Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
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andLateDevelopingCountries
inaGlobalizingWorld
AComparativeAnalysisofRuralChange
EconomicandSectorWork
P095096
AgriculturalandRuralDevelopmentUnit(AFTAR)
AfricaRegion
______________________________________________________
Withadurationoffiveyears(20062010),itsobjectiveistoanalyzetheprocesses
ofliberalizationandeconomicintegrationandtheirimpactsonagricultureandthe
ruralsectorofdevelopingcountries.Italsoaimstoillustratethesituationofrural
economies in terms of income, diversification, and overall transformation. The
results obtained make it possible to improve the dialogue between national and
international partners and to provide orientations for the agricultural and rural
policydebates.
http://www.worldbank.org/afr/ruralstruc
RuralTransformation
andLateDevelopingCountries
inaGlobalizingWorld
AComparativeAnalysisofRuralChange
SynthesisoftheRuralStrucProgram
ontheStructuralDimensionsofLiberalization
onAgricultureandRuralDevelopment
FinalReport
RevisedVersion
2011
BrunoLOSCH
SandrineFREGUINGRESH
EricWHITE
Incollaborationwith
JeanFranoisBlires
ThierryGiordano
Losch B., FrguinGresh S. and E. White, 2011, Rural Transformation and Late
Developing Countries in a Globalizing World.A Comparative Analysis of Rural
Change.Final Report of the RuralStruc Program, Revised Version. Washington, DC:
WorldBank
TABLEOFCONTENTS
BIBLIOGRAPHY .....................................................................................................................................207
ANNEXES ..................................................................................................................................................231
ANNEX 1 HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS AND DATA ANALYSIS ...........................................................233
ANNEX 2 COLLABORATIVE FRAMEWORK AND DISSEMINATION PROCESS ....................245
ii
LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................................................................295
iii
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTSANDAUTHORS
ThissynthesisreportoftheRuralStrucProgram
isdedicatedtothememoryofJacquesFaye(19462010),
ruralsociologistandfoundingmemberofIPAR
(InitiativeProspectiveAgricoleetRurale,Sngal)
ThissynthesisreportisoneofthemanyoutputsoftheRuralStrucProgramonthe
Structural Dimensions of Liberalization on Agriculture and Rural Development.
During the four years of its two phases, and a fifth year dedicated to creating a
general synthesis and conducting a first dissemination, the Program developed a
close collaboration with numerous experts and researchers in its seven
participatingcountries.
The activities were implemented under the guidance of Bruno Losch (TTL, World
Bank and Cirad) and the field work was developed with the support of a
coordination team including Bruno Losch, Sandrine FrguinGresh and Thierry
Giordano(FrenchMinistryofForeignandEuropeanAffairs),respectivelybasedat
the University of Pretoria (Postgraduate School of Agriculture and Rural
Development)andtheDevelopmentBankofSouthernAfrica.
The launching of the Program benefited from the full support of John McIntire,
SectorDirector(ESSDAfrica),andthenfromtheguidanceofKarenBrooks,Sector
Manager(AFTAR),andofStephenMink,SeniorAdviser(AFTSN),whowasinvolved
ineverystepoftheprocess.TheinitialpeerreviewersoftheProgramsobjectives
and design were: Louise Cord and Robert Schneider (World Bank), and Camilla
Toulmin(IIED).
This final report was prepared by Bruno Losch, Sandrine FrguinGresh and Eric
White (World Bank), with contributions of Thierry Giordano and JeanFranois
Blires(Cirad).ItwaspeerreviewedbyDerekByerlee,DonLarson(WorldBank),
andAndrPouillesDuplaix(AFD).
JeanCoussy(CeriSciencesPo)andJeanJacquesGabas(UniversitParisXOrsayand
Cirad) participated in the preparation and in the launching workshop of the
PrograminSenegal(April2006).JeanJacquesGabasalsoledtwoSciencesPoParis
studentworkshops(2006and2007),andwasinvolvedinthepreparationofseveral
of the Programs Policy Briefs. Eric Lonard (IRD) provided specific support on
Mexico. Additional contributions were received from Emmanuelle Benicourt
(consultant),andVroniqueMeuriot(Cirad).ErinOBrientookchargeoftheediting
ofthenationalreportsaswellaspreviousdraftversionsofthefinalreport.
TheWorldBankstaffwhocontributedtotheoverallRuralStruc Programincluded
Bruno Losch (TTL), Patrick Labaste and Michael Morris (successive TTLs of the
RuralStruc multidonor Trustfund), Eric White, Malick Antoine, Angela Lisulo,
Benjamin Billard, James Keough, Beatriz PrietoOramas, and Ingrid Mollard.
Hawanty Page and Germaine MafougongEthy were in charge of the Programs
administrativesupport.JeffLecksellandBrunoBonanseapreparedthemapsbased
oninformationprovidedbytheRuralStrucnationalteams.
vi
TheProgrambenefitedfromtheguidanceofitsAdvisoryCommittee,chairedbyC.
PeterTimmer(CabotProfessorofDevelopmentStudies,emeritus,HarvardUniversity,
USA),andincluding:KirstenAlbrechtsendeAppendini(ColegiodeMxico,Mexico),
PierreMarie Bosc (Cirad, France), Peter Gibbon (Danish Institute for International
Studies, Denmark), Catherine Laurent (Institut National de la Recherche
Agronomique,France),JeanLucMaurer(InstitutdesHautestudesinternationaleset
du dveloppement, Switzerland), Sandra Polaski (Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace, USA), Marc Raffinot (Universit Paris Dauphine, France), and
SibiriJeanZoundi(SahelandWestAfricaClub,OECD,Paris).
TheProgramalsobenefitedfromthecarefulfollowupoftheSteeringCommitteeof
itscontributingdonors(AgenceFranaisedeDveloppement,FrenchMinistriesof
Foreign and European Affairs, and of Agriculture and Fisheries, Centre de
Coopration Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Dveloppement,
International Fund for Agricultural Development, and World Bank), chaired
successivelybyFlorenceLasbennes(MinistryofForeignandEuropeanAffairs)and
MarieCcileThirion(AgenceFranaisedeDveloppement).
vii
viii
EXECUTIVESUMMARY
OVERALLPOSITIONING:AVISIONOFUPCOMINGCHALLENGES
Thelast40yearsofworldhistoryhavewitnesseddramaticchanges.Thepopulation
oftheplanethasgrownby3.2billionpeopleaneardoublingandtherearenow,
forthefirsttime,morepeoplelivingincitiesthaninruralareas.Theemergenceofa
globalopeneconomy,boostedbytechnologicalprogressandthenewinternational
politicallandscape,hasdeeplymodifiedtheworldsdevelopmentprospects.
Overthenext40years,theworldspopulationwillgrowbyanadditional2.3billion
people,andurbanizationwillcometoaffect70%ofhumanity.Theabruptnatureof
thischangeindemography,occurringoverlessthanacentury,raisesaquestionof
sustainability. The existing growth trajectory of the world is simultaneously
challenged by the depletion of natural resources, the consequences of climate
change, and the high risks associated with asymmetric economic development
amongtheworldsregions.
Acontinuousinternationaldebateisnowragingaboutthemultiplechallengesofa
9billionpersonworldnotleastofwhichishowtofeedit.However,focusingon
theseoverallfigurestendstodivertattentionfromothermajorfactsrelatedtothe
dynamics of population growth and its distribution that are just as important. A
majorshiftisthecontinuedmarginalization,intermsofworldpopulationshare,of
the developed world (or the world of the first developers). In 2050, North
AmericaandEuropecombinedwillaccountforonly15%ofthepopulation.While
Asia will remain the worlds most populous region, the relative weights of the
populationsofsubSaharanAfrica(SSA)andEuropeinworldtotalswillbereversed
comparedtowheretheystoodin1960(10%forSSAand20%forEuropein1960,
and the reverse in 2050). This major realignment of the worlds population will
exacerbateexistinginequalitiesinaccesstoresources.
Inthemeanwhile,despitecontinuedurbanization,2.8billionpeoplewillcontinueto
live in rural areas in 2050. Rural populations will therefore remain massive, and
these populations will still be primarily engaged in earning their living from
agriculture.Additionally,regionaldifferencesinurbandynamicswillstronglyaffect
the distribution of rural populations. They will be increasingly concentrated in
South Asia and subSaharan Africa (together accounting for nearly 2/3 of the
worlds rural population), and in SSA the number of rural people will continue to
grow(auniquesituation).
These trends are of major importance because they challenge the prospects for
developmentinmuchoftheworld.Agricultureismorethanjusttheproductionof
food. Because agriculture is the core activity and main source of livelihood of
ix
billionsofruralpeople,itsevolutionwillshapetheprocessofeconomic,social,and
environmentalchange.ThesituationisespeciallychallenginginSSAwherethelack
of economic diversification, reflected most notably in the regions anemic rate of
industrialization,limitspossibleoptionsforemploymentoutsideofagricultureand
the informal sector. Over the next 15 years, as a consequence of demographic
dynamics, 330 million youth (who have already been born) will enter the labor
marketa figure equivalent to the current population of the USA. Of these, 195
million will live in rural areas, and rural activities will have to provide them with
needed jobs. Otherwise they will migrate to cities or to neighboring countries,
wheretheywillcontributetothegrowingeconomic,socialandpoliticaldifficulties
thatresultfrommegaurbanizationandmassmigration.
BACKGROUND:FROMTHEWTODEBATETOTHEFOODPRICECRISISTHE
NEEDTOREFOCUSONSTRUCTURALTRANSFORMATION
Initiated in 2005 in the context of an intense international debate on the
liberalizationofagriculturalmarketsandtheresultingconsequencesforfarmingin
developingcountries,theRuralStrucProgramsmaingoalwastoprovidearenewed
perspective on agriculture and its role for development. More particularly, the
Program aimed to reconnect the issues related to trade liberalization with the
broader discussion of rural transformation and the evolution of rural economies
withinarapidlyglobalizingworld.
