E.

WOLF, PROGRESSIN OPTICS XXVI

@ ELSEVIER SCIENCEPUBLISHERS8.V., 1988

PHASE-MEASUREMENT INTERFEROMETRY TECHNIQUES

BY

KernpnrNn CREATH

IVYKO Corporation
1955East Sirth St., Tucson,AZ 85719,USA
 CONTENTS

PAGE
$ 1. INTRODUCTION 351

$ 2. MEANS OF SHIFTING AND DETERMINING PHASE . 352

$ 3. PHASE-MEASUREMENT ALGORITHMS . 35',7

$ 4. MEASUREMENT EXAMPLE 368

s 5. ERROR ANALYSIS . 373

$ 6. SIMULATTON RESULTS . . 379

$ 7. REMOVTNG SYSTEM ABERRATIONS 385
$ 8. APPLICATIONS OF PHASE-MEASUREMENT INTER-
FEROMETRY 388
REFERENCES 391

350
 $ 1. Introduction

High-precisionoptical systemsare generallytested using interferometry,

precision.To
sinceit often is the only \ilay to achievethe desired.measurement
takefull advantageof the accuracyavailablein aninterferometrictest,interfero-
gramsmustbe analyzedbya computer.The biggestproblemis gettingthe data
from aninterferograminsidethe computerwithout losingtheinherentaccuracy
containedin the interferogram.In the 1960s,techniquesusingopticalcompara-
tors weredevelopedfor measuringthe position of interferencefringe centers,
whichweresentto a computerfor analysis.In the 1970s,fastertechniquesusing
graphicstabletsor video systemsconnectedto computersweredevelopedfor
finding fringe centers.
Unfortunately,there are three main problemswith thesefringe digitization
techniques.First, the accuracyof the measuredpositionsof the fringe centers
is often lessthan desired.Generally,an elror as largeas 1/10fringeis present
in the measurement of fringecenter,whereasthe interferometershouldhave
aninherent accuracy of at leastan orderof magnitudegreaterthanthis. Second,
not enoughdata points areobtainedin most cases,and data areobtainedonly
at thelocationofthe interferencefringes.In orderto increasethedensityofdata
points,more fringescould be generatedby introducingtilt into the interfero-
gram,but then,althoughmoredatapointsareobtained,the accuracyis reduced
becauseof our inability to measurethe locationsof fringe centersaccurately'
Third, in most applicationsit is desirableto analyzefringe data on a uniform
squaregrid. With data obtained only at the location of fringe centers,it is
necessaryto use someform of interpolationto obtain a squaregrid of data
points from the fringe centerdata. In addition,the interpolationprocesscan
introduceerror into the results.
Phase-measurement interferometry(PMI) can be used to overcomethese
problems. Although the basictechniquesfor phase-measurement interferome-
try havebeenknown for several years (Cann [ 1966],BRUNING,HERRIof-r,
GllecHnn, RosENFeLD, WHITEand BReNcecclo [1974],SoulvlencnnN
[975], WveNr 119751, BnuNrNc [1978], MessIe [1980], Moone and
SrevuexrR [1980], WveNr [1982],WveNr and CRnntr [1985]).It is only
recentlythat PMI hasbecomeof practicaluse.Two major developments make

351
352 PMI TECHNIQUES lv,$2

this possible,namely, solid-statedetector arays and fast microprocessors.

When a detectorarray is usedto sensefringes,and a known phasechangeis
inducedbetweenthe objectandreferencebeams,the phaseof a wavefrontmay
bedirectlycalculatedfrom recordedintensitydata.Generally,a numberof data
frames are recorded as the referencebeam phase is changedin a known
manner.The data are shippedto a computerwherethe phaseat eachdetector
point is calculated.Information aboutthe test surfaceis geometricallyrelated
to the calculatedwavefrontphase.
The direct measurementof phaseinformation has many advantagesover
simplyrecordinginterferogramsand then digitizingthem. First, the precision
of phase-measurement techniquesis a factor of ten to a hundredgreaterthan
that of digitizingfringes.Second,it is simple.A detectorarray is placedat the
interferogramplane, and a phase-shiftingdevice is placed in the reference
beam.Using state-of-the-artsolid-statedetectorrrrays, datacan be takenvery
rapidly, therebyreducingerrors due to air turbulenceor vibration. Third, the
data from phase-measurement systemsaremore precisebecausethe testscan
be repeatableto a hundredthor thousandthof a wavelength.By using phase-
shiftingtechniquesa contourmap of the surfacecan easilybe obtainedin a few
seconds.
Phase-measurement techniqueshave been applied to almost all types of
interferometersystems.A few interferometertypes include Twyman-Green,
Mach-Zehnder, Smartt Point-Diffraction,and Mirau and Nomarski inter-
ferencemicroscopes.In addition, PMI has also beenused with holographic,
multiple-wavelength, and speckleinterferometertechniquesto producesurface
countoursand deformationmeasurements (see$ 8).
This study describesthe basic principlesof PMI and ways to implement
thesetechniquesinto practical interferometricoptical testing.Emphasishas
beenplacedon a generaltreatmentofthe theoryand data processinginvolved
in obtaining a direct measureof a test wavefront relative to a known reference
wave. Means of shifting and detectingphase are also discussed.Errors
resultingfrbm fundamentallimitations,hardware,and softwarelreexplained
and analyzed.Finally, severalapplicationsof PMI are described.

$ 2. Means of Shifting and Determining Phase

There ae many ways to determinethe phase of a wavefront. For all

techniquesa temporalphasemodulation(or relativephaseshift betweenthe
object and referencebeamsin an interferometer)is introduced to perform the
v,$21 MEANs oF sHIFTTNG AND DETERMININc pHAsE 353

measurement. By measuringthe interferogramintensityasthe phaseis shifted,

the phaseof the wavefrontcan be determinedwith the aid of electronicsor a
computer.

2.1. MEANS OF PHASE MODULATION

Phasemodulationin an interferometercan be inducedby moving a mirror,

tilting a glassplate, moving a gating, rotating a half-waveplate or analyzet,
using an acousto-opticor electro-opticmodulator, or using a Zeemanlaser
(Wvnr.rr[19751,Snecnvr andWvaur [1978],WvaNr and Snncept [ 1978],
Hu [1983],KorHtver and Dnusl [1985]).Phaseshifterssuchas moving
mirrors, gratings,tilted glassplates,or polarizationcomponentscan produce
continuousas well as discretephaseshifts betweenthe object and reference
beams.All of thesemethodseffectivelyshift the frequencyof one beamin the
interferometerwith respectto the otherto introducea phasedifferencebetween
beams.
In an interferometerwith polarizationisolation, the object and reference
beamshave orthogonallinear or circular polarizations.A rotating half-wave
plate(or a quarter-waveplatein doublepass)in the outputof an interferometer
will produce a frequencyshift at twice its rotation frequency(see frg. 1A)
(SHecerrland WveNr [1978],WveNr and Snecerra[1978],Hu [1983]'
KoruryJ-andDr,usrr, t19851).(A rotationof 45' will yielda jz phaseshift.)
Likewise, a rotating analyzerwill produce a phasemodulation at twice the
rotation frequency.
Another phase-modulationtechnique continuously moves a diffraction
gratingin one arm of the interferometer(fig. 1B). Diffraction gratingsproduce
a wavelength-independent frequencyshift in the nth diffracted orderof [rutf]
when a $ating of spatialfrequency/is movedwith a velocityu (WvnNr and
SHecnu t1978]).Insteadof a grating,the sameeffectcanbe producedusing
an acousto-opticBraggcell. In the Braggcell a travelingacousticwave serves
asa grating,andthefrequencyshiftobtainedin thefirst diffractedorderis equal
to the device'sdrivingfrequency(V/velrr and Snncnu [1978]). AZeeman
laserthat hasan outputoftwo differentfrequenciescan alsoproducethe phase
shift (Wvar.rrand Sn.cAM [1978]).
A tilted glassplacedin one beamcan provide a relativephaseshift between
objectandreference beams(fig. lC) (WvaNr and Snecepr [1978]).However,
this plate must havehigh optical quality, and care must be taken to have an
equal optical path over the entire beam diameter.To minimize aberrations
 354 PMI TECHNIQUES lv,$2

45" ROTATION

CIRCULARLY
POLABIZED MOVE
LIGHT 0.01 mm

(A) ROTATINGHALF-WAVEPLATE (B) DIFFFACTION GRATING

r,/B.;*
MovE t'.;iff'
*rf,
I \r'
PUSHING
MIRFOR

(C) TILTED GLASS PLATE (D) MOVINGMIRRoB

Fig. l. Meansof producinga phasemodulationto include(A) a rotatingpolarizer,(B) a moving

diffraction grating, (C) a tilted glass plate, and (D) a moving mirror.

introducedby the plate, it shouldbe placedin a coltimatedbeam. Different

amounts of phase shift are achievedby tilting the plate to diferent angles.
Finally,a common,straightforwardphase-shifting techniqueis theplacement
of a minor pushedby a piezo-electrictransducer(PZT\ in the referencebeam
(fig. lD) (WvaNr [1982], Wyerqr and Cnern t19851).Many brands of
PZTs ae availableto move a mirror linearly over a l-rm range.A high-voltage
amplifier is usedto produce a linear ramping sal from 0 to severalhundred
volts. If there are nonlinearitiesin the PZT motion, they can be accountedfor
by using a progrrnmablewaveformgenerator.If a phase-stepping technique
is preferredto a continuousmodulation, any calibratedpzr can be used
becauseonly discretevoltagestepsare needed.

2,2.. MEANS OF DETERMINING PHASE

Techniquesfor determiningphasecan be split into two basic categories:

electronicand analytical.To determinephaseelectronically,hardware such as
v,$21 MEANS oF SHIFTING AND DETERMINING PHSE 355

zero-crossingdetectors,phaseJockloops, and up-down countersare usedto

monitor interferogramintens data asthe phaseis modulated.For analytical
techniquesintens data arerecordedwhilethephaseis temporallymodulated,
sent to a computer, and then used to computephase.With the advent of
powerful desk-top computersand solid-statedetector afrays, the analytical
techniqueshaveprovidedthe mostinnovationsin this field in the last five years
(WvnNr and Cneern [1935]). For this reasonwe will concentrateon the
newertechniquesand only briefly describethe electronictechniques.
One electronictechniqueutilizes the detectionof a modulatedtest sal
passingthrough a zero phasevalue in relation to a modulatedreferencesignal.
Zero-crossingtechniquesmeasurethe time differencebetweenreferenceand
test sals as they passthrough azero (Wvervr and Ssecnu [1978])' The
wavefrontphaseis determinedto be modulo 2nby taking the ratio betweenthe
time measuredbetweencrossingsand the period of the referencesal. To
measurea two-dimensionalmap of the wavefront,the detectoreitherneedsto
be scannedor the circuitry must measurethe zero as5singsat eachdetector
element.
Another technique has been coined phase-lock or ac interferometry
(Moonn, Munnev andNves [ 1978],Moonn andTnuex [1979],JoHNsoN'
LerNen and Moonn [1979]). In phase-locktechniquesa phaseshifter'inone
interferometer path is modulated sinusoidally with a small amplitude, pro-
ducing temporally modulated interferenceterms with cosine of sine and sine
of sinedependences. The detectedoptical sal will sfain terms with odd
and even order harmonicsof the phase modulation frequency.A second,
coarserphase-shifteris usedto changethe path betweenthe two beamsin the
interferometer until the odd order harmonics (including the fundamental)
disappear.When high-order harmonics are filtered out, the resulting electrical
sal is directlyproportionalto the optical phasemodulo 2n. with the useof
frequencymultipliers and up-down counters, phase-lock interferometry can
measurephasechangesgreaterthan2nwith #,i repeatabilities.Ho'ilever,to
measureover an area,the detectormust be scanned.
The last electronic method we will mention has the capability to measure
directly a phasechangegreaterthan 1 fringe (Wvevr and Snncnlvr [ 1978]).
Up-down countersenablethe actualphasedifferenceto be measuredas long
as a continuous sal is incident. As a fringe sweepsby the detector,the
counters anged,incremented,or decremented dependingon its relation-
shipto a known referencesignal.Becauseonly changesin phasearemeasured,
the detector must be scannedfor area measurementsand an unintemrpted
sipal received. Up-down counters are generally used in conjunction with
frequencymultipliers in order to measurein units of less than one fringe.
356 PMI TECHNIQUES lv,$2

