Three Domains of Learning Cognitive,

Affective, Psychomotor
Leslie Owen Wilson all rights reserved Contact Leslie

Three domains of learning What are the differences between the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
taxonomies?

There are three main domains of learning and all teachers should know about them and use
them to construct lessons. These domains are cognitive (thinking), affective (emotion/feeling),
and psychomotor (physical/kinesthetic). Each domain on this page has a taxonomy associated
with it. Taxonomy is simply a word for a classification. All of the taxonomies below are arranged
so that they proceed from the simplest to more complex levels. The ones discussed here are
usually attributed to their primary author, even though the actual development may have had

many authors in its formal, complete citation.

Benjamin Bloom (Cognitive Domain),

David Krathwohl (Affective Domain), and

Anita Harrow (Psychomotor Domain).

It is interesting to note that even though the taxonomy associated with cognition is commonly
referred to as Blooms Taxonomy, David Krathwohl was also one of the original authors in
creating this work. This will become important when you look at the 2001 revisions to this
taxonomy.

Many veteran teachers are unaware that the cognitive/thinking domain had major revisions in
2000/01. Again commonly known as Blooms Taxonomy, the domain of cognition was
originally described and published in 1956. While I have included the original one, I have also
attached it to the newly revised version so that users can see the differences. The newer version
of Blooms Taxonomy of Learning has a number of added features that can be very useful to
educators as they try to construct optimal learning experiences.

Additionally, when possible, teachers should attempt to construct more holistic lessons by using
all 3 domains in learning tasks. This diversity helps to create more well-rounded learning
experiences and meets a number of learning styles and learning modalities. Using more diversity
in delivering lessons also helps students create more neural networks and pathways thus aiding
recall.
 The Original Cognitive or Thinking Domain

Based on the 1956 work, The Handbook I-Cognitive Domain, behavioral objectives were divided
into subsets. These subsets were arranged into a taxonomy and listed according to the cognitive
difficulty simpler to more complex forms. In 2000-01 revisions to this taxonomy were
spearheaded by one of Blooms former students, Lorin Anderson, and one of his original partners
in defining the cognitive domain, David Krathwohl. Please see my page entitled Anderson and
Krathwohl Blooms Taxonomy Revised for further details.

Remember while it is good to understand the history of the older version of the domain, the
newer version has a number of strong advantages that make it a better choice for planning
instruction today. One of the major changes that occurred between the old and the newer updated
version is that the two highest forms of cognition have been reversed. In the older version the
listing from simple to most complex functions was ordered as knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In the newer version the steps change to verbs
and are arranged as knowing, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and last, creating.

Additional Resources: A wonderfully succinct and comprehensive overview of both taxonomies

is provided by Mary Forehand at the University of Georgia in a Wikipedia type format, see
Blooms taxonomy. Plus, there are many different types of graphics cleverly depicting the new
versions that can be printed and readily used as everyday references during instructional
planning. In a search engine like Google enter revised Blooms taxonomy and view the
images portion of the search to find many different types of colorful and useful graphics on
this topic.

Taxonomies of the Cognitive Domain

Blooms Taxonomy 1956 Anderson and Krathwohls Taxonomy 2001

1. Knowledge: Remembering or retrieving previously learned 1. Remembering: Recognizing or recalling knowledge from
material. Examples of verbs that relate to this function are: memory. Remembering is when memory is used to produce
know identify define recall record name or retrieve definitions, facts, or lists, or to recite previously
relate list memorize repeat recognize acquire learned information.
2. Comprehension: The ability to grasp or construct meaning 2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from different
from material. Examples of verbs that relate to this function are: types of functions be they written or graphic messages, or
restate locate report identify discuss illustrate interpret activities like interpreting, exemplifying, classifying,
recognize explain describe discuss draw represent summarizing, inferring, comparing, or explaining.
express review infer differentiate
conclude
3. Application: The ability to use learned material, or to 3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure through
implement material in new and concrete situations. Examples of executing, or implementing. Applying relates to or refers to
verbs that relate to this function are: situations where learned material is used through products
apply relate organize employ practice calculate like models, presentations, interviews or simulations.
develop translate restructure interpret show exhibit
use operate demonstrate illustrate dramatize
4. Analysis: The ability to break down or distinguish the parts 4. Analyzing: Breaking materials or concepts into parts,
of material into its components so that its organizational determining how the parts relate to one another or how they
structure may be better understood.Examples of verbs that relate interrelate, or how the parts relate to an overall structure or
to this function are: purpose. Mental actions included in this function are
analyze compare differentiate contrast experiment differentiating, organizing, and attributing, as well as being
probe inquire investigate detect scrutinize discover able to distinguish between the components or parts. When
examine contrast survey classify inspect dissect one is analyzing, he/she can illustrate this mental function by
categorize deduce discriminate creating spreadsheets, surveys, charts, or diagrams, or
separate graphic representations.
5. Synthesis: The ability to put parts together to form a 5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and
coherent or unique new whole. Examples of verbs that relate to standards through checking and critiquing. Critiques,
this function are: recommendations, and reports are some of the products that
compose produce plan invent propose develop can be created to demonstrate the processes of evaluation. In
design assemble formulate collect set arrange construct the newer taxonomy, evaluating comes before creating as it
create prepare up generalize organize originate is often a necessary part of the precursory behavior before
predict modify tell document combine derive write propose one creates something.
relate
6. Evaluation: The ability to judge, check, and even critique the 6. Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or
value of material for a given purpose. Examples of verbs that functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or
relate to this function are: structure through generating, planning, or
judge assess argue decide choose validate consider producing. Creating requires users to put parts together in a
compare evaluate rate select estimate appraise value new way, or synthesize parts into something new and
conclude measure criticize infer different thus creating a new form or product. This process is
deduce the most difficult mental function in the new taxonomy.

