Chapter 4

Axial Load
Elastic Deformation of an
Axially Loaded Member
Elastic Deformation
Elastic Deformation

Using Hookes law and the definitions of stress and strain, a general
equation can be developed that can be used to determine the
elastic displacement of a member subjected to axial loads.
Consider the bar shown in the figure which has a cross sectional
area that gradually varies along its length, L .
The bar is subjected to concentrated loads at its ends and a
variable external load distributed along its length.
Elastic Deformation
The distributed load could, for example, represent the
weight of the bar if it does not remain horizontal, or
friction forces acting on the bars surface.
The localized deformations that occur at points of
concentrated loading and where the cross section
suddenly changes are neglected.
From Saint-Venants principle, these effects occur within
small regions of the bars length and will therefore have
only a slight effect on the final result.
For the most part, the bar will deform uniformly, so the
normal stress will be uniformly distributed over the
cross section.
Elastic Deformation
Using the method of sections, a differential element of length dx
and cross-sectional area A(x) is isolated from the bar at the
arbitrary position x.
The resultant internal axial force will be a function of x since the
external distributed loading will cause it to vary along the length of
the bar.
This load P(x) will deform the element into the shape indicated by
the dashed outline, and therefore the displacement of one end of
the element with respect to the other end is d.
The stress and strain in the element are,

P( x) d
gdgfgsdg
A( x) dx
Elastic Deformation
Applying Hookes law,
Elastic Deformation
For the entire length L of the bar, we must integrate this
expression to find .
L P( x)
dx
0 A( x) E

= displacement of one point relative to the other point

L = original length of bar
P(x) = internal axial force at the section
A(x) = cross-sectional area, expressed as a function of x
E = modulus of elasticity for the material
Elastic Deformation
In many cases, the bar will have a constant cross-
sectional area A, and the material will be
homogeneous, so E is constant.
Furthermore, if a constant external force is applied
at each end of a bar with constant area A, then the
internal force P throughout the length of the bar is
also constant, thus,
PL

AE
Elastic Deformation
If the bar is subjected to several different axial forces
along its length, or the cross-sectional area or modulus
of elasticity changes abruptly from one region of the bar
to the next, the above equation can be applied to each
segment of the bar.
The displacement of one end of the bar with respect to
the other is then found from the algebraic addition of
the relative displacements of the ends of each segment.
For this general case,
PL

vcvxcxvcxxz AE
Elastic Deformation
Example;
Elastic Deformation
Example;
Elastic Deformation
Example 4.1
The A-36 steel bar is made from
two segments having cross-
sectional areas of AAB = 1 in2 and
ABD = 2 in2. Determine the vertical
displacement of end A and the
displacement of B relative to C.
Elastic Deformation
Elastic Deformation
Elastic Deformation
Example 4.2
The assembly shown in figure consists of an aluminium tube AB
having a cross-sectional area of 400 mm2. A steel rod having a
diameter of 10 mm is attached to a rigid collar and passes
through the tube. If a tensile load of 80 kN is applied to the rod,
determine the displacement of the end C of the rod. Take Est =
200 GPa and Eal = 70 GPa.
Elastic Deformation
Elastic Deformation
Elastic Deformation
Example 4.3
Rigid beam AB rests on the two short posts as shown in the figure. AC
is made of steel and has a diameter of 20 mm, and BD is made of
aluminium and has a diameter of 40 mm. Determine the displacement
of point F on AB if a vertical load of 90 kN is applied over this point.
Take Est = 200 GPa and Eal = 70 GPa.
Elastic Deformation
Elastic Deformation
Elastic Deformation
Statically Indeterminate
Axially Loaded Member
Statically Indeterminate
The bar shown in the figure is fixed
supported at both of its ends.
From the free-body diagram,
equilibrium requires:

Fy = 0; FB + FA P = 0

This type of problem is called

statically indeterminate, since the
equilibrium equation(s) are not
sufficient to determine the two
reactions on the bar.
Statically Indeterminate
In order to establish an additional equation needed for
solution, it is necessary to consider how points on the bar
displace.
Specifically, an equation that specifies the conditions for
displacement is referred to as a compatibility or kinematic
condition.
In this case, a suitable compatibility condition would require
the displacement of one end of the bar with respect to the
other end to be equal to zero, since the end supports are
fixed.
Hence, the compatibility condition becomes

vcvxcxvcxxz A/ B 0
Statically Indeterminate
This equation can be expressed in
terms of the applied loads by using a
loaddisplacement relationship, which
depends on the material behaviour.
For example, if linear-elastic behaviour
occurs, = PL/AE can be used.
Realizing that the internal force in
segment AC is +FA and in segment CB
the internal force is -FB the equation for
can be written as,
vcvxcxvcxxz
FA LAC FB LCB
0
AE AE
Statically Indeterminate
If AE is constant, then,
LCB
FA FB
LAC
Using the equilibrium equation, the equations for
the reactions become,

LCB LAC
FA P FB P
L L
Statically Indeterminate
Example 4.5
The steel rod shown has a diameter of 10 mm. It is fixed to
the wall at A, and before it is loaded, there is a gap of 0.2
mm between the wall at B and the rod. Determine the
reactions at A and B if the rod is subjected to an axial force
of P = 20 kN as shown. Neglect the size of the collar at C.
Take Est = 200 GPa.
Statically Indeterminate
As shown on the free-body diagram, we will assume that force P is
large enough to cause the rods end B to contact the wall at B.
The problem is statically indeterminate since there are two
unknowns and only one equation of equilibrium.

Fx = 0; FA FB + 20000 = 0 (1)
Statically Indeterminate
The force P causes point B to move to B with no
further displacement.
Therefore the compatibility condition for the rod is,
B / A 0.0002
This displacement can be expressed in terms of the
unknown reactions using the loaddisplacement
relationship, thus,
FA LAC FB LCB
fdgfd B / A 0.0002
AE AE
Statically Indeterminate
FA (0.4) FB (0.8)
0.0002
(0.005) (200 10 ) (0.005) 2 (200 109 )
2 9

FA (0.4) FB (0.8) 3141.59 (2)

Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) gives,

FA = 16.0 kN and FB = 4.05 kN

Since the answer for FB is positive, indeed end B

contacts the wall at B as originally assumed.
Statically Indeterminate
Example 4.6
The aluminium post shown in
the figure is reinforced with a
brass core. If this assembly
supports an axial compressive
load of P = 9 kip, applied to
the rigid cap, determine the
average normal stress in the
aluminium and the brass. Take
Eal = 10 (103) ksi and Ebr = 15
(103) ksi.
Statically Indeterminate
The resultant axial force at the base is
represented by the unknown components
carried by the aluminium, Fal and brass, Fbr .
The problem is statically indeterminate
because the vertical force equilibrium
requires,

Fy = 0; 9 kip + Fal + Fbr = 0 (1)

The rigid cap at the top of the post causes

both the aluminium and brass to displace the
same amount. Therefore,

al = br
Statically Indeterminate
Using the loaddisplacement relationships,
Fal L Fbr L

Aal Eal Abr Ebr
Aal Eal
Fal Fbr
Abr Ebr

Fal Fbr

(2) 2 (1) 2 10 103
3
(1) 2
15 10
Fal 2 Fbr (2)
Statically Indeterminate
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) gives,

Fal = 6 kip and Fbr = 3 kip

Since the results are positive, indeed the stress will

be compressive.
Statically Indeterminate
The average normal stress in the aluminium and
brass is therefore,

6
al 0.637 ksi
(2 1 )
2 2

3
br 0.955 ksi
(1) 2
Statically Indeterminate
Example 4.7
The three A-36 steel bars
shown in the figure are pin
connected to a rigid member. If
the applied load on the
member is 15 kN, determine the
force developed in each bar.
Bars AB and EF each have a
cross-sectional area of 50 mm2
and bar CD has a cross-sectional
area of 30 mm2.
Statically Indeterminate
This problem is statically
indeterminate since there are
three unknowns and only two
available equilibrium equations.