The RuralStruc Program was carried out over a period of five years (20062010),
during which time the scope and issues of the international debate changed
dramatically.Threemajorissuesaffectedtheglobaldebateaboutagriculture.They
arerelatedtogrowingconcernsabouttheconsequencesofglobalclimatechange
which culminated with the 2009 Copenhagen Summitand the eruption of the
world food price crisis and the world financial crisis, which remain high on the
agenda(asevidencedbytheimplementationofanAgriculturalG20).
Amidstthisevolvinginternationaldebate,theWorldDevelopmentReport2008on
AgricultureforDevelopment(WDR08)offeredastrongandwellarguedreminderof
thecentralroleofagricultureinthedevelopmentprocessandofitsimportanceasa
contributortopovertyalleviation.Eventhoughthereportsfullincorporationinto
thepolicyagendawassomewhatdelayedbytheemergenceoftheworldfoodprice
crisis and the subsequent need to focus on more pressing shortterm issues, its
contributiontothedebateremainsinvaluable.
While the enumeration of these three worlds facilitated the design of policy
recommendations, some of the aforementioned challenges that countries face
remained largely overlooked. These included demographic issues, notably
populationgrowthanditsconsequencesforemployment,aswellasasymmetriesin
competitivenessthatresultfromglobalization.
The consideration of these issues calls into question the viability of the historical
pathway of structural transformation, which involves the wellknown progressive
shiftfromagriculturetoindustry,andthentoservices.Theunderlyingdynamicof
this economic transition (a key component of structural transformation) is
increased productivity in agriculture, which fosters technical change and allows
labor and capital to flow to other economic activities. Simultaneously, economies
experience a broad geographic restructuring as labor moves from scattered
activities (agriculture) to more concentrated ones (industry), and urbanization
processesaccelerate.Thisprocessofchangetranslatesintohigherincomes,greater
wealthandimprovedlivingconditions,whichalongwithmedicalprogressinitiate
the demographic transition (the progressive, though staggered, reduction of
mortalityandbirthrates).Theresultisapopulationthatgrowsrapidlyatfirstbut
thenstabilizes.
Specifically,threemaincharacteristicsfromprevioustransitionshavetobekeptin
mind. First, the Western European and North American transitions that occurred
overthe19thandthebetterpartofthe20thcenturiescannotbedisconnectedfrom
European and American political hegemony, which reduced or eliminated
competition and created captive markets that were very lucrative. Access to these
markets strongly facilitated economic specialization and industrialization. Second,
xi
theEuropeantransitionwasboostedbyauniqueoutflowofinternationalmigrants
thatsmoothedtheadjustmentofEuropeaneconomiesandimprovedtheirabilityto
deal with labor surpluses. Between 1850 and 1930, nearly 60 million Europeans
migrated to the New Worlds (35 million to the USA alone). Third, the Latin
AmericanandAsiantransitionsstartedduringaveryspecificperiodofselfcentered
nationaldevelopmentthatcharacterizedtheinternationalregimebetweenthe1929
crisis and the current era of globalization, starting at the end of the 1970s. This
developmental regime was characterized by importsubstitution, protection and
strong state intervention, all of which contributed to economic modernization. In
LatinAmericatheeconomictransitionstartedbetweenthetwoWorldWars,andin
Asia it started in the 1950s. Both regions benefited from massive assistance
programsthatresultedfromtheColdWar.
Today, the situation of the developing countries that remain at the early stages of
structural transformation is drastically different. This is mostly the case of sub
Saharan Africathe last region of the world to embark on the structural
transformation processwhich faces the challenges of an incipient economic
transitionandanunachieveddemographictransitioninthecontextofaglobalopen
economyandundertheconstraintsofclimatechange.
PRESENTINGTHERESEARCHPROGRAM
This challenging contextual background shaped the design of the RuralStruc
Program, which had three specific objectives: (i) contribute to the analytical
knowledgebaseaboutstructuralchangeanditsimpactsonagricultureandtherural
economy in developing countries, (ii) feed and improve international and national
debatesbypromotingandreconnectingtheseissues,and(iii)provideperspectives
for policy making. Accordingly the Programs motto was better understanding for
betterpolicymaking.
ThedesignoftheRuralStrucProgramwasbasedonthreeinterrelatedhypotheses.
The first hypothesis is that the global restructuring of agrifood markets and the
increasing asymmetry of international competition are leading to growing
differentiationamongfarm,marketing,processinganddistributionstructures.The
second hypothesis is that the income sources and activity patterns of rural
xii
Toaddressthesehypotheses,theRuralStrucProgramusedacomparativeapproach.
Inordertodrawlessonsfromthedifferentwaysthatruraleconomiesadapttothe
new global context of change, seven countries at different stages of structural
transformation and economic integration were selected for study. Mali, Senegal,
Kenya,andMadagascarareatanearlystageoftheeconomictransition,andtheyare
partofthefirstofthethreeworldsofagriculture.MoroccoandNicaraguaareatan
intermediate stage in their transformation process, and although agriculture
remainscriticalintheeconomiesofbothcountries,itsroleisdeclining.Mexico,an
uppermiddleincomeeconomy,ismuchfurtheraheadinitstransformationprocess,
has become deeply integrated with its northern neighbors through NAFTA, and
formspartoftheWDR08surbanizedworld.
Based on this first result, the decision was taken to engage in primary data
collectionthroughfieldsurveys.Around8,000ruralhouseholdsin26regionsofthe
sevenparticipatingcountrieswereinterviewedinearly2008(notethatthesurvey
was implemented before the full development of the food price crisis). The
interviews focused on the activities and incomes of the participating households.
Theresultingdatasetprovidedaunique,singleshotrepresentationofruralincome
structures that was comparable across the surveyed regions due to a common
methodology.However,sincethesurveyswerecarriedoutatasinglepointintime,
it was not possible to conduct any dynamic analysis within the surveyed regions.
Nevertheless,thefactthatthesurveysusedthesamemethodologyatthesamepoint
in time, yet were carried out in different regions at different stages of economic
development and featuring different levels of integration into the global economy,
allowed for a dynamic interpretation of results at the crossregional and cross
xiii
countrylevels.ThisinterpretationallowedtheProgramtoinvestigatethedriversof
ruraltransformationandtofeedthedebateoneconomictransitionandstructural
change.
Inadditiontohavinghighlevelsofinvolvementinagriculture,thesurveyedregions
were characterized by widespread poverty, particularly in subSaharan Africa.
Median incomeswhich offer a better overview of the rural reality than regional
averageswereestimatedbetween0.5and2dollarsPPPperpersonperdayinthe
SSA regions (except Nakuru North in Kenya, where it is $3), while the nonSSA
regions displayed higher levels (between $1.5 and $5.5). Dealing with averages,
70%ofSSAsurveyedhouseholdsearnlessthan$2PPP/person/day,and40%suffer
from$1/daypoverty.Insomeregions,notablyinMali,thisfigurecanreachashigh
as80%.
Aconsequenceofhighpovertylevelsisthathouseholdsfaceveryhighlevelsofrisk,
which limit their investment capacity and their ability to innovate. This dire
situation is complicated for households that also face food insecurity. When
earnings are converted from dollars PPP into kilocalories, based on local prices, it
appearsthatasubstantialshareofhouseholdsinallsurveyedregionshaddifficulty
meeting their minimum daily caloric requirements: in 11 out of the 19 surveyed
zones in SSA, the bottom quintile was, on average, unable to provide 2450
kCal/person/day.TworegionsinNicaraguaexhibitedthesamesituation.
xiv
These results concerning the importance of onfarm income and the widespread
prevalence of poverty, even within otherwise heterogeneous rural economies,
coloredtheinvestigationofeachoftheProgramsthreehypotheses.Inthecaseof
SSA countries, the data suggested that, whatever farm differentiation processes
havebeeninitiatedorstrengthenedbyglobalizationandthesubsequentincreasing
integration of world food markets, none have been deep or profound enough to
make a macrolevel impact on rural economies in the surveyed regions. They also
suggestedthatnomatterwhatotheractivitieshouseholdsmayhavediversifiedinto
as a rural nonfarm economy developed, few have been able to leave agriculture
altogether,andfewofthehouseholdsthatstayedinruralareasbecamenonpoor.
At the other end of the transition gradient, the case of Mexico showed that even
when differentiation processes are extensive, and many households leave
agriculture, rural poverty can remain quite substantial. In these economies, many
households in the lowest quintiles are still poor, below the $2 per day line and
sometimesbelow$1perday.
FARMPRODUCTION,MARKETS,ANDDIFFERENTIATIONPROCESSES
Overthelastdecade,theagriculturaleconomicsliteraturehasbeenbrimmingwith
accounts of how farmers in developing countries have been integrating into the
market economy. Case study examples abound that describe how producers have
forgednewconnectionstohighvaluemarkets,achievedverticalintegrationthrough
contracts, and have been able to reap the benefits of the socalled supermarket
revolution. Though these processes are underway in several regions of the
developing world, there is a risk of overstating their impact, especially when it
comestotheproportionoffarmersinvolvedinthisnewworldofagriculture.New
opportunitiesdoexist,buttheyareoftenstronglylocalizedinspecificregionsand,
above all, concern a relatively limited number of producers. In any given country,
whilethousandsoreventensofthousandsoffarmhouseholdsmayhavebenefited
from the development of new integrated value chains, hundreds of thousands or
even millions of other households remain embedded in more traditional types of
agricultureasituationexemplifiedbythewellknownKenyanhorticulturesuccess
story.
xv
TheImportanceofStaplesandSelfconsumption
Amongsurveyedhouseholds,acommonlyobservedcharacteristicofproductionis
the importance of staples, usually a cereal: rice in Madagascar, Mali and Senegal,
complementedbymilletandsorghuminthelasttwocountries;wheatinMorocco;
and maize in Kenya, Mexico and Nicaragua. Ninetyeight percent of the surveyed
householdsinSSAand76%innonSSAregionsareengagedinstapleproduction.On
aggregate in the RuralStruc sample, staples represent on average 62% of farm
outputinSSAandcanoftenreachupto80%.InnonSSAcountries,whereonfarm
diversification is greater (i.e., more products are grown), the situation is more
varied. The numbers for production of staples stand at around 45% in Nicaragua
and should be similar in Morocco (in fact they were lower in Morocco during the
surveyyear,becausedroughtaffectedtherelativeshareofwheat).Specializationin
maize in the surveyed regions in Mexico is more specific and related to very
particularsetsofincentives.