A phase-measurement techniquethat is analyticalbut doesnot use phase-

shifting is the Fourier-transformmethod (Taxnoa, Ia and Koayesnr
[1982],Wovrecr [1984a,b]).This methodis reallya fringe-pattern analysis
technique,but we will mentionit becauseit does servea purposefor systems
that are subjectto vibration and air turbulence.For this techniquea single
interferogramis recordedand Fourier transformed.The Fourier spectrumis
then bandpassfiltered to isolate one of the sidebands.Now the sidebandis
frequencyshifted to be centeredat zero frequency.The filtered and shifted
spectrumis theninverseFouriertransformedto yield a modulo2 z phasemap.
This techniquedoesnot have as much accuracyas the analyticaltechniques
mentionedin thenext section,whichdirectlycalculatethe phasefrom a number
of phase-shifted interferograms. Becausethe sidebandsarenot alwaysisolated,
various filters can be used to improve the outcome of these techniques
(Tereoe,IN, and KoseyesFrrL9821,Woprecr [1984a,b],Knns [1986]).
With the developments in solid-statedetectorurays,high-speedcomputers,
and computerinterfaces,analyticalmethodsenablethe phaseto be measured
as modulo 2n at a number of points in an interferogrlmsimultaneously
(WveNr [1982],WveNr and Cnenrn [1985]).Figure2 showsa schematic of
this type of systemwith a moving mirror as the phaseshifter.Thereis no need
to scan a detectoror use a large number of redundantcircuits' This type of
measurementcan have repeatabilitiesof one-thousandthof a fringe. Other

TEST SAMPLE

IMAGING LNS

DETECTOR ARRAY

Fig. 2. Twyman-Greeninterferometerfor measuringphaseusinga PZT pushinga mirror asthe

phaseshifrer and sendingdata to a computerfor the phasecalculation.
v,$31 PHASE.MEASUREMENT ALGORITHMS 357

advantages includereducedvibration sensitiv becauseall the data are taken

overthe interferogramareain a short periodof time,much lower distortion of
the interferogramacrossits area,and the abilityto determinenoisyor bad data
points during the phasecalculation.

Algorithms
$ 3. Phase-Measurement

Phase-measurement techniquesusing analyticalmeansto determinephase

all havesomecommondenominators.Thesetechniquesshift the phaseof one
beamin the interferometerwith respectto the other beam and measurethe
intensityof an interferencepattern at many differentrelativephaseshifts.To
makethesetechniqueswork, theinterferencepatternmustbe sampledcorrectly
to obtain sufficientinformation to reconstructthe wavefront.The detected
intensitymodulationasthe phaseis shiftedcan be calculatedfor eachdetected
point to determineif the data point is good. After discussingthe sampling
requirements,a number of different algorithmsfor calculatingphaseare de-
scribedwith equationsfor the detectedintensitymodulation.This is followed
by a descriptionof the removal of phase ambiguitiesand the relationship
betweenwavefrontphaseand the test surface.

3.I. SAMPLING REQUIREMENTS

Fringe modulation is a fundamentalproblem in all phase-measurement

techniques(Cne4rn t19851).When a fringepatternis recordedby a detector
array,thereis an output ofdiscrete voltagesrepresentingthe averageintensity
incidentupon the detectorelementover the integtationtime' As the relative
phasebetweenthe object and referencebeamsis shifted,the intensitiesread
by point detectorsshouldchangeas shownin fig. 34. If the interferencedata
aresampledat the Nyquistfrequencysuchthat therearetwo detectorelements
for eachfringe (eachhalf-waveof optical path difference[OPD]), then the
wavefrontcanbe reconstructed.However,if thefringepatternis not sufficiently
sampled,the wavefrontcannotbe correctlyreconstructedas shownin fig. 3B'
wherethere is more than one-halffringe per detector.When the area of the
detectoris finite,the detectorreadsthe averagefiinge intensityoverits areaas
shownin fig. 3C. As long as thereis lessthan one-halfof a fringeper detector
element,the intensitywill be modulated.However,if thereis one fringe over
the areaof the detectorelement,therewill be no modulation(fig. 3D). Thus,
358 PMI TECHNIQUES [v,$3

(A) porNr .AM'LED ( B) P o r NSAMPLED

r
.O=O ^@=nlz o=0

l l l l l l t t t t t l
OETECTOFFRAY OIJTPUT DETECTORARRAY OUTPUT

HIGH MOOULTION HIGH MODTJLATION

( C) suFFrcrENrLY
SAMPLED ( D) uNoERsAMpLED
AO=0 A@=nl2 AO=0 @=nl2

fFT-Il-n 1 finrll-]l-1 flI-T-I-nnrL J-lj-lj-t-T-n

DETECTORARRAY OUTPUT DETECTORARTIAYOIJTPUT

HIGH MOOULTION LOW MODULTION

Fig. 3. (A) Sufficientsamplingwith point detectorsshowinghigh modulationof the intensityas

the interferometer'srelative phase is shifted by ]2. (B) Undersamplingwith point detectors
showingaliasingof fringe pattem. (C)Sufficient samplingwith fnite-sized detectorswith <
fringeover the detectorarea.(D) Undersamplingwith fins-sizeddetectorsshowingno intensity
modulation.

the detector size influencesthe recorded fringe modulation, whereasthe

detector spacingdeterminesif the wavefront can be reconstructedwithout
phaseambiguities.

3.2. GENERAL PHASE-MEASUREMENT TECHNIOUE

Many different algorithmshave been publishedfor the determinationof

wavefront phase (CanR [1966], BnuNINc, HERRIorr, GeLLecHER,
RosrNrer-o, WHrrE and BRANcAccIo U9741, SopruencnnN [1975],
WveNr [1975],BnuNrNc[1978],SoIvruencnEN [981], MonceN [1982],
WveNr ll982l, WyeNT, Kouopouros, BHUsHANand GeoRce [1984],
v,s3l PHASE-MEASUREMENT ALGORITHMS

(A) (c)
z z
=}n
-an
9.-

q o
e, M4 rM4
o o
= =

(B) (D)
J J

2 ,t

c
U t!
F F
o
u U
t- F
tl U

Fig.4. (A) Mirror position and (B) detectedsignalfor the integratingbucket are shown along
with (C) mirror position and (D) detectedsipal for the phase-stepping technique.

GnnrvnNreMp [1984],WveNr and CREATH[1985],Rnn [1986]). Some

techniquesstepthe phasea known amountbetweenintensitymeasurements,
whereasothersintegratethe intensitywhile the phaseis being shifted. Both
types are phase-shiftingtechniques.The first is usually referred to as a
phase-steppingtechnique,and the secondas an integrating-bucket technique.
Figure4 shows the differencebetweenthe detectedsals in the phase-
techniques.The numberof intensitymeasure-
steppingand integrating-bucket
ments recorded as the phase is shifted also varies. A minimum of three
measurementsis necessaryto determinethe phase, since there are three
unknownsin the interferenceequation
Io= IoU + yocos(@)l
. (3.1)
Theseunknowns are the dc intensity/o, the modulation of the interference
fringes o, and the wavefront phase 4. Th" phase shift betweenadjacent
intensity measurementscan be anything between0 and z as long as it is
constantand linear. Sincethereare so many possiblealgorithms,we will start
a generalpresentationofthe problemand then give specificequationsfor the
most used algorithms.
 PMI TECHNIQUES lv,$3

Normally, N measurementsof the intensity are recordedas the phase is

shifted.For the generaltechniquethe phaseshift is assumedto changeduring
the detectors'integrationtime, and this changeis the semefrom data frameto
data frame.The mount of phasechangefrom frame to frame may vary, but
it mustbe known by calibratingthe phaseshifteror measuringthe actualphase
change.Unlessdiscretephasestepsare used,the detectorarray will integrate
thefringeintensitydataovera changein relativephaseof . One setof recorded
intensitieswill be written as (Gnnwr,Nrarrar [1984])

=:l:::;
I,(x,y) Io(x,y) { I + yocos[@(x,y) + d(t)]] d(r), (3.2)

where/o(.x,y) is the averageintensityat eachdetectorpoint, yois themodulation

of the fringe pattern,, is the averagevalueof the relativephaseshift for the
fth exposure,and (x,y) is the phaseof the wavefrontbeingmeasuredat the
point (x, y). The integration over a phase shift makes this expression
applicablefor any phase-shiftingtechnique.After integratingthis expression
the recordedintens is
I,(x,y) : Io(*,y){1 + yo(sinc})
coslQ@,y) + ,1}, (3.3)
where sinc]^ : (sin+^)/. It is important to note that the only difference
betweenintegratingthe phase and steppingthe phaseis a reduction in the
modulationof the interferencefringesafter detection.If the phaseshift were
stepped(^ = 0) and not integrated,the sinc function would have a value of
unity. Therefore,phasesteppingis a simplificationof the integrating-bucket
method.At the other extreme,if A : 2n,there would be no modulationof the
intensity.Sincethis techniquerelieson a modulationof the intensitiesas the
phaseis shifted,the phaseshift per exposureneedsto be between0 and z.
For a total of ly'recordedintensitymeasurements the phasecanbe calculated
usinga least-squares technique.This type of approachis outlinedin detail by
both GneIvENKAMp[984] and MoncnN [1982]. Equation(3.3) is first
rewritten in the form
I,(x,y) : ao(x,y)+ ar(x,y) cos,+ ar(x,y) sina,, (3.4)
where
ao(x,y) = Io(x,y) ,
alx,y) = Io(x,y) yo(sinc])cosQ(x,y), (3.s)
az(x,y) : Io(x,y) yo(sincj) sinf (x, y) .
v,$31 PHASE.MEASUREMENT ALGORITHMS 361

The unknownsof this set of equationsare lo(x,y), lo md Q@,y), which are

representedby ao(x,y), at(x,y\, and ar(x,y'). The least-squaessolution to
theseequationsis

/o.(t, r)\
o,,',rl= ^- 1(u,)
B(x,r, d), (3.6)
I
\u'(''I
where

l * I cos, I sin,
=l I
A(u,) I cos2, | (cosr)sina, (3.7)
"or*
r 'ro, I (cos,) sina, I sin2,
\ )
and

B(a,) = (,n::;r:,.
)
r,t",v)sna'
(3.8)

\ I f
The matrix 1 needsto be calculatedand invertedjust once becauseit is
dependentonly on the phaseshift.The phaseat eachpoint in the interferogram
is determinedby evaluatingthe value of B at each point and then solving for
the coefficientsa, arrdar:

az(x,y) 1o7o(sincj) sinIf (x, y)] (3.e)

m n 9 ( x ,' r r =
ol*,r\:@
This phasecalculationassumes that thephaseshiftsbetweenmeasurements are
known and that the integrationperiod is constantfor everymeasurement.
Equation(3.9)is sufficientto determinethe phasemodulo .To determinethe
phase modulo 2n, the ss of quantitiesproportional to sinf and cos@
mustbe examined.This procedurewill be discussedin detail at the end of this
section.
Besidesa reductionin intensity modulationdue to the integrationover a
 PMI TECHNIQUES lv,$3

changein phaseshift,the nite sizeof the detectorelementwill alsocontribute

to a reduction in intensity modulation, as will extraneousscatteredsals
incident upon the detectorarray. To make reliablephasemeasurements, the
incidentintensitymust modulatesufficientlyat eachdetectorpoint to yield an
accuratephase.The recordedintensitymodulationcan be calculatedfrom the
intensitydata using the equation

+ ar(x,y)2
y(x,y): yosinc| : Jor(*,y)2 (3.10)
ao(x, Y)

This expressioncanbe usedto determineif a datapoint will yield an accurate

phasemeasurementor if it shouldbe ored. Expressionsfor the recorded
intensitymodulationaregivenfor eachof the specifictechniquesdescribedin
this sectionand ae used in the exampleslater in this chapter.

