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4.8. FUNDAMENTAL RECEIVER OPERATION The noise output is then reduced to the desired level by the band limiting
The design of an optical receiver is much more complicated than that of an filter and the signal is then amplified to the signal data level. Since most fiber
optic systems use a two level binary digital signal.
-
optical transmitter because, the receiver must first detect weak signal,
distorted signals and then make decisions on what type of data was sent
4.8.1. Digital Signal Transmission
based on an amplified version of this distorted signal.
Tb Tb
OM AGC amplifier 1 0 1 LED or
Bandwidth Optical
limiting filter
Electrical t t t laser
transmitter t t t fiber t t t
Pre amplifier and amplifier Attenuated and
data output Electrical Electrical
distorted optical
input pulses input pulses
power pulses
A APD
Input Peak amplitude
Pin or Amplifier
optical detector
dat
avalanche
photodiode
t t t and
filter
t t t
Electric current Voltage pulses
pulse containing and amplifier
High voltage AGC control AGC reference photodetector noise noise
power supply circuit voltage
t t t
Regenerated output
Signal
processing
equipment
t
The arrows
When the optical data are incident on the APD, higher current pulses flow voltage pulses denote the time
slot centers
through the circuit.
The. photocurrent is amplified by the preamplifier. Thus it converts the Fig.4.18. Signal path through an optical data link.
voltage pulses to have adequate voltage level. Bit period:
The peak amplitude of the voltage pulses are maintained as constant by the
The transmitted signal is a two level binary data stream consisting of
-
Threshold level: The noise sources can be either external or internal to the system.
A decision circuit compares the signal in each time slot with a certain Noise
Fig. 4.19. Noise sources and disturbances in the optical pulse detection mechanism.
4.34 Optical Communication Fiber Optical Receivers 4.35
from the amplifier electronics dominate in low signal to noise ratio Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI):
applications. The thermal noises are gaussian in nature.
When the pulse spreading in the optical fiber, the inter-symbol-interference
The primary photocurrent generated by the photodiode is a time varying
-
N= fp(t)dt = 21
E
hv o hv
Where,
rl The detector quantum efficiency.
hv The photon energy and Fig. 4.21. Pulse spreading in an optical signal that leads to inter symbol interference
E The energy received in a time interval T.
Some of the transmitted energy spread progressively into the neighboring
The actual number of electronhole pairs "n" that are generated
time slots as the pulse propagates along the fiber.
fluctuates from the average according to the poisson distribution
If "v" is the fraction of energy remaining in the appropriate time slot then
"1 v" is fraction of energy that spread into adjacent time slots.
Pr (n) = 1Cn e N ... (2)
n!
4.8.3. Receiver Configuration
where, Pr(n) is the probability that "n" electrons are emitted in
an interval T. The fig. shows the schematic diagram of a typical optical receiver. The three
The random nature of the avalanche multiplication process gives rise to basic stages of the receiver are
a type of shot noise. (i) Photo detector
A detector with a mean avalanche gain M and an ionization rate ratio (ii) An amplifier and
K, the excess noise factor F(M) for electron injection is (iii) An equalizer
The photo detector can be either an avalanche photodiode with a mean gain
1 ( 3
F(M) = KM + 2-- (1K) ( ) M or a pin photodiode for which M = 1. The photo diode has a quantum
M
efficiency ti and a capacitor Cd. The detector bias resistor has a resistance Rb
This equation is often approximated by the empirical expression.
which generates a thermal noise current ib(t).
F(M)cz-', M x (0<x <1.0) ... (4)
4.36 OpticalCommunication FiberOptical Receivers 4.37
V The amplifier input impendence is the parallel combination of a resistance Ra Where,
and a shunt capacitance Ca. Voltages appearing across this impedance cause P(t) Received optical power
current to flow in the amplifier output. Amplitude of nthmessage digit
Tb Bit period and
h p(t) Received pulse shape, which is positive for all t.
For binary data the parameter ba can take on the two values, b, and buff
corresponding to a binary 1 and 0 respectively.
If hp(t) is the non negative photodiode input pulse normalized to have unit
area.
In practice, several standard ways are available to measuring the rate of error P(y/1)
p1(v) = 1 P(Y/OdY ... (2) The weighting factors a and b are determined by the prior
distribution of the data. That is, a and b are the probabilities that
either al or a0 occurs respectively.
Po(v) = I P(Y/0)4
To calculate the "Pe", the mean and standard deviation of the output
P 1(V) Probability that the equalizer output voltage is less than Thus, let us assume that a signal s (which can be either a noise
disturbance or a desired information-bearing signal) has a gaussion
"V" when logic "1" is sent.
probability distribution function with a mean value m.