Thepervasiveimportanceofstaplesreflectsthefactthatrisklevels,andsometimes
food insecurity, have led a large proportion of subSaharan African households to
remain at least partly and significantly engaged in subsistence farming. These
households do not simply produce staple crops, but they also consume a large
portion of their own output. Selfconsumption, depending on the region, accounts
for around 50% of production. Extremes are found at one end of the spectrum in
Mali(75%inDimaorTominian)andattheotherendofthespectruminMekh,in
Senegal (less than 20%). Outside of subSaharan Africa, the share of farm output
thatisselfconsumedislower(20to30%),butinNicaragua,poorerquintilesrely
heavily on subsistence farming (up to 60%). The extreme low level of self
consumption in the Mexican surveyed regions is the consequence of a deep
restructuring of the maize industry in the country which followed the
implementationofNAFTA.
Generally, the share of selfconsumption decreases with rising wealth, both at the
regional level and at the household level. Surveyed households in subSaharan
Africaarelessadvancedinthisprocess,becausetheyarepoorer.Moreprecisely,the
prominence of selfconsumption in the survey results from two complementary
effects that limit smallholder farmers participation in markets. First, the supply
effectreferstoriskmanagementstrategiesthathouseholdsemploytoretaincontrol
over their food supplya direct response to incomplete and imperfect markets.
Second, households face various demand effects, including weak demand for their
productsthatresultsfrompooraccesstoandintegrationwithmarkets,orthefact
thatproductionsurplusesaretoolowtoattractbuyers.
MarketingbyTraditionalMeans
Theseobservationsexpressadualreality.Theyindicatethatruralareasnotablyin
subSaharan Africacontinue to engage in subsistence farming, but at the same
time improved connectivity to markets is a generalized fact. Situations where
xvi
householdsdonotsellanyproductsareunusual,andalargemajorityofthemalso
purchasefoodproductsproducedbyothers.
Where onfarm diversification has occurred, it has doneso seemingly without any
discernable pattern. Rather, the surveys revealed heterogeneous examples of on
farm diversification that have developed in response to regionspecific
opportunities. These can include a legacy of a colonial cash crop (cotton in Mali,
groundnutinSenegal,coffeeinKenya),aspecificinvestmentbyaforeignfirm(the
case of green beans produced by Lecofruit in Madagascar), or local
entrepreneurship enabled by public investment in infrastructure (the booming
shallotproductionintheOfficeduNigerirrigationschemeinMali).
WithreferencetotheProgramsfirsthypothesis,theconclusionisthathouseholds
intheRuralStrucsurveysparticipateinruraleconomiesthathavenotbeenradically
reshaped by vertical integration and the supermarket revolutionwhich is not
reallyasurprise.(theveryspecificsituationoftheMexicanSotaventoregionisan
exception). Consequently, new agricultural production systems featuring non
traditionalconnectionstomarketsarerare.Thissuggeststhatfarmdifferentiation,
whereitoccurs,reflectsprimarilydifferencesinlevelsofexistinghouseholdassets
ratherthannewtypesofconnectionstomarkets,andmorelikelysimplyillustrates
thecharacteristicsoflocalagrariansystems.
TheContinuousImportanceofHouseholdAssets
xvii
Alongwithplotsize,alargeherdandasmallnumberoffamilymemberswerefound
to be the other largest contributors to per capita household income, while market
integrationandtheuseofmodernfarminputs(seedsandfertilizer)didnotseemto
matter as much. Though the survey did not provide detailed information on the
practices of farmers and did not allow for a finetuned understanding of farming
systems, a noteworthy finding was that market integration does not necessarily
implyimprovedincomes.Whetherornotthetwoarelinkediscontextspecific.The
income effects of contractualization, for example, are highly differentiated, and
depend on where the contracts are concentrated on the income spectrum (poor
households can be in a situation of heavy dependence, tightly bonded to the
processor)andontheregionalcontext(notablytheexistenceofcompetition).
Despitethesegeneraltendencies,thedegreeofdevelopmentoftheruralnonfarm
economy remains uneven, and the rural offfarm sector is often characterized by
high levels of selfemployment, provision of petty services, and few formal
opportunitiestoearnawage.Thepicturethatemergesfromthesurveydataisquite
farremovedfromthebuoyantruraleconomyfrequentlydescribedintheliterature.
UnevenOpportunitiesforDiversification
xviii
xix
account for between five and fifteen percent of total household income (Morocco,
Senegal, and Nicaragua), except for in Kenya and Madagascar, where they are
insignificant. Strikingly, households in poor quintiles often engage in shortterm
migration with the goal of reducing the number of mouths to feed during the dry
season.Insuchcases,remittancesareoftenverylimitedorevennonexistent,and
thelivingconditionsofthemigrantcanbedire.
RuralAdaptationMirroringOverallStructuralChange
WithreferencetotheProgramssecondhypothesis,theseoverallcharacteristicsof
offfarm diversification illustrate heterogeneous processes of adaptation and rural
transformation. They somewhat mirror the economic transition as a whole:
diversification which generates very low returns at the early stages of structural
transformation,andamorematurediversificationwhichconsolidatestheprocessof
changeatlaterstages.Accordingly,theyserveasareminderthatproximitytocities
oranareaofhighpopulationdensityisnotenoughtostimulateeconomicgrowth.
The characteristics of urbanization count, especially the infrastructure, public
goods,andserviceswhicharecriticalfortheintensificationofruralurbanlinkages.
Yetinspiteofthesefindings,thesurveysalsoturnedupsomemorehopefulresults.
Levelsofincomevarybetweenregionsandbetweencountries,andoutsideofSSA
thereisconsiderableevidencethataverageincomesarerising.SomeregionsinSSA
also show improving situations (Bas Delta in Senegal, Nakuru North in Kenya). In
MoroccoandNicaragua,fallinglevelsofrisksandimprovingmarketopportunities
haveallowedsomehouseholdstoengageinmoreonfarmdiversification.Inthese
two countries, and also in Mexico, the increasing number of economic options has
xx
facilitated higher returns from offfarm activities. This trend is most obviously
exemplified by Tequisquiapan in Mexico, where 70% of rural households are no
longerdirectlyengagedinagriculture.Thoughthistrendcanresultinacriticalform
of marginalization for those households that cannot access wage employment, the
average household is better off. Among the households with farms (30% of the
sample),thosethathaveonememberworkinginawageearningactivitydisplaythe
highestpercapitaincomelevelsintheentiresevencountrysample.
To explore more fully the extent of these processes of change, the phenomena of
diversificationandspecializationwerestudiedmoreclosely,aswastheirrelationto
income levels. Two indicators (the HerfindahlHirshman index and the share of
income earned from offfarm sources) were used to illustrate the degree to which
ruralhouseholdsandregionshavemovedawayfromonfarmactivitiesasasource
oflivelihood.Severaltrendswereidentified.First,householdsinsurveyedzonesin
richer countries, specifically nonSSA countries, tend to exhibit, on average, lower
levels of offfarm diversification. This result was somewhat surprising, given that
structuralchangeisgenerallyconsideredtobeassociatedwithincreasesinincome,
andthatchangeinvolvesmovingawayfromarelianceonfarming.
Second, at the subnational level, no clear trend was noticed. In some countries,
richersurveyedregionswereonaveragemorediversified,andinotherstheywere
less diversified. Within surveyed regions, the effect was equally muddled, but
regardlessofthedirectionofthediversificationincomerelationship,thedifference
indiversificationlevelsbetweenincomequintileswasquitepronounced,indicating
astronginteractionbetweenthem.
TheInvertedU:APerspectiveonProcessesofRuralChange
Anindicatorwasdeveloped,calledthediversificationgap,thatservedasaproxy
foraregionsprogressalongthiscontinuum.Theobservedverystrongcorrelation
xxi
between the diversification gap and household income suggested that regions
within the RuralStruc survey tend to move along the inverted U path as they
develop. More interestingly, the diversificationincome relationship appears to
include an exponential component. Specifically, once regions are able to turn the
corner and households begin to specialize economically, income growth at the
aggregate regional level, previously quite slow, seems to take off rapidly and lead
regionsonapathwayoutofpoverty.
PovertyTrapsandtheElusiveRNFE
AsignificantfindingoftheRuralStrucanalysisisthatmostofthesurveyedregions
insubSaharanAfricaarelaggingbehindintheirprogressionalongtheinvertedU.
In fact, many African households seem to hit an invisible wall in the transition
process, where they cannot earn enough money through income diversification to
become secure in their livelihoods (a result of low returns to available offfarm
incomegeneratingactivities).Consequentlytheyneverturnthecornerandbegin
to specialize. They seem to be trapped in structural poverty, an observation that
confirms the difficulty of rural transformation as well as the Programs third
hypothesis: that risks of transition impasses were to be observed in the
globalizationprocess.
Finally,amoregeneralresultofthesurveyisworthhighlighting.Inthesample,the
process of specialization at the final stage of the inverted U path mainly occurs in
agriculture, while specialization in other economic activities is observed less
frequently.Thisstrikingoutcomecanbeexplainedbyamethodologicalbiasrelated
tothefactthatthesurveywasimplementedonlyinruralareasand,consequently,
tends to inform mainly about respecialization processes in the farming sector.
