hit-and-miss) so that on, say, a 45m span frame, with bay
centres of 8m, each column-free box covers an area of over 700m2, which is nearly a
fifth of an acre!
Portal frames typically use hot-rolled beams and columns for the roof
rafters and supporting columns, although cold formed sections may be adequate for some
small span structures. Portal frames come in a variety of different shapes and sizes, with
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flat and pitched roofs. The schematic arrangement of a typical single storey portal
A small number of steelwork contractors offer portal frames made wholly from plates,
often to form a tapered rafter section, which more closely follows the load profile on the
steel member. The extra fabrication cost involved is offset by savings in the material
content of the resultant frame. However, overall this form of frame has not been
frames to the optimum efficiency. These programs use plastic or elastoplastic design
techniques, and can handle multi-span frames with varying geometries and multiple load
cases
- LATTICE TRUSSES:
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The main alternative to portal frames is lattice construction. Lattice trusses are
generally more expensive than portal frames for routine applications and spans.
However, for certain applications they will offer the best framing solution, such as: for
very large spans (greater than 50m), for production facilities needing heavy plant
suspended from the roof area, or where deflection criteria are particularly critical.
either rolled or structural hollow sections. The internal members can beangles,
beams or hollow sections, depending on the design loads, configuration and fabrication
costs. Two basic configurations are used in single storey buildings pitched roof trusses
and flat trusses of near uniform depth. Trusses are usually planar and will generally
Trusses typically have a greater depth than single beams or plate girders. The deflection
of a truss is modest, and can be controlled, making them especially suitable when
significant loads have to be supported from the roof structure, or when a flat (or nearly
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TYPES OF LATTICE TRUSS:
using channel, beam or tubular sections. Lattice trusses tend to be beam and
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Fig 11.4 Cable stayed roof beams of a storage facility
provided to give intermediate support to members such as roof beams, thus allowing
masts and those members need to be anchored or braced with other stays. The bracing
arrangement is usually very conspicuous and the aesthetics of the building must be
- MEZZANINES:
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Fig 11.5 Typical mezzanine floor in an industrial building
providing additional floor space without extending the overall size of the building. They
Mezzanine floors tend to be separate steel framed structures which are supported directly
off the ground floor concrete slab and tied into the main structural framing of the
building.
working spaces are provided over the whole of the ground floor area (support forklift
traffic). In these cases the mezzanine floor structure can be supported directly off the
Typically mezzanine floors are lightweight open grid floors. To restrict the loss of
headroom to a minimum, cellular beams can be specified which will allow services to be
provided within the depth of the mezzanine floor beams. A typical mezzanine floor in an
- CONNECTION DETAILS:
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Typical eaves connection in a portal frame
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- OPERATIONAL ENERGY PERFORMANCE:
For many applications, the inclusion of roof lights is important because they
reduce the amount of artificial lighting that is needed and, consequently, the energy
demands of the building. However, they also increase solar gain, which can lead to
overheating in summer and increase cooling demand. Heat loss through thermal
bridging also becomes more significant (relatively) as the insulation thickness increases,
requiring the use of enhanced construction details and specialised components in order to
satisfy regulatory requirements.
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- NEW TECHNIQUES IN INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE:
Henry Ford further revolutionized the factory concept in the early 20th
century, with the innovation of the mass production. Industrial robots on the factory
floor, introduced in the late 1970s. These computer-controlled welding arms and grippers
could perform simple tasks such as attaching a car door quickly and flawlessly 24 hours
a day. This too cut costs and improved speed.
Highly specialized laborers situated alongside a series of rolling ramps
would build up a product such as (in Ford's case) an automobile. This concept
dramatically decreased production costs for virtually all manufactured goods and brought
about the age of consumerism.
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