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Module 15a
Gas Turbine Engine
TABLE OF CONTENTS
The Jet Engine Family .................................................................................................... 3
Heros Aeolipile or, Heros Engine ................................................................................. 3
Chinese Rocket ............................................................................................................ 3
The History of Jet Propulsion ....................................................................................... 4
Four Types of Jet Engines ............................................................................................ 5
The Rocket Engine .................................................................................................... 5
Ramjet ...................................................................................................................... 6
Pulse-jets .................................................................................................................. 7
The Gas Turbine ....................................................................................................... 8
Physics ........................................................................................................................ 8
Power Gas Turbines ............................................................................................... 8
Force ........................................................................................................................ 8
Work ......................................................................................................................... 9
Power........................................................................................................................ 9
Velocity ................................................................................................................... 10
Acceleration ............................................................................................................ 10
Energy .................................................................................................................... 11
Conversion of Energy ................................................................................................. 11
Laws of Thermodynamics ........................................................................................... 12
First Law ................................................................................................................ 12
Second Law ............................................................................................................ 12
Newtons Laws of Motion ............................................................................................ 12
Newtons First Law.................................................................................................. 13
Newtons Second Law.............................................................................................. 13
Newtons Third Law ................................................................................................ 14
Bernoulli's Theorem ................................................................................................... 15
Compression and Expansion Processes .................................................................. 15
Adiabatic ................................................................................................................ 16
Isothermal .............................................................................................................. 16
Polytropic................................................................................................................ 16
Gas Turbine Basic Construction ................................................................................... 16
The Brayton Cycle ...................................................................................................... 17
Constructional Configurations ................................................................................... 20
Chinese Rocket
Another early application of the reaction principle can be seen in rocket development as
early as 1200 AD. By utilizing black powder, a mixture of charcoal, sulphur, and
saltpetre, the Chinese were able to perfect a solid fuel rocket. In records available today,
one can see a reference to a battle about 1230 A.D. in which the Chinese chronicled the
use of the rocket as a military weapon.
Solid rockets are still in use today, they are used as booster rockets for lifting heavy
space vehicles such as the Space Shuttle and to power modern military weapons. (Figure
1.1)
The rocket is a non-air breathing engine. This means it does not use atmospheric air to
support combustion but carries its own oxidizer and fuel in a solid or liquid form.
Combustion transforms solids or liquids of small volume into gases of large volume.
The gases released by combustion of the fuel and oxidizer escape through an exhaust
nozzle at an extremely high velocity. The thrust reaction from the exhaust gases drives
the rocket at very high supersonic speeds and completely out of the earths atmosphere.
(Figure 1.3)
Ramjet
The ramjet or athodyd (aero-thermodynamic duct) is the simplest of all power plants that
use the atmosphere to support combustion. It is a duct with few component parts,
designed to receive inlet air and change its velocity to static pressure.
Fuel, typically of hydrocarbon base, is added to the compressed air with the resultant
combustion and expansion of gases. This combustion causes the mass airflow to quickly
exit the engine. The change in velocity of entering and departing air results in reactive
thrust. The ramjet is seen today in many military pilotless weapons delivery.
There is also a proposed application for a future hypersonic (above Mach 6.0) engine,
which would convert from a turbojet in initial lower speed flight to a type of ramjet in
very high speed flight.
Actually, this new type engine would be called a scram-jet because the airflow would be
allowed to reach supersonic speeds during combustion, hence the term supersonic
combustion-ramjet (scram-jet).
This engine would have to use a more exotic fuel than kerosene, perhaps hydrogen, in
order to support combustion at high airflow velocities. The scram-jet is stated as having
the potential to power future high speed transports at velocities up to Mach 20. (Figure
1.4)
Pulse-jets
The pulse-jet is similar to a ramjet except that the pulse-jet inlet is fitted with a system of
air inlet flapper valves. These valves are closed during combustion and provide the device
with a moderate static thrust that the ramjet does not have.
However, this thrust is not sufficient to enable a pulse-jet to take off under its own power
and, therefore, must be rocket boosted for initial flight.
Major development of the pulse-jet seems to have ceased with the German V-1 rocket of
World War II. The German V-I, buzz bomb, was powered by a rocket assisted pulse - jet
engine which could propel the V-1 to approximately 400 mph.
This engine was fitted with inlet shutters (flapper valves) which automatically blew open
and closed approximately 40 times per second. Each time fuel (kerosene) pulsed into the
combustion chamber, the back pressure created from combustion would force the
shutters closed, then between combustion cycles ram inlet air pressure would reopen
them.
This intermittent combustion was, in effect, a series of rapid backfires or pulses of force
which created forward thrust of approximately 600 pounds.
A single electrical spark igniter was used for initial starting. Subsequent ignition
occurred from internal residual heat
Development of the pulse-jet ceased in the late 1940s due to the poor performance of
this engine design. (Figure 1.5)
Figure 1.5
The aircraft gas turbine is a heat engine using air as a working fluid. In its most basic
form it consists of a compressor for compressing the air, a combustion chamber for
burning the air/fuel mixture and a turbine for extracting energy from the high velocity
exhaust gases.
Some of the energy in the highly heated gases is required to drive the compressor and
accessories, the remainder being available to produce power or thrust. The turbine-type
jet and, more specifically, the gas turbine engine is a name given to a family of engines
based on the Whittle design, which include the turbojet, turboprop, turboshaft, and
turbofan. These four gas turbines are discussed in detail throughout this chapter.
Physics
For a clear understanding of jet propulsion principles it is necessary to understand the
applicable principles of physics. These are the physical principles which govern the
action of mass or matter.
The physics described here, however, are not intended to be complete in this regard but
rather to present the basic ideas necessary for an understanding of the physical
relationships of gases and the turbo-machinery within a gas turbine engine.
The mass-flow of gases referred to is atmospheric air which is compressed and
accelerated in the gas turbine engine to create useful work at the turbine wheel and,
ultimately, thrust. The thrust is created from either pure reaction to the flowing gases or
from a propeller or fan driven by a turbine.
Force
Work
Power
Work
Power=
Time
Where:
P = Power in foot pounds per minute
D = Distance in feet
t = Time in minutes
Example: A 2,500 pound engine is to be hoisted a height of 9 feet in two minutes. How
much power is required?
P=FxD/t
P = 2,500 x 9 /2
P = 11,250 foot pounds/minute
To accelerate a 1,500kg vehicle over a mile in seven seconds requires significantly
more power than to cover the distance in five minutes.
Figure 1.6
Acceleration
Energy is used to perform useful work. In the gas turbine engine this means producing
motion and heat. The two forms of energy which best describe the propulsive power of
the jet engine are potential and kinetic.
Potential Energy is stored energy stored energy such as water behind a dam;
Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion such as releasing water from a dam.
Recall the law of Conservation of Energy:
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be changed from one form
to another
Conversion of Energy
The gas turbine engine relies on the 1st law of thermodynamics in that a cycle of energy
conversion is constantly taking place:
In the Inlet:
Kinetic energy in the form of airflow velocity is being converted to potential energy
in the form of pressure by the divergent design of the Inlet
Across the compressor:
Pressure or potential energy is continually being converted to velocity or kinetic
energy across the compressor rotor(s)
Kinetic energy is continually being converted back to potential energy across the
compressor stators
In the combustion area:
Potential energy developed in the compressor is increased by the addition of heat
energy
Kinetic energy developed due to the expansion caused by the application of heat
energy
Across the turbine area:
Due to the velocity of expanding gas, kinetic energy is formed and converted into
mechanical energy by the turbine to drive the compressor. Mechanical energy is the
source of the air pressure increase within the compressor. The loss of kinetic energy
across each stage of turbine is compensated for by utilising velocity stabilisation
methods preparing the airflow for the next stage of turbine:
Velocity is stabilised by blade and/or stator design
To maintain velocity a subsequent drop in potential energy (pressure is effected)
across the turbine pack
First Law
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be changed in form.
This is also known as the law of conservation of energy.
In a gas turbine engine heat energy is imparted to the air by the compressor, while
additional heat is added when the fuel is burned. The heat energy is changed to thrust
and the gases are cooled as they pass through the turbine section and out the jet nozzle.
With this law in mind, it is reasonable to assume that the total quantity of energy in a
cycle is equal to the amount of energy that can be accounted for in any of the forms in
which it can occur throughout the cycle, i.e. mechanical energy, heat energy, pressure
energy, etc.
To obtain 100% efficiency from a heat engine is a practical impossibility. An engine, as it
converts heat into work, has to lose some heat. This phenomenon is the basis of the
second law of thermodynamics.
Second Law
Temperature differences between systems in contact with each other tend to even out and
that work can be obtained from these differences, but that loss of heat occurs, when work
is done.
In other words, no cyclic process is possible in which heat is absorbed from a reservoir at
a single temperature and converted completely into mechanical work.
Another definition of the same law states that heat cannot flow from a cooler body to a
hotter body. It must flow from hotter toward cooler. The cooling of an engine involves
this principle, in that heat is transferred from hotter bodies or substances to cooler
bodies or substances. If cooling is not introduced the components will continue to get
hotter until they fail.
Another variant explains that mechanical energy can be converted entirely into heat
energy but heat energy cannot be entirely converted to mechanical energy.
Figure 1-7
Figure 1-8
Figure 1-10
Bernoullis theorem states:
The total energy of a particle in motion is constant at all points on its path at a steady
flow.
In its simplest form, the theorem means that in a venturi, pressure is inversely
proportional to velocity. Another way of stating this is that if pressure increases, velocity
decreases proportionally or, if pressure decreases, velocity increases proportionally.
The significance of this discovery is that it is one of the basic principles of operation of a
jet engine and will become evident during later topics. Figure 1-11 shows an example of
how varying the size of a tube will affect the velocity and pressure of a fluid however the
total energy always remains constant.
Figure 1-11
Theoretically there are three types of processes relevant to compression and expansion of
a gas flow:
Adiabatic
Isothermal
Polytropic
When all of the energy utilised in the compression and/or expansion is converted
without any losses due to cooling or heat transfer to atmosphere the process is said to be
adiabatic.
Isothermal
When there is zero temperature change during the compression and/or expansion the
process is said to be isothermal (one temperature).
Polytropic
The previous processes are perfect world and generally will not prove to be a valid
process. During compression and expansion processes some energy will be lost to the
process through overcoming friction and heat transfer.
When the energy required to produce a designated compression or expansion is greater
than the actual potential of the result, the process is said to be polytropic.
Figure 1-12
In a gas turbine engine ambient air enters the inlet where it is subjected to changes in
pressure, velocity and temperature.