Households that specialize in nonfarm activities often do so in urban areas,
meaningthattheyfrequentlymigrate.Inaddition,andperhapsmorefundamentally,
this result highlights the somewhat ephemeral nature of the rural nonfarm
economy,whichtendstosimultaneouslygrowandtodissolveitselfasaresultofthe
urbanizationprocess.Notonlydoofffarmspecializersmigratetourbanareas,but
urban areas expand as rural boroughs grow to become small cities. This
phenomenon of cities moving to the country is a consequence of increasing
demographicdensitiesandoftheterritorialexpansionofcitiesrelatedtotheurban
growthprocessitself.
MAINPOLICYOUTCOMES
TheRuralStrucsurveyresultstellastoryaboutruraltransformationandprovidea
framework for understanding the evolving trends of diversification and
specialization over time. Furthermore, they highlight the importance of national
characteristicse.g., country assets, market functionality, business climate,
institutional arrangements, overall governance, and political stabilitywhich
determinetheroomformaneuveravailabletohouseholdsastheystruggletoescape
frompoverty.TheRuralStrucsurveyresultsprovideparticularlyimportantinsights
xxii
into the specific situation of the late developers, exemplified by the surveyed
regions in SSA, where the fact that countries are still at a very early stage of the
economictransitionlimitshouseholdsopportunitiesforincomediversificationand
accesstohighreturnactivities.
ForthemanyruralregionsinsubSaharanAfricathatarecaughtinapovertytrap,
solutionswillhavetocomefromcontextualizedpolicyinterventionsatthecountry
level, as well as from initiatives capable of bringing about stronger regional
integration.ThebestwaytoattackSSAslaggingtransitionistointroducepolicies
that can promote rural growth by simultaneously fostering and meeting rural
demand.Animportantlessonfrompasttransitionsisthatincreasingfarmincomes
fosters rural demand. To ensure that this rural demand is met with an adequate
supplyofgoodsandservices,governmentsmustsupportlocalinvestmentsthrough
anadequateprovisionofpublicgoods.
IfthisruraldevelopmentstrategyiscriticalforSSAcountries,itisalsosensiblefor
other developing countries. The Programs surveys outside of SSA also exhibit
situations of marginalized rural population, but combine them with high urban
ruralinequalityasituationwhichisnotpoliticallysustainable.
FromGeneralGuidelinestoBuildingBlocks
Thereisnoeasywaytodealwiththehugechallengesofpovertyalleviation,rural
growthandeconomictransition.Intheabsenceofasilverbullet,alongshopping
listofpotentiallyhelpfulpolicymeasureshasemergedfromthelasttwodecadesof
ruraldevelopmentpractice.Themaincomponentsofthislistaretheimprovement
of imperfect markets (by lowering transaction costs), the development of missing
markets (for credit, technical support, insurance), the provision of public goods
(infrastructure,research,information,andcapacitybuilding),andtheintroduction
ofriskmitigationmechanisms.
Procuringalltheingredientsforaneffectivepolicyregimemaybechallenging,but
findingtheexactrecipeforsuccessisevenmoredifficult.Policiesmustbetailored
tolocalcircumstances,sothemostdifficulttaskistodevisetherightcombinationof
policymeasuresthatwillbeeffectiveinaparticularcontext.Critically,thisprocess
includes making choices in terms of prioritization and targeting. Indeed, in most
countries(notonlythedevelopingones),animportantissueforpolicymakersisthe
xxiii
pressingneedtoaddressamultitudeofproblemsatthesametime,whichisusually
notpossibleduetofinancialandhumanresourceconstraints.
Inthiscontext,reinvestinginknowledgecreationisanurgentpriority.Asillustrated
bythecountryreviewsthatwerecarriedoutduringthefirstphaseoftheRuralStruc
Program,socioeconomicinformationisdeficientingeneral,andthedataneededto
understand the dynamics of evolving rural economies are especially scarce. Public
data collection and reporting systems (statistical systems) must be reinvigorated
and redefined, and capacity in public agencies to collect and report data must be
complemented by capacity to analyze the data and formulate relevant policy
conclusions. If this does not happen, policy makers will be unable to design
measuresneededtodealwithevolvingruraleconomies,theincreasingmobilityof
people, and the resulting new organizational patterns of households (such as the
archipelago system). Reengaging in development strategies at both the national
and subnational levels also implies reinvesting in processes. In order to secure
ownershipthe determining factor of shared vision and commitment
consultation is a critical step. It takes time, adequate planning, and a significant
effortincapacitybuildingtomanageinformationsystems,toanalyzeresults,andto
monitorprocesses.
xxiv
Thesetworecommendationsrelatetothemethodologyofpolicymaking,andthey
do not prescribe any particular set of interventions. Specific policy measures
formulated on the basis of these recommendations will need to reflect country
specific circumstances and processes. As such, specific assets or strong natural
advantages(e.g.,inminingortourism)canofferadditionalroomformaneuverfor
supportingnewactivitiesandruraltransformation.
Still,forlargemajorityofruralsituations(wherehouseholdsaredeeplyengagedin
farming), it is possible to suggest some major policy orientations or building
blocks. Policy makers should keep these in mind when devising targeted
development strategies aimed at overcoming poverty traps and facilitating the
overallprocessofruraltransformation.Threebuildingblocksarepresentedtohelp
governmentsavoidshoppinglistsofurgentpolicyneeds.Theyarerelevanttothe
specific circumstances of the late developers (particularly SSA), and are based on
themainfindingsoftheProgram.Theyfocusonthefollowingcriticalareas:
1. Supportingfamilyfarms
2. Promotingstaplecrops
3. Strengtheningruralurbanlinkagesforterritorialdevelopment
SupportingFamilyFarms
The RuralStruc Program results offer arguments for supporting family farms, and
theycontributetothecontroversialdebateaboutoptimalfarmsize,whichhasbeen
reignited by the food price crisis of 2008 and the related rise of land grabbing,
notablyinAfrica.
Afalsedualismliesattheheartofthisdebate.Itsetssmallholderandsubsistence
agricultureononesideagainstlargescaleandcommercialagricultureontheother,
whentherealitycorrespondstoacontinuumofsituationsinwhichfamilyfarmingis
nearlyalwaysthedominantmodeofproduction.Familyagriculture,asopposedto
managerialorcapitalistagriculture(whichisoftenlargescale)alreadyfeedsmost
oftheworld.Familyfarmscanbesubsistenceoriented,commerciallyoriented,ora
combinationofthetwo.Alargebodyofempiricalevidenceshowsthatfamilyfarms
canbeproductiveandalsocompetitiveintermsofproductioncostswhencompared
to largescale managerial farms. In subSaharan Africa, family farms are often
competitive in the domestic market, but they are often disadvantaged in global
markets due to factors unrelated to their size (e.g., economic and institutional
environment).
Thecurrentfocusonfoodsecurityhastendedtoovershadowthemultifunctionality
of agriculture (specifically its ecological, economic, social, and cultural roles), for
whichfamilyfarms,becausetheyareembeddedinthelocalcontext,arethemajor
stakeholders. The concern for food security has also led many policy makers to
overlooktheroleofagricultureasasourceofemploymentandadriverofstructural
transformation over the medium term. Family farms, because they rely heavily on
xxv
laborintensiveproductionmethods,havethelargestcapacitytoabsorbtherapidly
growing labor force (195 million rural youth in the next 15 years in SSA). In
contrast,managerialagriculture,whichismuchmorelikelytobecapitalintensive,
offerfewerprospectsforgeneratingimportantnewlaboropportunities.
Supporting family farms can mean many different things, and, again, it is
necessary to avoid presenting a long list of recommendations. Still, experience
suggests that three types of actions are often needed to address the most critical
problems: (i) securing land rights, (ii) providing public goods, and (iii) supporting
farmersorganizations.
Securing land rights: Farm households face high levels of risk. The first steps
towards achieving a more secure environment are to facilitate access to farmland
andtosecurelandrights,twonecessaryconditionsforinvestmentandinnovation.
Thisincludestheneedtofacilitatelandaccesstoyouth,andtoeasethetransmittal
offarmassetstoyoungfamilyworkers.
Providing publicgoods:Mostfamilyfarmsareseverelyconstrainedbytheirvery
low capacity for investment, a consequence of their longlasting poverty. Selective
targetingofdirectsupportcanhelptoovercomethisconstraint,butanevenmore
effectivemeasureistoincreasetheprovisionofpublicgoods,notablyinformation,
training and capacity building for farmers, and rural infrastructure (smallscale
irrigation,roads,powergenerationandtransmissionstructure).Infrastructurecan
also, when possible and appropriate, facilitate access to sparsely populated areas
andencourageinternalmigration.
Supportingfarmersorganizations:Duetotheirsmallsizeandlimitedproduction
capacity, many family farms are unable to capture economies of scale in sourcing
inputs,marketingoutputs,andtransformingproducts.Thisconstraintcanoftenbe
overcome through collective action and suggests providing support to farmers
organizations, which can at the same time improve integration into value chains,
facilitatecontractingwithdownstreamagentsandstrengthenthebargainingpower
ofproducers.
PromotingStapleCrops
xxvi
stemsfromtheubiquityofstaplecropproduction.Inmostdevelopingcountries,the
overwhelmingmajorityoffarmhouseholds areinvolvedinstaplecropproduction
(90% on average in the RuralStruc survey), so targeted policies that promote the
productionandmarketingofstaplecropscanhaveimportanteffectsontheoverall
ruraleconomyintermsoflabor,income,andgrowth.Theratiobetweenthenumber
of producers involved in staple crop production versus the number of producers
engagedinproductionofothercropsiseasily10:1,andoftenmuchhigher.
