Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
WALLACE CLARK
Member, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers ; Taylor Society
WITH APPENDICES
by
WALTER N. POLAKOV
and
FRANK W. TRABOLD
Second Printing
NEW YORK
THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY
1923
COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY
THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY
of their indus-
get at the facts in regard to the operation
tries, to measure the effectiveness of management, and to
secure fair play for both workman and owner. Because
the Gantt chart, has been used, has been
wherever it
WALLACE CLARK.
New York City,
April 10, 1922.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I THE PRINCIPLE OF THE GANTT CHART 3
An Aid to
Management
The Advantages of the Gantt Chart
The Principle of the Chart
X CONCLUSION 137
FIGURE PAGE
30. Progress Chart Used to Determine Shop Costs .... 106, 107
31. A Public Service Plant 108
32. Movements of Tanker "Vesta" 112
33. Movements of S.S. "Kronstad" 113
34. Ship Movement Chart 114, 115
35. Chart of a British Steamer in Harbor of Baltimore. ... 116
36. Chart of a Danish Sailing Ship in Harbor of Baltimore. . 117
37. Chart of a Steamer in New York Harbor 118
38. Ship Chart of Commodities 122, 123
39. Individual Commodity Chart 126, 127
40. Summary of Imports 128, 129
41. Individual Trade Chart 132, 133
42. Summary of Trades 134, 135
43. Graphic Brief of Development of Subject Matter in "The
Measurement of Human Work" , 149
THE GANTT CHART
CHAPTER I
generation.
Paper
If no copies of charts are needed or they are to be
photostated, it is possible to use any kind or weight of
paper, although bond paper 16 pounds in weight is
possibly most satisfactory. When charts are to be kept
a number of years, 28-pound bond or ledger paper may
be used.
If blueprints of charts are desired, bond paper with-
out any water-mark should be used, because on a
blueprint a water-mark will sometimes show up as
prominently as the lines drawn on the chart. The
weight of the paper determines the time necessary to
make the blueprint, i.e., the heavier the paper the longer
it takes for the light to penetrate it. When paper is
10 THE GANTT CHART
Binding
It has been found more satisfactory to bind these
sheets on the right rather than the left, for two reasons :
Perpendicular Ruling
First lay off from the right side of the sheet a bind-
ing edge of not less than 2 inches.
From the left side of the sheet lay off a space in
HOW TO DRAW A GANTT CHART 11
Horizontal Ruling
From the top of the sheet lay off a space 2/3 inch
high in which to write a description of the information
contained on the sheet. Under that lay off another space
2/3 inch high in which to print or write the units of time
HOW TO DRAW A GANTT CHART 13
done more economically on a typewriter than by hand. The charts used as illustrations in
this book are lettered by hand in order to make the cuts clearer.
14 THE GANTT CHART
extreme left the one or two words which distinguish this
sheet from others in the same binder.
Atthe heads of the columns representing units of
time enter the dates.
In the columns on the left side of the sheet write a
description of the work to be charted on the various
lines.
The date or hour when work is to be begun is indi-
cated by a right angle opening to the right thus :
r
The date on which work is to be completed is
I"
a space, thus:
40
typing.
HOW TO DRAW A GANTT CHART 15
(Figure 6).
says:
For continuous flow production such as this I know of
nothing better for recording output and comparing per-
formance with capacity or what ought to be produced, than
the straight line charts developed by Mr. H. L. Gantt, which
show required and actual production in terms of both quan-
tity and time. Their use, however, is not limited to the class
of work just described.
proper to ask for the way in which this form of master con-
trolmight be set up. Fortunately, a suggestion is at hand
based upon work already done. . . .
space indicates that the machine did not run, and in that
space a letter or symbol is placed to indicate the reason
why. The
letter indicating the reason is placed at the
continued, thus:
for the group total. In the same way the groups are
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28 THE GANTT CHART
Using the Chart
In the Machine Record Chart the foreman has a
graphic record of the running of his machines which ena-
bles him to visualize his problem and to grasp the facts
and the tendencies much more firmly than he could from
any written record or from watching the machines.