The air is directed at the optimal angle into the compressor where pressure and
temperature are increased mechanically.
Figure 1-13
In the piston engine cycle, only one stroke (combustion) is utilised to produce power, the
others being involved in the inlet, compression and exhausting of the working fluid.
The gas turbine on the other hand disposes of the three idle strokes, which enables the
gas turbine engine to burn more fuel in a shorter time and give a greater power output
for a given size engine.
The four continuous events shown on the pressure / volume graph are: Intake,
compression, expansion (power), and exhaust.
Turboshaft
The gas turbine engine that delivers power through a shaft to operate something other
than a propeller is referred to as a turboshaft engine.
The turboshaft power take off may be coupled to and driven by the turbine that drives
the compressor, but is more likely to be driven by a turbine of its own. Engines using a
separate turbine for the power take off are called free turbine or free power turbine type
turboshaft engines.
A free turbine turboshaft engine has two major sections, the gas generator and the free
turbine sections.
Figure 1-14
The function of the gas generator is to produce the required energy to drive the free
turbine system. The gas generator extracts about two thirds of the energy available from
the combustion process leaving the other third to drive the free power turbine.
These engines are widely used in industrial applications, such as electrical power
generating plants and surface transportation systems (mainly high speed naval vessels),
while in aviation, turboshaft engines are used to drive the rotors of many modern
helicopters.
Aircraft auxiliary power units (APUs) are also often turboshaft engines which are used in
aircraft to drive generators and hydraulic pumps.
Turbo-Propeller
Commonly called the turboprop engine, this engine is similar in design to the turbojet
with the exception that it delivers the power produced in the engine to a shaft which
feeds into a reduction gearbox and onward to the propeller.
The reduction gearbox is used to slow the propellers rotational speed and to increase
torque capability.
Most of the power produced in the engine is used to drive the propeller and therefore
little thrust is produced from the engine exhaust.
In Figure 1-15 you will notice the engine is very similar to the basic turbojet. The major
differences will be discussed in later topics.
Figure 1-15
Turbojets
Modern turbojets use many variations on this theme but the components are still
basically unchanged. Figure 1-16 illustrates a typical example of a modern turbojet.
Figure 1-16
The turbojet engine uses the acceleration of airflow throughout the engine to produce
thrust. The turbojet is well suited to high speed, high altitude operations due to
enhanced efficiencies under these conditions.
The basic operating principles of a turbojet engine are relatively straight forward; air
enters through an inlet duct and proceeds to the compressor where it is compressed.
Once compressed, the air flows to the combustor section where fuel is added and ignited.
The heat generated by the burning fuel causes the compressed air to expand and flow
toward the rear of the engine. As the air moves rearward, it passes through a set of
turbine wheels that are attached to the same shaft as the compressor blades. The
expanding air spins the turbines, which in turn, drives the compressor. Once past the
turbines, the air proceeds to exit the engine at a much higher velocity than the incoming
air. It is this difference in velocity between the entering and exiting air that produces
thrust.
From 450 mph on up, the turbofan or turbojet is most widely used. The turbofan is
newer and has become the most popular powerplant for commercial and business jets
because its design affords the most propulsive power at higher subsonic cruising speeds.
The turbofan engine was developed in order to permit the use of higher turbine
temperatures without a corresponding increase in jet velocity, because a high jet velocity
is not efficient for subsonic flight. The turbojet engine is less efficient and has, for all
practical purposes, been replaced by the turbofan.
Today some large turbojets remain in use in military aviation, and they are still used in
the supersonic Concorde aircraft. All current military supersonic aircraft, like the B-1
bomber or F-22 advanced tactical fighter, are powered by low bypass turbofan engines.
Figure 1-17
There are several different configurations of turbofan engines. Some early designs had
the fan driven through a reduction gearbox from the compressor (Figure 1-17) while
others are connected directly to the compressor (Figure 1-18).
Figure 1-18
In a turbofan engine, the fan makes a substantial contribution to the total thrust.
Over and above the thrust developed by the core engine (that portion of the turbofan
engine that resembles a typical turbojet), the fan accelerates the air passing through the
duct similar to the function of the propeller of a turboprop.
The fans of a turbofan engine produce between 30 and 80 percent of the total thrust, the
actual amount depending principally upon the bypass ratio.
Turbofan engines have turbojet-type cruise speed capability, yet retain some of the short-
field take-off capability of a turboprop. Nearly all present day airliners are powered by
turbofan engines for the reasons just mentioned as well as the fact that turbo- fans are
very fuel efficient.
Turbofan Configurations
Low Bypass
In the low bypass engine, the airflow is divided approximately into two halves between
the fan and the compressor.
Air that is being discharged by the fan may be ducted overboard from a short duct, or it
may pass down a duct that extends the full length of the core engine is known as the
cold gas stream.
The core engine air is compressed, combusted, and discharged in the normal manner out
the hot exhaust nozzle. The air that passes through the core engine is known as the hot
gas stream.
The turbofan illustrated in Figure 1-19 has a non-mixed exhaust. This means that the
air being discharged from the fan is not mixed with that from the core engine before
reaching the outside air.
Figure 1-19
Figure 1-20 is also a fully ducted fan engine; however the hot gas stream (from the core
engine) is mixed with the cold gas stream (from the fan) in the exhaust before they enter
the atmosphere.
This design offers the advantage of diluting the hot gases in the common exhaust, which
aids in noise suppression, helping to lessen noise pollution.
Figure 1-20
The high bypass engine has a fan ratio of 4:1 or better (this means that four parts of air
go through the fan for every part that goes to the core engine).
To accomplish this ratio, a large diameter fan is required (Figure 1-21). These engines
are of the type fitted to large aircraft commercial jets and produce the greater percentage
of their thrust from the fan (produces 80%).
Figure 1-21
The turbofan engine is now the most widely used gas turbine engine in the aircraft
industry, both military and commercial. It offers performance in comparison to the
turbojet, low speed efficiencies in the order of the turbo-propeller and the best fuel
economy of them all.
For example, a turbojet may bypass 25% of the airflow around the high pressure
compressor. This would then be classed as a 1:3 or 0.33:1 bypass ratio (low bypass
turbojet).
The ducted fan engine may be regarded as a development of the bypass principle. The
requirement for high bypass ratios of up to 5:1 is largely met by using the front fan in a
twin or triple spool configuration.
The front compressor stage (fan) is housed in an aerodynamic duct or shroud, up to 80%
of the airflow accelerated by the fan rotor blades is ducted past the core engine while the
air from the lower portion of the blades flows into the engine itself. (Figure 1-22)
Figure 1-22
On some front fan engines, the bypass airstream is ducted overboard either directly
behind the fan through short ducts, or at the rear of the engine through longer ducts as
illustrated in Figure 1-23; hence the name ducted fan.
Figure 1-23
Fan tip speed may be allowed to exceed Mach 1 so the compressor can deliver the correct
amount of air. Pressure within the fan duct helps retard airflow separation from the
blades at speeds over Mach 1 so there is an effective transfer of energy to the air at the
required compression ratio.
High bypass engines and ducted fan engines produce more fan thrust than low bypass
engines because they suffer less loss through skin friction with their short ducts as well
as being designed to carry much larger airflow mass.
Another seldom used variation is that of the aft fan, where the fan is arranged either
behind the turbine and powered by shaft from the turbine, or is an extension of the
turbine blades.
Figure 1-24
The number of designated stations varies according to engine complexity. It is therefore
possible for the same station number to refer to different positions on different engines.
For example, Figure 1-21 shows a dual spool turbofan engine (an engine with a fan and a
compressor). It can be seen that station 4 indicates turbine inlet in the turbojet (Figure
1-24), and the high pressure compressor outlet on the turbofan (Figure 1-25).
For ease of identification, engine manufacturers number locations, either along the
length of the gas path or along the length of the engine. Station numbers start at either
the flight cowling inlet or the engine inlet. Manufacturers do not always number engine
stations the same way. The purpose of the numbering scheme is always the same.
Figure 1-25
Engine symbols such as Pt and Tt are often used in conjunction with station numbers.
For example: To describe Pressure Total at Station-2 (the engine inlet), Pt2 is used. To
describe Temperature
Engine Terminology
Many different terms are used to describe parts of or positions (stations) on, the engine.
Generally speaking, the terms referred to in this package are universally acceptable.
The engines cold and hot sections are those sections exposed to cold and hot gases
respectively.
Cold Section
Basically, the front part of the engine which handles the colder airflow is termed the cold
section. Figure 1-26 shows the cold section which consists of the:
Engine inlet
Compressor
Diffuser
Figure 1-26
Hot Section
The hot section of the engine is that section of the engine that is exposed to hot air and
includes the:
Combustion chamber
Turbine assembly
Exhaust
Figure 1-27
Ambient Air
Ambient air refers to the natural air surrounding the engine. The pressure and
temperature of ambient air is usually required when an aircraft requires a ground run.
This is usually obtained by contacting the base meteorology section.
Gas Generator
The term gas generator is used to describe that part of the gas turbine engine that
produces the basic gas. Basic gas is the gas that travels through the compressor(s) to
the combustion area, and onwards to the turbine.
The gas generator section of a jet engine excludes the engine inlet and exhaust nozzle.
Figure 1-28 illustrates the gas generator portion of an engine.
Figure 1-28
Figure 1-29
Figure 1-29 displays the behaviour of airflow through a gas turbine engine in relation to
pressure, temperature and velocity.
In the Compressor Assembly:
Air pressure increases
Temperature increases
Velocity decreases
At the diffuser, just prior to combustion chamber entry, there is a final dramatic increase
in pressure and temperature and decrease in velocity to aid in maintaining flame
stabilisation.
In the Combustion Area:
Airflow ignition causes a dramatic increase in temperature but in line with the
Brayton cycle principle, pressure and velocity remain relatively constant. In the
Turbine Assembly:
Velocity of airflow will increase and decrease across the turbine stages. Due to the
energy extraction by the turbine assembly, pressure and temperature gradually will
decrease
In the Exhaust Assembly:
Velocity, temperature and temperature will remain relatively constant until the
propelling nozzle where a dramatic increase in velocity will take place
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPIC 15.2: Engine Performance .................................................................................... 2
Thrust ............................................................................................................................. 2
Thrust Creation .............................................................................................................. 4
Resultant Thrust ............................................................................................................. 8
Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption ................................................................................ 10
Engine Efficiency .......................................................................................................... 11
Turbofan Engines.......................................................................................................... 12
Engine Pressure Ratio ................................................................................................... 15
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) ............................................................... 16
Engine Thrust in Flight ................................................................................................. 17
Engine Ratings .............................................................................................................. 20
Engine Limitations ........................................................................................................ 22
Practice Calculations..................................................................................................... 24
THRUST
The terms used to describe the types of thrust produced by aircraft engines are:
Propeller thrust
Jet thrust
Gross (Static) thrust
Net thrust
Choked nozzle thrust
Thrust distribution
Resultant thrust
Fan thrust
Propeller Thrust
Some aircraft rely on engine driven propellers to produce their thrust. An aircrafts
propeller gives small acceleration to a large weight of air. Propeller Thrust is the thrust
developed by the propeller, as illustrated by Figure 2-1.