The second argument in favor of giving priority to staples is related to the critical
roleplayedbystaplecropsinriskmanagement.Becausefoodmarketsinruralareas
oftendonotworkwell,manyruralhouseholdsremainvulnerabletoperiodsoffood
shortage,andconsequentlyoftenretainasignificantshareoftheiroutputforself
consumption. Any increase in staple crop production therefore can serve as a
catalyst. By helping to reduce risk, increased production of staples can help to
unlock the potential for technical innovation, speed onfarm diversification, and
encourageparticipationinmodernvaluechains.
The third argument in favor of a prostaple policy is related to the huge growth
potentialofthestaplefoodsector.Fortheforeseeablefuture,demandforfoodwill
growsteadily,fueledbypopulationgrowthandurbanization.Evenifrisingincomes
will lead to shifts in consumption patterns, staplesmost notably cerealswill
continuetoaccountforthemajorityoffooddemandforyearstocome.Additionally,
rising food prices are creating progressively better returns and preventing
competitionfromlowpricedimports.
The fourth and final argument for promoting staple crop production is that it can
generate more valueaddition at the local level, due to the huge potential for local
processingofproducts.Thiscouldstronglycontributetostrengtheningruralurban
linkagesandruraldiversification.
Policymeasuresforincreasingtheproductivityofstaplecropsandimprovingstaple
markets are diverse and varied. In the particular case of subSaharan Africa,
however,twoentrypointscanbehighlighted:(i)reducingpostharvestlosses,and
(ii)unlockingregionaltrade.
Reducingpostharvestlosses:Postharvestlossesarearecurrentproblemagainst
which very little progress has been achieved. The economic cost of postharvest
losses is high (10 to 20% in cereals, and probably more in roots, tubers, and
plantains), and the burden is born mainly by farmers. Technical solutions are
available,buteffortsareneededtoadaptinstitutionalandfinancialarrangementsto
facilitate the costeffective use of storage systems (for example, warehouse
receipts).
Unlockingregionaltrade:SubSaharanAfricarepresentsahugepotentialmarket,
butaccesstothismarketiscurrentlyconstrainedbythepoliticalfragmentationof
thecontinentandmultiplerecurringbarrierstotrade.Eventhoughsomeprogress
xxvii
hasbeenmadeinfosteringbetterregionalintegration,regionaltradecontinuesto
lagasaconsequenceofnontariffbarriers,alackofenforcementofregionaltrade
agreements, and the high transactions costs associated with overland
transportation. The most promising interventions for jumpstarting regional trade
relate to the continuing improvement of infrastructure networks and above all to
strengthening the political will of the membership of regional economic
communities.
Acaveattotherecommendationofsupportingstaplecropsisthatitisnotacatch
all strategy. Due to their relative low value when comparedto other commodities,
for example horticulture crops or livestock and livestock products, it is clear that
productivity increases in staple crops cannot be the only solution for poverty
alleviation.Otheropportunities,whentheyexist,mustbeseized.
StrengtheningRuralUrbanLinkagesforTerritorialDevelopment
The development of strong linkages between small cities and their surrounding
ruralareasisparticularlycriticalfordevelopmentandassuchisanecessaryfocus
of attention. Historically, the forging of ruralurban linkages was fed by growth in
rural demand for goods and services, which generated new productive activities
thatnaturallyconcentratedinruralboroughsandsmalltownssoastobenefitfrom
economies of scale. In recent decades this has changed; urbanization around the
worldhasincreasinglybeencharacterizedbyrapidmetropolizationinandaround
largecities,whichconcentrateseconomicactivityevenmoreandofferssuperiorjob
prospects. Metropolitization is a consequence of better transportation and
information networks, and it has given rise to largescale migration directly from
rural areas to metropolitan areas. In many cases migrants completely bypass
smallertownsinwhichdenseruralurbanandonfarm/offfarmlinkagescouldhave
been formed. But even when they stay in small and midsize cities, they create an
informal urbanization that takes place without the adequate public goods and
services. This constraints sustainable urban development and prevents strong
urbanrurallinkagesfromforming.
xxviii
drivingforceforruralandregionaldevelopment.Inordertostrengthenruralurban
dynamics,twotypesofactionsareproposed:(i)improvingurbanservices,and(ii)
empoweringlocalinstitutions.
Improvingurbanservicesinsmallcities:Inordertobetterlinktownsandsmall
citieswiththeirimmediatesurroundingsandstrengthentheireconomicfunctions,
transportationinfrastructureiskey.However,asrevealedbytheRuralStrucsurveys
carriedoutinthewellconnectedruralareasofWesternKenyaandSenegalsBassin
arachidier,roadinfrastructurealoneisnotsufficienttofostergrowthandterritorial
development.Theadequateprovisionofarangeofotherpublicgoodsandservices
is critical, and as such should be a major objective for policy makers. Provision of
healthandeducationservices,aswellasassuredsuppliesofwater,electricityand
telecommunicationsareparamount.Whilemostofthesegoodsandservicescannot
easily be provided by the private sector during the early stages of development,
fiscalincentivescanbeintroducedaimedatencouragingprivateserviceproviders
and entrepreneurs to participate more actively in some of these areas. Moreover,
this improvement in services as well as specific supports (especially in terms of
capacity building and credit access) can help to strengthen nonfarm activities
notablythesmallscaleenterpriseswhichareimportantcomplementstoagrowing
farmsectorandarethemainingredientofabuoyantterritorialdevelopment.
xxix
xxx
These initial observations shaped the RuralStruc Program and its general
framework: a broad comparative approach involving seven countries at different
stages of their structural transformation and economic integration into the global
economy(fromwesttoeast:Mexico,Nicaragua,Senegal,Morocco,Mali,Kenya,and
Madagascar). They also underpinned the Programs collaborative designa key
feature of its implementation. RuralStruc formed strong partnerships with local
researchteamsineachcountry,withtheobjectiveofstrengtheninglocalevidence
basedapproachesandfosteringthelocaldebate.1
1National reports were produced for each phase of the Program. They are referenced in the
documentusingthefollowing:RSICountry,fortheFirstPhasereports;RSIICountry,fortheSecond
Phasereports.Thelistofreportsisprovidedatthebeginningofthebibliography.
Box1:RuralStrucWhatsinaName?
The selection of the acronym used to name the Program, officially titled Structural Dimensions of
Liberalization on Agriculture and Rural Development, clearly relates to the choice of bringing
structuralissuesbackintoadebatethatmainlyfocusedontrade.
RuralStruc refers both to rural structures and to the implications of overall structural change on
agriculture and rural economies. The Programs logo draws on the iceberg image where structural
transformationisthelargeportionunderthewaterline,tradeliberalizationbeingonlythevisibletip.
1. ADisconcertingandQuicklyEvolvingGlobalContext
Over the last five years, and during the indepth fieldwork implemented by the
Program, the international landscape as well as the scope and issues of the
internationaldebatehavedramaticallychanged.Itisimportanttokeeptrackofthis
permanentshiftofpolicyagendasbecausethesechangesaretheimmediatereality
towhichpolicymakersrefer.
1.1 TheStartingPoint
AtthetimethattheRuralStrucProgramwasbeingoperationallyplanned(200506)
twomajorframeworksstructuredtheinternationaldebateaboutdevelopment:the
United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and the World Trade
Organizations(WTO)DevelopmentcycleorDohaDevelopmentAgenda(DDA),set
attheDohaministerialconference(2001).Agriculturewasclearlypartofthesetwo
mainagendas,andthoughitsometimesoccupiedakeyposition(asinthecaseofthe
DDA)itwasneverthecoreissue.
The MDGs provided a global framework based on poverty alleviation. The first
goalto halve poverty and hunger before 2015is clearly agriculturerelated.
Firstly,70%oftheworldspoor(45%oftheworldspopulation)liveinruralareas
and rural people rely mainly on agriculture as a livelihood. Secondly, hunger
alleviationdependsonimprovedfoodavailabilityandaccess.Agriculturesdecisive
role in propoor growth was also reaffirmed by broad crosscountry analyses
performed by the World Bank (2005a). However, poverty remained the central
issue, while agricultural development was only one of the means cited to fight
poverty,alongwithmanyotherthematicandnonsectoraloptions.
overwhelming focus on agriculture and trade and its domination over the
internationaldebatewasoneofthemainjustificationsoftheRuralStrucinitiative.
Since 2005 the global perspective on development has dramatically shifted. The
MDGs have waned, and they remain a somewhat distant reminder of the
international communitys commitment to poverty alleviation and global
development. They briefly gained renewed attention with the UN Summit of
September 2010, which assessed the progress achieved so far and concluded that
noteverygoalwillbeachieved(UnitedNations2010).
In parallel, the WTO debate has faded for several overlapping and interlinked
reasons.Thefirstreasonis,ofcourse,theemergenceofnewissuesattheforefront
of the international agenda, including a new debate over agriculture (see below).
Another explanation is the profusion of new research that has provided new (and
mixed) estimates of the expected gains from liberalizing trade. This body of work
highlighted the unique situations of many developing countries, particularly in
Africa,wheretradeliberalizationcouldresultinnetlossesratherthangains,adding
some doubtif not confusionto the discussion.2 These findings helped to shift
negotiationstoanarrowerfocusonOECDcountriesagriculturalsubsidiesandon
developing countries access to OECD markets. They contributed to strengthening
theoppositiontotheDohaRoundandresultedincontinuousimpasses,particularly
regarding agriculture: the unsuccessful HongKong ministerial (2005) led to the
suspension of negotiations (July 2006), followed by failed attempts to reach an
agreement on agriculture and nonagriculture market access (Geneva meetings in
July2008)and,sincethen,recurringpostponementsoftheconclusionoftheDoha
Round.Intheend,negotiationfatigueisanadditionalmotivationforthefadingof
the WTO debate, which also explains why increasing attention was dedicated to
bilateral or regional Free Trade Agreements (FTAs), and why major stakeholders
decidedtocarryonbilaterallywhatwasimpossibletoachieveatthegloballevel.