Table 1.1 (Wilson, L.O. 2001) Bloom vs. Anderson/Krathwohl revisions

The Affective or Feeling Domain:

Like cognitive objectives, affective objectives can also be divided into a hierarchy (according to
Krathwohl). This area is concerned with feelings or emotions. Again, the taxonomy is arranged
from simpler feelings to those that are more complex.

1. Receiving

This refers to the learners sensitivity to the existence of stimuli awareness, willingness to
receive, or selected attention.

feel sense capture pursue attend

experience perceive
2. Responding

This refers to the learners active attention to stimuli and his/her motivation to learn
acquiescence, willing responses, or feelings of satisfaction.

conform allow contribute enjoy

cooperate satisfy

3. Valuing

This refers to the learners beliefs and attitudes of worth acceptance, preference, or
commitment. An acceptance, preference, or commitment to a value.

believe seek justify respect search persuade

4. Organization

This refers to the learners internalization of values and beliefs involving (1) the
conceptualization of values; and (2) the organization of a value system. As values or beliefs
become internalized, the leaner organizes them according to priority.

examine clarify systematize create integrate

5. Characterization the Internalization of values

This refers to the learners highest of internalization and relates to behavior that reflects (1) a
generalized set of values; and (2) a characterization or a philosophy about life. At this level the
learner is capable of practicing and acting on their values or beliefs.

internalize review conclude resolve judge

Based on:

Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom,B.S. and Masia, B. B. (1964).Taxonomy of educational objectives,

Book II. Affective domain. New York, NY. David McKay Company, Inc.

Note: As with all of the taxonomies, in labeling objectives using this domain there has to be a
very clear instructional intention for growth in this area specified in the learning
objective(s). Folks in the sciences and in math often avoid including affective objectives stating
that their areas are not emotional. However, any group work or cooperative exercise where
deportment, or collaborative or cooperative skills are discussed, used, and emphasized qualifies
as having the potential for affective growth. Additionally, if students are asked to challenge
themselves with independently taking risks to develop and present a hypothesis and/or persuade
others on drawn conclusions, or actively take an intellectual risk whereby they increase in self-
confidence, these types of exercises also have the potential to be affective as well as a cognitive.
Also, in areas of potential debate, where data allows students to draw conclusions about
controversial topics or express opinions and feelings on those topics, this too can be tweaked so
there is intentional affective growth. Since emotion draws both attention and channels strong
residual memory, it behooves all dedicated and artful educators to include affective objectives,
no matter what their discipline or area of study.

The Psychomotor or Kinesthetic Domain

Psychomotor objectives are those specific to discreet physical functions, reflex actions and
interpretive movements. Traditionally, these types of objectives are concerned with the
physically encoding of information, with movement and/or with activities where the gross and
fine muscles are used for expressing or interpreting information or concepts. This area also refers
to natural, autonomic responses or reflexes.

As stated earlier, to avoid confusion, if the activity is simply something that is physical which
supports another area affective or cognitive term the objective physical rather than
psychomotor. Again, this goes to instructional intent. A primary example of something physical
which supports specific cognitive development and skills might be looking through a
microscope, and then identifying and drawing cells. Here the instructional intent of this common
scientific activity is not to develop specific skilled proficiency in microscope viewing or in
reproducing cells through drawing. Usually the key intent in this activity is that a physical action
supports or is a vehicle for cognitive growth and furthering recognition skills. The learner is
using the physical action to achieve the cognitive objectives identify, recognize, and
differentiate varied types of cells.

If you are using a physical activity to support a cognitive or affective function, simply label it as
something physical (labeling the objective as kinesthetic, haptic, or tactile is also acceptable) and
avoid the term psychomotor. Rather labeling something psychomotor means there is a very clear
educational intention for growth to occur in the psychomotor domain.

Certainly more complex learning objectives can be written so that they that meld 2 or 3 domains.
For instance, students can gain appreciation (an affective objective) for the culture or country of
origin through conducting investigations or listening to stories while learning the dances from
other countries. Learning dance steps would fall under skilled movements in the psychomotor
domain.

(Terms in this area based on Anita Harrows taxonomy).

Reflex movements

Objectives at this level include reflexes that involve one segmental or reflexes of the spine and
movements that may involve more than one segmented portion of the spine as intersegmental
reflexes (e.g., involuntary muscle contraction). These movements are involuntary being either
present at birth or emerging through maturation.
Fundamental movements

Objectives in this area refer to skills or movements or behaviors related to walking, running,
jumping, pushing, pulling and manipulating. They are often components for more complex
actions.

Perceptual abilities

Objectives in this area should address skills related to kinesthetic (bodily movements), visual,
auditory, tactile (touch), or coordination abilities as they are related to the ability to take in
information from the environment and react.

Physical abilities

Objectives in this area should be related to endurance, flexibility, agility, strength, reaction-
response time or dexterity.

Skilled movements

Objectives in this area refer to skills and movements that must be learned for games, sports,
dances, performances, or for the arts.