Figure 2-1
Figure 2-2
V1 V2
Where:
F g = Gross thrust, in pounds (lbs.).
W a = Weight of airflow in lbs. /sec.
V2 = Exhaust velocity, in ft/sec.
V1 = Inlet velocity, in ft/sec.
g = Gravity acceleration, 32.2 ft./sec2
Net Thrust
Net thrust is the effective thrust developed by the engine during flight. All engine,
aircraft and atmospheric forces must be considered when calculating an engines net
thrust.
Net thrust may be stated basically as the gross thrust less the aircraft forward airspeed.
Net thrust will initially decrease with aircraft acceleration until the engine inlet begins to
experience ram effect. This effect will tend to actually increase net thrust over and above
a predetermined airspeed. Ram effect will generally commence around 160 MPH.
The formula for net thrust may be stated as:
Where:
F n = Net thrust, in lbs.
W a = Weight of airflow in lbs. /sec.
V2 = Exhaust velocity, in ft/sec.
V1 = Inlet velocity, in ft/sec.
Where:
F n = Net thrust in lbs
W a = Weight of airflow in lbs. /sec
V2 = Exhaust velocity in fps
V1 = Inlet velocity in fps2
g = Gravity acceleration in fps
A j = Area of jet nozzle in sq. in.
P j = Pressure at jet nozzle in psi
P am = Pressure ambient
Thrust Distribution
Jet thrust is not solely produced at the engine exhaust or propelling nozzle. It is
developed throughout the engine as a reaction to the forces within the engine.
During the passage of the mass airflow through an engine, changes in airflow velocity
and pressures occur. For instance, in the diffuser section of an axial flow engine, airflow
velocity (kinetic energy) is changed to pressure energy by the diffusers divergent shape.
This change produces force in a forward direction. Conversely, at the turbine nozzle
section, pressure energy is converted to velocity and produces force in a rearward
direction. Figure 2-3 illustrates these principles.
Thrust distribution is defined as the forces resulting from the changes in the pressure
and momentum of the gas stream reacting on the engine structures and rotating
components.
Figure 2-4
Where:
F r = Resultant t thrust
A = area of flow section in sq. in.
P = pressure in lb. per sq. in.
W a = weight of airflow in lb. per sec.
V= velocity of flow in feet per sec.
I = initial force in lbs.
g = gravity acceleration 32.2 ft per sec2
Note that in a typical turbo-jet engine, the combustion section produces the greatest
forward thrust component.
Thrust Horsepower
To compare the thrust of a turbojet or turbofan engine with the effective horsepower of a
turbo-propeller, thrust can be expressed as thrust horsepower (THP).
Thrust horsepower is only calculated in flight. The formula to calculate THP reflects the
fact that an engines produced horsepower will increase as airspeed increases.
The conventional formula is:
THP = Fn x Velocity (ft/sec) / 550 ft/lbs./sec
A more relevant version of this formula targets common flight data:
THP = Fn x Velocity (MPH) / 375 MPH
Example:
Calculate the THP of a turbofan engine that produces 5,000 lbs. of net thrust at an
aircraft speed of 600 MPH.
5 000 600
THP =
375
= 8 000 lbs
The power produced by turboprops engines is called equivalent shaft horsepower (ESHP).
ESHP is defined as the combination of the power supplied to the propeller (SHP) added to
the jet thrust produced by the engine.
The formula for ESHP takes into account that a typical propeller produces 2.5 lb. of
thrust for each SHP delivered by the engine at sea level static condition.
In order to calculate the ESHP of a turbo-propeller, the engines shaft horsepower (SHP)
and net jet thrust (F n ) must be considered. A turbo-propeller produces approximately
2.5 pounds of thrust for each shaft horsepower delivered by the engine under static
conditions at sea level. With this information the ESHP of a turbo-propeller engine can be
calculated using the following equation:
Net Thrust
ESHP = SHP +
2.5
Example:
Calculate the ESHP of a turbo-propeller engine that produces a net thrust of 5 000 lb.
and develops a SHP of 6 250 ft.lb.
5 000
ESHP = 6 250 +
2.5
= 8 250 ft lbs
Shaft horsepower, (sometimes referred to as thermodynamic horsepower) is defined as
the total available horsepower of a fixed turbine type turbo-propeller or turboshaft
engine as measured on a dynamometer. Figure 2-5 shows a typical fixed turbine turbo-
propeller engine.
SFC is directly related to the thermal and propulsive efficiencies; that is, the overall
efficiency of the engine. Theoretically, high thermal efficiency requires high pressures
which in practice also mean high turbine entry temperatures. In a pure turbo-jet engine
this high temperature would result in a high jet velocity and consequently lower the
propulsive efficiency However, by using the by-pass principle, high thermal and
propulsive efficiencies can be effectively combined by bypassing a proportion of the L.P.
compressor or fan delivery air to lower the mean jet temperature and velocity. With
advanced technology engines of high by-pass and overall pressure ratios, a further
pronounced improvement in SFC is obtained.
ENGINE EFFICIENCY
Engine performance is not solely concerned with engine thrust. The efficient conversion
of the fuel into kinetic energy to produce the thrust is also important.
Engine efficiency is defined as the ratio of work accomplished by an engine to the energy
developed by that engine. Efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage.
Due to mechanical friction, air leakage and other losses throughout an engine, the
overall engine efficiency is always less than 100 %. Many factors are considered when
the efficiency of an engine is calculated. The following terms relate to engine efficiency:
Adiabatic efficiency
Thermal efficiency
Propulsive efficiency
Overall efficiency
Thermal efficiency
The thermal efficiency of an engine is the ratio of net work produced by the engine to the
theoretical heat energy the combustion of fuel in the engine can produce.
A ratio of:
Work capability of fuel
To actual work
Adiabatic efficiency
The adiabatic efficiency of an engine is the ratio of work required to compress a gas,
without gain or loss of heat, to the work actually accomplished by the turbine.
Figure 2-6
Propulsive efficiency is the ratio of forward aircraft speed to exhaust gas or propeller
stream speed.
Overall Efficiency
The overall efficiency of an engine is the product of its propulsive efficiency times the
engines thermal efficiency.
This is a measure of an engines ability to use:
Thrust
Fuel
The overall efficiency of an engine directly relates to SFC and TSFC.
TURBOFAN ENGINES
A turbofan engine consists of a multi-bladed ducted propeller driven by a gas turbine
engine. Turbofans were developed to provide a compromise between the best features of
the turbojet and the turboprop.
Turbofan engines have turbojet-type cruise speed capability, yet retain some of the short-
field take-off capability of a turboprop. Nearly all present day airliners are powered by
turbofan engines for the reasons just mentioned as well as the fact that turbofans are
very fuel efficient.
Figure 2-7
Generally, airflow mass in the fan section of a low bypass engine is the same as airflow
mass in the compressor. The fan discharge could be slightly higher or lower depending
on the engine model, but bypass ratios are approximately 1:1.
In some engines the bypass air is ducted directly overboard through a short fan duct.
However, in a ducted fan engine, the bypass air is ducted along the entire length of the
engine. For example: JT8 and RR RB183 Spey.
Full fan ducts reduce aerodynamic drag and noise emissions. In either case, the end of
the duct usually has a converging discharge nozzle that increases velocity and produces
reactive thrust.
Medium or intermediate bypass engines have airflow bypass ratios ranging from 2:1 to
3:1. These engines have thrust ratios similar to their bypass ratios. The fans used on
these engines have a larger diameter than the fans used on low bypass engines of
comparable power. Fan diameter determines a fans bypass ratio and thrust ratio.
High Bypass
High bypass turbofan engines have bypass ratios of 4:1 or greater and use the largest
diameter fan of any of the bypass engines. High bypass turbines offer higher propulsive
efficiencies and better fuel economy than low or medium bypass turbines. Consequently,
they are the engines of choice on large airliners used for long flights. Some common large
high bypass turbofan engines include Pratt and Whitneys JT9D and PW4000, the Rolls-
Royce RB- 211, and the General Electric CF6.
Figure 2-8
Where:
P represents pressure
t represents total (or dynamic) pressure
The number refers to engine station number at the zone being sampled
Mass Airflow
Thrust is produced by the reaction to accelerating the mass airflow through an engine.
However, as the density of the air entering the inlet changes, the mass airflow will
change. This is a result of more, or less, molecules per given volume of air being
available to the engine. If the mass airflow through the engine is decreased, the thrust
developed will decrease. In fact, mass airflow and thrust are directly proportional.
Altitude
As altitude is increased, density decreases. Because air pressure decreases as altitude
increases, the temperature also decreases, but cannot compensate for the loss of density
caused by the increased altitude.
Above 36,000 ft the density decreases more rapidly because the temperature remains
fairly constant above this altitude. For these reasons thrust decreases with increased
altitude. Figure 2-9 shows the effect of altitude on thrust.
Figure 2-9
The altitude effect on thrust can also be discussed as a density and temperature effect.
In this case, an increase in altitude causes a decrease in pressure and temperature.
Since the temperature lapse rate is less than the pressure lapse rate as altitude is
increased, the density is decreased.
Air Temperature
Variations in the air temperature entering the engine will affect the air density and
therefore engine performance. When the temperature is lowered, the density of the air is
increased. Increased density increases the mass airflow through the engine and thus
increases the thrust produced. Figure 2-10 shows the effect of air temperature on
thrust. An engine operating under standard day conditions may produce 10,000 lbs.
thrust, on an extremely cold day the same engine may produce up to 12,000 lbs. thrust.
Conversely, on an extremely hot day the same engine may produce as low as 8,000 lbs.
thrust.
Figure 2-10
Thrust output will improve rapidly with a reduction in Outside Air Temperature (OAT) at
constant altitude, rpm and airspeed. This increase occurs partly because the energy
required per pound of airflow to drive the compressor varies directly with the
temperature, thus leaving more energy to develop thrust. In addition, the thrust output
will increase, since the air at reduced temperature has an increased density. The
increase in density causes the mass flow through the engine to increase.