Moreover, the chart emphasizes above everything else
the reasons for the idleness of machines, and those
reasons indicate very clearly who is responsible for the
idleness.
Since it is the foreman's aim to get work done, he
studies the facts shown and translates the chart into
action. He eliminates as much as possible of the idle-
ness over which he or his subordinates have control. If
machines have been "waiting for set-up," he plans the
work of his set-up men more carefully, and, if necessary,
trains an additional set-up man. If machines are idle
for "repairs," he does all he can to push the completion
of the repairs. If the trouble is "lack of material," he
asks the storekeeper for help.
Aconsiderable part of the idleness of machines ap-
pears to be due to causes over which the foreman has no
control, so he takes the matter up with his immediate
superior, possibly be the superintendent. He
who may
shows the charts to him and asks for his assistance in
avoiding further idleness.
If machines are down for "lack of help," the superin-
tendent discusses the matter with the employment
department and finds out what prevents the securing of
the kind of workmen needed.
If idleness is due to "lack of tools," the superin-
tendent takes the matter up with the foreman of the tool-
THE MACHINE RECORD CHART 29
Summary of Idleness
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34 THE GANTT CHART
tion regularly and in detail. In order to get a compre-
hensive grasp of conditions, he has the records of all his
departments summarized on an Idleness Expense Chart
(Figure 10), showing the cost of idleness of his entire
plant.
Because of and broader au-
his greater experience
his shop and is similar to the one used for the Machine
Record Chart shown in Figure 7 of the preceding chap-
35
36 THE GANTT CHART
ter. On the left side of this sheet he lists the men in
his control arranged in groups under his subforemen,
if he has any. At the top of the sheet he leaves a line
for the total of the department.
On the chart the foreman indicates by a line drawn
through the daily space how the work done by each
man compares with his estimates. The space repre-
sents the amount of work the foreman believes should
be done; the light line indicates what was done. For
instance, an operator has done 150 pieces of work in a
day, whereas the foreman believes a good man should
do 200. He therefore divides 150 by 200, which gives
him 75 per cent, and draws a light line through 75 per
cent of the space for that day, thus:
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39
40 THE GANTT CHART
Workman's Co-operation
Getting the
When he has removed most of the obstacles for
which the management is responsible, the foreman
shows these charts to his workmen with the idea of de-
veloping their ambition and their interest. The charts
are so simple that they can be understood by anyone
even by a foreigner who cannot read- the language in
which they are written. When his line and those of his
companions are pointed out to him, he can see how his
work compares with that of others.
A foreman soon learns that the long production lines
of the two or three men who are head and shoulders
above the others seem to have little effect on the average
workman, but that the average workman is very
strongly influenced by the lines of the men he considers
his equals. He hates to be beaten by an equal and
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43
44 THE GANTT CHART
will do all he can to keep up with him. But above all
he appreciates the opportunity to watch his own pro-
gress from day to day.
Short-Line Men
There are some workmen, however, who cannot
measure up to the average and do not respond to the
foreman's effort to stimulate their ambition. These
are the men he studies most carefully. Even without
records these men know whether they are better or
worse than those around them, and they resent the in-
troduction of methods which make this fact evident to
the foreman and the other workmen. Those who have
in the past tried to cover up their low production by
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47
48 THE GANTT CHART
week after week, they have almost invariably forgotten
their discontent and some of them even show an awaken-
ing ambition.
When a man learns to do even one job well, he gets
a different outlook on life. A
man who for years has
considered himself a "wage slave" gains confidence in
himself and a control over himself which helps to make
a free man of him. He
shows possibilities which were
entirely unsuspected until he mastered his job.
Long-Line Men
Man
Record Charts are invariably welcomed by
good workmen, provided the charts are used to help
the workmen rather than to drive them. The charts
also provide the foreman with a fairly accurate basis
for regulating the wages of his operators in accordance
with their production. Favoritism and special privilege
are done away with and promotions are based on facts
rather than impressions.