Nondiscursive communication

Objectives in this area refer to expressive movements through posture, gestures, facial
expressions, and/or creative movements like those in mime or ballet. These movements refer to
interpretative movements that communicate meaning without the aid of verbal commands or
help.

Note: As we learn more about how the brain learns and retains information, todays educators are
realizing that targeted physical movement has the potential to enhance memory and recall and
can aid in accelerating longterm memory. Intentionally adding movement to enhance learning is
often called embodied learning. With the aid of technology this field is growing rapidly.
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND LEADERSHIP (2291)

Taylor's Scientific Management Principles in Current Organizational Management Practices

Daniel Martnez Cardoso

Introduction.

The purpose of this essay is to analyse the extent to which Taylor's Scientific Management
Principles are present in current organizational management practices. Therefore, I will first
expose the main ideas behind Taylors work and his theory of Scientific Management.
Following that, I will explain each of the Scientific Management Principles and present
arguments that discuss their prevalence in current organizations, illustrating the matters with
some examples. Finally, I will conclude by showing my findings based on the previous analysis.

2. Scientific Management and its Principles.

The late nineteenth century was characterised by the increasing size and complexity of industrial
organizations, facts which made it more difficult to organise human effort efficiently and
effectively (Rollinson, 2005: 9). As a response to contemporary trends, a systematic management
movement was formed, which consisted of attempts by managers with engineering backgrounds
to apply the principles of their discipline to the organization of production, with the objective of
solving the problems of the industry with rational methods of managing (Barley & Kunda, 1992:
369). In this context, the Scientific Management theory was born, based on the work performed
by Frederick Winslow Taylor during the latter part of the 19th century and further developed in
the early 20th century (McKinnon, 2003: 1). Scientific Management supplied the systematic
management movement with coherent ideological foundation (Barley & Kunda, 1992: 369) and
it has become the most widely used set of general principles for organising production
(Rollinson, 2005: 10). In addition, job analysis and design have its roots in Scientific
Management and are now a common human resources practice in most of the worlds largest
corporations (Bell & Martin, 2012: 107). Scientific Management can be defined as an
organizational ideology and a set of techniques conceived to deal with such problems as
soldiering by workers, resource waste, and disorder, as well as managements arbitrariness,
greed, and lack of control

2 Daniel Martnez Cardoso

 (Guillen, 1994: 75). It consists of a series of tools, methods and organizational arrangements to
increase the efficiency and speed of machine shop production, which involves, among others, a
timing work system to establish a scientific measure of what

constitutes a fair days work (Taylor, 1911:49), bookkeeping and accounting tools, and
techniques to measure work input, as well as a managerial bonus plan devised by Gantt, a rule
for the calculation of machine speeds by Barth and the science of motion study and all its
branches developed by Frank and Lilian Gilbreth (Merkle, 1980: 2). It pretends to organise or
reorganise work methods to give managers greater control over the labour process, that is, the
exchange of effort for rewards (Rollinson, 2005: 9-10).

Taylors theory rest s on the assumptions that high pay is the main and perhaps the only thing
that people seek to obtain for work (Rollinson, 2005: 10), people are primarily rational
(Barley & Kunda, 1992: 372) and a belief in the utility and morality of scientific reasoning
(ibid). Following Rollinson (2005:10), Taylor was convinced that since both parties (workers and
managers) obtained what they wanted (higher pay and maximum effort from workers), Scientific
Management would lead to cooperation, prosperity and a greater surplus for the organization
(Bell & Martin, 2012: 109). However, as Wagner-Tsukamoto (2007: 106) stated, opportunistic
managers used the system to abuse and mistreat workers, and, after its last peak of fame in the
1920s, Scientific Management popularity decreased due to its consideration as the

science of exploitation (Bakan, 2004: 76). After that time, an era of criticism and competition
for the movement, characterised for willingness to collaborate with the labour (Hawthorne
Studies, Human Relations Movement, etc) began (Barley & Kunda, 1992: 372). I will now deal
with the four Principles of Scientific Management and discuss the relevance of each in current
management practices.

1)The development of laws and scientific principles for work tasks to replace old- fashioned or
traditional methods (Boone and Bowden, 1987: 126). With this Principle, Taylor wanted to
use scientific techniques to determine the most efficient way of doing work (Morgan, 2006:
23), replacing the role of thumb method (Taylor, 1911: 36), that means, the one that is not
accurate or reliable for every situation, and to simplify jobs by describing each workers task in
detail, specifying how it should be done and the amount of time necessary to do it (ibid: 38-39).
In essence, he arrogated that managers could find the one best method to perform a task that
would guarantee maximum efficiency (Freedman, 1992: 27). Yet this point of view is nowadays
rejected, because there is no managerial best practice, it all depends on the circumstances of
the country, industry, and culture in which organizations operate (there are three eclectic models
of management, and every new managerial practice seems to be a mixture of them) (Guillen,
1994: 75) and the organizations world appears to be unpredictable, uncertain and even
uncontrollable (Freedman, 1992: 26).

However, adapted to new technologies and modern practices, Taylorsspecialization of tasks,

standardization and scientific improvement of processes are still alive in modern organizations,
as it will be now exposed. Firstly, big companies are often divided into several departments to
focus on specialization, since the change in structure allows them to divide the tasks of the
whole organization into manageable sub-tasks and allocates them to organisational units that are
responsible for their completion (Rollinson, 2005: 461).