Humidity
Humidity is described as the percentage of water vapour in a given volume of air.
Because water vapour displaces some of the air, the air is less dense; therefore an
increase in humidity will reduce an engines mass airflow and hence lower engine
performance. In other words, as the humidity increases, the air density decreases with a
corresponding decrease in thrust.
Figure 2-11
As airspeed is increased from static, the ram drag increases rapidly. The exhaust jet
velocity (V2) remains relatively constant; therefore, the effect of the increase in airspeed
results in decreased specific thrust.
A rise in pressure above existing outside atmospheric pressure at the engine inlet, as a
result of the forward velocity of an aircraft, is referred to as ram. Since any ram effect will
cause an increase in compressor entrance pressure over atmospheric pressure, the
resulting pressure rise will cause an increase in the mass airflow and jet velocity, both of
which tend to increase thrust.
Although ram effect increases the engine thrust, the thrust being produced by the engine
decreases for a given throttle setting as the aircraft gains airspeed. Therefore, two
opposing trends occur when an aircrafts speed is increased. What actually takes place is
the net result of these two different effects. An engines thrust output temporarily
decreases as aircraft speed increases from static, but soon ceases to decrease; toward the
higher speeds, thrust output begins to increase again.
Ram Effect
Thrust will initially decrease as airspeed increases due to a reduction in the acceleration
(V1) of the mass airflow through the engine. However, as an aircrafts airspeed increases,
air is being rammed into the inlet causing an increase in inlet pressure. This in turn
increases the mass airflow into the engine and thrust is restored.
Figure 2-12
Ram Drag
Ram drag, sometimes called inlet momentum drag, is the drag caused by the momentum
of the air passing into the engine relative to the speed of the aircraft. This type of drag
must be considered when determining an aircrafts net thrust. In other words, the
theoretical calculation of net thrust may require a reduction in the figure for forward
airspeed to compensate for any Inlet drag evident.
Engine RPM
For all engines, the thrust increases rapidly as the RPM approaches its maximum design
speed. Figure 2-13 illustrates the effect of engine RPM on performance.
Figure 2-13
ENGINE RATINGS
Turbine engines, both turbojet and turbofan, are thrust rated in terms of either engine
pressure ratio or fan speed and turboshaft turboprop engines are SHP rated in the
following categories: Take-off, maximum continuous, maximum climb, maximum cruise,
and idle.
Some engines are flat rated to only 15C, others over 30C. This consideration depends
largely on the needs of the aircraft manufacturer. Generally, flat rating is believed to
enable the engine to produce a constant rated thrust over a wide range of ambient
temperatures without working the engine harder than necessary, in the interest of
prolonging engine service life.
For example, an engine rated at 3,500 pounds thrust at 15C might be re-rated to 3,350
pounds thrust at 32C. The aircraft user might not need to utilize 3,500 pounds thrust,
nor the maximum gross weight of the aircraft, and he would like to benefit from
increased engine service life and lower fuel consumption by operating at 3,350 pounds
thrust maximum.
For a flat rated engine care must be taken when carrying out ground runs on a part
throttle engine to avoid advancing the throttle too far, exceeding take-off power
limitations. On cold days this is especially true. An engine may be de-rated if it is
installed in an aircraft that does not require the engines maximum rated power.
ENGINE LIMITATIONS
Engine operating limitations are determined by the turbine and nozzle materials used. If
limits are exceeded, borescope inspections may need to be performed.
Engine operating limitations are found in the engine Type Certificate Data Sheet and the
Aircraft Maintenance Manual and will include:
(CF6 High-Bypass Turbofan Engine Series as an example)
Maximum thrust settings for all conditions;
Fuel and oil pressures;
Engine oil temperatures;
Engine operating temperature limitations;
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Inlet Ducts ...................................................................................................................... 2
Inlet Duct Losses .......................................................................................................... 13
Inlet Duct Anti-Ice Systems ........................................................................................... 14
INLET DUCTS
When a gas turbine engine is installed in an aircraft it usually requires a number of
accessories fitted to it, and connections made to various aircraft systems. The engine, jet
pipe and accessories, and in some installations a thrust reverser, must be suitably
cowled and an air intake must be provided for the compressor, the complete installation
forming the aircraft power plant.
The main requirement of an air intake is that, under all operating conditions, delivery of
the air to the engine is achieved with the minimum loss of energy occurring through the
duct. To enable the compressor to operate satisfactorily, the air must reach the
compressor at a uniform pressure distributed evenly across the whole inlet area. The air
entrance or flight inlet duct is normally considered to be part of the airframe, not part of
the engine. Nevertheless, it is usually identified as Engine Station Number One.
Understanding the function of the inlet and its importance to engine performance makes
it a necessary part of any discussion on gas turbine engine design and construction.
It has been discovered that even a small discontinuity of airflow can cause significant
efficiency loss, as well as many unexplainable engine performance problems. Therefore, it
follows that, if the inlet duct is to retain its function of delivering air with minimum
turbulence, it must be maintained in as close to new condition as possible. If repairs to
this inlet become necessary, expertly installed flush patches are mandatory to prevent
drag. Moreover, the use of an inlet cover is recommended to promote cleanliness and to
prevent corrosion and abrasion.
Inlet Types
Many air inlet ducts have been designed to accommodate new airframe/engine
combinations and variations in engine mounting locations. In addition, air inlets are
designed to meet certain criteria for operation at different airspeeds. Some of the most
common locations where engine inlets are mounted are:
In the wing
On the fuselage
On the engine
In Wing
Some early commercial and military aircraft had engines installed in the wings. In wing
design provided streamlining for the turbojet engines of the era. The Inlet ducts are
constructed from aluminium alloy and built into the wing forming part of the secondary
structure. Since the introduction of high-bypass turbofan engines this design has
become impractical.
Most multi turbojet and turbofan aircraft have the inlet ducts mounted directly onto the
front of the engine. Some turboprops have engine mounted inlets as part of their
powerplant assembly.
Inlets are constructed from aluminium alloy and/or composites such as carbon fibre and
Kevlar. Typically, turbofan inlets are bolted to the forward flange of the inlet case or fan
case. This allows for short, efficient inlet ducts with minimal internal skin friction.
Some multi engine jet aircraft have the engines mounted on the aft fuselage. The inlet
ducts may be mounted directly onto the front of the engine or form part of the fuselage,
engine pylon, or stub wing structure. Inlets are constructed from aluminium alloy
and/or composites such as carbon fibre and Kevlar. Inlets forming part of the aft
fuselage may have a long S shaped duct.
Single engine and some twin engine military aircraft have their engines mounted within
the fuselage. The inlet may form part of the fuselage structure.
Inlet ducts may be mounted in the nose, under or on both sides of the fuselage.
The ideal air inlet for a turbo jet engine fitted to an aircraft flying at subsonic or low
supersonic speeds, is a single, short, pitot type circular Inlet, as illustrated in the figure
below. This type of inlet makes full use of ram effect on the air due to forward speed,
and suffers the minimum loss of ram pressure with changes in aircraft attitude.
However, as sonic speed is approached, the efficiency of this type of air Inlet begins to fall
due to the formation of a shock wave at the inlet lip.
Although this short straight duct results in minimum pressure drop, the engine tends to
suffer from inlet turbulence, especially at low airspeed and/or high angles of attack
(AoA).
The pitot type inlet can be used for engines which are mounted in pods, wings, or other
flying surfaces, although the inlet sometimes require a departure from the circular cross
section due to the area of the surface.
For instance the tail inlet of a Boeing 737 is oval, others are squared off, and even the
wing pylon mounted engine inlets of some aircraft are squared due to their proximity to
the ground when the wing is flexed.
The inlet duct, such as those found on business and commercial jet aircraft, is of fixed
geometry and has a divergent shape. A diverging duct progressively increases in diameter
from front to back. This duct is sometimes referred to as an inlet diffuser because of its
effect on pressure. Air enters the aerodynamically contoured inlet at ambient pressure
and starts to diffuse, arriving at the compressor at a slightly increased static pressure.
Usually, the air is allowed to diffuse (increase in static pressure) in the front portion of
the duct and to progress at a fairly constant pressure past the engine inlet fairing, also
called inlet centre body, to the compressor. The engine, in this manner, receives its air
with minimal turbulence and at a more uniform pressure.
Inlet pressure increases add significantly to the mass airflow as the aircraft reaches its
desired cruising speed. It is here that the compressor reaches its aerodynamic design
point and produces its optimum compression and best fuel economy.
When the aircraft engine is operated on the ground, there is a negative pressure in the
inlet because of the high velocity of the mass airflow being drawn into the inlet by the
compressor.
As the aircraft begins to move forward, air is rammed into the inlet and ram recovery
takes place. The resultant increase in inlet pressure cancels the drop in pressure in the
inlet and conditions return to ambient, as shown in the figure.
Ram recovery normally begins to occur at speeds above Mach 0.1 (160 MPH (260 knots)
in most aircraft. As aircraft speed continues to increase, ram compression increases.
The engine can use this effect to increase the compression ratio and thus create more
thrust with less fuel usage.
The supersonic diffuser type of inlet provides a means of creating both a shock wave
formation to reduce air velocity and a variable convergent- divergent shape to meet the
various flight conditions from take-off to cruise. Air velocity will drop to approximately
Mach 0.8 in back of the final shock wave and then to Mach 0.5 by diffusion.
The figure below illustrates a movable wedge which provides a similar function of
convergence, divergence, and shock wave formation. It also has a spill valve to dump
unwanted ram air overboard at high speed. Many high performance aircraft have an
excess of mass flow at cruising speeds.
The Concord inlets, shown below, provide a good illustration of how complicated an inlet
may have to be to take full advantage of the energy recovery that is possible. At the speed
of sound, half the pressure needed by the engine for combustion may be provided by ram
effect and the other half by compression through the engine.
At twice the speed of sound, pressure ratios in the vicinity of 30:1 are possible, and at
three times the speed of sound, this may rise to 50:1.
Another method used to vary the geometry of an inlet duct utilizes a movable spike, or
plug, which is positioned as necessary to alter the shape of the inlet as aircraft speed
changes. The shape of the spike and surrounding inlet duct combine to form a movable
C-D inlet. During transonic flight (Mach .75 to 1.2), the movable spike is extended
forward to produce a normal shock wave, or bow wave, at the inlet. As airspeed
increases, the spike is repositioned to shift the C-D duct for optimum inlet shape at the
new airspeed. As airspeed increases to supersonic, the bow wave changes to multiple
oblique shock waves, extending from the tip of the spike, and a normal shock wave
develops at the lip of the inlet.
