Lecture 4: Sensor interface circuits

g Review of circuit theory

n Voltage, current and resistance
n Capacitance and inductance
n Complex number representations
g Measurement of resistance
n Voltage dividers
n Wheatstone Bridge
n Temperature compensation for strain gauges
g AC bridges
n Measurement of capacitance
n Measurement of impedance

Intelligent Sensor Systems 1

Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Voltage, current, resistance and power
g Voltage
n The voltage between two points is the energy required to move a unit of positive
charge from a lower to a higher potential. Voltage is measured in Volts (V)
g Current
n Current is the rate of electric charge through a point. The unit of measure is the
Ampere or Amp (A)
g Resistance
n Given a piece of conducting material connected to a voltage difference V, which
drives through it a current I, the resistance is defined as
V
R=
I
g As you will recall, this is known as Ohms Law
g An element whose resistance is constant for all values of V is called an ohmic resistor
n Series and parallel resistors
g Power
n The power dissipated by a resistor is
V2 2
P = VI = =I R
R
Intelligent Sensor Systems 2
Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Kirchhoffs Laws
g 1st Law (for nodes)
n The algebraic sum of the currents into any node of a circuit is zero
g Or, the sum of the currents entering equals the sum of the currents leaving
g Thus, elements in series have the same current flowing through them
I2
I1
I1=I2+I3

I3

g 2nd Law (for loops)

n The algebraic sum of voltages in a loop is zero
g Thus, elements in parallel have the same voltage across them.
VA VB

VAB+ VBC+VCD+VDA=0

VD VC
Intelligent Sensor Systems 3
Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Capacitors and inductors
g A capacitor is an element capable of storing charge
n The amount of charge is proportional to the voltage across the capacitor

Q = CV
g C is known as the capacitance (measured in Farads)
n Taking derivatives
dQ d(CV ) dV
= I= C
dt dt dt
n Therefore, a capacitor is an element whose rate of voltage change is
proportional to the current through it
g Similarly, an inductor is an element whose rate of current
change is proportional to the voltage applied across it
dI
V =L
dt
g L is called the inductance and is measured in Henrys

Intelligent Sensor Systems 4

Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Frequency analysis
g Consider a capacitor driven by a sine wave voltage
I(t)

C
V(t)=V0sin(t)

n The current through the capacitor is

= C (V0 sin( W )) = C V0cos( t)

dV d
I=C
dt dt
g Therefore, the current phase-leads the voltage by 900 and the ratio of
amplitudes is
V(t) 1
=
I(t) C
g What happens when the voltage is a DC source?

Intelligent Sensor Systems 5

Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Voltages as complex numbers
g At this point it is convenient to switch to a complex-number
representation of signals
n Recall that ej=cos+jsin

V0cos(t+)

Circuit voltage V0ej Complex number
versus time: representation:
V(t)=V0cos(t+) V0ej=a+jb
Multiply by ej and
take real part From [HH89]

g Applying this to the capacitor V(t)/I(t) relationship

dV
I=C
= C V0cos( t)
dt

V V0 sin( W) cos( W ) e j 1 
1
= = = = =
I C V0cos( t) C e j0 C C H j 
j C

Intelligent Sensor Systems 6

Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Impedance
g Impedance (Z) is a generalization of resistance for circuits that
have capacitors and inductors
n Capacitors and inductors have reactance, while resistors have
resistance 1 -j
ZC = =
j & &
ZL = j /
ZR = R
g Ohms Law generalized
V
=Z
I
g Impedance in series and parallel

Z S = Z1 + Z 2 + L ZN
1 1 1 1
= + +L+
ZP Z1 Z 2 ZN
Intelligent Sensor Systems 7
Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Example: High-pass filter
g High pass filter
n The current through cap and resistor is C
Vin Vout
Vin Vin
I= = R
Z R+ 1
j &
n The output voltage is equal to the voltage differential across the resistor
Vin
Vout = RI = R
1
R+
j &
n If we focus on amplitude and ignore phase
Vin Vin RC
Vout = R =R = Vin
R+
1 1
2
( RC ) + 1
2

& R +2

j &

g Asymptotic behavior
1 V 1
g Corner frequency CORNER = 20log10 out = 20log10 = -3.010 dB
RC Vin 1+ 1
Intelligent Sensor Systems 8
Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Measurement circuits
g Resistance measurements
n Voltage divider (half-bridge)
n Wheatstone bridge
g A.C. bridges
n Measurement of capacitance
n Measurement of impedance

Intelligent Sensor Systems 9

Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Voltage divider
g Assumptions VCC
n Interested in measuring the fractional change in
resistance x of the sensor: RS=R0(1+x) RL= R0k
g R0 is the sensor resistance in the absence of a stimuli Vout
n Load resistor expressed as RL=R0k for convenience
RS= R0(1+x)
g The output voltage of the circuit is

RS
Vout = VCC =
R S + RL 0.9 k=0.1

R 0 (1+ x ) 1+ x 0.8

= VCC = VCC
R0 (1+ x ) + R 0k 1+ x + k
0.7
k=1

Vout/ VCC
0.6

g Questions
0.5

0.4

n What if we reverse RS and RL? 0.3

n How can we recover RS from Vout? 0.2

k=10
0.1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Intelligent Sensor Systems 10

Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Voltage divider
g What is the sensitivity of this
circuit? 0.2

dVout d 1+ x
S= = VCC = 0.15

dx dx 1+ x + k S
k=1

= VCC
(1+ x + k ) (1+ x ) = 0.1

(1+ x + k )2 0.05
k=10
k=0.1
k
= VCC
(1+ x + k )2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

x
g For which RL do we achieve
maximum sensitivity?