Po(V) Probability that the output voltage exceeds "V" when
2
logic "0" is transmitted. (s m)-
2
1
f(s)ds = 26 ds (5)
V2rca 2
4.40 Optical Communication Fiber Optical Receivers 4.41
Where, f(s) is the probability density function for signal "s", Using equations (3) and (5)
m is the mean, 00
= ff0(Y)dy
of the probability distribution.
Vth
00 (V boff )2
Variance G2on 1
on Po (Vth exp dv ... (6)
12n Goff Vth
, 262
off
a)
>
a) Where subscript 0 denotes the presence of a 0 bit.
Threshold level
Vth
Cn Probability of error when 1 pulse sent:
and c,ff ,respectively. Bit Error Rate (BER) or Error Probability (Pe):
V If probabilities of 0 and 1 pulses are equally likely then the Bit Error Rate
Probability of error when 0 pulse sent:
(BER) or error probability Feis given by
Let us first consider the case of a 0 pulse being sent, so that no pulse is co
BER = P, (Q)= fe-x2 dx
present at the decoding time. The probability of error in this case is the Afrc Q
probability that the noise will exceed the threshold voltage Vth and be
mistaken for a 1 pulse.
4.42 Optical Communication Fiber Optical Receivers 4.43
Q2 If an optical pulse of energy E falls on the photodetector in a time interval T.
2
1 1 e Then it can also be interpreted by the receiver as a "0" pulse. If no-electron
= 1 erf
2 2n Q hole pairs are generated.
The approximation is obtained from the asymptotic expension of erf(x). Here, The probability that n = 0 electrons are emitted in a time interval T is
the parameter Q is defined as 13, (0) e -N
V
th boff bon Where
( 9)
-
Vth
Q= (
G off Yon Average number of electron hole pairs N =
by
x 2 3
2 Thus, for a given error probability 1 ,(0), we can find the minimum energy E
and erf (x) = Se- dy
0 required at a specific wavelength k.
erf(x) is the error function. Since 'Q' is related to the signal to noise
4.11. PREAMPLIFIERS
ratio required to achieve a specific bit error rate. It's used to specify the
receiver performance. The receiver amplifiers are the front end preamplifier. The three basic
V
V Preamplifier structures are
When aoff = Gon = a and buff = 0 and bon = V then Vth = and Q =
2 2a (i) Low impedance Preamplifier (LZ)
Where, "cy" is called the rms noise, and (ii) High-impedance Preamplifier (HZ) and
(iii) Transimpedance Preamplifier.
V is
i the peak signal-to-rms-noise ratio.
Advantages of preamplifiers:
A Preamplifier should satisfy the following requirements; low noise
In this case, equation (8) becomes
level, high bandwidth, high dynamic range, high sensitivity and high gain.
Ideal photodetector which has unity quantum efficiency and which produces
no dark current that is, no electron hole pairs are generated in the absence
of an optical pulse.
Detector and bias Voltage amplifier
In this condition, it is possible to find the minimum received optical power
required for a specific bit error-rate performance in a digital system. This Fig. 4.25.
minimum received power level is known as the quantum limit.
4.44 OpticalCommunication Fiber Optical Receivers 4.45
Low impedance front end optical fiber receiver with voltage amplifier.
Photo diode operates into a low-impedance amplifier bias or load resistor "Rb"
is used to match the amplifier impedance.
Rb along with the input capacitance of amplifier decides the bandwidth of
amplifier.
Preamplifier bandwidth is equal to or greater than the single bandwidth.
Photodiode with Amplifier and its input Equalizer
.4--
The total load resistance RTL is given by bias registor parameters
The high impedance produces a large input RC time constant, the front end
Low impedance preamplifier can operate over a wide bandwidth but they have
bandwidth is less than the signal bandwidth. Thus, the input signal is
poor receiver sensitivity.
integrated and equalization techniques must be employed to compensate for
They are used in special short distance application where high sensitivity is
-
this.
not a major concern.
4.11.2.1. High-Impedance FET Amplifiers
4.11.2. High Impedance (Integrating) Pre amplifier
+V 0 +V 0
The second configuration consists of a high input impedance amplifier together
with a large detector bias resistor (Ra) in order to reduce the effect of thermal
noise.