Bellmouth Inlets
Bellmouth compressor inlets, shown below, are convergent in shape and are commonly
found on helicopters and turbo propeller aircraft. They present a mouth considerably
wider in circumference than the engine compressor inlet, and smoothly converge,
funnelling air down to compressor inlet circumference. You may have seen similar
fittings on car or motorcycle carburettors.
Bellmouths eliminate the necking down effect of an air stream passing through a plain
orifice, and allows the engine to draw all the air it can use. They do however, contribute
a large drag factor.
As the duct losses are very small, bellmouth ducts are often used during ground testing
and calibration, fitted with mesh screens (depicted below) to protect technicians from
ingestion hazards while making trimming adjustments on running engines, screens also
provide FOD protection. Screens have been tried on aircraft during flight however fatigue
and maintenance trouble created as many problems as the FOD they prevented. They
may still be seen however, on some helicopters.
The use of compressor inlet screens is usually limited to rotorcraft, turboprops, and
ground turbine installations. This may appear peculiar to the casual observer who
realizes the appetite of all gas turbines for debris such as nuts, bolts, stones, etc.
Screens have been tried in high subsonic flight engines in the past, but icing and screen
fatigue failure caused so many maintenance problems that the use of inlet screens has
for the most part been avoided.
When aircraft are fitted with inlet screens for protection against foreign object ingestion,
they may be located internally or externally at either the inlet duct or compressor inlet.
One type of separator used on some turboprop aircraft incorporates a movable vane
which extends into the inlet airstream. Once extended, the vane creates a prominent
venturi and a sudden turn in the engine inlet. Combustion air can follow the sharp curve
but sand and ice particles cannot because of their inertia. The movable vane is operated
by the operator through a control handle in the cockpit.
Another type of particle separator uses several individual filter elements that act as a
swirl chamber. With this type of system, as incoming air passes through each element, a
swirling motion is imparted by helical vanes. The swirling motion creates enough
centrifugal force to throw the dirt particles to the outside of the chamber.
Divided Inlet
Divided Inlets, as shown in the figure below, are used on single engine aircraft to avoid
using long inlet type ducts. Usually the twin divided inlet ducts merge into the wing
leading edges on each side of the fuselage.
The disadvantage of the divided type of inlet is that when the aircraft yaws, a loss of ram
pressure occurs on one side of the Inlet as shown in the diagram below causing an
uneven distribution of airflow into the compressor.
Some aircraft utilise a system of doors which allow extra air into the inlet duct.
Secondary air inlet doors are designed to react to excess negative pressure within the
inlet. If the pressure within the inlet falls below a predetermined pressure, the suck-in
doors are pushed open by the high external air pressure and allow extra airflow to the
compressor.
The engine inlet duct must provide a uniform supply of air to the compressor if the
engine is to perform at optimum efficiency. To do this, the duct must create as little
resistance as possible. To aid in the prevention of intake drag or resistance, the duct
should be kept smooth and clean, and any damage in the intake area must be
immediately repaired in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. Curves or
bends must be minimal and carefully blended.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Compressor Section ........................................................................................................ 2
Centrifugal Flow Compressors ........................................................................................ 3
Axial Flow Compressors .................................................................................................. 9
COMPRESSOR SECTION
The compressor section houses the compressor rotor and works to supply air in
sufficient quantity to satisfy the needs of the combustor. Compression results when fuel
energy of combustion, and mechanical work of the compressor and turbine, are
converted into potential energy. The compressor is part of the Cold Section of the
engine.
Compressors operate on the principle of acceleration of a working fluid followed by
diffusion, to convert the acquired kinetic energy to a pressure rise. The primary purpose
of the compressor is to increase the pressure of the mass of air entering the engine inlet
and discharge it to the diffuser, and then to the combustor section, at the correct
velocity, temperature, and pressure.
Compressor efficiency is based on the principle of maximum compression with the least
temperature rise.
In the compressor, temperature rise is caused by:
Compression
Friction
The colder the air entering the combustor the greater the temperature rise during
combustion.
The problems associated with these requirements can be realized if one considers that
some compressors must flow air at a velocity of 120 to 150 metres per second (400 to
500 feet per second) and raise its static pressure perhaps 20 to 30 times in the space of
only a metre or so (a few feet) of engine length.
In early compressors which were less efficient than what we have today, a given amount
of work input produced air at a lower pressure and at a higher temperature. To improve
on laminar air flow over hundreds of small aerofoils at high velocity and pressure,
compressors have been undergoing constant development through the years to achieve
optimum efficiency. Presently, this efficiency is said to be in the 85 to 90% range.
Compressor efficiency is based on the principle of maximum compression with the least
temperature rise. Laminar flow minimizes friction induced heat in the air.
A secondary purpose of the compressor section is to supply engine service bleed air to
cool hot section parts, to pressurize bearing seals, and to supply heated air for inlet anti-
icing and fuel system heat for de-icing. Another secondary purpose is to extract air for
aircraft uses, and this is usually referred to as customer service bleed air. Common uses
for this air include aircraft cabin pressurization, air conditioning systems, pneumatic
starting, and various other incidental functions that require clean pressurized air.
There are two basic types of Compressors:
Centrifugal flow (Figure 1)
Axial flow (Figure 2)
Some engines use both types. - These are referred to as centri-axial flow.
Figure 3: Centrifugal Flow Impellers Single Stage (left), Dual-Sided Impellers (right)
Diffuser
High velocity air from the impeller is slung into divergent ducts within the diffuser. The
purpose of the diffuser is to convert velocity energy into pressure energy (Figure 7).
The diffuser is typically made from either:
Aluminium alloy
Steel alloy
Figure 9: Mass Airflow and Pressure Rise are Governed by Impeller Rotational Speed
Compression ratios are about the same for single sided and dual sided single stage
impellers. Ratios as high as 10:1 can be obtained from a single stage centrifugal
compressor. Compression can be boosted to about 15:1 by a second compressor stage.
More than two stages of single entry is impractical because of:
Airflow energy loss when making the turns from one impeller to the next
High weight per stage
High drive power extraction
The main consideration in the many design features one sees, such as types of impeller,
shapes of inlets, shapes of outer casings, etc., usually lies in the fact that one design fits
the needs of a particular aircraft better than another design. The most commonly seen
centrifugal compressor is the single sided type in either one or two stages. It is most
often used in small engines, to include turboshaft, turboprop, and turbofan. It is not
found in large gas turbine engines because it would impose a serious limitation on mass
airflow.
A resurgence of the use of centrifugal compressors can be seen. Recent developments
have produced compression ratios as high as 10:1 from a single centrifugal compressor.
Formerly, only axial flow compressors could attain this level of compression. The
centrifugal compressor is shorter in length than an axial compressor and that is its main
advantage.
Single Spool
The single spool was common in the past for small and large engines, but today it is
typically found only in small turboshaft and turboprop engines. The dual spool is the
most common design currently being used in large turbofan and turboprop engines. The
triple spool, a more recent technological development, is used on some large and medium
size turbofan engines.
In a basic axial flow compressor, the compressor and turbine are connected by a single shaft and
rotate as a single unit
Figure 11).
Since there is only one compressor unit, the compressor is commonly referred to as a single spool
compressor. While single spool compressors are relatively simple and inexpensive to manufacture,
they do have a few drawbacks. For example, in a long axial compressor the rear stages operate at
a fraction of their capacity, while the forward stages are typically overloaded. Furthermore, the
large mass of a single spool compressor does not respond quickly to abrupt control input changes.
Dual Spool
The rotors of a dual spool engine are not mechanically connected together. They have two
units:
Low Pressure (LP or, N1) system
High Pressure (HP or, N2) Gas generator system
Compressor Stages
All axial flow compressors have two main components:
Rotor
Stator
A rotor followed by a stator, make up a compressor stage (Figure 14). Several stages
make up the complete compressor. The compression ratio per stage can increase from
1:1.1 to as much as 1:1.5 (10% to 50%), but depends on the engine type. An axial flow
compressor will normally have from 10 to 18 stages of compression, increasing the
pressure many times more than the intake pressure.
Compressor Blades
Compressor blades are constructed with a varying angle of incidence, or twist, similar to
that of a propeller. This design feature compensates for the effect on airflow caused by
differences in airflow over the different stations of each blade from the base to the tip.
The blades also reduce in size from the first stage to the last to accommodate the
converging or tapering shape of the compressor housing in which they are rotating. The
need for a converging duct within the compressor is explained in a subsequent
paragraph entitled Compressor Taper Design.
There are several reasons for the shapes of compressor aerofoils. The length, chord,
thickness, and aspect ratio (ratio of length to width) are calculated to suit the
performance factors required for a particular engine and aircraft combination.
Stator vanes are the stationary blades located between each row of rotating blades in an
axial flow compressor. As discussed earlier, the stator vanes act as diffusers for the air
coming off the rotor, decreasing its velocity and raising its pressure. In addition, the
stators help prevent swirling, and direct the flow of air coming off each stage to the next
stage at the appropriate angle. Like rotor blades, stator vanes have an aerofoil shape. In
addition, the angle of attack of stator vanes can be fixed or variable. Stator vanes are
normally constructed out of stainless steel alloy, nickel steel alloy, steel, or nickel
because these metals have high fatigue strength. However, titanium may also be used for
stator vanes in the low pressure and temperature stages.
Stator vanes may be secured directly to the compressor casing or to a stator vane
retaining ring, which is secured to the compressor case. Most stator vanes are attached
in rows with a dovetail arrangement and project radially toward the rotor axis. Stator
vanes are often shrouded at their tips to minimize vibration tendencies (Figure 18).
The set of stator vanes immediately in front of the first stage rotor blades are called inlet
guide vanes. These vanes direct the airflow into the first stage rotor blades at the best
angle while imparting a swirling motion in the direction of engine rotation. This action
improves the aerodynamics of the compressor by reducing the drag on the first stage
rotor blades. Some axial compressors with high compressor pressure ratios utilize
variable inlet guide vanes plus several stages of variable stator vanes. These variable inlet
guide vanes and stators automatically reposition themselves to maintain proper airflow
through the engine under varying operating conditions.
Air entering the first stage of the compressor is turned by the Inlet Guide Vanes (IGVs).