However, when the organizations structure does not include specialized jobs concerned with
analysing the environment, the companies usually fail to adapt to changing circumstances (ibid:
463). So, scientific management works better with small companies which do not usually need to
react to change (Caldari, 2007: 74). This lack of flexibility, the main defect attributed to the
Fordism model (which adopted Taylorisms Principles with just a different philosophy during
1960-1970) was the key word for the development of Post-Fordism (Caldari, 2007: 72).
Although it may seem that Post-Fordism, which emerged from the crisis of Fordism (Amin,
2008: 18), surged to challenge Fordism tenets, core principles of scientific management
neglected under Fordism were implemented through the search of flexibility, applying rationalist
ideas like standardization and efficiency (Crowley et al, 2010: 423).

Thus, this movement is perhaps more aptly termed Neo -Taylorist than Post-Fordist
management Crowley et al, 2010: 422), which shows Taylorism still influences it a lot.

Secondly, every standard operating procedure has its basis in Scientific Management
(Kanigel, 1996: 45). Many employees are trained to become machines in certain parts of their
jobs to improve efficiency and profitability (Bell, 2012: 106) and standardization of tasks plays a
big role in it. Two examples of this can be seen, as Bell and Martin (ibid: 107) indicated, when
workers cook a hamburger at McDonalds or when a technical support representative answers a
call under pressure from a 90/10 protocol (which is a set of procedures that demands 90 percent
of all calls to be answered within 10 seconds and 90 percent of all problems to be resolved within
10 minutes). Another one is Customer Service Representatives jobs, which for some are an
expression of an advanced form of Taylorism (Holman et al, 2005: 116, citing Bain et al.,
2002; Knights & McCabe, 1998; Taylor & Bain, 1999), because jobs are unskilled, repetitive and
monotonous, and calls are of a short duration and required to be completed within a specified
time (ibid). Finally, about scientific improvement of processes in current organizations, we can
see Post- Taylorism (another trend which was originated after the Scientific Management crisis
and resembles its predecessor in many ways) companies not only look for cost, but also for
efficiency, short delivery times and increased output (Peaucelle, 2000: 452). For that purpose,
new organizational techniques, such as Just-In Time, Process Reengineering and Call Centres,
have been created (ibid). The second one, for instance, involves rethinking and radical
redesigning of processes to improve performance dramatically (Rollinson, 2005: 54).
2. Scientifically select workpeople and progressively train, teach and develop them to achieve
their maximum level of efficiency and prosperity in the jobs that are required
(Taylor, 1911: 36). Taylor assumed everyone is first- class at something (Rollinson, 2005:10),
which means there should always be a person who best suits a job and just has to be found.
Because extracting the maximum effort of a worker resulted in boring and repetitive tasks,
careful selection of operators (people who did not have aspirations for performing more
mentally - challenging works) was required (Rollinson, 2005: 10).
Since World War I, personnel selections influence has grown enormously, and it has
become a science in its own right (Locke, 1982: 17). In addition, most contemporary
managers fully accept the notion that training new employees is their responsibility
(Locke, 1982: 17). Taylor's emphasis on scientific selection was an impetus to the
development of the fields of industrial psychology and personnel management
(ibid), being one of the sources of theories like Contemporary Human Resource
Management (CHRM) (Price, 2011: 8-9), one of the most dominant approaches to
people management throughout the world (ibid: 3). CHRMs responsibilities involve,
among others, job design, staff selection, training and motivation and job
performance criteria, all of which were Taylors contributions (Bell and Martin, 2012:
107).
Thus, following Taylors ideas, organizations in our days make huge efforts to
hire the right people to a position and to train them to develop their skills
(Mckinnon,2010: 1). One example could be human resources policies in consulting
firms, which focus on hiring unexperienced workers with great potential and, then,
train and develop their skills so that they can make very valuable workers for a low
cost (Babo et al, 2007: 50).
3. Bringing the scientifically designed job and the scientifically designed workers
together
(Rollinson, 2005: 9). This Principle translates into ensuring that all work is done in
accordance to the principles of the developed science. Even though the basic job of
a manager is to guarantee that an organization achieves its goals, a key aspect to
take into account is making sure that employees are performing their tasks so that
they contribute to the accomplishment of organizations goals (Certo, 2003: 3-4),
and this involves monitoring performance and making the necessary corrections
(ibid: 11). Seeing that we cannot assure everything is done as it should be just by
establishing an efficient way to do it, supervision seems basic and crucial to modern
organizations, as it is performance appraisal, which also has its roots in Scientific
Management (Bell & Martin, 2012: 107)
4. Divide up the actual work of the organisation between management and
workers
(Rollinson, 2005: 9).
Here, Taylor wanted to separate the thinking (planning and controlling tasks,
performed by the managers, the superior part of the organisation) from the doing
(the more menial physical tasks, carried out by workers) (Rollinson, 2005: 10). By
that way, soldiering, the practice of working as a much slower pace than the one of
which a person is capable of (ibid), will be tackled, since workers would carry out
their tasks efficiently because the responsibility of thinking would have been
removed (ibid).
However, following this thoughts, organizations were viewed as a machine in which
processes were considered important, whereas workers were treated as passive
elements of them (Burrell & Morgan, 1979: 127.). This resulted in dehumanizing
employees (Morgan, 2006: 28), which led to discouragement of workers, a decline in
job satisfaction and numerous strikes (Rollinson, 2005: 10). Consequently,
efficiency decreased and workers were denigrated and deskilled
(Nyland, 1996: 985). Nevertheless, this separation somehow happens in modern
organizations, since usually, in large businesses, the head (directors) attends to
general strategic matters such as setting the direction of the organization
(thinking) while all the remaining work is attended to by the other departments
(working) (Caldari, 2007:67). Furthermore, scientific managers of today must
behave a bit like Taylor, studying their own organizations and designing processes
to make their workers effective perform in our times of rapid change (Freedman,
1992: 37, citing Senge, 1990). Beyond the four principles, there are other trends
related to the matter and important to mention. These are Total-Quality
Management (TQM), Knowledge Management (KM), Lean Production (LP) and
Management By Objectives (MBO). The first and the secondcan be described,
respectively, as a comprehensive, organization -wide effort that is an integrated
and interfunctional mean of improving the quality of
products and services and of sustaining competitive advantage (Holmann et al,
2005: 2), and a the use of practices, particularly IT-based technologies and
community and network-based practices to centralise, collectivise and create
knowledge so that it can be exploited to increase organisational performance and to
develop new opportunities
The third and the last can be defined as an integrated system of production with a
single production flow that is pulled by the customer and emphasis on small batch
manufacture, just-in-time, team-based work and participation, to eliminate non-
value-adding activities and variabilities (ibid) and a process whereby the superior
and subordinate managers of an organization jointly identify its common goals,
define each individuals major area of responsibility in terms of result expected, and
use these measurements as guides for operating the unit and assessing the
contribution each of its members (Kondrasuk, 1981, citing Odiorne, 1979).
TQM is notably influenced by Taylorism, since its work is sometimes designed and
deliberaly organized to put pressure on employees to produce every second
(Rollinson, 2005: 32), reduces workers autonomy (ibid) and incorporates many
Scientific Management ideas related to process management and structural
reorganization (Guillen, 1975: 75). KM, employed as a strategy of consultancy
companies like Accenture or Deloitte (Willson, 2002: 1), has its roots in Taylors
Scientific Management (ibid), although it encompasses a wide range of different
approaches and it is a much broader- based movement than Taylors theory
(Holmann et al, 2005: 134). LP includes the practice of the organizational principles
of Fordism under conditions in which management prerogatives are largely
unlimited, and represents an extension of the sphere of influence of scientific
management. (Guillen,
1994: 75, citing Dohse et al., 1985). Finally, MBO did not go beyond the principles
of Scientific Management, because managers who applied it were unwilling to
reverse Taylorism, surrender power and synthesize planning and performing
(Waring, 1992: 235). Yet this author went beyond that and portrayed MBO as a
reborn and transformed Taylorism (ibid: 236).