3.3. SYNCHRONOUS DETECTION

An earlytechniquefor phasemeasurement utilizedmethodsof communica-

tion theory to perform synchronousdetection.To detect a noisy signal syn-
chronously,it is correlated(or multiplied) with sinusoidaland cosinusoidal
sals of the samefrequencyand averagedover many periodsof oscillation.
The method of synchronousdetection as applied by Bruning (BnuNrNc,
Hnnnlorr, Gaucn,n, Rosnurnro, Wurln and BneNc,ccro [1974],
BnuNrNc [978]) to phase measurementcan be extractedfrom the least-
squaresestimation result when the phase shifts are chosen such that ll
measurementsare equally spacedover one modulation period. With phase
shifts a, suchthat
i2n
-, =2 ,r with j=1,...,N,

eq. (3.9) reducesto that given by both Bruning and Morgan (BnuNrNc,
Hennrorr, Geu-,cnrn, RosENFELD,WHITE and BneNcAcclo lI974l,
BRuNrNc19781,Monc.N [1982],GnervnNxur [1984])

I,(*,y) sin(,)
tanQ@,y)-- L ( 3 . 11 )
L I,(*,y)cos(,)
For the least-squaresestimationof eq.(3.9),eq.(3.11)is the specialcasein
which the matrix A (eq.3.7) is diagonal.
v,$31 PHASE-MEASUREMENT ALGORITHMS 363

3.4. FOUR-BUCKET, OR FOUR.STEP, TECHNIQUE

A commonalgorithmfor phasecalculationsis the four-step,or four-bucket,

method (WveNr [1982]). In this case the four recorded sets of intensity
measurements
can be written as
Ir(x,y) = Io(x,/) {1 + ycos[@(x,y)]], (3.12)
Ir(x,y) = Io(x,/) {1 + ycoslQ(x,y)+ }"1} = Io(x,/){1 - ysin[@(.x,y)]],
(3.13)
I r ( r , y ) = I o @ , y ){ 1 + y c o s [ p ( x y, ) + n ] ] = I o @ , y \{ 1 - y c o s [ Q @ , y ) ] ] ,
(3.r4)
Io(x,y=
) I o ( x , / ) { 1 + y c o s l Q @ , y+) i " l } = I o ( x , / ){ 1 + v s i n [ @ ( x , v ) ] ] ,
( 3.1s)
where, : 0, Ln, n mdln; y equalsyofor the four-steptechniqueand 0.9yo
for the four-buckettechniquewherethe phaseis integratedover : ]2. Note
that integratingthe phaseproducesa very smalleffectfor a jz phaseshift per
exposure.Thus, linearlyrampingthe phaseshifterwhile taking measurements
makesmore sensethan steppingand waiting for the referencebeamto settle
down. The phaseat eachpoint is

- Y) - Ir(x, Y)\
o. : ran , (I@, , (3.16)
\1,(x,y) - Ir(x,y)/
and the recordedmodulationis calculatedfrom

y(x,v) = (3.r7)
2Io

3.5. THREE-BUCKET,OR THREE-STEP,TECHNIQUE

Since a minimum of three sets of recorded fringe data is needed to

reconstructa wavefront,the phasecan be calculatedfrom a phaseshift ofiz
(90') per exposurewith 4 : In,|n, andln. The threeintensitymeasurements
may be expressedas (WvaNr, Kouoeoulos, BHUsHex and GroRc
I le84]).
I r ( * , y ) : I o ( x , y ){ 1 + y c o s [ @ ( x , y+) i " ] ] , (3.18)
364 PMI TECHNIQUES lv,s3

Ir(x,v) = Io(x'v){1 + Tcos[f(x,v)+f,nj] , (3.1e)

It(x,v) = Io(r,v){1 + rcos[f('x,v\ + 1"]] , (3.20)

When discretestepsate used,T = To,and when the phaseis integratedover a

|z phaseshift per frame, y = 0.9yo.The phaseat eachpoint is then simply
/Ir(*,y) - 1r(",y)\
(r,y):tan-'\ffi-;, (3.2r)

and the intensitymodulationis

y(x,v) = . (3.22)
2Io
become
If a phaseshift of Jn (120e)is used,the threeintensitymeasurements
-?n]\ ,
Ir(x,y)= Io(x,v){1 + vcos[Q@,Y) (3.23)
Ir(x,y)= Io(x,v){1 + ycoslQ@,Y)l}
' (3.24)
Ir(r, y) = Io(x,/) {1 + y cosfQ(x,
y) + ?"1}, (3.2s)
where y= 0.83yofor integration over a lz phase shift. For theseintensity
measurementsthe phaseis

Q@,y)=tan-'(offi), (3.26)

and the detectedintensitymodulationis

y(x, y) =
2Io
(3.27)
For a phaseshift other than |n or ], the phasecan be calculatedusing

ll - cos(a) Ir(x,y)/ - 'I'(x,y)

5\'-"/ \
@,y):tan-t(- l, (3.28)
f sin() 2lr(x,y) - Ir(x,y) - It(x,y)/'

where phase shifts of - d, 0, and are assumed'There are many more

permutationsof theseequations,but the foregoingare the most commonly
used.
v,$31 PHASE-MEASUREMENT ALGORITHMS

3.6. CARR TECHNIQUE

In the previousequationsthe phaseshift is known eitherby calibratingthe

phaseshifteror by measuringthe amountof phaseshift eachtime it is moved.
Cenn [1966]presenteda techniqueof phasemeasurement that is independent
of the amountof phaseshift. It assumesthat the phaseis shiftedby between
consecutiveintensitymeasurements to yield four equations

I ,(x, y) : Io(x,/) { I + y cos[@(x,y) - 2u]) , (3.2e)

Ir.(x,y) : Io(x,/) { 1 + y cos[@(x,y) - Lal] , (3.30)
Ir(x, v) = Io(x,v) { 1 + r cos[@(x,v) + al] , (3.3
1)
Io(x,y) : Io@,y) { 1 + 7 coslQ@,y) + trol} , (3.32)
wherethe phaseshift is assumedto be linear.From theseequationsthe phase
shift can be calculatedusing

' =
tan*r(.t. r') l' ' (3'33)
- It(x,y)l + flr(x, y) - Io'', y)l
",1 Ir(x,y)
and the phaseat eachpoint is
-
l.Ir(x,y) - It(x, y)l + lI r(x, y) Io(x,y)l
tanQ(x,y) : t anllo(*, y)l -
llr(x, y) + It(x, y)l lI r(x, y) + Io(x,y)l
(3.34)
To calculate the phase modulo z, the preceding two equations are combined
to vield

LaE: (3.3
s)
(Ir+Ir)-(Ir+Io)

For this techniquethe intensitymodulationis

I (Ir- L) + (1r - I)l' + [(Ir+ Ir) - (1, + I)]2

, .,f
(3.36)
-to

wherethis equationassumesthat a is nearln.If the phaseshift is offby + l0',

the estimationof ywill be offby !10%. An obvious advantageof the Carr
techniqueis that this phaseshift doesnot needto be calibrated.It alsohasthe
advantageof working when a linear phaseshift is introducedin a converging
or divergingbeam wherethe amount of phase shift varies acrossthe beam.
 PMI TECHNIQUES tv,$3

Equation (3.35) will calculate the phase modulo 2n at each point in the
interferogramwithout worrying about errors resulting from phasecalibration
differenceacrossthe beam.

3.7. REMOVAL OF PHASE AMBIGUITIES

Becauseofthe natureof arctangentcalculations,the equationspresentedfor

phasecalculationare sufficientfor only a modulo calculation.To determine
the phasemodulo 2n, the ss of quantitiesproportionalto sin@and cos@
must be examined.For eq. (3.9) and for all techniquesbut Carr's, the
numeratorand denominatorgivethe desiredquantities.Table 1 showshow the
phaseis determinedby examiningthe signsof thesequantitiesafter the phase
is calculatedmodulojz usingabsolutevaluesin the numeratorand denomina-
tor to yield a modulo 2 calculation.
For the Carrtechnique,simplylooking at numeratorsand denominatorsis
not sufficient to determine phase modulo 2z (CnenrH [1985]). In this
techniquethe sips of quantities proportional to sin{ and cos@ must be
examinedwhen using Table 1. One such set of quantitiesis
(Ir - L) : l2IoT sinl sin@. (3.37)
(Ir+ Ir) - (It + I): f2loycossin2alcosp. (3.38)
Figure5 shows the result of a modulo 2n phase calculation with phase
ambiguitiesthat must be removed.Oncethe phasehas beendeterminedto be
modulo 2n, the measuredwavefront can no\il be reconstructedusing an
integrationtechniquethat sums up the phasesto removejumps between

iLtt:il"."
Determination modulo
2r.

Numerator Denominator Adjusted phase Range of phase values

[sin@] [cos @]

poslve positive a o-"

positive negative n-Q n-n
negative negative n+q n-trn
1- i-
negative positive 2n- 2'L-L 'L
0 anything
positive 0 !- !-
2t. 2'"
negative 0 2'. 2'.
v,$31 PHASE-MEASUREMENT ALGORITHMS JO/

t?4 248 37?

Dlstnc6 (11icons)

,;t.;. t?4 248

tl Distnc6 (l'll

Fig.5. (A)The results of a modulo 2z calculation and (B) the same data after'22 phase
ambiguitieshave beenremoved.

adjacentpixelsof greaterthan . The phaseambiguitiesdue to the modulo 2n

calculation can be removed by comparing the phase differencebetween
adjacentpixels.When the phasedifferencebetweenadjacentpixelsis greater
than z, a multipleof 2n is addedor subtractedto makethe differencelessthan
z. For the reliableremoval of discontinuitiesthe phasemust not changeby
more than n (|)" in optical path) betweenadjacentpixels.As long as the data
are sampledas describedin the samplingrequirements,the wavefrontcan be
reconstructed.

3.8. FROM WAVEFRONT TO SURFACE

Now that the phase of the wavefront is known, the surface shape can be
determined from the phase. The surface height at the location (x, y) is

H(x- v\ : Q@'Y)I (3.3e)

2 n ( c o s 0+ c o s g ' ) '
368 PMI TECHNIQUES [v,$4

TEST SURFACE

Fig. 6. Definition of the illumination and viewing anglesof a surface.

where l. is the wavelength of illumination, and 0 and 0' ate the angles of
illumination and viewing with respectto the surfacenormal (fig.6). For a
Twyman-Green interferometerthis equationis simply

=
H(x,y) (3.40)
fiOfr,tl.
This techniqueyields a direct measurementof the test surfacerelativeto the
referencesurface.A more accuratemeasurementOf the test surfacecan be
madeby measuringthe errorsdue to the interferometerand subtractingthem
from the results(as shownin S 7). The subtractioneliminateserrorscausedby
aberationsin the interferometeror from irregularitiesin the referencesurface.

$ 4. MeasurementExample

Thereareseveraldifferentequationsfor calculatingthe phaseof a wavefront

from interferencefringe intensity measurements.Even though all equations
should yield the sameresult, some algorithmsafe more sensitiveto certain
systemerrorsthan others(Cneers [1986a]).An exampleillustratingdifferent
resultsfrom four differentalgorithmsis shownin this section.A more detailed
comparisonof thesealgorithmsis givenin the sectionon simulationresults.The
data for this exampleweretakenusingan optical profilerwith a flat mirror as
the test sample.The mirror was tilted to havetwo fringesacrossthe diagonal
of thefield of view.Resultsareshownfor both a calibratedand an uncalibrated
systemto illustrate the inherent variations betweendifferent algorithms.A
detectorwith noticeablenonlinearitywas chosen.Figure7 showsthe intensity
data taken'usinga Reticon 256 x 256 detectorarraywith relativephaseshifts
of 90' betweenconsecutivedataframes.Five frmesareshownwherethe first
and the last framesshouldhavea 360" phaseshift betweenthem.This shows
 .

z

c
FRAME FRAMEB FRAME ll

z-l
ll
X

3
r
E

FRAME FRAME
Fig.7. Five framesof fringe intensitydata with 90' phaseshifts betweenadjacentframes.For
a calibratedsystemthe first and fifth frameswill overlap.Page369: grayJevelplots; page370:
contour plots.
 {

t24 249 972 1r )a a2) lr ,e 1t) 496

Dlstno (l,llcons) Dlstanc (Hicrons) Dlstnc (Micons)

FRAMEA FRAME B FRAME C 3

:l
E

z
c
l

l?4 249 372 L?4 248 37e

Dlstnc6 (lllcros) Dlstance (l'llcons)

F R A M ED F R A M EE

Fig.7. (cont'd).
"s

 t24 248 372
Distnco (llicrons)

(A) 3-Buckets R M S = 1 . 2 1n m

124 4A 372
Distoc6 (Mic.ons)

(B) 4'Buckets RMS= 1.17nm

t24 248 372

D i s t a c ( M l c r o n s )
'1.22
(C)Avg.3&3 R M S= nm

t?4 248 372

Distnce (Micons)

(D) Carr FMS=1.22nm

Fig. 8. Results of catculating phase using four different algorithms with the same fringe intensity
daia containing two fringes across a flat mirror. The interferometer is calibrated for 90' ofphase
shift between data frames. All plots in figs.8,9,and 12 are on the same height scale.
 (A) 3-Buckets

'%^
%4li

M,.

t24 244 372

Dlstnc (flicrons)

(B) 4.Buckets R I M S= 2 . 7 7 n m

r24 24A 372

Distanca (llicons)

{C) Avq.3&3 R I M S =1 . 4 1n m

t24 248 3??