Inlet guide vanes are similar to the stator vanes. They direct the air at the correct angle
to be picked up by the compressor blades. IGVs have a minimum effect on the velocity or
pressure. IGVs are mostly fixed but may be variable on some engines. Air entering the
first stage of the compressor is turned by the inlet guide vanes so that it flows in the
correct direction to be picked up by the rotor blades.
Inlet guide vanes are similar to the stator vanes, but they are designed to have a
minimum effect on the velocity or pressure of the incoming air.
8
6.6 = 1.266
A turbofan engine, also called a bypass engine, has a set of lengthened blades in the first
stage or stages of the low pressure compressor. Most of the air that flows through the fan
section of the engine bypasses, or flows around the outside of the core engine. Depending
upon the bypass ratio, the amount of thrust produced by the fan can be as high as 85%
of the total thrust. The fan supplies the first stage of compression. This boosts the airflow
into the LP system of a dual spool turbofan or into the IP system of a triple spool
turbofan.
Fan compression ratios for single low bypass fans are approximately 1.5:1 and for high
bypass fans as high as 1.7:1.
Figure 21: Rear Blades of the Compressor are Shorter than those at the Front
Compressor Taper
As pressure builds in the rear stages of the compressor, velocity tends to drop, in
accordance with Bernoullis Principle. This is not desirable because, in order to create
thrust, the gas turbine engine operates on a principle of velocity change in airflow.
Velocity rises and falls through the successive stages of the compressor, but maintains
approximately the same inlet and outlet velocity. Even though the pressure is rising
dramatically, the velocity is held relatively constant.
In order to stabilize the velocity, the shape of the compressor gas path converges,
reducing to approximately 25% of the inlet flow area. This tapered shape provides the
proper amount of space for the compressed air to occupy (Figure 21).
If the compressor blades were all the same length, and the air flowed through a constant
area duct, its velocity would decrease as its pressure increased.
To keep the air velocity relatively constant as its pressure is increased, the rear blades of
the compressor are shorter than those at the front, and the passage through which the
air flows become smaller as the pressure increases.
Cascade Effect
So, why does the airflow through an axial flow compressor flow from a low pressure to a
higher pressure?
The engine section between the compressor and combustor sections is known as the
compressor diffuser because it provides additional space in which air coming from the
compressor spreads out. It is a diverging duct and is usually a separate section that is
bolted to the compressor case (Figure 23).
The diffuser case also contains the HP compressor discharge bleed ports and fuel
nozzles.
The diffuser is known as the point of highest pressure in the gas turbine engine. The
high wall of pressure it provides, in effect, gives the combustion products something to
push against.
The point of highest pressure idea needs some interpretation in reference to pressure
total (Pt) or pressure static (Ps). At the diffuser inlet, for example, if total pressure (Pt) is
200 pounds per square inch absolute, at the exit of the diffuser, Pt is also 200 pounds
per square inch absolute. The diffusing action that takes place as air moves from the
inlet to the exit of the diffuser section creates an increase in static pressure (Ps) at the
expense of velocity.
Static pressure (measured as either absolute pressure or gauge pressure) will be higher
at the diffuser exit, and this is the point of highest static pressure (Ps) in the engine.
If the now familiar (Pt/Ps) formula were used to calculate Ps at the diffuser inlet when
airflow Mach = 0.5 (an average value engine to engine), Ps would be approximately 169
pounds per square inch absolute. The remaining 31 psig would be in the form of ram
pressure. At the diffuser outlet, if airflow drops to Mach = 0.35 (another average value),
Ps would be approximately 184 pounds per square inch absolute, leaving 16 pounds per
square inch absolute as ram pressure. What is evident here is that the total pressure (Pt)
of 200 does not change if mass flow does not change and that only static and ram
pressure values change.
Compressor Stall
Angle of attack (AOA) of the compressor blade is the result of:
Inlet air velocity
Compressor rpm
The two forces combine to form a vector, the angle of attack of the aerofoil. Compressor
stall is an imbalance between the two vector quantities. A compressor stall is a condition
all gas turbine engines experience from time to time.
One of the characteristics of a gas turbine engine is its tendency to stall under certain
operating conditions. Compressor stall occurs in many different types of gas turbine
engines. Depending on the operating conditions, stall or surge can occur in various
forms and intensities. Compressor stall or surge, in its most violent stage, can cause
engine damage and a loud audible noise. Surge is the airflow velocity in the rear of the
compressor slowing down to the point of restricting airflow into the compressor.
Compressor stalls can be initiated at both the entrance to and the exit from the
compressor. Careful inlet designs minimize the chance of an intake induced stall.
At the low end of the compressor speed range the variable vane system allows less air to
enter. This in turn keeps compression low and prevents piling up of air molecules in the
rear stages which tend to block airflow.
At the low end of the compressor speed range the compressor bleed system bleeds away
the excess of air molecules in the rear stages, which in effect accomplishes the very same
results. On larger engines, one or more bleed valves fitted to the compressors outer case
are used to dump unwanted air either into the fan duct or directly overboard.
On smaller engines, it is more convenient to use a sliding band which uncovers bleed
ports to bleed away unwanted air.
On large engines, a combination of bleed valves and variable vanes may be used. The
higher the compressor pressure ratio, the greater need for systems which control the
stall margin.
Generally, stall/surge bleed valves are either fully open or fully closed.
The bleed valve is fully open when the engine is:
Shutdown
Starting
At idle to intermediate power
The bleed valve is fully closed when the engine is:
At take-off
At cruise power
Airflow Control
Where high pressure ratios are required it becomes necessary to introduce airflow control
into the compressor design. This may take the form of variable inlet guide vanes for the
first stage plus a number of stages incorporating variable stator vanes for the succeeding
stages.
As the compressor speed is reduced from its design value these static vanes are
progressively closed in order to maintain an acceptable air angle of attack onto the
following rotor blades.
Figure 34: Place Blades 120 Degrees Apart for Odd Number of Fan Blades
On fans with odd numbers of blades, blades with similar moment weight are replaced
120 degrees apart (Figure 34). Spare blades are grouped in threes of similar moment
weights. (No more than about 200 cm.g difference). Blade moment weight of the three
blades does NOT need to be exactly the same; but must be within the range set out by
the manufacturer. Correction of the imbalance is carried out by adding different weight
balance screws to the fan spinner cone in a similar procedure to even blade number
fans.
Trim balance is a procedure used to reduce the engine vibration level. This procedure
must be performed whenever the engine vibration reaches the level (about 8.0 mils) set-
out in the manufactures aircraft maintenance manual. Usually vibration of this
magnitude can be felt in the aircraft cabin.
High engine vibration can lead to rapid loss of the engines EGT margin and engine
damage.
Balance is corrected by installing heavier or lighter weight screws in the fan spinner. The
exact location and weight of the screws must be determined by plotting vector quantities
on a polar graph.
Centri-axial Compressors
The centrifugal compressor is commonly used in conjunction with the axial flow
compressor but seems only to meet the needs of smaller flight engines (business jets and
helicopters).
All larger engines today are of the axial flow type. However, a resurgence of the use of
centrifugal compressors can be seen. Recent developments have produced compression
ratios as high as 10:1 from a single centrifugal compressor.
Formerly, only axial flow compressors could attain this level of compression. The
centrifugal compressor is shorter in length than an axial compressor and that is its main
advantage.
OVERVIEW
The combustion section is typically located directly between the compressor diffuser and
turbine section.
All combustion sections contain the same basic elements:
One or more combustion chambers (combustors or cans)
A fuel injection system
An ignition source
Fuel drainage system
The combustion chamber, or combustor, is where the fuel and air are mixed and burned.
The fuel injection system supplies the fuel through the fuel nozzles into the combustors.
A typical ignition source is the high energy capacitor discharge system.
A fuel drainage system accomplishes the important task of draining the unburned fuel
after engine shutdown.
The combustion section or burner, as it is called, consists basically of an outer casing,
an inner perforated liner, a fuel injection system, and a starting ignition system. The
function of this section is to add heat energy to the flowing gases, thereby expanding and
accelerating the gases into the turbine section
One way to think about combustion is that, when fuel heat is added, the volume of the
gas is increased and, with flow area remaining the same, this causes an acceleration of
gases to occur.
This process is referred to as combustion at constant pressure: the pressure at the exit
does not alter significantly to the entry pressure.
The combustion chamber or combustor in a turbine engine is where the fuel and air are
mixed and burned. A typical combustor consists of an outer casing with a perforated
inner liner. The perforations are various sizes and shapes, all having a specific effect on
the flame propagation within the liner.
The fuel injection system meters the appropriate amount of fuel through the fuel nozzles
into the combustors. Fuel nozzles are located in the combustion chamber case or in the
compressor outlet elbows. Fuel is delivered through the nozzles into the liners in a finely
atomised spray to ensure thorough mixing with the incoming air. A more rapid and
efficient the combustion process is achieved with a finer spray.
A typical ignition source for gas turbine engines is the high energy capacitor discharge
system, consisting of an exciter unit, two high tension cables, and two spark ignitors.
This ignition system produces 60 to 100 sparks per minute, resulting in a ball of fire at
the igniter electrodes. Some of these systems produce enough energy to shoot sparks
several inches, so care must be taken to avoid a lethal shock during maintenance tests.
A fuel drainage system accomplishes the important task of draining the unburned fuel
after engine shutdown. Draining accumulated fuel reduces the possibility of exceeding
tailpipe or turbine inlet temperature limits due to an engine fire after shutdown. In
addition, draining the unburned fuel helps to prevent gum deposits in the fuel manifold,
nozzles, and combustion chambers which are caused by fuel residue.
Multiple-Can Type
Some annular combustors are designed so the airflow can reverse direction (Figure 5).
Flame Stabilisation
The flame in the combustor is stabilised by reducing axial velocity of the air. Air exits the
compressor at about 200 metres per second (700 ft/s) where it is then diffused. Its axial
velocity drops to approximately 150 metres per second (500 ft/s). The air velocity is
further reduced by using swirl vanes in the combustion chamber.
It is desirable to anchor the flame as close as possible to the fuel nozzle. It must have a
region of low velocity air in the combustor. The swirl vanes slow the gas and the fuel is
introduced in fine particles. This prevents overheating in the chamber and stops the
flame actually touching the metal wall of the combustor. The fuel also has a spin
imparted to it from the fuel nozzle. This is achieved by inducing a swirl into the fuel and
air entering the combustor. The swirl also assists atomisation of the fuel. Also, air holes
in the liner primary zone are shaped to induce a torroidal vortex, similar to a smoke ring,
which stabilises and anchors the flame. Low velocity air is required for flame stabilisation
(Flame could blow out).
