Geol 11 Le 1 Reviewer

I. INTRODUCTION 1. Catastrophism (Baron Georges

Cuvier)
GEOLOGY: study of the Earth and other Catastrophes only agents
extraterrestrial bodies, its origin and history, and of change altering the Earth
processes that shape it and the resources where No instance of change in
it is obtained between
Geology as a discipline i.e. Noahs Ark
2. Uniformitarianism (James Hutton)
1. Relevance of time All events, no matter how
a. Geologic time > deep time big or small, alter the
b. Speed is relative (1k years is fast) Earth
c. Processes are relative to others when Geologic processes that occur
compared in time
in the past are the same as
2. Scales
a. Micro vs. macro now, but may occur at
b. Small vs. large different time and intensities
c. Local vs. regional The present is the key to the
3. Lab versus real life past
a. Complexity replicating natural systems
and phenomena in the laboratory Early Views

Role of geologists: gold-diggers, social climbers, 1. Heliocentrism (Copernican model)-

fault finders, rock sackers revolution of planets is around one
massive body
Geology as multidisciplinary 2. Geocentrism (Ptolemaic model)
revolution is on its own
1. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
a. Volcanology types of volcanoes,
lava, etc.
b. Seismology earthquakes and waves
c. Environmental solving
environmental issues, effects of
humans on geologic environment
d. Engineering application in Civil Engg
e. Mining surface and underground
f. Petroleum oil exploration
g. Mineralogy minerals
h. Petrology rocks The Universe
i. Geomorphology evolution of Earths - Huge space that contains a
landscape collection of all matter, energy,
j. Geophysics and Geochemistry and everything else in existence
k. Planetary extraterrestrial bodies
Theories of existence for UNIVERSE
2. HISTORICAL (Origin and evolution of Earth
THE BIG BANG THEORY
through time)
a. Paleontology fossils Universe originated from a cosmic
b. Stratigraphy layers and strata explosion that hurled matter in all
c. Geochronology arranging events
directions 12-14 (13.6) billion
thru time
years ago
Prior to this, there was NOTHING
Expansion/ Inflation not
Basic Concepts explosion (George Lemaitre, 1927)
Geol 11 Le 1 Reviewer
Age of Universe calculated by
estimating time required for planets
to reach their current positions
Evidence:
o Hubbles Law galaxies
move away from us at
proportionate speeds
o Cosmic Microwave
Background Radiation
remnants of heat from Big
Bang are still present today
o Abundance of primordial
elements such as Hydrogen
& Helium
STEADY STATE THEORY There is not
beginning and end for the creation of
matter; both the universe and matter
expand
DIVINE INTERVENTION God made the
world
Theories of existence for GALAXY
NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS explains
formation of solar system
Origin: single rotating cloud of
gas and dust (4.6 billion years
ago), which came from the products
of the Big Bang
Chronology: production of cloud of
gas and dust Sun created due to
contraction of gravity Excess
particles became planets
Note:
II.
o Chondrites (stony primitive
meteorites; have not been
modified) similar
composition as Earth
Solar system by mass
o Sun -99.85%
o Jupiter 0.10%
o Other planets 0.04%
The Sun
- Made up of hydrogen, product of
the big bang
- Center is compressed enough to
initiate nuclear reactions
consequently emitting light
&energy
- Middle aged star
The Planets
o Inner planets- terrestrial and
rocky, higher temperature
Heavier elements puller
in by gravity of sun (i.e.
Iron)
o Outer planets gas and liquid,
lower temperature
Lighter elements
condensed into outer
planets, water-locked
(i.e. CH4, NH4)
o Small planets rocky; Big
planets gaseous
The Moon
Theories of formation
1. Planetary capture- moon was an
independent that got caught in
Earths gravity
2. Product of crash with sister
planettisimal of Earth
3. Part of Earth chipped off due to
fast spinning
4. Collision of Mars-sized
planettisimal (most accepted)
THE EARTH
- Goldilocks Zone: only habitable
planet in the solar system
- Part of the Milky Way Galaxy
- Origin (Proto-Earth)
o ACCRETION: Dust ball from
nebular gas and dust brought
together by gravity
o HEATED: which was heated
o DIFFERENTIATION:
eventually segregates into
layers
o Proto-Earth: larger and
hotter Meteor hit the
Earth, surface melted
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3. Core Iron-rich minerals (w/
nickel, sulfur, and other materials);
Vital Statistics
high density
- Differentiated Earth: in cooling,
Physical Layers
heavy denser metals sank, while
lighter ones floated 1. Lithosphere = Plates, Crust +
- Chemical Composition: 34.6% Mantle
Iron, 29.6% Oxygen, 15.2% a. Upper crust 4 to 15 km;
Silicon, 12.7% Magnesium brittle
- Size: Equatorial: 6,378 km; Polar: b. Lower Crust + Upper Mantle
6,357 km ductile; 15 to 100 km
- Shape: Oblate spheroid 2. Asthenosphere = Upper Mantle
- Rotation: counter clockwise @ 30 a. Weak, plastic layer of upper
km/s @22 - 23 - 24 axial tilt mantle
- Volume: 260 billion cubic miles 3. Mesosphere = Mantle
- Density: 5.52 g/cm3 a. Solid, rocky layer
b. Core-mantle boundary
Compositional Layers 4. Outer Core = liquid phase
5. Inner Core = solid phase
1. Crust Low density silicate
minerals
Earth's crust is made up of several elements:
oxygen, 47 percent; silicon, 27 percent;
aluminum, 8 percent; iron, 5
percent; calcium, 4
percent; magnesium, potassium and sodium,
2 percent.