Dlstance (lllcos)

{D) Carr R lVlS= i .38 nm

Fig. 9. Resultsof calculatingphaseusingfour differentalgorithmswith the samefringeintnsity

data containingtwo fringesacrossa flat mirror. The interferometeris miscalibratedfor 82' of
phaseshift betweendata frames.
v,$sl ERROR ANALYSIS

that the phaseshifteris indeedcalibrated,sinceframeA and frame E overlap

very well. The spikesin the intensitydata are due to eitherbad pixels in the
array or dust and defectson the sample.The resultsof calculatingthe phase
using four different equationswith the samefour sets of intensity data are
shownin fig. 8. Similarcalculationsfor a miscalibrationof the phaseshifterare
shownin fig. 9 after new data weretaken at the samelocation on the surface
with a relativephase shift of 82". Someof the resultsfor the miscalibrated
phaseshifter show an error with a sinusoidaldependence, whereasother do
not. When the phaseshifteris calibrated(fig.8), much of the sinusoidalerror
goesaway,but thereis still somewavinessnoticeablein the calculatedphases.
The behaviorof theseerrors will be examinedin the next section.

$ 5. Error Analysis

Theprecisionof a phase-measuring interferometersystemcanbe determined

by takingtwo measurements, subtractingthem, and lookg at the root-mean-
squareof the differencewavefront. For a well-calibratedsystemthis result
shouldbe lessthan #,I. However,this method doesnot tell us much about
the actual accuracyof the measurement.Accuracy is normally determined
relativeto some standard.The measurementaccuracywill be degradedby
systemerrorssuchas miscalibrationof the phaseshifter,nonlinearitiesdue to
the detector, quantization of the detector signal, the reference surface,
aberrationsin the optics of the interferometer,air turbulence,and vibrations.
Air turbulenceand vibrations are dynamicvariablesthat contribute to both the
systemmeasurement precisionand the accuracy.By placingthe interferometer
on a vibration-isolatedtable, enclosingthe beampaths,and taking data fast,
theeffectsof vibrationand air turbulencecanbe minlni7sd.In orderto achieve
a r*I1 measurement, the detectorsal shouldbe digitizedto at least 8 bits,
and the interferometerintensity shouldbe adjustedto cover the full rangeof
the detector. Errors causedby miscalibrationof the phase shifter can be
eliminatedby carefulcalibrationof the system.Errors causedby an inaccurate
referencesurfaceor aberrationsin the interferometeropticscan be subtracted
out by the methodsoutlinedin $ 7. However,someerrorssuchas a nonlinear
phaseshifter or a nonlinear detectorw limit the ultimate accuracyof the
measurement.These elrors are discussedin more detail in the following
section.The choiceof phase-measurement algorithmcan reduceone error at
the expense of others. A simulation comparing the behavior of different
algorithmsfor phase-shifterand detector errors is shown in $ 6.
3'14 PMI TECHNIQUES tv,$5

5.I. PHASE.SHIFTER ERRORS

Phaseerrorscausedby inaccuratephase-shifter calibrationcanbeminimized

by adjustingthe interferometerfor a singlefringe.However,with largeamounts
of aberrationpresent,it may not be possibleto obtain a singlefringe. If a
constantcalibrationerror is present,the phaseshift may be written as
a'=a(l+e), (s.1)
where is the desiredphaseshift, d' is the actual phaseshift, and e is the
normalizederror.For phasesteppingit hasbeenshownthat the errorsin phase
resulting from a calibration error or nonlinearity in the phase shifter will
decreaseas the number of measurementsincreases(ScnwnER, BuRow,
ELSSNER, GRzeNNe,Spoleczyx and Mrmnr [ 1983]).The sameshouldbe
true for integrating-bucket
techniques.For a consistentphase-shifterror, such
as a miscalibration,a periodicerror is seenin the calculatedphase,which has
a spatialfrequencyof twicethe fringespacing(seefig. 9). Nonlinearphase-shift
enors arenot as easyto dealwith or detect.A quadraticnonlinearphase-shift
error can be written as
a'=a(l +e). (s.2)
In normal operationa nonlinearphaseshifterwill be partially compensatedin
the calibrationof the interferometerby adding a linear bias to its movement.
Themost straightforwardapproachto calibrationis to makesurethat the phase
shifter actuallymoves2n over a 2z desiredchangein phase.This error term
can be realizedby addinga normalizedlinear compensationterm of an equal
and oppositeamplitudeto eq.(5.2). The phaseshift is then replacedwith
a':a(I +e-e). (s.3)
This function minimizesthe error causedby nonlinearphase-shiftermotion.
Nonlinear phase-shiftererrorscan be reducedby applg srtein algorithms
such as the Carr technique and the averaging-three-and-three technique
describedlater; however,they cannot be eliminated.

5.2. PHASE-SHIFTER CALIBRATION

The valueof thephaseshift canbe determinedin a numberof ways.A good

indicationof canbe obtaineby takingfour framesof intensitydata and using
eq.(3.33)to calculatethe phaseshift at eachdetectorpoint. The phase-shift
v,$sl ERROR ANALYSIS 3',15

20,000

at)

'
o.
(E
10,000
o
o

z

800 90" 10 0 '

Phase shift (degrees)

Fig. 10. Histogram showing the distribution ofphase shrtts tor a well-calibrated phase shifter.
The distribution should be a narrow Gaussian centered around the desired phase shift.

controllershouldbe adjustedso that the averagephaseshift is at the desired

valueand the spreadin calculatedphaseshiftsis small(seefig. 10).A simpler
equationcanbe usedwhenfiveintensitymeasurements aretakenwith the same
phase shift between them (ScnwEIDER, BuRow, EtssNnR, GRzaNNe,
Sporeczvr and Mrnrnl [1983],CseNc and WYANr [1985a]).The phase
shift is then calculatedfrom

a(x,y)=
"or-'[
v) I t ( ! , l
(I'(*,
\r1",v) L(x , y) l (s.4)

Another techniqueto determinephaseshift involvesextractinglinear slices

across a set of fringes for each of the phase shifts. These slices are then
differentiatedand the fringe peaks and valleys are found by interpolation to
determinethe amount of phase shift. A more visual meansof adjustingthe
phaseshiftis to plot theselinearsectionsof fringesfor ll + 1 intensitymeasure-
mentswith shiftsin incrementsof 2nlN. The (l/ + l)th measurementshould
overlapthe first measurement(seefig. 11).
Alternatively,the actualphaseshift can be determinedover the shifter'srange
by observinga referencesignalthat indicatesthe phasedifferencebetweenthe
two interferometerbeams.The referencesal can be generatedby splitting
off someof the light from the referencearm of the interferometerand directing
it into a smallinterferometerand separatedetector(Hevrs [1984]). When a
J/O PMI TECHNIQUES lv,$5

.=
3t
c
o
.g
0)
)
'i
lr
1t2 1 312
Dstancein fringes
Fig. ll. Calibrationofthe phaseshifter by overlappinglinear traces ofthe interferencefringes
for the first and (lf + l)th data frames.

computercontrolsthe phaseshifter,the drivingvoltagefor the deviceis usually

stored as an uray,which is read out each time the shifter is employed.A
sinusoidalintensitymodulationcanbe obtainedby linearlychangingthe phase
of the referencebeam.However,the sigral that providesa linear phaseshift
will not necessarilybe linear becauseof shifternonlinearities.The sal that
providesa linear phaseshift can be determinedby using a referencedetector
(Hnvns [1984]) and measuringthe actual phase shift obtained, and then
calculatingthe proer shiftermotion, or by doing a least-squares fit (Ar and
Wvexr [1987]).
If a phase-steppingtechniqueis beingused,the actual phase shift can be
determinedby the computerand referencedetectoreachtime the phaseshift
is changed.With this information each phase step can be correctedto use
algorithmsrequiringequalphaseshifts,or the actualphaseshift for eachdata
frame can be pluggedinto the least-squares calculationof eq. (3.6).

s.3. AVERAGTNG-THREE-AND-THREE TECHNTQUE

Scttwlorn, BuRow, ELSsNER,GnzeNNa, Sporaczyr and Mnrnr

[1983] proposed a techniqueof reducing errors that averagestwo phase
measurements takenwith a relativephaseshift of jn betweenthe two measure-
ments.One realizlionof this techniqueinvolvestakingfour measurements as
in the four-buckettechnique,calculatingthe phasesingeQ.(3.21)for the first
threebuckets,and averngingthis with the phasecalculatedusingeq. (3.21)with
the lastthreeof the four buckets.This procedurecan be expressedmathemati-
v,s5l ERROR ANALYSIS 37'l

124 249 37? t24 244 37?

Dlstance (l'llcons) Dlstanco (l'licrons)

(A) First 3 Buckets (B) Last 3 Buckets

t24 24A 372 496

I]lstnco (Hlcrons)

(C) Average of (A) and (B)

Fig. 12. Exampleshowingthe improvementrelizedby averagingthe phasecalculatedusingthe

rst three offour bucketswith the phasecalculatedusing the last three offour buckets.

cally as

_ , ( Io@,y) - Ir(x, y)
r
- L t*-'l
Q@,y)=l
, (Ir(*,y)-1r(r,y)\
----------- -
\It(x,y)-Ir(x,y)/
+ tan (; 'r(x,y) -
It(x, t),) l
(s.
( ;.5)

This tevchniquehasthe advantageof beingsimpleto calculateand yet has the

abilityto averageout errors.Figure 12showssampledatawherethe phasefrom
thefirst threebucketsis shownto havesinusoidalerrorscausedby a phase-shift
miscalibrationthat is directly out of phasewith the phasecalculatedfrom the
last threebuckets.When the phasesfrom the first threeand last threebuckets
are averaged,the sinusoidalerror term is significantlyreduced.
3'78 PMI TECHNIQUES lv,$5

5.4. DETECTOR NONLINEARITIES

A nonlinearresponsefrom a detectorcan introducephaseetrors,which are

especiallynoticeableifthey ae not consistentfrom detectorto detectorin an
aqay. Many CCD-typedetectorarraysreadout the odd and evenrows through
differentshift registers.If the gainsin the two setsof registersarenot equaland
nonlinear,bothersomeerrors arisethat must be removed.
Vy'hena detector has a second-ordernonlinear response,the measured
optical irradianceI' anbe written in terms of the incident optical irradiance
1as

I'=I+t12, (5.6)

wheree is the nonlinearcoefficient.Expandingthe detectedirradianceof the

fringe pattern,the interferenceequation(3.1) becomes
I ' = I o l + y c o s ( @ + ) + e l l l l + 2 y c o s ( @ +a ) + y ' c o s 2 ( f + d ) ] ,
(s.7)
I' : IoII + elol +1o[1 + 2o]ycos(Q+ )+ elfyzcos2(+ )1,
(s.8)
I' = I'o+ Ifi ycos(rp+ ) + |elloyj2{1+ cos[2(@+ d)]] , (5.e)
where indicatesthe phaseshift for a particular exposure.The nonlinearity
in eq.(5.9) will causephase errors. When eq.(5.9) is substitutedinto the
four-bucketcalculationof eq. (3.16),the2Q dependenttermswill cancelin the
numeratorand denominator.Once the third terms cancel,the coefficientsof
theothertermsin eq.(5.9)only reducethemeasuredfringemodulationand will
not affectthe measurement.If, however,eq. (5.9) were substitutedinto the
three-bucketcalculationof eq. (3.21),the nonlineaitiesadd and causelarge

TABLE2
dueto detection
Harmonics nonlinearities.