One day Mr. Gantt walking through a plant of
in
one of his clients stopped to talk to an operator and
asked him what he thought of the Man Record Charts.
The operator always knew I was the best
replied, "I
man in the shop, but noone would believe it. Now
everyone knows it." For the first time in his experience
this man had secured proper credit for the work he did
and it was natural for him welcome these records.
to
The workman who knows that he cannot
thinks,
continue indefinitely to get paid for a good day's work
when he does only half a day's work and he resents the
continued recurrence of difficulties which will not enable
him to do a full day's work. When he brought these
THE MAN RECORD CHART 49
The Superintendent
In order to get the help of the superintendent in
removing delays over which he himself has no control,
the foreman sends copies of his Man Record Charts to
the superintendent each week. With them he sends a
Man Record Summary (Figure 13) showing the total
line of thedepartment for each week. This summary
enables the superintendent to see very clearly any ten-
dencies toward lower production and to take whatever
steps may be necessary to guide his shop policy. It also
enables him to reward his workmen according to the
amount of work done (Figure 14) ,
PROFITS
SHARING
FOR
SUMMARY
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51
52 THE GANTT CHART
When the estimates of all the departments are made
on the same basis, the superintendent is also enabled to
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THE LAYOUT CHART 55
In a Stenographic Department
One of the simplest forms of the Gantt Layout
Chart is that used in assigning work to stenographers.
With the two ends in view of sending stenographers to
the same dictators whenever possible and of getting all
work out the day it is dictated, the proper assignment of
stenographers becomes a difficult problem. It is neces-
In a Machine Shop
The planning of machine shop is more
work in a
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60 THE GANTT CHART
The machine on which the next operation is to be
done is looked up on the chart to see when it will be
ready for additional work. The order is then assigned
to thismachine and the angles and the light line are
drawn. This procedure is followed in laying out all
the operations on that order and continued until all
the orders are laid out.
In assigning work to machines it is necessary to
know what progress has been made on the work already
assigned. Accordingly, as daily reports are received
showing the amount of work done, a heavy line is drawn
under the light line :
heavy be
line willdirectly under the proper date and
hour. If the work is behind or ahead of schedule, the
end of the heavy line will be behind or ahead of the
date. In assigning a new order to a machine, if the
work is ahead of schedule, the new order is placed over
V
THE LAYOUT CHART 61
crossed lines.
Above the light lines are written whatever numbers
and quantities may be necessary to identify the orders.
When work stops on any order a jog is placed under
the line with an initial to indicate the reason.
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64 THE GANTT CHART
This graphic layout makes it possible to group
orders and distribute them over the available machines
in a much more intelligent manner than by the hit-or-
miss method of deciding what the next job will be when-
ever a machine runs out of work. When a machine
breaks down, it is easy to transfer work from it to other
machines without disturbing the proper sequence of
work. When it is desirable to rush a certain order
through ahead of other work, the use of a layout chart
makes it possible to do so with maximum speed because
the chart visualizes not only the time required to do the
rush order but to get the other work out of its way.
There is an added advantage in that the chart shows
clearly how this rush order interfers with the work al-
ready in the plant and makes it possible to revise any
promises which are likely to be broken.
Other Plants
In a machine shop or textile plant work is planned
In a Foundry
The Layout Chart for a foundry (Figure 19) shows
how a variety of orders is planned for each man.
Holder No. 909, Conden, is behind schedule, which is
Layout Chart show how much work has been done and
how far it is behind or ahead of the schedule, but they
do not show just when the work was done. If an at-
tempt were made to show that information also, the
chart would become so complicated that it would not be
clear. The purpose of the Layout Chart is to plan
work it is necessary to show how the work stands when
;
compact than the Layout Chart and does not show de-
tails. Layout Charts show each operation on each order
and the individual machines which are to do the work,
but a Load Chart merely shows classes of machines and
the hours of work assigned to them by weeks or months.
The drawing of the Load Chart is similar to that of the
Progress Chart so far as light and heavy lines are con-
cerned; but the similarity ends there, for the Progress
Chart shows work done and lines are added as more
work done; but the Load Chart shows only work
is
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Shop No. 10 . Load on Machine Tools.