dS
=0
d
VCC
k
=0
(1+ x + k ) k2(1+ x + k )
2
= 0 k = 1+ x
2
dk dk (1+ x + k ) (1+ x + k )2

n This is, the sensitivity is maximum

when RL=RS

Intelligent Sensor Systems 11

Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Wheatstone bridge
g A circuit that consists of two dividers
n A reference voltage divider (left) R1 R2
n A sensor voltage divider
g Wheatstone bridge operating modes VCC Vout
n Null mode R4 R3= R0(1+x)
g R4 adjusted until the balance condition is
met:
R2
Vout = 0 R 3 = R 4
R1
n Advantage: measurement is independent
of fluctuations in VCC
n Deflection mode
g The unbalanced voltage Vout is used as
the output of the circuit

R3 R4
Vout
= VCC
R2 + R 3 R 3 + R 4
n Advantage: speed

Intelligent Sensor Systems 12

Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Wheatstone bridge
g Assumptions 0.4

n Want to measure sensor fractional 0.35

resistance changes RS=R0(1+x) k=1

0.3

n Bridge is operating near the 0.25

k=10

Vout/ VCC
balance condition: 0.2

0.15
R R
k= 1 = 2 0.1
k=0.1
R 4 R0 0.05

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x
g The output voltage becomes

R0 (1+ x ) R4
Vout = VCC =
R0k + R0 (1+ x ) R 4k + R 4
(1+ x ) 1 kx
= VCC = VCC
k + (1+ x ) k + 1 (1+ k )(1+ k + x )

Intelligent Sensor Systems 13

Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Wheatstone bridge
g What is the sensitivity of the Wheatstone bridge?

dVout d kx
S= = VCC =
dx dx (1+ k )(1+ k + x )
k (1+ k )(1+ k + x ) kx (1+ k )
= VCC =
(1+ k ) (1+ k + x )
2 2

k
= VCC
(1+ k + x )2
n The sensitivity of the Wheatstone bridge is the same as that of a
voltage divider
g You can think of the Wheatstone bridge as a DC offset removal circuit
g So what are the advantages, if any, of the Wheatstone bridge?

Intelligent Sensor Systems 14

Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Voltage divider vs. Wheatstone for small x
g The figures below show the output of both circuits for small fractional
resistance changes
n The voltage divider has a large DC offset compared to the voltage swing, which
makes the curves look flat (zero sensitivity)
g Imagine measuring the height of a person standing on top of a tall building by running
a large tape measure from the street
n The sensitivity of both circuits is the same!
g However, the Wheatstone bridge sensitivity can be boosted with a gain stage
n Assuming that our DAQ hardware dynamic range is 0-5VDC, 0<x<0.01 and k=1, estimate the
maximum gain that could be applied to each circuit
-3
x 10
1 2.5

k=0.1
0.8 2

Wheatstone
0.6 1.5
k=1
Divider

k=1

0.4 1
k=10

0.2 0.5 k=0.1

k=10

0 0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
x x
Intelligent Sensor Systems 15
Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
Compensation in a Wheatstone bridge
g Strain gauges are quite sensitive to temperature
n A Wheatstone bridge and a dummy strain gauge may be used to
compensate for this effect
g The active gauge RA is subject to temperature (x) and strain (y) stimuli
g The dummy gauge RD, placed near the activegauge, is only subject to
temperature
n The gauges are arranged according to the figures below
n The effect of (1+y) on the right divider cancels out

R0 RD= R0(1+y)

VCC Vout

R0 RA= R0(1+x)(1+y)

From [Ram96]

Intelligent Sensor Systems 16

Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
AC bridges
g The structure of the Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure
capacitive and inductive sensors
n Resistance replaced by generalized impedance
n DC bridge excitation replaced by an AC source
g The balance condition becomes

Z1 Z 2 Z1 Z2
=
Z4 Z3 VAC Vout
n which yields two equalities, for real and Z4 Z3
imaginary components

R1R 3 X1X 3 = R 2R 4 X 2 X 4
R1X 3 + X1R 3 = R 2 X 4 + X 2R 4
g There is a large number of AC bridge arrangements
n These are named after their respective developer

Intelligent Sensor Systems 17

Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
AC bridges
g Capacitance measurement g Inductance measurement
n Schering bridge n Hay bridge
n Wien bridge n Owen bridge

C1 C1
R2 R3
R1
R1
VAC VAC

C4 Rx Rx
R4
Lx
Cx
Schering Hay

R1 R2 C1 R3

VAC VAC

R4 Rx
Rx
C4 R4
Cx Lx

Wien Owen

Intelligent Sensor Systems 18

Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University
References
[HH89] P. Horowitz and W. Hill, 1989, The Art of Electronics, 2nd
Ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
[Ram96] D. C. Ramsay, 1996, Principles of Engineering
Instrumentation, Arnold, London, UK
[Maz87] F. F. Mazda, 1987, Electronic instruments and
measurement techniques, Cambridge Univ. Pr., New York
[Die72] A. J. Diefenderfer, 1972, Principles of electronic
instrumentation, W. B. Sanuders Co., Philadelphia, PA.
[PAW91] R. Pallas-Areny and J. G. Webster, 1991, Sensors and
Signal Conditioning, Wiley, New York
[Gar94] J. W. Gardner, 1994, Microsensors. Principles and
Applications, Wiley, New York.
[Fdn97] J. Fraden, 1997, Handbook of Modern Sensors. Physics,
Designs and Applications, AIP, Woodbury, NY

Intelligent Sensor Systems 19

Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Wright State University