Main
Equalizer ---,-
In high-impedance preamplifier, the goal is to reduce all sources of noise to the hv amp
photodiode Vow 0)
absolute minimum. This can be achieved by
- Reducing input capacitance through the selection of low-capacitance FET
For gigabit per second data rates, the lowest noise receivers are made using
- -
(27cC \ 2 4K TF
1 4K B T 4K B T F
- A fourth noise source is FET
1 noise. W= 2q ' gate + 12 + B 13 B (5)
q2B Rb gm R b gm
f
1
Where, C = Cd + C gs+ Cgd + Ca
This (
noise was not included in the above analyses because it contributes
f / Here, C gsand Cgd are the FET gate source and gate drain capacitances,
- -
Where the "I' is the channel noise factor. It is a numerical constant that
-
accounts for thermal noise and gate included noise plus the correlation
Detector and bias High input impedance
between these two noises. voltage amplifier
Fig. 4.28. High impedance integrating front end optical fiber receiver with equalized
voltage amplifier.
= 2q 'BB (3)
4.11.2.2. High-impedance bipolar transistor:
KB
From equation (1), T substitute in equation (3)
Rin IBB
2K B T
= ... (4)
R in
hv Equalizer
N. ..r photodiode V.ut (t) The trans conductance gn, is related to the shot noise and is given by
FET qI c
gm =
Coupling KB I
capacitor
q lc T
13 ... (6)
g.
R h, q I BB T R ia
Bias resistors R1, R2 >> Ra
Fig. 4.29.Simple high impedance preamplifier design using a bipolar transistor Where, 13 =
'BB
The circuit shows a simple bipolar grounded-emitter transistor amplifier. v2
,
The input resistance (Rh) of a bipolar transistor is given as 7 The spectral height of the noise voltage source in is
Hz
KT
KB T.
Ri = 2K B T
'BB SE = (7)
gm
Where, IBB is base bias current.
Where, KB is the Boltzmann's constant.
The amplifier input resistance Rais given by the parallel combination of the
bias resistors RI and R2 and the transistor input resistance Bin. Thermal noise characteristic equation for receiver amplifier:
For Low noise design (R1 & R2 >>Rm)
-
1 2K B T 4K B T 2KB T 2
(27,c) 2KBT
ea(t)
W= 2 + 12 + 2 13B Photo if(t) ^
The transimpedance amplifier is nothing but the low noise high impedance
amplifier with a negative feed back "Rf" resistor. The device therefore
a 13 operates as a current mode amplifier.
em
Rin Transimpedance amplifier design over comes the drawbacks of high
Already we know impedance amplifier. Such as
(i) For broadband applications, equalization is required.
1
(ii) It has limited dynamic range.
Tb
The thermal noise characteristic "WTZ" at equalizer output can be found by
Where Tb bit period replacing Rb and R ib .
13 Rb Rf
Rin
1(b = (1)
Rb
Substitute equations (10) and (11) in equation (9)
Due to Rib, the thermal noise characteristic equation becomes,
1 2 R12 \ (2702 R
W = 2 2 K. T -F n 12 2 13 ... (12) Tb / 4K 11B T SE \T (2rtC)2
q ,R in Rb ) oR Tb q j "TZ = 2 + + SE T
... (2)
R ib (WY 2
Cl Tb
If Rb > > Ra then R Ra Rin, equation (12) becomes
1 1 1 1 1 1
Where, (3)
Tb R Rf +
R
W _
2K
B
T
13-F1 I + (2702 R
2
q2 Rin 13 I3Tb n 3
4.52 Optical Communication, Fiber Optical Receivers 4.53
In practice, Rf >> Ra Transfer function of feedback (transimpedance) amplifier:
R' R ... (4)
For the transimpedance amplifier the transfer function HTZ is
Equation (4) in (2), so equation (2) becomes, For feedback amplifier, the transfer function
Tb 4KB T 1
WTZ = WHz + I, HTZ = ( 9)
1+ j2nRCVA
q2 Rf
Where, The bandwidth of transimpedance amplifier B TZ (10)
= 4RC
WHz is the high-impedance amplifier noise characteristic given by
Band width of transimpedance amplifier is A times that of high impedance
either FET or bipolar transistor designs.
-
In equation (6), R and C are given by Now fiber optic technology is widely employed for long distance -
Solution:
Problem 2
Given Ro = 0.75A/W
In a 100 ns pulse, 6 x 106 photons at a wavelength of 1300nm fall on an
6 Po = 1011w
In6aAs photodetector. On the average 5.4 x 10 electron hole (e-h) pairs are
generated. What is quantum efficiency?