1.2 TheNewIssues
Over the last five years, three major issues have affected the global debate about
agriculture.Theyarerelatedtogrowingconcernsabouttheconsequencesofglobal
climatechangeandtheeruptionofthefoodpriceandfinancialcrises.
Globalclimatechangeisanoldinternationalconcernthathasbeenfirmlyonthe
global agenda at least since Rios Earth Summit (1992) and the Kyoto Conference
(1997). It became however a growing worry over the last years due to two broad
2 Among the recent and often contradictory research work, see for instance Bout et al. (2005),
Boussardetal.(2005,2006),Polaski(2006)or,morerecently,Perzetal.(2008)onLatinAmerica,
Zepeda et al. (2009) on Kenya, and the work coordinated by Anderson on Krueger/Schiff/Valds
Revisited(Anderson2010).
researchworks:theSternReviewontheEconomicsofClimateChange(2007)andthe
Climate Change 2007 IPCC Report (Pachauri and Reisinger 2007). These indepth
analyses heightened the international communitys awareness and refocused the
ongoing negotiations, which led to the Copenhagen Summit of December 2009.
They emphasized the impact of climate change on natural resourcesand on
agricultureby showing that climate change is expected to have various adverse
effects, such as extreme weather events (droughts, floods, heat waves), as well as
changesintemperature,rainfallandsealevels.Alloftheseconsequencesarelikely
to compound the challenges faced by farmers and agricultural workers in finding
sustainable livelihoods. Out of all the worlds regions, subSaharan Africa is
expected to suffer the most from climate change: the IPCC projects annual
agricultural losses of between 2 and 7% of GDP inthe region by2100. The World
Development Report 2010, focused on Development and Climate Change (World
Bank 2009), has provided a comprehensive update on the challenges faced by
developingcountries,whichwillbearmostofthecosts(75to80%)ofthedamages
relatedtoclimatechange.Theirrelianceonecosystemservicesandnaturalcapital
for production (mainly agriculture), the concentration of their population in
physicallyexposedlocations,andtheirlimitedfinancialandinstitutionalcapacities
foradaptationareamongthemainexplanations.Specialmitigatingmeasureswillbe
necessarytopreventanadditional120millionpeoplefromsufferingfromhunger,
and agriculture will occupy a central role in resource management and carbon
sequestration.
The second issue is related to the rapid emergence of the food price crisis (2007
2008), which contributed to renewed interest in food and agriculture issues and
resultedinincreasedquestioningontheinternationalstageaboutthefuturestateof
a9billionpeopleworldexpectedin2050.Priceshadbeenincreasingprogressively
since 2006and rose sharply at the beginningof 2008, leadingto the international
mobilization of assistance. Though prices then declined, according to all forecasts
greater volatility and relatively high prices in the mediumterm are expected, as
shownbytheirnewreboundattheendof2010.Differentfactorsledtothesehigh
foodpricesandtherewasaferventdebateabouttheroleplayedbyeachofthem.On
the supplyside, weatherrelated production shortfalls combined with increasing
fuelcostsandatrendtowardslowerstocklevelsarethemainexplanations.Onthe
demandside, the major factors are the longterm changing structure of food
demandrelatedtoquicklyevolvingdietsinemergingcountries,thedevelopmentof
biofuels as a response to growing oil costs, and speculation on financial markets
(even if limited). Nevertheless, and whatever the contribution of each factor, one
main conclusion is that there is no global food shortage in the mediumterm: the
coreissueisthecostoffoodandnotagloballackoffood.Thus,themainconcernis
thefunctioningoffoodmarketsandaccesstofoodforlowincomeconsumers.The
challenge is to avoid an excessive focus on shortterm issues and to concentrate
simultaneously on helping farmers to reap the benefits of the current high prices,
mitigatepriceimpactsonthepoorestconsumers,increaselocalfoodproductionto
counteract increasing local prices, and improve producers incomes through
increasedbargainingpowerandhigheryields.
Last but not least, the consequences of the unexpected and sudden onset of the
globalfinancialcrisisinSeptember2008dramaticallyaffectedtheworldeconomy.
The recovery has been a slow process whichremains fragile and shaky. The rapid
transmission of the downturn in the United States housing sector to the global
financial system deeply impacted both rich and poor countries, with a contraction
and recession in several developed economies and a sharp slowdown of many
developing countries growth rates. This slowdown has been particularly
challenging for countries with limited financial resources, and those facing
drastically reduced revenues (through reduced foreign direct investments, fiscal
revenue,foreignaid,andremittances).
The food price and financial crises generated different (and disconnected) sets of
discussions on remedies. However, both crises have to a certain extent triggered
temporaryprotectionist reactions, such as tariff increases, new nontariff barriers,
andtheprovisionalreturnofquotasandexportbans.Thepossibleriskofwhathas
beennamedaprotectionisttideisasharpmoveawayfromtheargumentsabout
tradeliberalizationthathadpreviouslycharacterizedtheinternationaldebate.The
food price crisis, and the new resource forecasts it engendered, also led to new
strategies targeted at food security. They mainly focusedand are focusingon
new production options based on quick investments or reinvestments in inputs
(sometimes with subsidies), infrastructure, irrigation and large scale agricultural
schemes.Landgrabbingbyforeigninvestors,particularlyinsubSaharanAfrica,has
been an increasing matter of concern (ILC 2009, World Bank 2010b), leading to
conflictingsituations among local stakeholders in several countries,and launching
anew the old debate about the merits of smallscale versus largescale farming
(wronglyconsideredasrespectivelysmallholderandcommercialagriculture).
1.3 WhichRoleforAgriculture?
Fortunately,duringthesefiveyears,twomajorcontributionstothespecificdebate
onagriculturehaveboosteditsprofilewithintheinternationalcommunity.Thefirst
istheInternationalAssessmentofAgriculturalKnowledge,ScienceandTechnologyfor
Development,abroadinternationalefforttoreviewtheexistingstockofknowledge
aboutagriculture,andtoassessitsadequacyinlightofcurrentglobalchallengesto
sustainabledevelopment.Basedonabroadinternationalcooperationinvolving110
countries,theresultswerereviewedandratifiedintheJohannesburgInternational
PlenaryMeeting(2008),andthenextensivelypublished(IAASTD2009).
ThesecondcontributionisthepublicationoftheWorldDevelopmentReport2008
(WDR08) on Agriculture for Development. Prepared in 20062007 and launched at
theendof2007,theWDR08providedthenecessarymomentumforanewfocusand
anewperspectiveonagriculture.Itstronglyreaffirmstherolesofagricultureasa
mainsectorofeconomicactivityinmostdevelopingcountries(asasourceoflabor,
growthandofcomparativeadvantage),animportantsocialsectorduetothelarge
share of the population involved, and an important user of natural resources.
Breakingwithnearlythirtyyearsofmarginalizationofagricultureindevelopment
Thoughthescopeofthereportissomewhatlimitedwithregardtolinkagesbetween
agricultureandothersectors3,thisregionalizedandtargetedapproachhasstrongly
contributedtotheWDRssuccess;andthebroaddisseminationofthedocumenthas
facilitated agricultures comeback in the international debate on development.
Nevertheless its momentum, as well as that of the IAASTD report, was somewhat
impeded by the hectic international agenda and the short term issues that arose
from the food price crisis. Additionally, only a few months after the publication of
the WDR08, different and to some extent contradictory messages were
disseminatedbyother(orthesame)internationalbodies.Forinstance,theUNIDO
IndustrialDevelopmentReport2009(UNIDO2008)highlightedtheroleofindustry
as the main driver of change, particularly for the Bottom Billion countries.4 And,
adoptingadifferentperspective,thefollowingWorldDevelopmentReport(WDR09)
on Reshaping Economic Geography, stressed the need for higher demographic
densities, shorter economic distances, and fewer political divisions (see Box 7 in
Chapter 3). It demonstrated that these objectives can be achieved through
increasing agglomeration and integration processes, highlighting the role of
urbanization.5
3 More specifically, the limitation is in regard to the scope of intersectoral linkages within the
context of globalization. This discussion will be developed in Chapter 2. On critics of the WDR08s
frameworksee,amongothers,AkramLodhi(2008)andOya(2009).
4 The Bottom Billion refers to Paul Colliers book (2007) which focuses on the group of fifty so
called failing states stuck in poverty, 70% being in SSA. Collier, who is one of the two authors of
UNIDOsreport,fedthecontroversyabouttheroleofagriculture,pointingthefactthatitwillnotbe
abletoalleviatepovertyandthattheonlyoptionisabroadmigrationtocities(Collier2008,2009).
SeemoredevelopmentonthisdebateinChapter6.
5 Two departments of the World Bank, the Poverty Reduction and Equity Group, and the Finance,
EconomicsandUrbanDepartmenthavelaunchedajointworkprogramonPovertyReductionduring
the Ruralurban Transformation in Developing Countries, with the objective of continuing and
combiningthetwoWDRsperspectives.SeeSimler&Dudwick(2010).Thisworkwillbeachievedin
2011.
6
Box2:TheWDR08anditsThreeWorlds
TheWDR08proposesatieredapproachtoagriculturefordevelopmentandidentifiesthreedistinct
worlds of agriculture. These worlds depend on agricultures contribution to growth and on the
rural share of total poverty. The three worlds are titled agriculturebased, transforming and
urbanized.Ineachworld,theagriculturefordevelopmentagendadiffersinpursuitofsustainable
growthandpovertyreduction.
In the agriculturebased countries, which include most of subSaharan Africa, agriculture and its
associatedindustriesareessentialtogrowthandtoreducingmasspovertyandfoodinsecurity.They
providejobs,activities,andincomes.Intransformingcountries,whichincludemostofSouthandEast
Asia and the Middle East and North Africa, rapidly rising ruralurban income disparities and
persistent extreme rural poverty are major sources of social and political tensions; rural
diversification and agricultural income growth are answers to these challenges. In urbanized
countries, including most of Latin America, much of Europe and Central Asia, agriculture can help
reducetheremainingruralpovertyifsmallholdersbecomedirectsuppliersinmodernfoodmarkets,
goodjobsarecreatedinagricultureandagroindustry,andifmarketsforenvironmentalservicesare
introduced.