Conclusion.
To sum up, and as it can be inferred from my earlier remarks, the principles of
Taylors Scientific Management are present in current management organizational
practices to a great extent. These principles are so deeply rooted in our
understanding of work organization that they are very hard to identify and separate
from modern managerial practices (Rousseau, 2012: 398)
Even though Scientific Management can be considered useless because of its
inflexibility to react to changes generated by technology, competition, and
international trade agreements (Hodgetts, 1995: 222), most of his insights are still
valid today (Locke, 1982: 23), as they remain relevant to everyday business
operations (Bell & Martin, 2012: 107, citing Payne et al, 2006).
However, as management models are adopted in practice only when institutional
circumstances conspire with them (Guillen, 1994: 75), managers should try not to
embrace Taylors principles fully, but to understand them and learn from
their insights, due to their big influence in the modern workplace

Lesson Transcript
Instructor: Sherri Hartzell

Sherri has taught college business and communication courses. She also holds three degrees
including communications, business, educational leadership/technology.

This lesson describes Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory, which is based on the idea of how
hygiene factors and satisfiers or motivators are used to provide satisfaction to employees in work
environments.

Finding Balance
The peanut butter and jelly sandwich is a staple of American children's diets everywhere. If you
have ever made one or had the pleasure of eating one, you know it is all about finding the right
balance between the peanut butter and the jelly. Too much peanut butter and your mouth is going
to be sticky. Too much jelly will leak out of the sides and make a mess. Likewise, too little
peanut butter and you lose that salty effect, whereas too little jelly and you lose the sweetness.
Indeed, it is all about finding that right balance of salty and sweet without leaving you thirsty and
wearing jelly on your shirt. Balance is a challenging thing to find in many aspects of life. This is
also true of employee satisfaction and motivation. One person who was interested in helping
managers find out how to offer that balance for their employees was Frederick Herzberg.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg was a psychologist interested in the correlation between employee attitude
and workplace motivation. He wanted to find out what made people feel satisfied and unsatisfied
when it came to the workplace. After spending countless hours interviewing employees about
what made them feel both good and bad about their jobs, Herzberg developed a theory of
workplace motivation called the two-factor theory. The two-factor theory is based on the
assumption that there are two sets of factors that influence motivation in the workplace by either
enhancing employee satisfaction or hindering it.

The first of the two are called hygiene factors and no, I am not talking about the personal
hygiene of your co-workers, though that can certainly be questionable at times. Rather, Herzberg
used the term 'hygiene' to describe factors that cause dissatisfaction in the workplace, are
extrinsic (or independent of the work itself), and are linked to things such as compensation, job
security, organizational politics, working conditions, quality of leadership, and relationships
between supervisors, subordinates, and peers.