4.56 Optical Communication Fiber Optical Receivers 4.57
48x10 -33
R=.-5L-1
I =R 0 Po
Ip Po 19.875x10-26
= (0.75A/W) (10[tw) = 2.415 x 10-7
Ip = 7.511A Ip = 0.2415pA
M = IM
Problem 5 I F,
N Problem 6
Multiplication factor (M) = IM
Ip
An In GaAs pin photodiode has the following parameters at a wavelength of
(i) Primary photocurrent (Ip): 1200nm. ID = 4nA, rl = 0.80, RL = _wog and the surface leakage current is
negligible. The incident optical power is 300nw, and the receiver bandwidth is
R= Ip
I p =R Po0 Po 20MHz. Let us find the various noise terms of the receiver.
Solution:
= 11c1 P hv
hv R=111
(i) Primary photocurrent (Ip):
C=vk
p C I p=R Po
hC = TR D
o
given rl = 0.75 hv
44= 1211A = riqk po
= 800nm he
= 8 x 10 -7m = (0.80) (1.6x10-19 01.2x10-6 m) x 3x1
0-7 w
Po = 0.5[Lw (6.625x10-34 J.$)(3x108 m/s)
=5 x 10 -7w 4.608x10-32
-19 -7
= (0.75) (1.6x10 C)(8x10 m) x5x10-7 w 19.875x10-26
( 6.625X l iY34IS) (3 X 108M S)
4.58 Optical Communication Fiber Optical Receivers 4.59
=0.231 x 10 -6 A = 32.347 x10 -17
(I0 = 1.48x10 -18 A 2 If the photodiode capacitance is 3PF, the amplifier capacitance is 4PF, the load
(Or) resistor is 1KS2, and the amplifier input resistance is 1MS2 find out the circuit
bandwidth?
=1.216nA
Solution:
(iii) Mean-square dark current (i) Total capacitance CT = Ca + Cd
(gB ) = 2qI D B = 4PF + 3PF
= 7PF
=2(1.6x10 -19
04x10-9 420x106 Hz) R
R
-20 2
(ii) Total Resistance RT = L a
= 2.56x10 A R L +Ra
-2
A2 (1x10 3 ) (1x10 6 )
ND ) = 2.56x10
1x103+1x106
(Or)
. 1x109
(IDB )2 = 0.16nA 1001x10 3
= 999.090
(iv) Mean-square thermal noise current
4K T RT 1K0
(.2) = BB B
RL Bandwidth of photodiode
1
4 (1.38x10-23 J/K)(293K) B=
x20x106Hz 27tR T er
1000
1
32347.2x10-17
1000 27c x (10 3 x x10-12F)
4.60 Optical Communication Fiber Optical Receivers 4.61
1 09
27E x 7 Problem 9
= 227364304.4Hz The quantum efficiency of a particular silicon RAPD is 80% for the detection of
B = 23MHz radiation at a wavelength of 0.9ian. When the incident optical power is 0.5,uw, the
output current from the device (after avalanche gain) is 11,uA. Determine the
Problem
multiplication factor of the photodiode under these conditions.
Solution:
A digital fiber optic link operating at 850nm requires a maximum BER of 10 - 9
find out the energy of incident photon? (i) Responsivity (R):
qk
Solution: R=
he
The probability error Pr(0) = e-N =10-9 0.8x1.602x10 -19 x0.9x10 -6
Solving for N, 6.626x10 -34 x 2.998x108
N = 91n 10 = 20.7
R= 0.581AW -1
N X21
An average of 21 photons per pulse is required for this BER. (ii) Photocurrent (Ip):
Already we know, IP = PO R
Average no of each pairs generated in time T, N = TIE = 0.5x10 -6
hv
Ip = 0.2941A
1Thv
E=
1
1
(iii) Multiplication factor (M)
hv
IM
The energy of incident photon E = 20.7 M=
1
1 1p
11X10 -6
0.291x10 -6
M = 37.8
4.62 Optical Communication Fiber Optical Receivers 4.63
4.13. TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 6. Define output power signal to noise ratio of an optical receiver?
- -
4. What is avalanche effect? The quantum or shot noise arises from the statistical nature of production and
collection of photoelectrons when an optical signal is incident on a photodetector.
Due to impact ionization effect new carriers are generated. The newly created
Mean square value of quantum noise (iQ) = 2q I p B2F(M)
carriers also accelerated by high electric field, thus gaining enough energy to
Where,
cause further impact ionization. This phenomenon is known as avalanche effect.