Fy = 0;
FA + FC + FE 15 = 0 (1)

MC = 0;
FA(0.4) + 15(0.2) + FE (0.4) = 0 (2)
Statically Indeterminate
The applied load will cause the horizontal line ACE to
move to the inclined line ACE.
The displacements of points A, C and E can be related by
similar triangles.
Thus the compatibility equation that relates these
displacements is,
A E C E

0.8 0.4
1 1
C A E
2 2
Statically Indeterminate
Using = PL/AE, we have,

FC L 1 FA L 1 FE L

30 Est 2 50 Est 2 50 Est

FC 0.3FA 0.3FE (3)

Statically Indeterminate
Solving Eqs. (1), (2) and (3) simultaneously yields,

FA = 9.52 kN

FC = 3.46 kN

FE = 2.02 kN
Saint Venants Principle
Saint Venants Principle
Discovered by a famous French mathematician and
elastician Barr de Saint-Venant (17971886) in 1855.
Consider the manner in which a rectangular bar will
deform elastically when the bar is subjected to a
force P applied along its centroidal axis.
The bar is fixed connected at one end, with the force
applied through a hole at its other end.
Due to the loading, the bar deforms as indicated by
the once horizontal and vertical grid lines drawn on
the bar.
Saint Venants Principle
Notice how the localized deformation that occurs at each
end tends to even out and become uniform throughout the
midsection of the bar.
Stress will be distributed more uniformly throughout the
cross-sectional area when the section is taken farther and
farther from the point where any external load is applied.
A profile of the variation of the stress distribution acting at
sections aa, bb and cc is shown in the figure.
By comparison, the stress tends to reach a uniform value at
section cc, which is sufficiently removed from the end since
the localized deformation caused by P vanishes.
Saint Venants Principle
The minimum distance from the bars end where this
occurs can be determined using a mathematical analysis
based on the theory of elasticity.
It has been found that this distance should at least be
equal to the largest dimension of the loaded cross
section.
Hence, section cc should be located at a distance at
least equal to the width (not the thickness) or diameter
(for circular cross section) of the bar.
The stress distribution at the support will also even
out and become uniform over the cross section located
the same distance away from the support.
Stress Concentrations
Stress Concentrations
When determining the stresses in axially loaded bars, we
customarily use the basic formula = P/A.
This formula is based upon the assumption that the
stress distribution is uniform throughout the cross
section.
In reality, bars often have holes, grooves, notches,
keyways, shoulders, threads, or other abrupt changes in
geometry that create a disruption in the otherwise
uniform stress pattern.
These discontinuities in geometry cause high stresses in
very small regions of the bar, and these high stresses are
known as stress concentrations.
Stress Concentrations
The discontinuities themselves are known as stress raisers.
Stress concentrations also appear at points of loading.
For instance, a load may act over a very small area and
produce high stresses in the region around its point of
application.
An example is a load applied through a pin connection, in
which case the load is applied over the bearing area of the
pin.
The stresses existing at stress concentrations can be
determined either by experimental methods or by advanced
methods of analysis, including the finite-element method.
Stress Concentrations
Because the effects of stress concentrations are localized, we
can use all of the standard stress formulas (such as = P/A) at
cross sections a sufficient distance away from the source of
the concentration.
Close to the source, the stresses depend upon the details of
the loading and the shape of the member.
Furthermore, formulas that are applicable to entire
members, such as formulas for elongations, displacements
and strain energy, give satisfactory results even when stress
concentrations are present.