Flame Temperatures
The primary combustion temperature is about 1,800 to 2,000C. Flame stabilisation,
cooling and dilution air, keeps the gas temperatures within the tolerance of the turbine
materials at approximately 900C.
The single line duplex type receives its fuel at one inlet port and becomes a flow divider
to distribute fuel through two spray orifices. Often, as shown below, the round centre
orifice, called the pilot, or primary fuel, sprays at a wide angle during engine start and
acceleration to idle.
A second type of duplex nozzle, called a dual line duplex type is quite similar to the
single line except that it contains no flow divider check valve to separate primary and
secondary fuel (Figure 13).
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Turbines ......................................................................................................................... 2
Axial flow Turbine ........................................................................................................... 2
Gas Path through the Turbine......................................................................................... 7
Turbine Blades................................................................................................................ 7
Turbine Blade Construction .......................................................................................... 10
Turbine Discs................................................................................................................ 13
Sealing Methods ............................................................................................................ 13
Power Extraction ........................................................................................................... 14
Turbine Loads and Stresses .......................................................................................... 16
Radial Inflow Turbine .................................................................................................... 18
TURBINES
The turbine has the task of providing the power to drive the compressor and accessories
and in the case of engines that do not make use solely of a jet for propulsion, of providing
shaft power for a propeller or rotor.
Operating Principles
The turbine carries out the task of extracting energy from the hot gases released from the
combustion system and expanding them to a lower pressure and temperature. The
energy is extracted by passing the airflow over a set of aerofoil shaped blades. High
stresses are involved in this process, and for efficient operation, the turbine blade tips
may rotate at speeds up to 1,300 feet per second. The continuous flow of gas to which
the turbine is exposed may have an entry temperature between 700 and 1,300 C, and
may reach a velocity of 2,000 feet per second in parts of the turbine.
Turbine Stator
A stator element is most commonly referred to as the turbine nozzle; however, you may
also hear the stator elements referred to as the turbine guide vanes, or the nozzle
diaphragm. The turbine nozzle is located directly aft of the combustion section and
immediately forward of the turbine wheel. Because of its location, the turbine nozzle is
typically exposed to the highest temperatures in a gas turbine engine. They are typically
made from nickel based alloy. Advanced NGVs designs are ceramic or are nickel alloy
with ceramic coatings.
The design of nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades is based broadly on aerodynamic
considerations. To obtain optimum efficiency compatible with compressor and
combustor design, the nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades are of a basic aerofoil
shape (Figure 4).
The main purpose of NGVs is to direct the exhaust gasses onto the turbine blades at the
optimum angle of attack for efficient operation, another purpose may be to decrease
pressure and increase velocity of the gas onto the turbine blade.
In the impulse type of blades, as shown in Figure 6, the total pressure drop across each
stage of turbine occurs in the nozzle guide vanes, which, because of their convergent
shape, increase the gas velocity whilst reducing the pressure. The gas is then directed
onto the blades which experience an impulse force caused by the impact of the gas on
the blade. Impulse blades are commonly used on cartridge and air starters. The
diagram shows the bucket-like shape of the turbine blades.
In the reaction type of blades (Figure 7) the fixed nozzle guide vanes are designed to alter
the gas flow direction without changing the pressure. The converging blade passages
experience a reaction force resulting from the expansion and acceleration of the gas.
Normally gas turbine engines do not use pure impulse or pure reaction
Impulse/reaction blades are a combination of the impulse and the reaction types of
blades as shown in Figure 8. Normally, gas turbine engines do not use either pure
impulse or pure reaction turbine blades.
With the impulse turbine, the total pressure drop across each stage occurs in the fixed
nozzle guide vanes and the effect on the turbine blades is one of momentum only. With
the reaction turbine, the total pressure drop occurs through the turbine blade passage.
With impulse/reaction turbine, the proportion of each principle incorporated in its
design is therefore largely dependent on the type of engine in which the turbine is to
operate, but in general it is about 50% impulse and 50% reaction.
The turbine is driven by the impulse of the gas flow and its subsequent reaction as it
accelerates through the converging blade passage.
To more evenly distribute the workload along the length of the blade most modern
turbine engines incorporate impulse/reaction turbine blades. With this type of blade, the
blade base is impulse shaped while the blade tip is reaction shaped. This design creates
a uniform velocity and pressure drop across the entire blade length.
Energy Transfer
The nozzle and blades of the turbine are twisted, the blades having a stagger angle that
is greater at the tip than the root, as shown in Figure 10.
The reason for this twist is to make the gas flow from the combustion section do equal
work at all positions along the length of the blade, and to ensure that the flow enters the
exhaust system with a uniform axial velocity.
TURBINE BLADES
Turbine blades are either open at the tip or fitted with interlocking shrouds. It is
common to see both types in one engine, with the high speed wheel containing open tip
blades and the lower speed wheel shrouded tip blades.
Tip loading from rotational forces often limits the use of shrouds to lower speed
locations, such as low pressure turbines in turbofan engines.
SEALING METHODS
The most common methods of sealing turbines are abradable shroud ring and knife edge
tips shown in Figure 19.
The shrouds are small segments at the tips of the blades to prevent leakage across the
tips.
When shrouded tips are not used, a snug fit between the tips and the turbine casing is
ensured by either abradable blade tips or an abradable lining fitted to the case.
POWER EXTRACTION
As the high velocity gases pass through the turbine nozzle and impact the turbine
blades, the turbine wheel rotates. In some engines, a single turbine wheel cannot absorb
sufficient energy from the exhaust gas to drive the compressor and accessories.
Therefore, many engines use multiple turbine stages, each stage consisting of a turbine
nozzle and wheel.
Once the turbine has extracted enough power to run the compressor, the exhaust gas
uses its remaining energy to add to the reactive force of thrust. A turbojet engine relies
on the exhaust stream velocity to contribute significantly to thrust.
Turboprop Engine
A turboprop engine is a gas turbine engine that drives a propeller to produce thrust.
Turboprops, like all gas turbine engines, have a compressor section, combustion section,
turbine section, and exhaust section. These sections carry out the same functions as if
they were installed in a turbojet engine. However, a turboprop engine is designed with a
few differences. For example, the turbine of a turboprop engine extracts up to 85 percent
of the engines total power output to drive the propeller. To do this, most turboprop
engines utilize multiple stage turbines (Figure 23). In addition, the turbine blades in a
turboprop engine are designed to extract more energy from the exhaust gases than the
blades found in a turbojet engine.
Turboshaft Engines
Turboshaft engines are gas turbine engines that operate something other than a
propeller by delivering power to a shaft. Turboshaft engines are similar to turboprop
engines, and in some instances, both use the same design. Like turboprops, turboshaft
engines use almost all the energy in the exhaust gases to drive an output shaft. The
power may be taken directly from the engine turbine, or the shaft may be driven by its
own free turbine. Like free turbines in turboprop engines, a free turbine in a turboshaft
engine is not mechanically coupled to the engines main rotor shaft, so it may operate at
its own speed. Free turbine designs are used extensively in current production model
engines. Turboshaft engines are frequently used to power helicopters and auxiliary power
units aboard large commercial aircraft.
Creep Checks
At intervals laid down in the maintenance manual, or when an engine is operated outside
its working limits (i.e. over-temperature or over-speeding) a turbine check is required.
There are two methods of carrying out a creep check:
Measure each blade individually
Measure the distance between the turbine blade tip and the shroud ring
The measurements obtained are then compared to the last creep check measurements,
and an indication of blade creep can be ascertained.
Of the two methods of carrying out turbine blade checks, measuring each blade
individually is the most accurate as it is not affected by such variables as turbine disc
growth or turbine shroud warpage. However, to carry this check out, the turbine
assembly must be removed from the engine, to give the fitter access to the blades.
Although not as accurate, measuring the distance from the tip of the turbine blade to the
shroud ring is a more convenient and practical method of ascertaining the turbine
condition at short notice.
The method used to check the clearance between the tips of the turbine blades and the
inner diameter of the shroud is as follows:
Insert feeler gauges into the gap between the turbine blade tips and the turbine
shroud at the 12 oclock position
Rotate the disc to find the blade which gives the least clearance
Mark this blade with an approved hot end marking pencil
Insert the feeler gauges between the marked blade and the turbine shroud at
sixteen places around the shroud circumference
The sixteen clearances which were measured should be recorded on a clock face
diagram
The measurements are then compared to previous tip clearance checks and the
maintenance manual to check any abnormal growth or out of tolerance clearances
From the measurements recorded it is possible to determine whether the shroud
ring has warped or excessive blade creep has occurred
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Gas Turbine Engine Exhaust .......................................................................................... 2
Engine Noise ................................................................................................................... 7
Thrust Reversers ........................................................................................................... 10
Tail Pipe
A tailpipe is an extension of the exhaust section that directs exhaust gases safely from
the exhaust cone to the exhaust, or jet nozzle. The use of a tailpipe imposes a penalty on
an engines operating efficiency due to heat and duct friction losses. These losses cause a
drop in the exhaust gas velocity and, hence, the thrust. Tailpipes are used almost
exclusively with engines that are installed within an aircrafts fuselage to protect the
surrounding airframe. Engines installed in a nacelle or pod and which may require no
tailpipe, the exhaust nozzle is mounted directly to the exhaust cone assembly.
Afterburners
An exhaust nozzle opening can have either a fixed or variable area. A variable geometry
nozzle is sometimes necessary on engines that utilize an afterburner. Variable nozzles
are typically operated with pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric controls.
Afterburners are used to accelerate the exhaust gases, which in turn, increases thrust.
An afterburner is typically installed immediately aft of the last stage turbine and forward
of the exhaust nozzle. The components that make up an afterburner include the fuel
manifold, an ignition source, and a flame holder.
Turboprop Exhaust
In a typical turboprop exhaust system, the exhaust gases are directed through a tail pipe
assembly from the turbine section of the engine to the atmosphere. The exhaust
arrangement used depends on the type of engine. Turboprop engines utilizing a through-
flow burner typically expel the gases straight out the back of the engine and out the
nacelle. This extracts the maximum amount of thrust from the velocity of the hot gases.
Engines using a reverse flow combustor may exhaust the hot gases near the front of the
engine. This design collects the exhaust gases and vents them overboard through
exhaust stacks. There is very little additional thrust provided by this type of exhaust.
Helicopter tailpipes are often divergent in shape to nullify any thrust produced. This
enhances hover stability. The power required to drive the rotors is extracted through the
turbines, but any residual thrust from the tailpipe would produce a thrust on the
aircraft. Typically, the exhaust system is designed to produce no thrust.