According to Herzberg, these factors do not motivate employees. However, when they are
missing or inadequate, hygiene factors can cause serious dissatisfaction. Just think about how
unhappy you would be in a job where you were underpaid, were in fear of losing your job, dealt
constantly with gossip, lacked effective leadership, and were surrounded by coworkers whom
you despised. Hygiene factors are all about making an employee feel comfortable, secure, and
happy. When hygiene factors are not fulfilled, it feels like something is missing or not quite right,
kind of how you would feel if you couldn't shower, brush your teeth, or wash your hands after
using the bathroom.

The second factor is motivators or satisfiers. These are linked to employee motivation and arise
from intrinsic, or dependent, conditions of the job itself. Factors for satisfaction include
responsibility, job satisfaction, recognition, achievement, opportunities for growth, and
advancement.

Applying Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

One would think that an easy way to improve employee motivation would be to decrease things
that cause dissatisfaction and increase those things that cause satisfaction. However, it is not that
simple. Herzberg argued that remedying the causes of dissatisfaction does not lead to
satisfaction. Nor will adding satisfiers eliminate dissatisfaction. That is because the opposite of
satisfaction is no satisfaction, and the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction.
 Frederick Herzberg developed the two-factor theory.

While I understand Herzberg did not put this into the simplest of terms, a clearer explanation of
this idea can be seen in this scenario: You work in an office where the roof is constantly leaking,
the computers are always shorting out, and you never seem to be able to catch up on your work
because of it. Suddenly, you are informed that you will be receiving an award for meeting last
month's sales quota. The award, which is a satisfier, would not eliminate your dissatisfaction
with the inadequate working conditions. While you might be happy for a short moment when
you receive your award, once you return to your office and realize that the roof is still leaking,
your computer doesn't work properly, and you're still behind, you will quickly remember how
unhappy you are.

A manager must be sure to provide sufficient hygiene factors while at the same time building
satisfiers or motivators into employee jobs. In essence, hygiene factors are necessary to be sure a
subordinate is not dissatisfied, and satisfiers are needed to motivate an employee to work
towards a higher level of performance. Much like making your peanut butter and jelly sandwich,
it's all about finding the right balance.

To begin eliminating things that are causing employee dissatisfaction, the manager needs to fix
problems related to things such as ineffective policies, noncompetitive wages, and job insecurity.
Then, a manager should begin to foster a supportive culture, provide meaningful and challenging
work, and offer effective leadership, showing respect and dignity for subordinates. Each of these
activities helps a manager to reduce job dissatisfaction and make the first step towards
motivation.

Motivation - Herzberg (Two Factor Theory)

Herzberg had close links with Maslow and believed in a two-factor theory of motivation. He
argued that there were certain factors that a business could introduce that would directly motivate
employees to work harder (motivators). However there were also factors that would de-motivate
an employee if not present but would not in themselves actually motivate employees to work
harder (hygiene factors)

Motivators are more concerned with the actual job itself. For instance how interesting the work is
and how much opportunity it gives for extra responsibility, recognition and promotion. Hygiene
factors are factors which 'surround the job' rather than the job itself. For example a worker will
only turn up to work if a business has provided a reasonable level of pay and safe working
conditions but these factors will not make him work harder at his job once he is there.

Herzberg believed that businesses should motivate employees by adopting a democratic

approach to management and by improving the nature and content of the actual job through
certain methods. Some of the methods managers could use to achieve this are:

Job enlargement workers being given a greater variety of tasks to perform (not
necessarily more challenging) which should make the work more interesting.

Job enrichment - involves workers being given a wider range of more complex and
challenging tasks surrounding a complete unit of work. This should give a greater sense
of achievement.

Empowerment means delegating more power to employees to make their own decisions
over areas of their working life.

Key summary for Herzberg:

Workers motivated to work harder by motivators e.g. more responsibility, more

interesting work, more praise for good work

Workers can become de-motivated if hygiene factors are not met e.g. pay, working
conditions, relationships with colleagues
Herzbergs two-factor theory to higher education
Job satisfaction and motivation have been widely investigated in many job situations
and against many different theoretical formulations. Frederick Herzbergs
motivation-hygiene factor theory, although considered non-traditional when it was
introduced in 1959, has become one of the most used, known, and widely respected
theories for explaining motivation and job satisfaction.
According to Herzbergs two-factor theory (Herzberg et al., 1967), there are two
distinct sets of factors for job satisfaction and job performance in organizations. One
set, labeled satisfiers or motivators, results in satisfaction when adequately
ulfilled. The other set, labeled as dissatisfiers or hygiene factors, causes
dissatisfaction when deficient. The motivators are typically intrinsic factors: they are
part of job content and are largely administered by the employee or (in this case) the
student. The hygiene factors are extrinsic factors and are under the control of the
supervisor or someone other than the employee or student. The important point here is
that Herzbergs theory did not define satisfaction and dissatisfaction as being at
opposite ends of the same continuum. The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but
no satisfaction. The opposite of dissatisfaction is not satisfaction, but no dissatisfaction. The
extrinsic factors affect job satisfaction and if not adequately fulfilled can cause
dissatisfaction, even if the motivating factors themselves are addressed satisfactorily.
In applying Herzbergs theory to this study, faculty performance and classes are
directly related to the outcome from a college experience and may be considered
motivators or satisfiers (e.g. growth and achievement). On the other hand, the
performance of advising staff may be considered similar to hygiene factors or
dissatisfiers that may cause dissatisfaction but not satisfaction (i.e. an environmental
factor). While the absence of good advising staff performance may lead to
dissatisfaction, its presence may not lead to satisfaction, since students may not see it
as directly related to the expected outcomes from a college experience, and usually
faculty also provides similar academic/career advising. For example, fair and equable
rules and polices are expected at a higher educational institution. It is only in the
absence of fairness that the student experiences dissatisfaction.
Attracting students, processing their applications, and guiding admitted students
through the enrollment process are extremely important activities. However, treating
students as partners is crucial to optimize students experience from enrollment to
graduation (Kotler and Fox, 1995). In this process, a person-to-person relationship
between students and universities/colleges is of extreme importance for better
planning and implementation. Thus, we argue that faculty performance, advising staff
performance and classes are three of the most important variables that influence students
college experience and overall satisfaction. It is also argued that satisfaction
influences students intentions to stay at or leave the institution. It is known that
satisfaction level is determined by the difference between service performance as
perceived by the customer and what the customer expects (Parasuraman et al., 1986).
Although there are a significant number of variables that could influence students
perceived performance and hence satisfaction/dissatisfaction (e.g. student services and
activities, etc.), the core services provided by the institution are typically instruction,
advisement and student advisement. Thus, faculty performance, classes, and advising
staff performance are the major factors that this study focuses on to influence students
satisfaction/dissatisfaction with higher education. It is argued that the students who
have positive college experiences will be more satisfied than those students who do not
have a positive college experience. Thus, satisfaction will influence the students
intentions to stay at or leave the institution.