a. Oceanic basaltic (Si-Mg)

composition, 3 to 15 km thick,
3.0 g/cm3
b. Continental granitic (Si-Al),
20 to 70 km, 2.7 g/cm3
(LIGHTER)
c. Trenches: oceanic crust
under continental crust; age
resets because of re-melting
d. Mid-ocean ridges: youngest
rocks are at the middle of the
ridges
2. Mantle- Iron & Magnesium
a. 2,900 km
b. Deeper Higher Pressure
higher density
c. Upper = partially melted,
contains Iron and Silicon Note: Where did the water come from?
minerals Meteorites that hit the planet
d. Lower = completely molten,
Magnesium, Oxygen, Discontinuities:
Silicon 1. Mohorovicic crust-mantle
2. Gutenberg mantle- outer core
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3. Lehmann outer core- inner core
Additional Information
1. Isostasy: same standing
a. the equilibrium that exists
between parts of the earth's
crust, which behaves as if it
consists of blocks floating on
the underlying mantle, rising
if material (such as an ice
cap) is removed and sinking if
material is deposited
b. Concerned with buoyancy of
blocks as they rest on the
mantle
2. Pratts Theory
a. The higher the altitude (of
mountain), the lighter the
materials
b. Elevation is inversely
proportional to density
3. Airys Theory
a. Mountains have roots that
extend down to the mantle
b. Elevation is proportional to
depth of underlying root
4. Earths Age
a. Radiometric Dating: 4.6
billion years; faux
amphibole(oldest dated rock)
b. Something in Australia
c. Lunar rocks age has not
been reset
d. Meteorites chondrites
III. III. MINERALS
NIHDO
N- NATURALLY OCCURING
I- INORGANIC
H- HOMOGENOUS SOLID
D- DEFINITE CHEMICAL COMPOSTION
O- ORDERED INTERNAL STRUCTURE
1. NATURALLY OCCURING
a. Natural, not man-made
b. I.e. Kimberlites- igneous rocks
with diamonds, Calcite &
Arcigonite on pipes,
snowflake, iceberg
2. INORGANIC
a. No organic compounds (unlike
living things)
b. Not necessarily without
Carbon (diamond)
c. i.e. pearls and coal are NOT
minerals
3. HOMOGENOUS SOLID
a. Same substance on ALL areas
b. Must be SOLID
4. DEFINITE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
a. Determinable and precise
formula
b. Can be single elements, salts,
or complex compounds
c. Allotropism same
compound, but different
structure, in different
physical states
d. Polymorphism same
compound, different
crystalline structures;
dependent on PRESSURE and
TEMPERATURE
5. ORDERED INTERNAL STRUCTURE
Geol 11 Le 1 Reviewer
a. Repeating crystal structural
unit
b. MINERALOID NIHD, but not
internally ordered;
amorphous (i.e. glass, opal,
cotton candy)

Physical Properties of Minerals

1. Color cause by
absorption/reflection of various
wavelengths of light
a. Sulfur- yellow, Azurite- blue,
Malachite- green
b. Impurities change the color
(i.e. copper-blue/green, iron-
dark red, cobalt-pink)
2. Streak color if mineral in powder
form
a. Different colors but same
material same streak
b. Metallic DARK; Non-
metallic LIGHT
c. i.e. Hematite (Black/Gray)
Reddish Streak; Pyrite (Yellow)
Black Streak
Ten Good Cats Fly Around Our Queen To
Catch Dogs
+4.5 Wire Nail, 6.5 Streak Plate
4. Crystal habit shapes and
aggregates that a certain mineral is
likely to form
a. Factors: temperature,
pressure, space to form
b. Single mineral can have two
habits
c. Distinct:

Olivine: Saccharoidal

3. Hardness resistance of mineral to

scratching or abrasion; use Mohs
scale
Hematite: Botryoidal

Muscovite: Platy
Geol 11 Le 1 Reviewer
c. Opaque
8. Specific Gravity ratio of volume
of a substance and the weight of the
same volume of water (basically,
just density)
a. Gold 19.3g/cm3
b. Galena 7.6 g/cm3
9. Magnetism
Galena: Cubic 10. Fluo
rescence extent of glow of a
material after light exposure
5. Cleavage tendency of mineral to
11. Rea
break in particular directions due
ction to minerals fizzing or rocks
to zones of weakness
in presence of chemicals (release of
a. Fracture: irregular
trapped gases)
breakages; bond strength
12. Tast
is equal in all directions
e
13. Odo
r

Note: Calcite exhibits double refraction

Classification of Minerals

The silicate group

- Silicon and oxygen

- Largest group of minerals
- Building block: Silicon tetrahedron
[SiO44-]

b. Note: cuboid and

rhomboid 3 directions
c. Conchoidal- breakage in
smooth, curved surfaces
d. Irregular no pattern at all
6. Luster ability to reflect light
7. Diaphaneity degrees of
transparency/ how well light passes
through
a. Transparent
b. Translucent
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7. Phosphate metal + PO4 ; apatite,
turquoise
8. Native Elements can exist as both
metal and an element

Most Common Forming Minerals

- 5090 specie (2015)

- 150 are common, 20 dominantly
make up the crust
- 50 are occasional, the rest are rare
- Crust: 50% Oxygen, 25% Silicon,
8.1% Aluminum

Igneous Rocks

1. Quartz
a. Most abundant in
CONTINENTAL crust
b. Conchoidal fracture
c. White-colorless

2. Olivine
a. Green, olive color
b. Very rare as crystals
NESO (SINGLE) -INO (SINGLE CHAIN)-
INO (DOUBLE CHAIN)-PHYLLO
(SHEETS)- TECTO (3D) = NIIPT

The non-silicate group

1. Carbonates effervescence
reaction to acids; Metal + carbonate
ion (CO32-)
2. Sulfates metal + (SO42-)
3. Sulfides metal + (S2-); metallic in
luster; most important (precious 3. Feldspars
metals); pyrite, galena, cinnabar a. K-Feldspar (aka Orthoclase)
4. Oxides metal + (O2-); magnetite, pink creamy
hematite. corundum b. Plagioclase Feldspar White
5. Hydroxide metal + (OH-); gibbsite c. Cleavage in 2 directions (90o)
6. Halides metal + halogen (F, Cl,
Br, I)
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4. Pyroxene and Amphibole (diff in

cleavage angle) Sedimentary Rocks
a. 2 cleavage directions
1. Clay very soft, laminated (many
b. Black to dark green
c. Pyroxene- 90o , short and layers)
2. Calcite only one that react to acid
stubbly

Economic Importance non-

renewable resource, ores (profitable
materials), gemstones

d. Amphibole- 60/120o, long

and slender
IV. ROCKS

- Naturally occurring aggregate of one

or more minerals
- Types: Igneous, Sedimentary,
Metamorphic

Rock Vs. Stone All Stones are

Rocks

Rock Stone
Hardness Hard and Always
5. Micas- sheet like structure; 1
soft hard
cleavage direction
Texture Rough Smooth
a. Biotite- dark colored
Size Big or Small Small
Use Human In Situ
handling

Rock Cycle

b. Muscovite- light colored

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Note: Compaction is also known as Note: Oceanic Crust is denser because it

diagenesis or deposition is made up of mafic minerals
Note: sedimentary rock cannot directly Silica Content
form into magma as in becomes a
a. Felsic - >63%
metamorphic rock first
b. Intermediate 52-63%
Igneous Rocks c. Mafic 45-52%
d. Ultramafic - <45%
- From Ignis, which means fire Temperature
- Formed from solidification of magma
(intrusive) or lava (extrusive) which flows a. Felsic 650 o -800o
to the earth b. Intermediate 800 o -1000 o
c. Mafic 1000 o -1200 o
d. Ultramafic - >1200 o
Factors affecting Viscosity
MAGMA composed of varying amounts
of a. HIGHER temperature LOWER Viscosity
b. HIGHER silica content- HIGHER Viscosity
a. Liquids silicates, most abundant c. HIGHER water content LOWER Viscosity
elements in Earths crust (i.e.
oxygen, silicon, aluminum, Iron, Common Types of Magma
calcium, Sodium, Potassium) Basaltic Granitic
b. Solids minerals, rock fragments Density Higher Lower
c. Dissolved Gases Water vapor Viscosity Lower Higher
(most abundant), CO2, SO2 Silica Lower Higher
Magma Classification Content
Crystallizes 1000-1200o 600 o C
at C