Number of Harmonic order

buckets
1l

2 - 4 5 - ' 1 8 - 1 0 il
3 - 5 - 1 - 9 - 11
4 - 6 - - 9 1l
v,s6l SIMULATION RESULTS

phaseerrors.Thus,whena second-ordernonlinearityis presentin the detected

irradiance,a minimumof four measurements is necessaryto obtain an accurate
phasecalculation.For higher-ordernonlinearities,SrEtsoN and Bnonnsrv
t1985] have determined which orders of detection errors will affect the
measurement for smallnumbersof phasesteps.The dashesin Table 2 indicate
which detectionnonlinearityorders do not contributeto phaseerrors in the
variousalgorithms.In most casesthe largestdistortionsaffectingthe measure-
ment are probably due to third-order harmonics,
I'=I+,13, (s.l0)
so that five steps should be enough to reduce most effects of detector
nonlinearities.

$ 6. SimulationResults

The experimentalresults shown ealier indicate that the results of PMI

calculationsdepend on the algorithm used. The most desirablealgorithm
dependson the particularPMI system.In general,the moreintensitymeasure-
ments,the lesserror therewill be in the calculatedphasevalues.This section
endeavorsto find the best algorithmusingthe fewestnumberof measurements
for systemsthat are susceptibleto phase-shifterand detector errors. The
techniquescomparedin thesesimulationsare: (1)three-buckettechniqueof
eq.(3.21);(2)four-buckettechniqueof eq.(3.16);(3)Carr techniqueof
eq.(3.35);(4) averaging-three-and-three techniqueofeq. (5.5); and (5) a five-
buckettechniqueusing the synchronous detectionoutlinedin eq.(3.11).
The simulatederror terms are plotted ii fig. 13 for particularvaluesof in
eqs.(5.1),(5.3),(5.6)and (5.10).Becausethe errorsin the phasecalculations
afe not symmetrical,both positiveand negativeelrors are shown.The actual
phaseshifts with errors are plotted versusthe desireddegreesof phaseshift.
Note that the linearcompensationerror for the nonlinearerror shiftsthe actual
phaseby 360' when 360" is desired,but intermediatevaluesarewrong.In the
integratingbuckettechniquesthephaseshiftis continuouslymovedalongthese
values,but for phase-steppingtechniquestherearediscretevaluesat the desired
phaseshifts. The detectionnonlinearitiesshow plots of the detectoroutput
signal versus the incident intensity, assuminga perfect detector behaves
linearly.
The simulationsare performedby starting with a known phasefunction,
which varies from 0" to 360' over 1000 data points. The fringe intensity

(A) (B)
LINEARPHASESHIFTSIMULATION NONLINEAR PHASE SHIFT SIMULATION

360 360

270
tti 270
ti,i' -r
1+
Actual i/;' Actual
Degreesteo a Degrees teo
shitt shift
on
I 90

o 0
0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270 360
DesiredDegreesShift DesiredDegreesShift

-t
(c) (D)
E
o
z
2ND.ORDER
DETECTION
NONLINEARITY DETECTION
3RD-ORDER NONLINEARITY c

1.00
l)'j
0.75
Detected n
Signal
0.25

0.001
!.
0.00 0.2s 0.50 0.75 1.00
lncdent Intensty

Fig. 13. Plots oferror functionsusedin the computer-calculated

error simulations.
v,$61 SIMULATION RESULTS 381

measurementsfor the different techniques are then calculated using the

appropriateequationsby both the integrating-bucket techniqueand the phase-
steppingtechniquewith an equivalentfringemodulation.If a phase-shifterror
is present,it is appliedwhen the fringe intensitiesare calculated.Detection
errorsare addedafter the intensitieshavebeencalculated.Oncethe intensity
data are fabricated,the phaseis calculatedfrom thesedata. The error in the
calculationis the differencebetweenthe calculatedphasesand the original
phasefunction. Thesesimulationsare performedfor the five phase-measure-
ment algorithmsat 2l differenterror valuesrangng from - 20/' to +20%.
Phase-shifterrorsin waves(numberof wavelengths)areshownin fig' 14for

_1Z CFLIBRFTION ERROR

(A ) PZl

.?4

9 .t2
=
.
U
o
n-.12

-.24
. . 2 . 4 . 6 . 8 I .
[ } i s t a n c ei n F r i n g e s

-lz 2 N D - o R D E RP z r NoNLrN. N/rz L I NEFR

(B)

.24

o
.t?
=
.
U

- .12
L

-.24
. .? .4 .6 .8
D i s t a n cien F r i n g e s

- l0l" linearerrorand(B)- 10l"

Fig. 14. Resultsforsimulationofphase-shiftererrorswith(A)
second-ordererror, compensatedby + l0/" linear error.
 PMI TECHNIQUES lv,$6

a simulated wavefront containing one fringe of tilt in optical path diference

acrossthe wavefront.All five techniquesshow a quasi-sinusoidaldependence
in the error terms for both miscalibrationand a nonlinearphaseshifter.The
frequencyof the sinusoid is twice that of the input fringe intens data.
Figure 15 shows the calculatedpeak-to-valley(P-V) phase-shiftererrors in
wavesplotted versuspercentsimulatederror. The Carr techniqueshowsno
errorsfor the linear phase-shifterror becauseit is tailoredfor this situation.A
miscalibrationerror can be reducedsubstantiallyby the averarrng-three-and-
threetechnique(seefrg. I2). With nonlinearphase-shiftereffors present,the

(A)
LINEAR PZT CALIBRATIONERROR
0.10

0.08
(|al
0.06
P'h;;
Error ^ ^^
(Waves)"'"-
0.02

0.00
-10 0 10
SimulatedError(T)

(B)
NONLINEARPZT CALIBRATIONERROR
(WITH LINEARCOMPENSATION)
0.10

0.08
lal
ffii" o'oq
Error ^ ^
(Waves)"'"'
0.02

0.00
1 0 0 1 0
Error(/")
Simufated

Fig. 15. Simulation results of phase-shifter errors for all frve algorithms with error rmornts
engingfrom - 20% to + 20%.
v,$61 SIMULATION RESULTS

Carr equationsreducethe error to give a slightly better result than averagrng-

three-and-tbee;however,they do not completelyelininate it. For all phase-
shifter errors the three-bucketand four-buckettechniquesshowthe most error.
Eventhoughthesetechniquesyield the largesterror, the magnitudeof that error
is lessthan fi of a wave for a l0/, error in the phaseshift. The errors from
the detection nonlinearities ae shown versu$ one fringe in optical path in
fig. 16. Theseresults show a more complicatedfrequencystructurethan the
phase-shifterrors.Thefrequencyof theerrorsis four timesthefringefrequency.
Figure17showsplots of the second-andthird-orderdetectionnonlinearen'ors

-1z ?ND-oRDER DETEcrroN NoNLTNERRTTy

(A)
.?4
q

9 .t2
=
.
U

-?l O,l7

-.24
. .? .4 .6 .8
I l i s t a n c ei n F r i n q e s

-tz 3RD-oRDERDErEcrroN NoNLrNEFRrry

(B)

.?4

o
.t?
=
.
LJ

.t?
L

.?4
. .? .4 .5 .8
D i s t a n cien F r i n g e s

Fig. 16. Resultsfor simulationof detectionerrors with (A) -10% second-ordererror and (B)
- l0/" third-order error.
384 PMI TECHNIQUES lv,s6

(A)
DETECTION
NONLINEAR
2ND-ORDER
ERROR
0.10

0.08
Calc.
Phase o'06
Error o.o4
(Waves)

10
Simulated Error(

(B)
DETECTION
NONLINEAR
3RD-ORDER
ERROR
0.10

0.08
Calc.
Phase o'06
Error o.o4
(Waves)
0.02

0.00
10 0 10
SimulatedError(/o)

Fig. 17. Simulationresultsof nonlineardetectionerorsfor allve algorithmswith error amounts

rangingfrom -20/" to +20/..

versusthe percentageof simulatederror. Note that thesehavebeenplotted on

the samescaleas the phase-shiftelrors. As shown in the last section,the
four-bucket and five-buckettechniquesare insensitiveto second-orderde-
tectionnonlinearities,andthefive-buckettechne is insensitiveto third-order
nonlinearities,whereasthe four-bucket technique shows very little sensitivity
to the third-order nonlinearity. The three-buckettechnique again shows the
greatestsensitivityto the simulatederrors. For both secondand third orders
the averagrng-three-and-three techniqueand the Carr techniquehave similar
v,$71 REMOVING SYSTEM ABERRATIONS

amounts of error, which ae a factor of two better than the three-bucket

technique,but not nearly as good as the four- and five-buckettechniques.
Lookingback at the experimentalresultsin $ 4 (figs.8 and 9), which had two
fringes of tilt in the field view, it is obvious that the Car technique behaves
the bestfor a miscalibrationand that the three-and four-buckettechniquesare
the worst. Whenthe systemphaseshifteris calibrated,therestill is a waviness
in the results most likely causedby a detectionnonlinearity.Becausethe
four-bucketresultsare best, most of the error is probablydue to a detection
nonlinearity.
This simulationstudyhas shownthat certainphase-measurement algorithms
yield betterresultsin the presenceof somesystemerrorsthan others.It also
showsthat the P-V pagnitude of theseerrorsis well within fr of a wave even
with a 20/o enor. In general,.theintegrating-bucketmethodsgive the same
resultsas the phase-stepping methodsexceptin the caseof nonlinearphase-
shift errors, where the integrating-bhcket method is superior. The Carr
algorithm is the best to use for phase-shiftingelrors, and the four- and five-
buckettechniquesarebestfor eliminatingeffectsdueto second-and third-order
detectionnonlinearities.Ifspeed ofcalculationis afactor, the averagrng-three-
and-threetechnique, which averageserrors, can give passableresults in all
cases.This study alsofound that the more bucketsused,the lesserror due to
the systemis seenin the result.

$ 7. RemovingSystemAberrations

Errors that reducethe measurementaccuracycan be causedby reference

surfaceerrors or aberrationspresentin the interferometer.The elinination of
theseerrorsdependson the type of measurement beingperformed.In all cases
a measurementof systemelrors can be madeusing a very good mirror as the
test object.When the test mirror is of betterquality than the optics contained
in the interferometer.the wavefrontmeasuredfrom this surfacewill represent
the aberrationsin the interferometer.This aberratedwavefront can then be
subtractedfrom subsequent measurements usingthe testobjects.The reference
wavefrontmust be measuredagain wheneverthe focus, tilt, or zoom of an
interferometeris changed, becausethese factors chnge the amount of
aberration.
Ifrandom high-frequencyerrorsarepresent,and a very good surfaceis not
available,a moreinvolvedtechniqueis needed,for whichmanyphasemeasure-
mentsof the flat mustbe averaged(WveNr [ 1985]).In betweenmeasurements
386 PMI TECHNIQUES lv,$7

the test surfaceis moved by a distancegreaterthan the correlationlength of

irregularitieson the surface.This ensuresstatisticallyindependentmeasure-
ments. With the averagingof statisticallyindependentportions of the test
surface,the test surfaceerrors are reducedby the squareroot ofthe number
of measurements. The errorsin the interferometerare then the major contri-
butorsto the averagedwavefront.Oncethe referencewavefrontis obtained,it
is subtractedfrom subsequent teststo improveaccuracy.If only theroot-mean-
square(rms) of the test surfaceis desired,two measurementsare needed
(WveNr [1985]). First, the surfaceis measured,and then the test surfaceis
moveda distancegreaterthan the correlationlengthand measuredagain.The
rms of the differencein the phasesfor the two measurements yields/2 times
the rms of the test surfaceindependentof any errorsin the referencesurface.
The precedingtechniqueworks well for surfaceroughnessmeasurement, but
when surfacefigureis measured,a differentapproachis necessary.Absolute
calibrationof any curvedsurfacecan bd performedusingthreemeasurements
(JENSEN 19731,BRUNINc[ 1978]).The test surfaceis first measuredto yield
the wavefront phaseWo", then rotated 180' and measuredagain to obtain
Wrro". A third measurement lVo"u,istakenby translatingthe test surfaceuntil
the apexofthe test surfaceis at the focal point ofthe diverger(or converger)
lens.The three measurements can be summedup as follows:
Wo" = W"ur * Wr" r Wiu, (7.1)
Wr"o" =W"ur* Wr"r+ W6iu, (7.2)
Wro"u" = Wr.r + L(llur" * froru) , (7.3)
where "surf" indicatesthe surfacewe are trying to measure,"ref' refers to
errorsdue to systemaberrationsin the referencearm, "div" refersto errorsin
the test arm and the divergerlens,and the overscoresindicatea 180' rotation
ofthat wavefrontcontribution.Whenall threewavefrontshavebeencalculated.
the wavefront resulting from the surfaceunder test is given by
w"u,r=llwo" +Wr*o. - wro.o"-Wro"u,). (7.4)
Likewise, the aberrationsin the interferometerincluding the referencesurface
and the divergerlens can be calculatedusing
-Trro" * Wro"o"+Wro"u").
Wrb.r= Wr"r+ Woru=(Wo" (7.5)
Once the systemaberrationsare measured,this wavefront (W^o") can be
subtractedfrom subsequent measurements to provide an accuratemeasureof
the test surfaceas long as the referencesurface,divergingoptics,and imaging
v,$71 REMOVING SYSTEM ABERRATIONS

optics are not moved. Flats can also be measuredabsolutelyby comparing

threesurfaces(Scuurz and Scnwroen [1976],FRlrz [1984]).
An exampleusing eq. (7.5) to create a referenceto subtract from test
measurements is shownin fig. 18. Figure 184 showsa measurementtaken