Effective Classroom Management: How to

Maintain Discipline In A Classroom
May 15, 2014 by Florence Ng

When you initially walk into a classroom, you do

not access its effectiveness based on the students grades, writing skills, or state test scores.
Instead, you look to see how effective the classroom management is. Such as how well the
students conduct themselves, how well they can work collaboratively with each other, and how
effective the teachers discipline is on them.

All of these factors are a result of effective classroom management, and every great teacher will
tell you that you must first learn how to maintain classroom discipline before honing in on
students academic goals and needs. After all, how can you effectively teach and learn in an
ineffective environment? If you are a teacher, or in charge of a group of students, lets take a
look at ways to manage a classroom effectively and some helpful techniques that are going to
come in handy if you are faced with managing your own classroom.

Importance of Classroom Management

First off, why is classroom management important?
 It engages students: Students who are engaged in lessons and the learning material will
be able to register the information better and be able to apply their knowledge when it
comes to test taking.

It keeps students prepared: When teachers and students are prepared to learn, lessons and
learning will be easier to be administered and the results will be more effective.

It boosts confidence: In an effective classroom, teachers are able to give more attention
to each student and structure lesson plans to meet certain needs. All of these factors will
help in boosting the confidence of students.

How to Manage a Classroom Effectively

Effective classroom management is being to implement and maintain classroom discipline in an
effective manner. Lets take a look at what you can do as a teacher or leader to help maintain
discipline and management in your classroom.

1. Have rules: It is important to have a basic set of rules for students to follow. These
regulations will help maintain classroom management and discipline. These rules do not
have to be anything advanced; they can be as simple as making sure that all students
adhere to timely attendance and making sure that everyone knows the consequences of
missing or late assignments.

2. Have expectations: If your students know what you want from them, they are more likely
to exhibit the type of behavior you want. Start out the day with explaining what you
expect from your students and how they are expected to behave. Be detailed and
positive.

3. Make students aware of the rules: Every school has its own disciplinary rules that
students should be expected to flow. Make sure that your students are aware of the rules
and the consequences if the rules are not adhered to.

4. Make the rules known to parents as well: Students parents should also be aware of the
management techniques that you are implementing in the classroom. You should ask
parents to go over these rules with the students at home so that everyone is on the same
page, and so that students know that their parents expect this behavior from them as well.

5. Review rules regularly: The thing with children is that you need to be consistent.
Remind your students regularly about the rules and expectations for their behavior to aid
in proper classroom management. Ask them if they have any questions and allow them to
voice their opinions.

6. Be firm and consistent: When you make your rules to manage your classroom, make sure
that they are realistic and void of any inconsistencies. Approach the rules in a positive
manner so that students do not associate any negativity with it. Feel free to reward
 students for their positive behavior when you see that they are contributing to effective
classroom management.

7. Be professional: An effectively managed classroom is conducted with professionalism

and adequate structure. Students who are presented with a good authority figure who has
a plan and follows it will fit in to the structure nicely.

8. Have a printed packet: In case you are unable to attend class one day, make sure that you
have a printed packet of your classroom management techniques handy for a substitute.
Your classroom should be aware that, even in your absence, they should still be able to
manage themselves wisely and that all rules still apply. If students show structure and
compliance in your absence, it will make both you and your classroom look well-
managed and efficient.

9. Deal with troublemakers: No matter how great your plan or classroom management
techniques are, there are always going to be students that want to disrupt your class or not
follow rules. Speak with these students early on and discuss plans of action with higher
authority, such as school administrators or principals. Early detection and dealing with
these types of students will make the rest of the classroom know that you mean business.

Classroom Management Techniques

Now, lets take a look at some classroom

management techniques that is going to make the overall process much easier for you.

Keep the class interested: Students who are interested in the material that what is going
on in the class will be less likely to cause any disruption, as their attention will be focused
on their lesson.

Practice fairness: If you have kids, you would know that they have a tendency to get
jealous very easily. Also, they can easily detect when injustices are occurring. As a
teacher, you need to be fair and make sure that you keep your word and follow up with
anything you commit to. Also remember to never play favorites in a classroom.
 Practice humor: Creating a positive environment where there is laughter and happiness is
key into keep students interested and engaged in their work, and more likely to comply
with any rules.