B - Bandwidth,
5. Define ionization rate?
Ip- Average value of the photocurrent,
The average number of electron-hole pairs created by a carrier per unit q - Electron charge,
distance traveled is called the ionization,rate. M - Multiplication factor,
F(M) - Noise figure associated with the random nature of avalanche
process.
4.64 Optical Communication Fiber Optical Receivers 4.65
11. Define photodiode dark current? 17. What is Inter-symbol Interface(ISI)?
It is the current that continues to flow through the bias circuit of the device When a pulse is transmitted in a given time slot, most of the pulse energy will
when no light is incident on the photodiode. This is a combination of bulk and arrive in the corresponding time slot at the receiver.
surface currents. However, because of pulse spreading induced by the fiber, some of the
12. How does dark current arise? transmitted energy will progressively spread into neighboring time slots as the
pulse propagates along the fiber.
The bulk dark current arises from electrons and/or holes which are thermally
The presence of this energy in adjacent time slots results in an interfering
generated in the pn junction of the photo diode.
signal. This is called as Inter-Symbol-Interference.
2
Meansquare value (i 2DB= 2q IDBM F(M)
18. Define Extinction ratio?
Where, ID is the primary (unmultiplied) detector bulk dark current.
Extinction ratio is defined as the ratio of the optical power in a zero pulse to
13. How does surface-leakage current arise? the power in a one pulse.
Surface-leakage current arises due to surface defects, cleanliness, bias voltage 19. Name the functions performed by optical detector?
and surface area.
Optical detector convert the received optical signal into an electrical signal,
Mean square value (i 2D5 ) = 2q,1L B which is then amplified before further processing.
Where, IL is the surface leakage current.
20. What do you meant by photo carriers?
14. What is bit period? A phone incident near or in the deplection region of the detector which has an
The transmitted signal is two level binary data stream consisting of either 0 or energy greater than or equal to the bandgap energy (Eg) of the fabricating material
1 in a time slot of duration T. This time slot is referred to a bit period. (i.e. hf Eg).
15. How is internal noise caused? The incident photon can give up its energy and excite an electron from the
valence band to the conduction band. This process leaves an empty hole in the
Internal noise is caused by the spontaneous fluctuations of current or voltage
valance band and is known as the photo generation of an free electron hole pairs,
in electric circuits.
which are know as photo carriers.
16. Define bit error rate (BER)?
21. Define photo current.
To divide the number of errors (NO occurring over a certain time internal t by
The high electric field present in the deplection region causes the photo
the number of pulses (Nt) transmitted during this interval. This is called either the
carriers to separate and be collected across the reverse biased junction. This
error rate or the bit error rate (BER).
gives raise a current flow in an external circuit. This current flow is known as the
BER = N
--9-=Ne photocurrent.
N t Bt
4.66 OpticalCommunication Fiber Optical Receivers 4.67
22. What is carrier life time? 28. What is fall time?
The time taken for an electron or hole to recombine is known as the carrier The fall time is measured from 90 to 10 percent of the falling edge of the
life time. output pulse.
23. What is P+irPn+reach through structure? 29. What do you meant by excess noise factor?
In the P+(heavy doped P type) substrate, high resistivity P type material Excess noise factor is a measure of the increase detector noise that results
is deposited followed by the construction of an n+(heavily doped n type) layer. from the randomness of the multiplication process.
The it layer is an intrinsic layer but has some P doping because of imperfect It depends on the ratio of the electron and hole ionization rates and on the
purification. carrier multiplication.
24. Give a note on avalanche multVication (M). 30. Define threshold level.
In the high electric field or avalanche region or multiplication region, the A decision circuit compares the signal in each time slot with a certain
charge carrier multiplication takes place by impact ionization or avalanche effect. reference voltage known as the threshold level.
Im 31. Define quantum limit.
Avalanche multiplication (M) =
Ip
To find the minimum received optical power required for a specific bit error
Where, In, The average value of the total multiplied output current and
rate performance in a digital system. This minimum received power level is
Ip The primary or initial unmultiplied photocurrent.
known as the quantum limit.
25. Define the term noise. 1
32. What do you meant by noise corner frequency?
The term noise is used to describe unwanted components of an electrical
signal that tend to disturb the transmission and processing of the signal in a
1 1
physical system and over which we have incomplete control. f noise corner frequency fc is defined as the frequency at which
The
1
26. Mention the noise in optical receiver. power
noise, which dominates the FET noise at low frequencies and has
In the optical receiver, there are two noises
spectrum, becomes equal to the high frequency channel noise described by F.
(i) Photo detector noise
(ii) Amplifier noise 33. Mention the drawbacks of high impedance amplifier.