-.94 -.47 , .17 .e5

( A ) R M S :0 . 0 4 6 P - V :0 . 2 4 8

-,s4 -.42 , -4? .94

(B) RMS:0.038 P'Y:0.252

-o.94 -.47 , ,47 ,91

(C) RMS0
: . 0 1 8 P ' V :0 . 1 4 1

Fig. 18. PMI resultsof measuring(A) a sphericalrrirror using a 20 x microscopeobjectiveas

the divergerlens, (B) the referencewavefrontcreatedusing the techniqueofeq. (7.5), and (C)
the measurement of the mirror minusthe referencewavefront,whichyieldsan absolutemeasure-
ment of the sohericalmiror.
 PMI TECHNIQUES [ v ; $8

using,a Twrman-Greeninterferometerwith a PZT pushing the reference

mirror as the phase shifter. Tilt and focus have been subtractedfrom all the
wavefrontsin the figure.A standard20 x microscopeobjectivewas used to
generatea sphericalwave to test an Fl2 mtrro4 which was good to -1.1over
the F/8 measurementarea. Becausethe microscopeobjectivewas used at
incorrectconjugates,a lot of sphericalaberrationin the measurementlimited
the accuracyof the measurement. A referencewavefrontwas generatedusing
the techniqueof eq. (7.5)to producea wavefrontcontainingthe aberrationsin
the interferometerand the microscopeobjective(fig. 188).\Whenthis reference
is subtractedfrom the measurement of fig. 184, the result(fig. l8C) is indepen-
dent of the interferometeraccuracy.The results show a mirror with an rms
surfacequality of -1,2,.Under normal circumstancesbetter divergingoptics
would',beused to test a sphericalmirror; ho,wevgr,the best results will be
obtainedwhen a referencewavefrontcontaininginterferometereffors is sub-
tractedfromthetestwavefront..,'.','',.,....]',

$.;8.Applicationsof ,Phase-Measurement
Interferometry

Phase-measurement interferometry(PMI) can be appliedto any two-beam

intederometer,including holographic interferomeiers.Applications can be
divided into three major types of measurement:surface figure, surface
rougess, and metrology.The measurement of;sutfacefrg.ur9finds$e sh4pe
of ar,testsurface(usually an optical surface).relativeto a referencemirror.
$urfaceroughnessmeasurementsl are interestedin the surfacemicrostructure
and i!! statisticsrather than the shapeof the piece'Metrologyis,usedto find
out propertiesof a samplesuch as the homogeneityof an optical materialor
the deformatrgn. of a,sudace:i

8.I. SURFACE SHAPE MEASUREMENT

, The traditional measurements in interferomet{yhave beento measurethe

shape of an optical component-such as a,,l.p.s,ormirror. Sud4ce figure
measurementscan also include desensitized'testssuch s sing computer-
generatedholograms,two-wavelegthhologaphy,or two-wavelengthphase-
shifting interferometry to measure surfaceswith large departures from the
referencesurface.The desensitizedtestseitherusea referencesurfacecloseto
the shapeof the test surfacecreatedby a null lens or a computer-generated

1)i
v,$81 APPLICTIONS

hologrem,or they synthesizea longer wavelengthusing interferogramsfrom

different wavelengthmeasurements(two-wavelengthholography and two-
wavelengthphase-shiftinginterferometry)or by projecting fringes onto the
objectsurface(digitalmoir).Surfacefiguremeasurements areusedto testboth
smoothsurfacessuchasopticalflats,spheres,and aspheres, androughsurfaces
of machinedparts with arbitrary shapes.
Recenttechniquesfor measuringsurfacefiguresarethe useofa radial shea
or lateral shear interferometerto measureasphericsurfaces(HenrHeRnu'
Onns andZnou WeNzHI [1984],Ylrecet andKaNou [1983,1984]).Since
the measurementis proportional to the slope of the surfaceunder test, the
sensitivitycan be varied by changingthe amount of shear.Another shearing
interferometerusingPMI techniquesutilizesa Ronchi gfating to producethe
shear(Yera.cAr [1934]). For asphericsurfacesa usefultechniquebasedon
two-wavelengthholography (wveNr, OREBand HARIH.RAN[1984]) for
measuring surface shape is two-wavelengthphase-shiftinginterferometry
(CneNc and Wvelrr [ 1984,1985b],FnncHnn,Hu andVnv [ 1985],CREATH,
cnnNc and wyer [1985],CRrnrn andwyeNr [1986],Cneern [ 1986b]).
In this techniquethe phasesmeasuredat two differentwavelengthsare sub-
tractedandthen 2z ambiguitiesareremoved.This test synthesizes a wavefront
).l"2llAt - )'rl'The
as if it weremeasuredat an equivalentwavelengthA"o=
test sensitiyityis varied by changingwavelengths.
For measurements wherethe interferometersystemis subjectto vibration or
air turbulence,manytechniqueshavebeendevelopedto obtain all the informa-
tion in a very short period of time. One method uses a gfating to code the
information on a single detector anay (McLeUGHLIN [1986]). Another
methodusesa gfatingin a Smartt point-diffractioninterferometerto produce
fbur phase-shiftedinterferogramson four different detectorssimultaneously
(KwoN [1984]). Still other techniquesproduce the phase-shiftedinterfero-
gramsin differentways (Suvrsn and Moons [1984])'
For measurements of very irregularsurfacesPMI has beenappliedto both
holographic interferometry techniques (Wveur, Ones and HRnlnnnnN
[1984],HanrnenRN and ORns [1984],TnaweuN and DNI-IKER[1984,
1985a]),and moirtechniques(Yerecar, IDESewe,Ynprnsru and Suzurl
Ig2l,Wovrecr [1984a,b],Belr andKorropoulos [1984]).In holographlc
techniquesa hologram of the object is illuminated using either a different
wavelengthof illuminationor by changingthe angleof the referencebeam.In
moir techniques,fringes are projected on the object and viewed (with or
without a referencegrating)as the projectedfringesare phaseshiftedusing a
detectorarrav.
390 PMI TECHNIQUES lv,$8

8.2. SURFACE ROUGHNESS MEASUREMENT

To measurethe microstructureof a surface,an interferencemicroscopeis

used to resolve l-pm surfaceareaslaterally with height resolutionsin the
ngstromrange.Theseinstrumentsuse the samephase-measurement tech-
niques as the surface figure measurements.But rather than measuringa
smooth, continuous surface figure, these instruments measureprofiles of
random-lookingsurfaces.optical profilershavebeenusedto test super-smooth
opticalsurfacesaswell asmagnetictape,floppy disks,and magneticread/write
heads.
optical profilersusingPMI techniqueshave beenbasedon differenttypes
of interferencemicroscopes.some havebeenbasedon the Nomarski type of
microscope,which splitsthe illuminationinto two polarizationsand compares
oneto the other,givinga measureof the surfaceslope(soruancner.r [19g1],
Easrvew and ZewslaN [1983], ZevrsreN and EnsrvrnN [19g5], Jenn
[1985]). others utilize objectivesthat compare the surfaceto a reference
surfacewith a Mirau, Michelson,or Linnik interferometricobjective(wvaur,
Korropoulos, BHusneN and Gponcn [1984], BHUSHRN,WyeNr and
Korropoulos [1985], WyeNT, Korropourus, BHUsueN and Bnsrre
[ 1985]). Still otheropticalprofilerslook morelike standardinterferometers
than
microscopes (Merrnnws, HIMTLToNand Snppeno [1986], Sesarr and
Orezeru [1986],PexrzER, Porrrcu and Ex [1986]).

8.3. METROLOGY

The useof PMI techniquesin opticalmetrologyis relativelynew.In addition

to measuringsm profiles(Hevns and LeNc [1983]) and the homogeneity
or indexprofileof an opticalmaterial(Moonn and Ryebr [ 1978,1982]),these
techniquesenablethe measurementof samplepropertiesby determiningthe
deformationof an object causedby temperaturechanges,pressurechanges,
stress,or strain, as well as studyingthe vibration propertiesof mechanical
components.
Holographicinterferometryhas traditionally beenused to measureobject
deformationsand vibrations,but only qualitativeinformation was available.
PMI hasbeenappliedto all typesof holographicinterferometricmeasurement,
from lookingat deformations(Sorrauencnew[ 1977],HARTHaRaN, Onnn and
Bnow [1982,1983a,b],DNorrr<enand Tneuvrer.rN[1985],HenrHeRaN
[1985], Kners [1986]) to measuringthe amplitudeand phaseof an object
 391
vl REFERENCES

vibration (osuroe, Iwere and Nncere [1983], Nereonre [1986b],

HeRrnen.lN and Onne t1986]). Recently,PMI measurements havealsobeen
appliedto speckle interferometry which
techniques, are similar to holographic
interferometry techniquesbut do not require the making of an intermediate
hologram (wllleunr and DNouKER [1983], NeKaDeTn and Serro
ROstNsoNand
[1985],SrersoN andBnosrNSKy[1985],CneeTn[1986c],
Wrlrnus [ 1986], Nereonrn [ 1986a]).