THE LOAD CHART 73
would keep them busy half their time. For the 5 suc-
ceeding weeks 30 per cent or less of their time would
be. required. The cumulative line showed him that half
a week's work was behind the schedule for lack of pat-
terns and other reasons, and that the total work ahead
amounted to the molders' capacity for only 2% weeks,
although that work would have to be spread over 6
weeks.
In the steel foundry, however, the superintendent
saw that there was more work to be done on the side
and bench floors than could be done by the molders
assigned to those floors. In all there was 12 weeks'
work ahead and it was wanted in 7 weeks. It was im-
portant to deliver the castings when they were wanted,
so the superintendent immediately issued instructions
to run an additional heat each day and he transferred
2 molders from the brass to the steel foundry. He
knew that these changes would enable him to make the
deliveries promised. In the iron and brass foundries
there was not enough work to keep the molders busy,
so the superintendent reduced the hours per week until
additional orders could be secured.
This Load Chart enabled the superintendent to re-
duce the idleness in his plant, but, above all, to deliver
the castings when they were wanted.
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75
76 THE GANTT CHART
lines show what part of the time they will be kept run-
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80 THE GANTT CHART
on general impressions which have been carried over
from some previous time.
The Gantt Load Chart gives the manager or super-
intendent an insight into the future which it is very
nearly impossible for him to get in any other way.
CHAPTER VIII
THE PROGRESS CHART
Purpose of the Progress Chart
The purpose of the Gantt Progress Chart is to show
what progress is being made in the execution of a plan
or program.
One of the fundamental principles of management
was formulated by Gantt when he said "The authority
:
120
Manufacturing on Order
In a plant which manufactures only on orders from
itscustomers or its own sales organization, a promise of
delivery is usually made on each order and each must be
watched to see that the promise is kept. The Progress
Chart of Crank Handles (Figure 24) was drawn in
a plant where all orders were charted. The angle which
Schedule
on
Manufactured
Links
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date except for those orders which were due to be com-
pleted before that date. However, the work had not
made the expected progress the third order on the sheet
;
Continuous Manufacture
In a plant where articles are manufactured con-
tinuously, the Progress Chart is, of course, somewhat
different from that used in a plant which manufactures
on order. The chart of Links Manufactured on
Schedule (Figure 25) illustrates this.
On the first type of link, No. 467-BT, it was found
that the normal usage based on sales for the last
two years with more weight given to recent months was
10,000 per month. The broken lines were the first ones
entered on the chart; it was found that about 16,000
THE PROGRESS CHART 91
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92
94 THE GANTT CHART
which would bring into finished stock during September
another month's supply. It was evident, therefore, that
there would be a 4 months' supply on hand sometime
in September, and accordingly no further manu-
Comparing Operations
At times a series of delays occur which interfere
seriously with production, but it is difficult to get a com-
prehensive understanding of the situation from a table
of figures and still more difficult to explain it to someone
who is not familiar with the details.
During the latter part of the Great War, the
Director of Arsenals considered the recuperators, or
recoil mechanisms, for the 75mm. field guns the most
Office Work
The work usually more difficult to
of an office is
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97
98 THE GANTT CHART
Thedaily task in most office departments can be ex-
pressed in one of these two ways, i.e., by a definite quan-
tity per day or by the amount of work received each day.
Of course, it is impossible to get out at closing time, say,
5 o'clock, work which is not received until 10 minutes be-
fore 5, but the day for receiving work may be regarded
as ending at 3 o'clock or possibly at noon, while
the day for finishing work may not end until 5 o'clock.
In a purchasing department, for instance, the task
may be to send out requests for quotations or purchase
orders by 5 o'clock, covering all requisitions received up
to 3 o'clock. The task of a stenographic department
would be to transcribe before closing time all letters
dictated before 4 o'clock. The filing department's task
would be to get into their proper places in the files all
Sales Quotas
Storeskeeping
In keeping materials or finished ^oods in stores,
time is the most important feature to be taken into con-
sideration, and any analysis of conditions in a store-
room must be expressed in terms of days, months, or
years as well as in quantities. Information that there
are 1,000 pieces on hand is not of nearly so much value
as that there are enough pieces on hand to last a year at
the normal rate of usage.