Note: Basaltic magma is created more

compared to granitic magma. 80%
oceanic crusts, 10% rhyo litic and
10% andesitic are created every day
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Formation of Magma Melting of upper
mantle and lower crust

Factors:

1. Increase in temperature Hot Spots

a. Earths natural temperature
increases with depth
(geothermal gradient)
b. Crustal temp = 25oC; Base of
lithosphere= 1280 oC
c. Partial Melting Line > 3. Role of Volatiles Subduction Zone -
Geothermal Gradient, in order DESTRUCTIVE
a. Primarily water (hydroxides
to melt
d. Sources of heat: original heat, OH-) causes rocks to melt at a
radioactive decay, lower temperature
b. Has an important role in
conduction (heat transfer from
subducting ocean plates
nearby magma), frictional
c. Subduction Zone- mostly
heat (rocks grinding past each
andesitic (intermediate)
other)
magma
Hot Spots abnormally hot
regions where mantle rises up
through lithosphere (mantle
composition different from crust)

Magmatic Differentiation

- Any process that causes magma

2. Increase in pressure Mid-Ocean
Ridge - CONSTRUCTIVE
a. Increase in confining pressure
causes an increase in melting
temperature
b. Decompression Melting-
drop in confining pressure;
occurs when rocks ascend
(Divergent Boundaries
Constructive Boundaries)
c. Mid-oceanic ridge (Basaltic
Magma) or Rift Valley
composition to change
- Assumption: Formation of different
igneous rocks from one type of
magma
- Factors: different temperatures
during formation, buoyancy
Composition of Magma
- Subduction Zone 1: Mafic to
Intermediate
- Subduction Zone 2: Mafic to Felsic
- Mid-oceanic Ridge: Basaltic
Intrusives & Extrusives
- Hot Spots: Basaltic Intrusives &
Extrusives
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Variation in Composition

1. Crystal Formation
a. Early formed rocks are
removed from magma by
gravity
b. Based on temperature;
mafics (Fe, Mg, Ca are formed
early)
c. Enrichment by depletion

Note: After Olivine has formed, no more

silica content for Quartz

Note: Felsic is the first magma

4. Magma Mixing and Mingling
magmas with different composition
mix with each other (parang kape)

Composition & Naming of Igneous Rocks

Extrusive (Volcanic) molten rock

2. Assimilation Xenoliths alter
magma composition
solidified at the surface; small
crystals
Intrusive (Plutonic) formed at
depth; large crystals
Pyroclastic- dominantly class or
fragments of pre-existing rocks and
vesicles
Note: Size of crystal is proportionate
to rate of cooling; Smaller Crystal
size = Higher abundance

PLUTONS Intrusive Underground

Igneous Bodies

Classified based on:

a Shape
i Tabular sheet-like
ii Massive large rock
b Orientation based on host
3. Partial Melting rock
i Discordant -
Perpendicular
ii Concordant - Parallel

Discordant Rocks

1 Stock Small, Massive

2 Batholith - >100 square kilometers
3 Dike tabular body cutting across
bedding
Geol 11 Le 1 Reviewer
Concordant Rocks Crystal Faces

1 Sill concordant tabular body a. Euhedral well defined; idiomorphic

2 Laccolith blister shaped; magma
was injected in between layers
3 Lapolith large lenticular sill w/flat
concordant top and funnel shaped
dike at bottom
b. Subhedral intermediate;
hypidiomorphic
c. Anhedral no well-formed crystals;
xenomorphic
Note: Consider space (K Feldspar>
Plagioclase > Quartz)

Size of Ejection
Pipe- short conduits that connect magma
chamber to the surface a. Ash - <2 mm
b. Lapilli 2-64 mm
Volcanic Neck- Resistant Vents left standing c. Block ->64 mm; extruded in solid
after erosion removes volcanic rock state; edgy
d. Bomb - >64 mm; partially molten;
Classification of Igneous Rocks
circular
Texture or crystal size e. Pumice light-colored, felsic to
Mineral Composition intermediate; vesicular; MADE TO BE
Size of Ejection BROKEN
Mineral Composition f. Scoria dark-colored; mafic/ basaltic
Color Index in composition; bigger and lighter