Do not threaten: Threatening students can weaken a teachers credibility in a classroom.

Be careful when you use threats, if any. Instead, try to practice positive reinforcement.

Lead by example: If one of your rules is to have students show up to class on time every
day, make sure that you practice those same rules yourself. If you are late, then you risk
setting a bad example for your students.

Do not get angry: If you have a temper, leave it at the door. Teachers who lose their
temper will eventually lose their credibility in the classroom and create an unfavorable
learning environment for their students.

Give students opportunities: Giving students the reigns with certain things in the
classroom will make them feel trusted and responsible. By showing students that you
have confidence in their abilities, they will feel like the overall management and flow of
the classroom is up to them to uphold as well.

Do not humiliate: Humiliating students will only cause teachers to lose their authority in
the classroom and contribute to psychological damage in children, as well as fear and
resentment.

Be alert: Teachers who are always aware of what is going on in their classroom are less
likely to have a controlled and managed class. Be sure to move around your class often
and take time to interact with each student.

Happy Students = Effective Classroom

Classroom management is essential, not only for a teachers piece of mind and in allowing them
proper control over their classroom, but it is imperative for a positive and flourishing learning
environment for students. If you would like further insight into methods for effective classroom
management, take a look at this course on how to encourage compliance to bring out the best in
your students, and look forward to a rewarding and productive school year.

Discipline and causes of indiscipline

by MOHAMMED RHALMI August 25, 2010

Importance of discipline
Discipline is paramount for every learning . It is very essential for any teaching. It is also very
important for peace and harmony in any learning environment: peace between students, teachers
and administration. Thats why it is always necessary for discipline to be instilled in the
classroom to get the best out of your students.

In this article I will present a definition of discipline and the causes of indiscipline. In the next
article I will suggest ways to instill discipline and how disciplinary action should be undertaken
to ensure a smooth classroom management.

What is discipline?
Discipline can be defined as follows:

In its most general sense, discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a disciple. To
discipline thus means to instruct a person to follow a particular code of conduct order.

Wikipedia

In the classroom discipline is regarded as a code of conduct that both teachers and students agree
upon and cooperate in its enforcement. I insist on cooperation and agreement in classroom
management. Once the rules are set by all learning and teaching participants, it will be hard for
them to deny or refuse disciplinary action in case of any transgression of the rules.

Causes of indiscipline
There are many causes of indiscipline. Here are a few:

Favoritism:
Indiscipline may be caused by teachers who favor some students in their teaching and
classroom management. The other students may see this as a sign that everything is
allowed in spite of the rules. Other students may also see this favoritism as an offense
against them which leads to rebellion.

The rules are not enforced

When a student is not punished for an offense , s/he goes on to commit more offense.

Lack of Communication:
The rules are not clearly communicated

Teacher-student relationship
The teacher and students relationship is essential for any learning process. If there is a
breakdown in this relationship, indiscipline emerges.
 Lack of leadership:
When the teacher doesnt fulfill his role as a leader, there will certainly be students or
students who will be glad to take this role. Thus indiscipline appears.

Lack of motivation:
When students are not motivated, they tend to work in an undisciplined manner.

Bad habit:
Some students may have acquired bad habits from previous teaching experiences. Once a
student, for instance , has formed the habit of coming to school late, it will be hard for
him or her to change this behavior.

Discipline and Indiscipline Explained

Discipline
is the readiness or willingness of an individual to demonstrate
decent
and decorous conduct, respect for authority, high sense of responsibility, love for
orderliness, eagerness to discharge duties with promptitude and efficiency. When
an individual fails to discharge these characteristics, indiscipline is said to hav
e
occurred (Afolabi, 1998).
Discipline in a broad sense means orderliness which is the opposite of confusion. It
is a fundamental requirement for every segment of the society. Discipline and
indiscipline can directly be linked with ethics which deals with
what is good or
bad, right or wrong.
Disciplined behaviour is a necessity for individuals, small groups, organizations
and national health and survival. The
Oxford Advanced learners Dictionary
,
defines indiscipline as lack of control in the behaviour of a group of people. In
other words, indiscipline is the inability of a person to live in accordance with
rules.
Indiscipline
is the breaking of rules and regulations of institutions. Individual
s
willingly or unwillingly violating laid down rules of an institution, which hampers
the smooth running of the institution, are not disciplined. Indiscipline can simply
be seen as mode of life NOT in conformity with rules and non
-
subjection to
control. By
extension, the term indiscipline connotes the violations of school rules
and regulations capable of obstructing the smooth and orderly functioning of the
school system. Indiscipline breeds corruption and other related social vices.
For organizational obj
ectives to be achieved, discipline is so much needed.
Members of such established organization or group must have a common purpose;
it is this purpose that binds them together to work as a group, towards the
achievement of the objectives.
These purposes c
annot be achieved without conformity among the members of this
group. In the process of conforming, members find themselves submitting or
repressing some of their natural behaviours or thinking, not because they are afraid
of being reprimanded or condemned
but because they feel committed to the
fellowship and ideals of the group. In the higher educational system , the purpose
of discipline is to produce graduates who will be well behaved in the society by
differentiating what is good from what is bad and st
riving to do good for the
general welfare of the society.
Therefore, both the students and the workers in
these citadels of learning should be p
roperly disciplined.