The chart illustrated in Figure 29 compares the
stock on hand at the first of the year with the average
sales of the 5 previous years. It possible to see at a
is
Progress Chart.
NOV. 25 29
THE AMERICAN MERCHANT MARINE 113
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116 THE GANTT CHART
To summarize: In the 53 days from April 10 to
June 2 the "Kronstad" spent 18 days at sea on two
round trips to Cuba, 9 days in sugar ports, and 27 days
in and around United States ports discharging and
idle 22 days.
Here is another actual case in New York Harbor
(Figure 37) :
THE AMERICAN MERCHANT MARINE 119
cargo for 2 days she was idle for some unknown reason
; ;
imports.
cargoes :
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Figures
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124 THE GANTT CHART
for a "turnaround," as a round trip is called in shipping
circles, by figuring the distance, the speed, and the
IndividualCommodity Charts
Many of the one hundred necessary commodities
were brought in in part cargoes and from various parts
of the world. In order to emphasize the savings in
ships' time by importing from nearby countries,
each
s 8
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130 THE GANTT CHART
of these commodities was shown on a separate chart.
Figure 39 illustrates how the importation of castor
beans stood on August 31. The requirements amounted
to 10,000 long tons a year, or 883 per month, and when
the chart was reproduced enough had been received to
last at that rate until October of the following year.
Accordingly, no further import licenses were issued for
castor beans and the vessels coming in from the various
trade regions carried other necessary commodities.
Summary of Imports
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135
136 THE GANTT CHART
advise the agents as to what commodities should be
brought back on her return trip.
Summary of Trades
The allocation of ships to the various trades was
the key to the successful handling of the import prob-
lem. ASummary of Trades Chart (see Figure 42)
was drawn show how the requirements from all the
to
trade regions had been met. As was shown in Figure
41, the deliveries from the first trade region, East Asia,
were nearly a month ahead of schedule the East Indian
;
dustry.
The answers
to these questions are the ultimate facts
in regard to the management of any manufacturing
processes.
140 THE GANTT CHART
7. Men in subordinate positions willing to shoulder
being available.
One frequently hears from operating executives who do not use
charts and do not "need" them certain comments on the futility of
mately 300 per day. The job was easy of accomplishment by the
forging department, but the contract provided for a machine opera-
tion, and only through the desire of a conscientious department
head to seek relief was
disclosed that the machine equipment
it
available could produce nomore than some 70 per day. For months
the customer complained, the sales department "kept after" the
shop, and the shop promised to do better. Of course, it is plain that
146 APPENDIX
all the operations should have been investigated in the first instance,
but they were not. If charting had prevailed in this plant, the
day for this purpose was tolerated for years, and yet the remedy
HOW A MANAGER USES GANTT CHARTS 147
responses developed. While it was true that what was wanted was
a man for a broaching machine, the work really called only for a
careful man who could be instructed properly and sufficiently in
30 minutes. In another case an advertisement called for "trim-
mers," when men were wanted for presses for trimming flash from
forgings. The applicants were wood-trimmers, clothing-makers of
a branch called "trimmers," trimmers of men's hats, and milliners.
Beyond the "unearned burden," the expense of idle equipment
more costly and often the pay of the operator goes on just
is still
PRODUCTION
The Result of Universal and Cooperative Labor
HUMAN WORK
Time-rate the basic Characteristic
PAST FUTURE
Shown on Machine Shown on Progress
Record Charts and Layout Charts
150
APPENDIX B
THE MEASUREMENT OF HUMAN WORK
By Walter N. Polakov
The fundamental distinction between arts and sciences is that
the latter are evolved from sharp, complete, and precise definitions
of phenomena and their relations, while arts are based chiefly on
"senses" not capable of precise definition. Science therefore per-
mits exact measurement of what we call "facts," whereas in the
arts the correctness of a didactic conclusion depends on the quality
of thinking employed, and it may be accepted as correct only when
it is arrived at by a strictly mathematical method of reasoning.