Texture or Crystal Size Mineral Composition

a. Aphanitic (extrusive) minerals too

small to see with naked eye
b. Phanaritic (intrusive) minerals big
enough to see with naked eye
c. Porphyritic large crystals
(phenocrysts) embedded in smaller
crystals (groundmass); occurs
when there are two different
cooling rates (phenocrysts form
first); geometrical
d. Vasicular basaltic magma; Phanaritic: GDGP Aphanitic: RABK
contains tiny holes (vesicles) due to
escape of gas bubbles
e. Amygdoloidal- basaltic magma;
vesicles filled up by amygdules;
circular crystals
f. Glassy due to very fast cooling;
ejected into atmosphere
g. Pegmatitic- interlocking crystals
greater than 3 cm
h. Pyroclastic/ Fragmental volcanic
materials extruded violently; rock
fragments not crystals; angular
and multicolored clasts in fine ash
matrix
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Komatite Volcanoes- Place on Earths surface (or
any other planet), where molten rock,
gases and pyroclastic debris erupt through
Earths crust

Misconceptions

1 Mountainous accumulation: rift

zones dont look like mountains
2 Successive Eruptions: Monogenetic
volcanoes only erupt ones in their
whole lifetime
3 One central vent: can have many
vents

Distribution of Volcanoes Subduction

zones (Pacific ring of fire), mid-oceanic
ridges (spreading zones), hot spots

Types of Volcanoes

Material Size Slope

Shield Basaltic Large Gentle
st
Compos Alternat Middl Intermedi
ite ing e ate
Note: In between felsic and medium
Cinder Pyroclas Small Steep
Granodiorite and Dacite
t est
Note: Pinkish color can be due to
oxidation (iron content), but are actually
mafic Additional Information:

Shield: made up of successive lava

Color Index flows, has lava lakes and volcanic
tubes (abandoned passageway of
Gives insight on composition
magma)
Felsic light and pinkish
Cinder: frequently occurs in groups,
Intermediate coarse grained
short duration of activity (i.e. Taal
black and white; fine-grained gray
Mafic- dark gray to black Volcano)
Composite: nicely shaped;
Ultramafic super black
Stratovolcano (i.e. Mayon Volcano)
Uses of Igneous Rocks 4 Domes circular mound shaped
protrusion resulting from slow
1. Aggregates cement, concrete extrusion of viscous lava
2. Dimension Stones
3. Tephra- pyroclastic deposits
a. Lapilli stone (Lapilli)
b. Volcanic Brecia (Blocks)
c. Agglomerate (Bombs)

V. VOLCANISM
Geol 11 Le 1 Reviewer
5 Fissure linear volcanic vent
6 Calderas looks like a kettle ;
collapse of heavy materials resulted
to a depression
Eruption Types
1. Effusive (Calm) magma rises
through the surface and flows out as
viscous liquid; gases escape easily
a. HAWAIIAN- highly fluid basalt
lava
2. Explosive magma is torn apart as it
rises; pyroclastic material; pressure
build up
a. STROMBOLIAN (lowest type)
pasty lava (viscous);
episodic explosion w/ booming
blast
b. PELEAN- Glowing avalanches;
large amounts of gases, dust,
lava
c. PHREATIC- no lava, steam
eruption (expansion of
groundwater, no contact of
magma and water)
d. PHREATOMAGMATIC
interaction of magma with
abundant source of surface
water
e. PLINIAN most explosive
types, eruption up to 45 km,
mushroom (i.e.Pinatubo)
PHILIPPINE VOLCANOES
23 active (eruption from past few years),
27 potentially active (no eruption, no
earthquake), 400 inactive (eroded), 7
active volcanoes monitored by PHILVOCS
Most active = Mayon Volcano
Volcanic Hazards
1. Volcanic Gases- noxious gases,
suffocation since co2 is heavier than
air
2. Lava flows- can burn anything in its
path, can be outrun
3. Pyroclastic THE KILLERS, hot solid
in gas dispersion, death by asphyxia
4. Lahar- burial and erosion, pyroclast
and water
Geol 11 Le 1 Reviewer
5. Tephra(aka ash fall)- collapse of
roofs, crop damage, danger to
aviation
6. Debris Avalanches- like a landslide
Types of Lava
a. Smooth, billowy undulating,
least viscous, basaltic
3. Pillow
a. Lava emerges from
underwater; fluffy and pillowy

1. Aa
a. Stone rough lava, lava balls (3
meters), basaltic
2. Pahoehoe