8.4. FUTURE POSSIBILITIES

Future developmentsin phase-measurement interferometrywill most likely

be continuations of these applicationsto more irregular surfaces.Larger
detector arrays will enablethe measurementof steepersurfacesand allow
holographicapplicationswithout the need to produce an intermediateholo-
gram.Likewise,fastercomputersand parallelprocessingwill allow us to view
wavefrontmeasurements in real time'

References

At, C., and J.C. WveNr, 1987,Appl. Opl 26, lll2'

BELL,8.W., and C.L. Kolloroulos, 1984'Opt. Lett. 9' l7l'
BHUSHAN, 8., J.C.Wveur and C.L. Kotloroulos, 1985,Appl' Opl 24' 1489'
BRUNTNG, J.H., 1978,Fringescanninginterferometers,in: optical shop Testing'ed.D. Malacara
(Wiley, New York).
BRUNINc,J.H.,D.R.Hrnmort,J.E.Gelr,crn,D'P'RosENFu-o,A'D'WHlrrandD'J'
BRANGAccIo,1974,Appl. Opt. 13, 2693-
Cnnn,P., 1966,Metrologia2, 13.
CHENG,Y.-Y.,nd J.C.Wvnur, 1984,Appl. Opt.23,4539'
CneNc, Y.-Y.,and J.C.Wvanr, 1985a,Appl. Opt' 24,3049'
CspNc, Y.-Y., and J.C.WveNr, 1985b,Appl. OpT.4,804'
CREATH, K., 1985,Appl. OPt. 4,3053.
CREATH, K., 1986a,Proc.SPIE 680, 19.
CREATH, K., 1986b,Proc.SPIE 6f1,296.
inter-
CREATH,K., 1986c,Direct measurementsof deformationsusing digital speckle-pattern
Proc. SEM SpringConf. on Experimental Mechanics, New Orleans (Societyfor
ferometry,in:
ExperimentalMechanics,Bethel' CT) p. 370.
Cxerrn, K., and J.C.Vy'veNr,1986,Proc. SPIE 645, 101'
CREATH, K., Y.-Y. CnNc and J.C' Wver, 1985,Opt' Acta 32, 1455'
DNDLIKER, R., and R. TueltuettN, 1985'Opt. Eng' 24,824'
EAsTMAN, J.M., and J.M. Znvlsler', 1983,Proc.SPIE 429' 56'
FERcHER, ^.F.,H.2. Hu and U. Vnv, 1985,Appl' Opt' A' 2l8l'
392 PMI TECHNIQUES tV
Fntrz, B.S., 1984,Opt. Bng.23,379.
GnIvNxlr,tp,J.E., 1984,Opt. Eng.23,350.
HnntHennn, P., 1985,Opt. Eng.U,632.
HentueneN, P., and B.F. Ones, 1984,Opt. Commun.,5l,142.
HanlHnneN,P., and B.F. Onrs, 1986,Opt. Commun..59,83.
Hantunne,N,P., B.F. Ons and N. BnowN, 1982,Op1.Commun.41,393.
Hnnrn,lreN, P., B.F. OREBand N. Bnowr.,1983a,Appl. Opt. 22,8'16.
HanrnluN, P., B.F. Ones and N. BnowN, 1983b,Proc. SPIE 370, 189.
HenruauN, P., B.F. Ons and ZHou WANzHr,1984,Opt. Acta 31, 989.
HAYES,J., and S. LeNcr, 1983,Proc.SPIE 429,22.
HAYES,J.8., 1984,LinearMethodsof ComputerControlledOptical Figuring,Ph.D.Dissertation
(Optical SciencesCenter,University of Arizona, Tucson,AZ).
Hu, H.2, 1983,Appl. Opt. 22,2052.
Jnnt, S.lV.',, 1985;,Opt.Lett; 10, 526.
JENSEN, 4.E., 1973,J. Opt. Soc.Am. 63; 1313.
JonNsoN, G.W., D.C. Lnn and D.T. MoonE, 1919,Opl Eng. 18, 46.
KorHIyAL, M.P., and C. Drrrsre, 1985,Appl. Opt. ?A,2288.
Knus, T., 1986,J. Opt. Soc.Am. A 3, 847.
KwoN, O.Y., 1984,Opt. Lett. 9, 59.
M A s s r E , , N . A j , ' 1 9 8 0 ; AO
p p tl . 1 9 ,1 5 4 . i,' : :,:::;.
MlrHEwS,H:J.;,D,K:HAMTLToN and,C.J..R,;Snppnno.,.I986, Appl.,Opt.25,,2372. .r
MlJucHu\, J., 1986,foq, sPIE 6E0,35.
Moonr, D.T., and D.P. RveN, 1978,J. Opt. Soc.Am. 68, 1157.
Moonr, D.T., and D.P.'RveN,1982,Appl. Opt.21, 1042. .: 'i '
Moon;,D.,T,,'and;8.E. Tnuex; 1979;Appl, Opt. lE, 91.
Mo9.4p,D.T., R. MURRAvand F.B. NEvEs,!!7Q, Appl. Opt. 17,3959.
MooR,.R.C.,. and,F.H. Slnvnerun, 1980,Appl. Opt. 19, 2196.
Monc,N, C.J.,1982,Opt. Lett. 7, 368.
Nnxroete;,S,;'1986a,Appl. Opt. 25,4155.
Nexeoerr,.S.,: 1986b,Appl. Opt. 25, 4162.
Nexeonrn, S., AqdH Snrro, 1985,Appl. OpL U,2172.
OsHrDA,Y., K. Iwr, and R. Nec.r.r, 1983,Opt. LasersEng. 4, 67.
PNrzER;D.; J:,PoLrTcHand,L.'Er, 1986;Appl: Opt;25, 4168.
Run;1G.T.,.1986,,Opt. LasersEng.7, 37.
BO.plNSoN, D.W., and D.C. Wllrnvs., 19E6,Opt. Commun.57,26.
SesexI, O., and H. Or2,rrct,1986,Appl. Opt. 25,3137.
ScHuLz, G., and J: Scnwroer, 1976,Interferometrictesting of smooth surfaces,in: Progress
in Optics, Vol. XIII, ed. E. Wolf (North-Holland, Amsterdam)pp.93.
ScHwrDER,J.R.,R. Bunow, K.-E. ErssNEn, J. GnzenNe, R. Spolczyr and K. Mpnrr,
1983,Appl. Opt. 22, 342r.
Su,loerrr, R.N., and J.C. Wyar.rr, i978, Appl. Opt. 17, 3034.
Suvrs, R., and R. Moone, 1984,Opt. Bng.23,361.
SonvnncnrN, G.E., 1975,J. Opt. Soc.Am. 65, 960.
SovrrarncnnN, G.8., l9'l:1,Appl. Opt. 16, 1736.
SoMMnncnEu,G.E., 1981,Appl. Opt. 20, 610.
SrErsoN,K.4., and W.R. BnosrNsKy, 1985;Appl. Opt. 2A,3631.
TAKEDA,M., H. I,aand S. KoBeynsnr, 1982,J. Opt. Soc. Am.72, 156.
TueLueNN, R., and R. DNourn, 1984,Proc. SPIE 492,299.
TuervenN, R., and R. DNDLTKER, 1985a,Opt.Bng.24,930.
Tuelu.r,rlrN, R., and R. DNDLTKER, 1985b,Proc. SPIE 599, 141.
WrLtnrrarru, J.-F., and R. DNDLTKER, 1983,Opt. Lett. 8, 102.
 393
vl REFERENCES

WoMAcK,K.H., 1984a,OPt.Eng.23,391'
Woturcr, K.H., 1984b,Opt. Eng.23,396'
Wverr, J.C., 1975,Appl. Opt. 14' 2622'
Wvenr, J.C.,1982,LaserFocus(May)' p' 65'
WyNr, J.C.,1985,Acta Polytech.Scand'Phys'1fi,241'
J.C., and K. CREATH,1985,Laser Focus (November)'p' 118'
Wv,ort.r,
phase measurementtechniquesin
WvlNr, .C., and R.N. SHAGAM,1978,Use of electronic
ofti"ut testing,in: Optica Hoy y Maana, Proc. llth_Congr. of the InternationalCommission
forOptics,Madrid,l0-lTSeptemberlgTS,edsJ'Bescos'A'Hidalgo'L'PlazaandJ'
Santamaria(SociedadEspaolade Optica, Madrid) p' 659'
402/0'
WvaNr, J.C.,B.F. Onns an P. HenIrennN, 1984,Appl' Opt' 23' -- - -
B. BHUSHIw and O'E' Geonce' 1984' ASLE Trans'27' l0l'
WvaNr, J.C.,C.L. KoLIoPouLos,
WvaNr,J.C.,C.L.KoLIoPouLos,B.BHUSHANandD'Bnsrle'1985'J'Tribology'Trans'ASME
108,l.
Yerecel, T., 1984,APPI.OPt. 23,3676'
Yer,+cet, T., and T. KANou, 1983,Proc' SPIE 429' 136'
YATAcAI,T., and T. KANou, 1984,Opt' F;ng'23,351'
Opt' Eng' 2l' 901'
Yntecer, T., M. IDEsAwe,Y. Y.v'srl and M' SuzurI' 1982'
169'
Znvrslett, .t"t., anJ.M. Eesrlae{, 1985,Proc' SPIE 525'
 AUTHOR INDEX

Ao,rvrs,M.J.,219,222 BAsrLA,D., 390,393

Acnnwr, G.P.,165,168,l'70,1'14,178, 186, Berne, 1.P.,l2'7,158
I 88, I 97,209r t, 2t 4, 2t 5, 22U222,224, BELL,8.W., 389,391
225 Brrr, T.E., 165,222
t ,C . , 3 7 6 , 3 9 1 BNoeeLLes, C., 31, 102
ArELLo,P., ll3, 119,158 Brnan, M.J.,24, 100
ArNsLrE, 8J., 165,222 BRRy,M.V., 256,297,298,302,338,345
AKHMANoV, S.4., 137,157 BERroNr,H.L., 243,254,345
AKse, S., 180,189,192,193,222,224,225 BEsoMr,P., 199,207,224
AKoPYAN, R.S.,119,157 BEsPALov, V.I., 137,158
ALFERNESS, R.C., 196,20'1,216,223,225 BHUSHAN, 8., 358,363,390,391,393
ALLEN,L.8., 197,222 BrcKERs, L.,215,222
ALMETDA, S.P.,148,160 BTLGER, H.R.,81, 102
ANDERsoN, JK.,215,224 Blscnorpsncn, T., 153,158
ANDREWS, L.C.,2'7,99 BrRK,G., 3, 51, 104
ANTHoNY,P.J.,188,207,220,222 BToRKHoLM, J.E., 144,158
ANTREASYAN, A., 200,222 BLAKE,J., 20, 25, 26, 100
APosroLIDIs,4.G., 152,159 BLrNov,L.M., 107,ll0, 158
ARAr,S., 180,193,195,196,225 Bonn, M., 9, 100,139,158,169,222,231,
ARKELTAN, S.M., l14, 116-120,130, 134, 241, 256, 2'.t2,274, 2't7, 345
136,138,146,t54, 156-159 BoswoRrH,R., 196,20'1,225
AREccHr,F.T., 13,99 BowERs,1.8.,213,215,222,223
ARMrrAcE,D., 128,129,134,l5'1 BoYD,G.D., 108,157,215,222
ARNoLD,Y.1.,29'1,298,337,345 BRAcTNSKY, V.8., 71, 100
ASADA,M.,209,222 BRANcAccro,D.J., 351,358,362,391
ASATRYAN, A.A., 246,253,255,345 BREKHoVSKTKH, L.M., 282,345
AsHKrN,4.,108,157 BRENNEcKE, W., 196,207,222
AsPEcr,,{., 55, 59, 6446, 68, 99, 101 BREroN,M.E., 3, 91, 104
Au Y.ur.rc,J., l4'7,158 Bruocrs, T.J.,216,223
BRTNKMEYER, E., 196,207,222
B BRoBERc,8., 189,223
BABrcH,V.M.,284,345 BRoHTNSKY, W.R., 379,391,392
Becs, 4., 63, 104 Bnow, N., 390,392
B A H A D U R , 81. ,1 0 ,1 5 8 BnowN,R.G.W.,84,100
BerLua, H.4., 108,157 BnuNrNc,J.H.,351,358,362,386, 391
BALTES, H.P.,27,101 Busr, L.L.,216,223
Benarr.r, R., 20, 25, 26, 99, 100 BULDYREV, V.S.,284,345
BARBERo, G., ll3, 119,158 BuRcEss,R.E.,46, 100
BARNES, P.^., l'13,224 BURKHARDT, 8.G., 216,223
BARroLrNo, R., ll9, 160 BURNHAM, D.C.,58,68, 100