The WDR08 suggests three pathways out of rural poverty in order to explain how agricultural
growthcanreduceruralpoverty:(i)agriculturalentrepreneurship,(ii)therurallabormarket,and
(iii)theruralnonfarmeconomyandmigrationtocitiesorothercountries.Severalpathwaysoften
operatesimultaneouslyandthecomplementaryeffectsoffarmandnonfarmactivitiescanbestrong.
Although rural households engage in farming, labor and migration, one of these activities usually
dominatesasasourceofincome.
Ag.based Transforming Urbanized
Ruralpopulation(millions),2005 417 2,220 255
Ruralpopulation(%),2005 68 63 26
GDPpercapita(2000US$),2005 379 1,068 3,489
AgricultureinGDP(%),2005 29 13 6
AnnualAg.GDPgrowth(%),19932005 4.0 2.9 2.2
AnnualNonAg.GDPgrowth(%),19932005 3.5 7.0 2.7
Ruralpovertyrate(%),2002 51 28 13
Source:WorldBank2007,p.3133
Note:Thepovertylineis$1.08adayin1993PPP
In the end, despite this very unstable and somewhat confusing environment,
agriculture is firmly back on the agenda and donors and governments are
reengaging. The United Nations SecretaryGenerals High Level Task Force on the
Global Food Security Crisis, launched in April 2008, contributes to coordinating
international efforts. In July 2009 (LAquila Summit), the Group of Eight (G8)
industrializedcountriesmadethepledgetomobilize$20billionoverfiveyearsto
boostfoodsecurity(confirmedattheG20SummitinPittsburgh,September2009).
Then,inApril2010,theGlobalAgricultureandFoodSecurityProgram(GAFSP)was
officiallylaunchedwithafirstcontributionofcloseto$1billion.Finally,attheSeoul
G20 Summit in November 2010 it was decided to launch an Agricultural G20 in
order to foster international cooperation, especially in combating food price
volatility.
Although food security is clearly narrower in scope than agricultural and rural
development as a whole, this context does provide an opportunity to broaden the
debateandtoproposeaperspectivethatdoesnotrestrictagriculturetofoodsupply
butembracesitsotherfunctionsaswell(environmental,economic,social,cultural).
AsstatedbytheIAASTD,thismultifunctionality6isauniquefeatureofagriculture,
giventhatthesectorservessimultaneouslyasthecoreactivityforrurallivelihoods
andruralpovertyalleviation,thebasisforruraldiversificationandthedevelopment
of ruralurban linkages, and is central to the provision of environmental services.
Further,itsroleasadriverofstructuralchangemustbereaffirmed,andquestions
abouttheviabilityofpossiblepathwaysoutofruralpovertyintheglobalizationera
mustbeasked.7Thiscriticalissuehastobepushedtothefrontofthepolicydebate
andshouldjustifyreengaginginthedevelopmentofpolicyframeworksthatadopt
thenecessarylongtermfocus.
6 There has been a long and tense international debate about recognizing multifunctionality as a
feature unique to agriculture, and it has been heavily intertwined with ongoing policy discussions.
Many European states adopted policies promoting multifunctionality in the 1990s and in doing so
faced strong opposition at the WTO from countries (principally Cairns Group countries and the
United States) that denounced their actions as market distortions. On these debates and on the
multifunctionalityofagricultureingeneral,seeBarthlmy etal.(2003),Losch(2004),Caron&Le
Cotty(2006),GroupePolanyi(2008).SpecificreferencemustalsobemadetotheRolesofAgriculture
Project implemented by FAO between 2000 and 2006 which developed a broad set of case studies
andanalysesontherolesofagricultureatthedifferentphasesofdevelopment(FAO2007).
7Alongtraditionofstimulatingresearchinagrarianstudiesquestionstheconsequencesofongoing
processes of change. See notably the Journal of Agrarian Change and, for a recent review of the
currentdebatesandtheirevolution,AkramLodhi&Kay(2010aandb).
Though the third goal relied directly on the Programs design and the
operationalizationofitsresearchresults,thefirstandsecondweremoresubjective.
They implied a clear positioning and the Program chose to put the discussion on
agriculture and rural change within the overall perspective of the structural
transformation frameworka way to reconnect the development debate with
globalissuesandtoavoiddiscussionstrappedinsectoralapproaches.
Evidenceofthisprocessofglobalstructuraltransformationcanbefoundinvarious
regions across the world, though it occurs at different paces and along different
paths. It started with the closely related agricultural and industrial revolutions of
WesternEuropeattheendofthe18thcentury,andcontinuedinEuropeanoffshoots
(mainlytheUSA),otherEuropeanregions,themajorityofLatinAmericaandvarious
regionsofAsia.
8Seeforexample,Johnson&Kilby(1975),Chenery&Syrquin(1975),Timmer(1988,2009).
Reference to this process has forged the classical development paradigm that
founded development economics.9 One of the main challenges at present is the
acceleration of the pace of change related to globalization and, subsequently, the
growingasymmetriesbetweenregionsoftheworldcharacterizedbytheirdifferent
stagesinthisprocessofstructuraltransformation.
Box3:LiberalizationorGlobalization?
SincetheearlydefinitionoftheRuralStrucProgram,liberalizationwasunderstoodinabroadsense
as a global process of change, begun in the early 1980s, that included trade and domestic reform,
state withdrawal from economic activities, privatization and, in many developing countries, the
reformofthestatethroughdecentralization.
The aim of the RuralStruc Program was to focus on all of the structural dimensions of this new
context,whichexplainstheinitialchoiceforthetitleoftheProgram.However,althoughtheProgram
adopted this broad definition of liberalization, the official positioning of the Programs name
quicklyappearedinadequate.Firstly,becausetheunderstandingofitsobjectiveswasoftenrestricted
tothepolicypackagedimensionofthereformprocessassociatedwithliberalization(consequently
the Program was often perceived as a critique of the reforms, the evaluation of which was not its
purpose). Secondly, this misinterpretation implicitly limited the understanding of the scope of the
processesatplay.
Afterengagingindebateswithboththedonorcommunityandthenationalpartners,itappearsthat
globalization would have been more relevant than liberalization in the title of the Program.
Thoughsuchapositioningcouldappeartobeanexcessivescope,thecontexttowhichtheProgram
refersclearlycorrespondstothenewinternationalregimethatemergedintheearly1980sandits
consequences for agriculture, rural economies, and the process of economic transition as a whole.
Thisnewregimeischaracterizedbynewrolesforthestateandprivateactors,aswellasbyabroad
anddeepmovementtowardsintegrationoftheworldeconomy.
ThisiswhytheProgramhasprogressivelyadoptedthisbroaderpositioningforthepresentationof
itsresults.GlobalizationandStructuralChangeinRuralEconomieshasbeenusedasatitleforthe
secondphasenationalreportsandpolicybriefs,andthetitleofthissynthesisreportclearlyrefersto
globalization.
ThisconceptualpositioningstronglyshapedtherationaleoftheRuralStrucProgram
and its hypotheses. While the trade liberalization debate focused on the expected
gains from the liberalization process and their consequences for growth and
poverty,10 the Programs objective was to reengage in the debate on economic
transition within globalization and to elaborate on possible structural difficulties
9 Development economics emerged at the end of World War II with the idea of catchingup the
growth process of industrializing countries, with reference to the takeoff of 19thcentury West
Europeancountries.Itfoundedadebatedevolutionistvisionofdevelopmentwherecountrieshaveto
go through necessary stages. See Chapter 2 which discusses further economic and demographic
transitions.
10 Economic research work rarely addresses other consequences of liberalization. On its potential
employment dimensions see for instance Hoekman & Winters (2005). On its environmental
dimensionsseeCooketal.(2010).
10
ratherthanjustontransitionalproblems.11Consequently,itaimedatreconnecting
the discussion on agriculture with some challenging issues like increasing overall
productivity gaps between countries, lagging economic diversification, and the
demographicchallengesfacedbyseveralregions.Thesearerecurringblindspotsin
the international debate, but at the same time they are critical for the structural
transformationofdevelopingcountries.
With reference to the existing debates on agriculture, food markets and rural
diversification, three embedded hypotheses were advanced to structure the
researchprocess(Box4).Thefirsthypothesis(H1)referstotheglobalrestructuring
ofagrifoodmarketsandtheincreasingasymmetrywithininternationalcompetition.
It states that these processes lead to both the development of increasing
differentiation among farm structures, and also among marketing, processing, and
retailing structures. This hypothesis raises several questions: What is the balance
betweenthepotentialintegrationoffarmersinmodernemergingvaluechainsand
their possible exclusion? What are the scope, speeds, and characteristics of these
processes? Do they induce a segmentation dynamic with concentration,
marginalizationand,sometimes,exclusionwithinandfromthefarmsector,leading
totheemergenceorconsolidationofmultipletrackagriculture?
The second hypothesis (H2) relates to the existing processes of adaptation among
ruralhouseholdsasaresponsetothemanychangingfactorsinagricultureandtheir
impact on farms viability. Rural households engage in new configurations of
activitiesandincomesystemscharacterizedbyachangingroleofagricultureanda
growingimportanceofofffarmactivitiesandtransfers(privatetransfersrelatedto
migrations and, possibly, public transfers linked to specific support systems).
Questionsrelevanttothishypothesisinclude:Whatarethecharacteristicsofthese
new configurations? How do they differ between countries? Are these dynamics
newordotheyfollowthehistoricalpathsofstructuraltransformation?Howtothey
reshape the characteristics of rural areas and of rural urban linkages? Are they
effectiveanswersforthesustainabilityofrurallivelihoods?