Exhaust Insulation
Engine insulation blankets are used to shield portions of an aircrafts structure from the
intense heat radiated by the exhaust duct. In addition, blankets reduce the possibility of
leaking fuel or oil coming in contact with hot engine parts and accidentally igniting.
Common places where insulation blankets may be used include the combustion, turbine,
and exhaust sections.
Aluminium, glass fibre, and stainless steel are among the materials used in the
manufacture of engine insulation blankets. Several layers of fibreglass, aluminium foil,
and silver foil are covered with a stainless steel shroud to form a typical blanket. The
fibreglass is a low conductance material and the layers of metal foil act as radiation
shields. Each blanket is manufactured with a suitable covering that prevents it from
becoming oil soaked. Although insulation blankets were used extensively on early engine
installations, they are typically not required with modern turbofan engine installations.
ENGINE NOISE
Noise is best defined for gas turbine engine purposes as unwanted sound because it can
be both irritating and harmful. The sound level of the average business jet or airliner
during take-off, as heard by persons on the airport near the end of the runway, would
probably be in the range of 90 to 100 decibels. This noise level would be similar to a
subway train noise as heard from the boarding platform. Right at the aircraft the noise
level could be as high as 160 decibels and painful to the ears.
Even the lower level of noise (90 to 100 effective perceived noise decibels) is felt by many
people to be excessive and harmful. The industry has reacted to this by continually
improving noise reduction techniques on every new generation of engine and aircraft to
satisfy the publics need for more effective noise abatement.
Effective Perceived Noise Decibels (Epndb) is a standard measure of the loudness (sound
pressure) combined with the frequency and duration of sound and is used specifically for
aircraft noises in the atmosphere. Epndb can also be an estimated value where
atmospheric absorption prevents completely accurate measurement, such as an aircraft
flying overhead where wind, temperature, moisture, etc., could interfere with accuracy.
Noise absorbing materials convert acoustic energy (air pressure) into heat energy.
However, one can still find what looks like the old style noise suppressor being fitted to
some newer engines to meet the new noise standards.
Noise generated as the exhaust gases leave the engine is at a low frequency level, such as
from a ships fog horn, and in the same way carries for long distances. It is this low
frequency noise that tends to be most bothersome to people who live close to airports.
The noise generated by a turbofan engine is much less than that generated by a turbojet.
This is principally because the turbofan will generally employ more turbine wheels to
drive the compressor and the fan. This, in turn, causes the hot exhaust velocity and
noise level to be lessened. The figure shows an old style hot stream noise suppressor,
called an increased perimeter or multi- lobed design.
THRUST REVERSERS
Airliners powered by turbojets and turbofans, most commuter aircraft, and an increasing
number of business jets are equipped with thrust reversers to aid in braking and
directional control during normal landing, and reduce brake maintenance. To provide
braking and directional control during emergency landings and baulked take-offs and to
back an aircraft out of a parking spot in a power back operation.
Thrust reversers redirect the flow of cold and/or hot exhaust to provide thrust in the
opposite direction.
Thrust reversers provide approximately 20 percent of the braking force under normal
conditions (wheel brakes provide the other 80%). Reversers must be capable of producing
50 percent of rated thrust in the reverse direction. However, exhaust gas exits a typical
reverser at an angle to the engines thrust axis. Because of this, maximum reverse thrust
capability is always less than forward thrust capability.
Operating in reverse at low ground speeds can cause re-ingestion of hot gases and
compressor stalls. It can also cause ingestion of fine sand and other runway debris.
Mechanical Blockage
Aerodynamic Blockage
The aerodynamic blockage type of thrust reverser uses thin aerofoils or obstructions to
redirect the gas stream forward of the aircraft. Some aircraft may use a combination of
the aerodynamic blockage and the mechanical blockage type reversers. Mixed exhaust
turbofans are configured with one reverser, while unmixed or bypass exhaust turbofans
often have both cold stream and hot stream reversers. Some high bypass turbofans will
have only cold stream reversing because most of the thrust is present in the fan
discharge and a hot stream reverser would be of minimum value and become a weight
penalty.
Hot stream mechanical clamshell doors with cascade vanes are placed before the exhaust
exits the duct (pre-exit). The clamshell doors rotate to uncover the cascade vanes and
mechanically block the normal gas stream exit. Cascade vanes then direct the gas stream
in a forward direction. The same principle is used for hot stream and cold stream
reversers. Hot stream reversers tend to be pneumatically powered.
Cold stream mechanical blocker doors with cascade vanes of the pre-exit type are used
on high bypass engine thrust reverser system.
Reverser Operation
The normal operating procedure for thrust reverse is to select reverse after touchdown at
ground idle speed and re-apply power to approximately 75% N2 speed (100% in
emergencies). High bypass fan engines are normally limited to 70% N1.
Then as the aircraft slows to approximately 80 knots, power is reduced back to reverser
idle and then to forward thrust as soon as practical. The thrust reverser lever commonly
acts as throttle in reverse thrust except for FADEC Airbus aircraft.
While some thrust reversers are electrically powered, most large transport category
aircraft use hydraulically actuated reversers powered by main system hydraulic power,
or by pneumatic actuators powered by engine bleed air.
Cockpit indicators show thrust reverser status unlocked and deployed. Safety devices
prevent deployment while the aircraft is in flight. Warning lights and tones alert the crew
to an unlocked thrust reverser in flight.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Engine Bearings .............................................................................................................. 2
Bearing Chamber Sealing ................................................................................................ 4
ENGINE BEARINGS
The combination of compressor and turbine rotors, on a common shaft, make up the
main engine power or rotor shaft, which must be adequately supported.
Engine main bearings are assigned that critical function of support and are located along
the length of the rotor shaft. The number of bearings necessary is determined, in part, by
the length and weight of the rotor shaft. For example, since a split spool axial compressor
typically has a greater number of rotating components it requires more main bearings
than a centrifugal compressor. The main bearings of a gas turbine engine are either ball
or roller anti-friction types. Ball bearings ride in grooved inner race and support the main
engine rotor for both axial (thrust) and radial (centrifugal) loads. The roller bearings ride
on a flat inner race. Because of their greater surface contact area than the ball bearings,
they are positioned to absorb the bulk of the radial loading and to allow for axial growth
of the engine during operation. For this reason, tapered roller bearings are seldom used.
Plain bearings are not used as main bearings in turbine engines, as they are in
reciprocating engines, because turbines operate at much higher speeds and friction heat
build-up would be prohibitive. Plain bearings (bushings), however, are used in some
minor load locations such as in accessories. The primary loads acting on main bearings
are from the following sources:
Weight of the rotating mass (compressor and turbine) magnified many thousands of
times by radial G forces
Axial forces from power changes and thrust loading
Gyroscopic effect of heavy rotating masses trying to remain in place as the aircraft
changes direction
Compression and tension loads between the stationary casings and the rotor
system caused by thermal expansion
Vibrations induced by the airstream, the airframe and the engine itself
Disadvantages of both ball and roller bearings include their vulnerability to damage
caused by foreign matter and tendency to fail without appreciable warning. Therefore,
proper lubrication and sealing against entry of foreign matter is essential. Commonly
used types of oil seals are labyrinth, helical thread, and carbon.
Main engine bearings are housed in a bearing support or housing. The support forms a
chamber which separates the bearing from the engine core cavity. Bearing seals keep the
lubricating oil and oil mist from entering the engine core. Oil leakage into the core cavity
will enter the airflow and gas stream.
Labyrinth seals
Labyrinth seals are commonly used for main bearing chamber sealing. They have no
contacting parts. They prevent oil leakage out by controlling opposing air leakage into the
chamber. Compressor bleed air, which is at a greater pressure than bearing chamber
vent pressure, causes air to flow from the outside to the inside of the chamber.
Air cooling of the engine bearing chambers is not normally necessary since the
lubrication system is adequate for cooling purposes. Additionally, bearing chambers are
located, where possible, in the cooler regions of the engine. In instances where additional
cooling is required, it is good practice to have a double skinned bearing housing with
cooling air fed into the intermediate space.
This type of seal is also used as a metering device to control internal airflows. There are
several variations of labyrinth seal design.
A labyrinth seal used as an air seal comprises a finned rotating member with a static
bore which is lined with a soft abradable material, or a high temperature honeycomb
structure. On initial running of the engine the fins lightly rub against the lining, cutting
into it to give a minimum clearance.
The clearance varies throughout the flight cycle, dependent upon the thermal growth of
the parts and the natural flexing of the rotating members. Across each seal fin there is a
pressure drop which results in a restricted flow of sealing air from one side of the seal to
the other.
When this seal is used for bearing chamber sealing, it prevents oil leakage by allowing
the air to flow from the outside to the inside of the chamber. This flow also induces a
positive pressure which assists the oil return system.
Seals between two rotating shafts are more likely to be subject to rubs between the fins
and abradable material due to the two shafts deflecting simultaneously. This will create
excessive heat which may result in shaft failure.
To prevent this, a non-heat producing seal is used where the abradable lining is replaced
by a rotating annulus of oil. When the shafts deflect, the fins enter the oil and maintain
the seal without generating heat. Labyrinth air/oil seals have greater fin clearance than
air seals. This prevents heat build-up due to seal rub caused by shaft flexing.
The fins on thread type labyrinth seals form a helical path similar to a screw thread. As
the seal rotates it threads the oil back into the bearing chamber. As with labyrinth
seals, fins allow for a metered amount of compressor air to flow into the bearing
chamber. Pressure within the bearing chamber is maintained slightly above atmospheric.
Hydraulic Seal
This method of sealing is often used between two rotating members to seal a bearing
chamber. Unlike the labyrinth or ring seal, it does not allow a controlled flow of air to
traverse across the seal. Hydraulic seals are formed by a seal fin immersed in an
annulus of oil which has been created by centrifugal forces. Any difference in air
pressure inside and outside of the bearing chamber is compensated by a difference in oil
level either side of the fin.
Carbon seals
Carbon seals consist of a static ring of carbon which constantly rubs against a collar on
a rotating shaft. Several springs are used to maintain contact between the carbon and
the collar. This type of seal relies upon a high degree of contact and does not allow oil or
air leakage across it. The heat caused by friction is dissipated by the oil system.
Carbon ring seals consist of a static ring of moulded carbon which is spring-loaded to
maintain contact with a race.
The seal race is mounted on the rotating shaft.
Carbon seals are brittle and need to be handled carefully. Special care should be taken
not to damage the polished sealing surfaces.