39s
 396 AUTHOR INDEX

BURNHAM,R.D., 180, 183, 184, 186, 192, Cnerc Jn, R.M., 197,222
204,225 CREATH,K., 351, 35F357,359, 366, 368,
Bunow, R, 374-3'l6, 392 389,391,393
BURRUS,C.A.,1:l6,l'l8, 199,207,215,216, Cnrssrn, I.D., 13,55, 100
220,222-224 ' t, CnoNrN-Go-oMB, M, 147,158 ;
BurLER,J.K., 165,223.-.', Cnow, J.W., 197,222
BuroRrN, D.1.,307,345: Csrrrnc, L120, 12l, 158
Buus, J., 187,l90i 20,9;.222,224 l CuRrrs,P.R.,342,345

c D
Cnrn{or,, K.H., 198,206,224 DcENyS,iM., 3, 13,;55,[00, l0l j i;
CnvpepLl-Jn, J.C.,216,223 l DnLrnenr;iJ.,66,99 j
,1.,::. i
CAl.rron,8.I.,45, 96, 100,104 DT{NDLTKERR.,,389-392, -,: i ",:t
CeenSSo, F., 8l; 8G88,99, 100;104 DnsnnN,R.,301,346 - .9 :
CeusoN, N.W., 196,20'7,223 DATroLr,G., 97,.100 :,
Cnnurcnerl, H.J., l3;ll; 43, 59,100 Devrs,M.H.A.,93;100I g ,
Cnno;:R.G.,147,158 DAwsoN, R.W., 216,223 i , i)
- I
C n n n P, . ,3 5 1 3, 5 83 , 653 , 91' D a y , C . R . 1, 6 5 , 2 2 2 ' !
Cnnnoll, J.8.,83,100 oEGnNNes,P.c., t07r ltol il4, I jo, r5t
C A R R U T H EP R.S, 7, 1 ,1 0 0 DEJEU, W.H., 123,124,133,158
CASEYJR,H.C., 165,168,222 DELTSLE, C.,353,392
'C,vSaC.M.,4, 7l; 86100 . DrLwenr, S.M;; 1.28,129, 134, 157 :1
CHnuona,N., 63, 100; Drrrer, A.G.,:176,199,223,224
CunxonnsprH,n,S., 107,158 Drscnarrs, CAtt,277, 327, 345 \
'Cneule, D.S,, l35t 157,-158, 161,. DEVLN, W.1.,20/.,221,225 .")
)CHEN, F.S.,108,158 : DEVoE,R.c., 64, 103 i
CHEN,H., 134,147,1:60 Drronrcu, F., 60,77, 100
CHeN,K.L.,204,222 Donooqrrsvx,'A.A.,337,345 i
CHEN,S.H.,20, 100 : DnpvBn,R.W,P:;71,100 i
Cserqc,Y., 134,l4'l ; 160 DRoNov,1.F.,342,,345
rCseN,Y.-Y.,375,389,391 DnuuvoNo, P., 59; 100
, C H E R N YFT. 8, . ,2 4 3 , 2 8 23, 4 5 , Dunrv, M.T., 196,207,223':
CHERRY, T.M., 337,345 Dursrri.uner,J.I.,297,338, 345 I
CHEUNG, M.M., 134,153,158 Dunrw,'S:b.,ll4, ttl2o;:134,136,.138,
iCnllroenreN, t., 134,157 , 111 1 4 61, 5 3 , 1 3 8 "'"',, i :r
lCrrucenrH, :Y:S.,130,156,,157 DurA, N.K.,165,168,l'10,.113, 174,..186,
CHTLLAG, L., I 15,I f6, ll9, 134,138,16l 188,197,207,209,215,220,: 2Zi:,224.
'Cso, 4.Y., 86, 100 Dzrnoztc,J.M.,.10Q
,.,,, . ,j i ,,,f,15 7
Cnor, H.K., 200,204,222', , i,,
C u o u o u n n v ,S . , 3 2 9 , 3 4 5 E i
CLrnr, N.4., 156,159 Ensru,r.,
J.M.,390,391,393
Coor, R.F.,133,146,158 Enerruc,K.J.,27,100,207,222
CorrEN,L.G.,216,223 Eoe,N., 189,222,225
CoroneN, L.A, 200,202-205,207,215,222, EDEN,D., 128,158
', ';
223 :i : ErnoN, U., 135,16l
ICoNELY,R.H., 197..t:.223 EtNsruN, 4., 16,100
'CoNNoR,
J.N.L.,342,345 ErsENSrErN,G., 216, 223
CooK, R.J.,58, 100 Er, L., 390,392
CorereNo, J.A., 176,223 Elsn, W., 135,160
Cox, D.R., 10,19,43-45,100 ELSSNER, K.-8., 374-376, 392
 AUTHOR INDEX 397

ENNS,R.H.,l2"l,158 Geonce, O.E.,358,363,390,393

EsPosrro,F., 45, 102 GenRrrsnr, C.J.,133,158
Evenv, I.M., 63, 100 GurnLvnrrr, F., 53, l0l
GHroNE,G' 324, 336, 346
F Grncouuo, E.,70, l0l
I.-.sn,C., 70, 101 GrBBs,H.M., lM, 153,154,158,l6l
F.No,U., 12, 100 GlLrenr, E.N., 29, l0l
FnnnrLLv,D.,342,345 Greurrn, R.J.,3, 13,34,35,38,63,10l, 102,
FAYER,M.D., 126,156,15& 104
FEDoRYUK, M.V., 33'7,34'l GLrNsKr,J., 188,190,222
FuNnnnc,E.L.,108,135,158,243,282,346 Geucr, A.H.,216,223
FETNBERG, L, 147,152,158 Gor-orunr, E.S.,134,154,158
FErzuLrN,2.1.,240,346 GooDBY,J.W., 109,159
FEKETE, D., 147,158 GooDMAN,J., 16,101
FELSEN, L.8., 243,254,27'1,303, 324,329, GooseNs,W.J.A.,133,158
336,345,346 Gonoon, E.I.,91,94, 101,173,20'7,222,223
FERcHER, 4.F., 389,391 Gowr,n, M.C., 147,158
FERNANDEz, F.J.L.,139,158 GnaNctrn,P., 55,59,65,68,99, l0l
FrlrPowrcz,P., 83, 100 GneNr-ur.p,5.W., 199,207, 224
FINN,G.M., 134,139,143,144, 159 Gn.v,G.W., 109,159
FlnrH, W.J.,123,158 GnErvNrnr*rp,J.E.,359,360,362,392
FrsHER, 8., 135,147,158,l6L Gnrxnrnc, J., 135,161
FlsHER, R.4., 147,158 GnosHev,V.Y., 290,346
FLAr-r., S.M., 301,346 GnzaNNa, J., 3'14-376, 392
Fr-evrNc,M.W., 207,219,222 Guue, S., 144,160
FocK, V.4., 27'7,282,317,318,320,346 GusuN-Znon, S.M.,337,345
FoRRESTER, A.T.,24,25,59, 100
FRANcK, J.,78, 100 H
FRASER, D.8., 108,158 Hncax, DJ., 123,159
FREDERTKS, V., 114,158 HGER, J., 13,55, 100
FRTBERc, S.,68,101 Herl, J.L., 63, 104
Fnrz, 8.S.,387,392 HnurrroN, D.K., 390,392
Fuu, Y.G., 133,146,158 HAMMER,J.M., 196,207,223
FurrrA,T., 200,20'7,215,222,224 H,Nsunv-BnowN,R., 3, 15, 101
FuJrro,K.,215,222 Hnnorn, C., 2l'1, 218,225
FURUYA, K., 189,222,223,225 HenrHnex, P., 389-393
Fv, D.,215,224 HARRrs,W.4., 78, 104
Fv, D.M.,209,224 H e u s ,H . 4 . , 7 1 , 7 2 , 9 1 , 1 0 11,0 4 ,1 8 9 , 2 2 3
Heves,J.,390,392
G HAYES,J.8., 375,376, 392
Ge,ron,D., 9, l0l, 145,158 HETDMANN, 4., 55,70, l0l
Gecrr,+not,R.M., 10,24,25,91,95,101 Hrrrwe,ntn, R.W., 135, 146, 147, 152,
GALBRATTH, L, 123,158 158-160
Grrre.curn, J.E.,351,358,362,391 HELsrRoM,C.W.,91, 95, l0l
Gellenoo, J.,97, 100 HrNNrNc, 1.D.,219,222
O.V., 134,158
G,rnrov,r.r,r, HeNnv,C.H.,91,95,99,101,178,186,188,
cARrro,4.F., 156,158 t96, 197, 203, 204, 206, 207, 209, 210,
Gnnle,No,C.W., 128,158 2t5-2r9,22t-224
G,rrr, E., 13,99 HrNnv, P.S.,178,221,223,224
GAZARYAN, Yu.L., 290, 346 HERMAN, R.M., 115,134,149,159
398
Henuaxu, J.4., 139,159
Hrnntnu, J.P.,152,159
HERRrorr,D.R.,351,358,362,391
Hrnrz, G., 78, 100
HERvEr,H., l2'l,159, 16l
Hss, L.D., 135,161
H.ss1, A., 243,254,345
HrLL, K.O., 134,159
, 3 ,8 5 , 1 0 3
H o , S . - T .6, , 3 5 , 4 7 , 5 3 6
HoENDERS, 8.1.,27,101
HoFFMANN,H.J., 108,l2'1,130,159
Hollnrnc, L.W., 3, 64, 103
HoNc, C.K.,58,68,101
HoRN,R.G., 126,159
HoRowrcz, R.J.,70, 101
Hou, J.Y.,134,139,143,153,154,
HsruNc, H., 127,128,130-132,159
}Ju, H.2.,353,389,391,392
HurcN.no, J.P.,133-135,
Huo, T.C.D.,216,223
I
Iorsewn, M., 389,393
Ion, K., 168,200,216,222,223,225
IKEcAMT,T., 180,223
Iu.r, H., 189,212,223,225
I v o r o , N . , 3 , 5 1 , 6 5 , ' 7 1 , 7 2 , 8 3 , 8140,1 1
Iu, H.,356,392
Iee,rov,8.8.,342,345
IPArov,8.V.,342,346
IsHrrnw.+,H.,212,223
IsHrNo,M., 200,207,224
Isnrzuxe, 5.,215,222
Isozururr, 5.,212,223
Ir.ye,Y., 83,90,102,180,
Iwnra, K.,391,392
J Kr-en, M.8., 135,159
J,sn, S.N.,390,392
Jecrrw, R., 90, l0l
JarN,R.K., 135,159
Jarennw, E., 14,20,25,27,43,55,59,61,68,
69,73,84-86,91, 100-102,t04
J.vns,G.L.,303,346
JANossY, I., 120,121,158
JnveNntNEtr, J., 83, 100
JaYlneueN, S., 107,160
JEFFERSoN, J.H.,68, l0l
JN, S., 156,159
JENSEN, ^.8.,386,392
AUTHOR INDEX
JoHNsoN,G.W., 355,392
JoRDAN,P., 78, 100
K
K.uaNov, Yu.M.,93, 101
Knoora, T.T., 94, 101
KAMrNow,I.P., 178,199,20'1,224
KAMrrE,K.,212,223
KANou, T., 389,393
KAPLAN,4.8' 144,153,154,158,159
Keurnru,4.S., 130,157
Kennr, F.C.,324,346
KARN,4.J., 130,134,154,159
K r n p , S . , 1 0 , 2 4 , 2 5 , 9 1 , 9 5l 0, l
159 Krsran, 8.L., 178,216,223,224
KersNr-rNsevu, 8.2., 303,348
Kewecur, M., 134,159
141,152,159, 160 KAwAsAKr,8.S., 134,159
KnzanrNov, R.F., 196,197,203, 204, 206,
207,215,221,223,224
KELLER, 1.8.,229,303,314,324,327,346,
J+I
KELLEy,P.L., 34, l0l
KHorurlov, R.V., 137,157
KHoo, I.C., ll4-111, ll9-121, 12128,
t30-t32, 134,136,t39, 143,r44, 146,t4'1,
, 04
149,l5l, t53, 154,159-l6l
KrELrcH,S., 107,130,160
KTHARA, K.,212,223
Krrucnr, K.,220,223
KTMBLE, H.J.,3, 13,43,55,63,101,104
KrsHrNo,K., 168,180,193,195,196,225
Krsr-rNx,P.P.,197,223
KrreEvn,V.F.,l15, 116,ll9-121,134,138,
188,193,223,225
1 5 8 ,l 6 r
Ktrecewa, M., 3, 51, 104
Krr.ruune, M., 180,192,223
KLuNrn, W.H.,34, l0l
KLETNMAN, D.A., 197,223
KNrcHr, P.L.,4, 102
Ko, J.S.,178,199,224
Konavasnr, K., 180,192,223
Kon.lvlsur, S., 356,392
Kocu, T.L., 202-205,213-216,222-224
Kocsenovsry , V.V., 236,348
Kocsenovsry, VL.V., 236,348
Koouser, J.,3, 102
KoENrc, H.G., 197,222
KoENuono, S., 189,223