The explanation lies in the fact that stress concentrations are
localized and have little effect on the overall behaviour of a
member.
Stress Concentrations
Stress concentrations occur at sections where the
cross-sectional area suddenly changes.
The more severe the change, the larger the stress
concentration.
Normally, the stress concentration in a ductile
specimen that is subjected to a static loading will
NOT have to be considered in design.
However, if the material is brittle, or subjected to
fatigue loadings, then stress concentrations become
important.
Exercises
Exercise 1
The 20-mm-diameter A-36 steel rod is subjected to
the axial forces shown. Determine the displacement
of end C with respect to the fixed support at A.
Exercise 2
Segments AB and CD of the assembly are solid circular rods,
and segment BC is a tube. If the assembly is made of 6061-T6
aluminium, determine the displacement of end D with
respect to end A.
Exercise 3
The 30-mm-diameter A-36 steel rod is subjected to
the loading shown. Determine the displacement of
end A with respect to end C.
Exercise 4
If the 20-mm-diameter rod
is made of A-36 steel and
the stiffness of the spring is
k = 50 MN/m, determine the
displacement of end A
when the 60-kN force is
applied.
Exercise 5
The 20-mm-diameter 2014-T6 aluminium rod is
subjected to the uniform distributed axial load.
Determine the displacement of end A.
Exercise 6
The column is constructed from
high-strength concrete and six
A-36 steel reinforcing rods. If it
is subjected to an axial force of
30 kip, determine the average
normal stress in the concrete
and in each rod. Each rod has a
diameter of 0.75 inch.
Exercise 7
The steel pipe is filled with
concrete and subjected to a
compressive force of 80 kN.
Determine the average normal
stress in the concrete and the steel
due to this loading. The pipe has
an outer diameter of 80 mm and
an inner diameter of 70 mm. Take
Est = 200 GPa, Ec = 24 GPa.
Exercise 8
The composite bar consists of a 20-mm-diameter A-36
steel segment AB and 50-mm-diameter red brass C83400
end segments DA and CB. Determine:
(a) average normal stress in each segment due to the
applied load
(b) displacement of A with respect to B due to the applied
load
Exercise 9
The concrete post is reinforced
using six steel reinforcing rods,
each having a diameter of 20
mm. If the post is subjected to an
axial load of 900 kN, determine:
(a) stress in the concrete and steel
(b) required diameter of each rod
so that one-fifth of the load is
carried by the steel and four-
fifths by the concrete.
Take Est = 200 GPa, Ec = 25 GPa.
Exercise 10
The assembly consists of two red brass C83400 copper alloy
rods AB and CD of diameter 30 mm, a stainless 304 steel alloy
rod EF of diameter 40 mm, and a rigid cap G. If the supports
at A, C and F are rigid, determine the average normal stress
developed in rods AB, CD and EF.
Exercise 11
The bolt has a diameter of 20 mm and passes through a tube
that has an inner diameter of 50 mm and an outer diameter
of 60 mm. If the bolt and tube are made of A-36 steel,
determine the normal stress in the tube and bolt when a
force of 40 kN is applied to the bolt. Assume the end caps are
rigid.
Exercise 12
If the gap between C and the rigid wall at D is initially
0.15 mm, determine the support reactions at A and D
when the force P = 200 kN is applied. The assembly is
made of A-36 steel.
Exercise 13
The rigid bar supports the
uniform distributed load
of 6 kip/ft. Determine the
force in each cable if each
cable has a cross-
sectional area of 0.05 in2
and E = 31(103) ksi.
Exercise 14
The three suspender bars are made of A-36 steel and
have equal cross-sectional areas of 450 mm2. Determine
the average normal stress in each bar if the rigid beam is
subjected to the loading shown.
Exercise 15
The rigid bar is
originally horizontal
and is supported by
two A-36 steel cables
each having a cross-
sectional area of
0.04 in2. Determine:
normal stress in
each steel cable
rotation of the bar
when the 800-lb
load is applied