In the field of engineering this distinction is rather astonishing.
Engineering has been defined as the science and art of directing the
sources ofpower in nature for the use and well-being of mankind.
Those branches which have been studied with the aid of mathematics
have become branches of applied science; for instance, mechanical
and electrical engineering, chemistry, etc. However, in that branch
of engineering which deals with human forces, known as "manage-
ment engineering," there has beenuntil recently an almost complete
absence of mathematical thinking, with the result that, instead of
accurate measurement, we find vagueness, inadequacy, and looseness
of reasoning.
The recent movement known as "scientificmanagement" claims
at least one characteristic of the scientific method that of measure-
ment with an accuracy and completeness unknown in industry even
a score of years ago. Let us inquire into the methods and more par-
151
152 APPENDIX
indicating feet, minutes, pounds or gallons. The final issue . . .
dollar is the final term in almost every equation which arises in the
practice of engineering . . .
The aim of our efficiency has not been to produce goods, but
to harvest dollars. The production of goods was always
. . .
The dollar has been used improperly as the unit for measuring
ing lines we measure them in lineal units (inches, feet, yards, miles,
etc.) ;
if we are concerned with we use square units
surfaces,
(square inches, square yards, acres, etc.). What are we dealing
with in production or, stated more accurately, what is the common
which is necessary and
attribute or characteristic of production
from any other activity, and how can
sufficient to distinguish it
Momentum
Time
X Distance
ideals, methods all created and handed down by those who worked
before us. It is our part to bring to the work our energy and
the ability to co-ordinate and apply what we have received from
preceding generations and thus by means of our time-binding energy
to create further material, intellectual, and spiritual wealth.
It is apparent, then, that the human work done is a product
of two time rates: one the momentum of civilization, transferred
154 APPENDIX
from generation to generation, where the time element appears as
an exponent; another the velocity or motion time rate of contempo-
rary human beings performing the work. Inasmuch as during the
life of an individual, even from day to day, a progress of accumula-
ganized on the co-operation of living and dead men for the conscious
purpose of changing the form of matter or the direction or character
of force, this sharply distinguishes production from animal effort,
.
Since time may be spent for different purposes and the amounts
of work that can be done in a unit of time may differ of neces-
sity, the scales may be as varied as are the human activities them-
selves, but we cannot conceive human activity without or beyond
time.
Time in its relation to our existence is divided into present, past,
and future. Consciously or unconsciously, Gantt developed his
mechanism of production control so as to enable us to visualize the
use made of time in its present, past, and future aspects. Hence
we have three fundamental managerial problems visualized in
156 APPENDIX
three forms of charts :
applied to the present or to current work
Man Record Charts; referred to work done in the past Machine
Record Charts; and finally, projected to future work Progress
Charts with their schedules laid out on the time scale of future
requirements.
During the time devoted to productive work there is a variable
amount of work done, and this is what is shown on the Man Record
Chart, but this work is performed and directed by men. "To feel
the lure of perfection," says Professor C. J. Keyser, "in one or
more types of excellence, however lowly, is to be human; not to
feel it is to be sub-human." And a chart of this kind involves that
ideal of service. It shows what is expected to be accomplished
within the work time for any occupation, however lowly.
In such a chart this ever-striving impulse of self-expression in
service which throbs in every human being is given adequate expres-
sion and stimulus. It is accomplished by predetermining the ideal,
however modest, which is accepted by a man as within his power
of attainment. Then, and only then, can the lines of attainment
be drawn from day to day to denote the falling short of the aim or
equaling and even surpassing it, as the obstacles of inertia, ignor-
ance, or lack of co-ordination are overcome by the strongest of all
human propensities the desire to excel oneself. This type of
chart can truthfully be called a tool for humanizing industry, for
it not only reveals to a man his own dignity and capacity as a
I
See Walter N. Polakor, "Mastering Power Production," Engineering Magazine
Co., 1921.