11In the economic literature, difficulties related to liberalization are generally perceived as
temporary. This is the case for unemployment which is supposed to reflect the time needed for
adaptationtothenewcontextandforreachinganewequilibrium(Wintersetal.2004).
11
Box4:ThethreeProgramsHypotheses
12
3.1 AComparativeApproach
Comparativeapproachesareapowerfultoolforanalyticalworkbecausetheyhelp
to stress convergences and divergences and to identify key explanatory factors.
However, they are also risky and can lead to deep methodological errors. For the
RuralStruc Program, the comparative perspective was not used to make
comparisons between countries (for instance Mexico and Madagascar), as this
wouldhavemade,ofcourse,littlesenseandwouldhaveinducedclassicalselection
bias.12Simultaneously,facingtheclassicalchallengeofexpostanalysis,thegoalwas
nottoevaluateimpactsthetermwascarefullyavoidedintheofficialtitleofthe
program and dimensions was preferredbecause it would have led to
information difficulties (particularly the lack of years of reference for evaluation)
andtoariskydiscussiononthedirectionofcausality.
12Duetotheselectionprocessandtheselfselectionofthecountrycases,anyconclusionfromdirect
comparisontoexplainvariableswouldsufferfromsystematicerror(Collier&Mahoney1996).
13 The concept of critical juncture is part of path dependence approaches and refers to the
identificationofkeychoicepointswhenaparticularoptionisselectedbygovernments,coalitions,
orsocialforcesamongotheralternativesandleadstothecreationofrecurringinstitutionalpatterns
(seeMahoney2001,Pierson2000).
13
3.1.1 CountrySelection
The process of selecting country case studies for comparative purposes is always
the result of a tradeoff between objective criteria related to research goals and
operationalissues,whichrefertolocalpartnerships,conditionsforimplementation
(particularly allocated time, financial and human resources), and also to
contributingpartnersbuyinaswellastheirownoverallthemesofinterest.
Toengageinthecomparativeapproach,itwasdecidedtoselectasmallsampleof
countries. These of course were not intended to be representative of the large
diversity of possible development trajectories, but they did correspond to a
spectrum of situations within the process of structural transformation. This
included,ontheoneside,countriesthatwerefaraheadinthisprocessand,onthe
otherside,countrieswhereeconomictransitionandthepaceofintegrationintothe
worldeconomyhadbeenslowand/orunequal.
AmongtheProgramssevencountrycasestudies,Mexicowaschosenasanexample
ofadvancedeconomictransition,withahighurbanizationlevelandalimitedrole
foragricultureintheeconomy.WeanticipatedtheMexicanruraleconomytoshow
evidenceofbeingbroadlyaffectedbydeepintegrationandliberalizationprocesses,
accelerated15yearsagowiththeimplementationoftheNorthAmericanFreeTrade
Agreement(NAFTA),aswellashugemigrationflowstotheUSA.
SubSaharan Africa (SSA), on the other hand, represented by Senegal, Mali, Kenya
andMadagascar,providedanillustrationoftheinitialstageofeconomictransition,
with partial integration and liberalization processes initiated through state and
marketreforms,andanimportantenduringroleforagricultureandotherprimary
activities.
14CAADPisoneoftheflagshipprogramsoftheNewPartnershipforAfricasDevelopment(NEPAD).
Launchedin2003,itaimsatincreasingagriculturalinvestmentto10%ofnationalbudgets(Maputo
Declaration)andatfacilitatingthepreparationofinvestmentplans.CAADPfocusesonfourpillarsto
improve productivity and growth: land and water management, market access, food supply and
hunger,andagriculturalresearch.See:http://www.nepadcaadp.net/
14
Furthertotheaforementionedcriteriaofgradualanddifferentiatedintegration,the
selectionofcountrieswasalsobasedonthreespecificmacroeconomiccriteria(see
Table1)16:GDPpercapita,theshareofagricultureinGDP(AgGDP),andtheshareof
theeconomicallyactivepopulationengagedinagriculture(AgEAP),allofwhichare
basic indicators of the countrys stage within the economic transition. As a
consequence(withtheexceptionofMexico),theselectedcountriesarelowincome
orlowermiddleincomecountries.Theydisplayawiderangeofsituationsinterms
of poverty, human development, governance, and business climate, with stark
contrast between SSA and nonSSA countries and also clear gradual indicators
resultsbetweencountries.
Using the WDR08 typology, the selected countries represent the three worlds of
agriculture:agriculturebased(Kenya,Madagascar,Mali),transforming(Senegal,
Nicaragua and Morocco), and urbanized (Mexico).17 In the selected countries
agriculturecontributeslessandlesstoeconomicgrowth,butmaintainsasignificant
role in national employment: between 70 and 80% of the labor force for the SSA
countries,andunder30%inMorocco,Nicaragua18andMexico.Thesevencountries
15 The European Union and the USA in the case of Morocco, and the USA in the case of Nicaragua
(withtheCentralAmericanDominicanRepublicFreeTradeAgreementCAFTADR).
16InTable1(aswellasinthedocumentasawhole)countrydatahavebeensortedfromlefttoright,
firstbyregion(SSA,NorthAfrica,andLatinAmerica),andthenbyincomelevelbasedonthesurvey
results(seeChapter3).
17 Having Senegal, a country with 72% of its EAP in agriculture, in the transforming world
illustrates the ambiguity of using rural (and rural poverty) instead of AgEAP as a criteria for the
analysis. The definition of rural varies between countries (see below Box 5) and has a restrictive
definition in Senegal. Nicaragua is not referred to in the WDRs three worlds analysis, which
excludescountriesbelowthe5millioninhabitantslimit(eventhoughNicaraguapassedthislimitin
2000). However, using the same criteria, Nicaragua would be part of the transforming countries
group.
18 AgEAP shares are computed from FAO based on ILOdata. In the case of Nicaragua, the effective
15
Populationsizealsoplayedaroleintheselectionprocess.Thiswasdoneinorderto
avoidextremesituations,andconsequentlyboththemostpopulouscountries(like
China,India,Indonesia,orBrazil)andtheverysmallestwereleftaside.20Thischoice
is disputable, of course, because there is no direct correlation between economic
transition and demographic size. The WDR09 reminds us however that size
matters, and it can be a strong asset facilitating structural transformation. Large
domestic markets offer economies of scale and accessible demand, which provide
substantial room for maneuver to domestic firms in the context of increasing
competitionlinkedtoglobalization.Thisisparticularlythecaseforindustrialization,
aswellasforresearchand/orcapacitybuilding.21Again,theselectedcountrieshave
asmalltomediumdemographicsize,between5and35millioninhabitants(except,
once more, for Mexico). These criteria precluded the selection of any countries in
Asia,wheremanycountriesdealwithlargerdimensions.22
The selected SSA countries reflect the diversity of situations among lowincome
countries (Madagascar, Mali, and Senegal are all included in the Least Developed
Countriesgroup(LDCs)).Theydisplayadiversityofgeography(Southern,Eastand
West Africa, including a landlocked countryMali), of colonial history (former
19 Country groupings are always debatable. However, qualifying Kenya as a country facing an
incipienturbanizationissomewhatsurprisinggiventhehugeurbangrowthobservedinthecountry.
SeeBox8inChapter3andHarreetal.(2010).
20Smallandlargesizesareindeedveryrelativevalues.Nevertheless,onemustkeepinmindthat
amongthe192memberstatesoftheUnitedNations,only11countrieshavemorethan100million
inhabitants, 25 countries have more than 50 million people, and 50 countries count more than 20
millionbut80countrieshavelessthan5millioninhabitants.Themediancountrypopulationis7
million.
21Ifthecaseagainstthemostpopulouscountriesintheselectioniseasilyunderstandable,thecase
against the smallest is trickier: they can also face high difficulties in their economic transition in
todays world, but the population numbers at stake are globally less illustrative of the transition
challengesandtherisksofdeadends.
22IfChinaandIndiaareglobalexceptions,mostoftheAsiancountrieshavelargepopulation(e.g.
Thailand,Vietnam,Indonesia,Philippines).IfweexcludetheformerUSSRRepublicsandtheconflict
andpostconflictcountries(Cambodia,SriLanka),thealternativeswerelimited.Withinthisrangeof
demographic size, Nepal or Malaysia could have been interesting cases, the latter being already
deeplyengagedinitsstructuraltransformation.TheselectionofNicaraguaissomewhatdisputable
with regard to the above: this is a postconflict country, affected by a civil war between 1978 and
1989, and its population size is limited. To illustrate the CAFTADR countries, Guatemala and
Honduras were discussed alternative options. Nicaragua was however selected for operational
reasons.
16
FrenchorBritishcolonies),ofactivitystructureincludingtheroleofmigrations
andofthestateofthenationaldebatearoundagricultureandprivatization.23
Table1:SelectedIndicatorsfortheRuralStrucCountries
There is no perfect sample. The RuralStruc country cases present however a wide
range of situations which fit with the Programs objectives and help to draw a
differentiatedpictureabouttheprocessesofchangeunderway.Theyshedlighton
the structural characteristics of economies with different degrees of economic
diversification and urbanization, various migration patterns, different types of
public policies and, of course, diverse agricultural sectors. Agricultures are
characterized by the goods they produce, the size of their main value chains and
their market orientation (domestic or international, staple or highvalue); all of
which are related to natural and historical conditions which have shaped local
agrarian systems and markets. As such, the agricultural sectors of the selected
23 Due to its insular situation, Madagascar is somewhat a quite specific country case study within
SouthernAfrica.MozambiqueandZambiawereotherpossiblestudycasesbut,again,availabilityof
localpartnershipprevailed.
24ItisworthtomentionherethatMexicoholdsalsoaspecificstatusamongdevelopingcountriesdue
17
country cases are generally focused on annual crops (mainly cereals), including
irrigatedcrops,butalsoincludetraditionalcommoditiessuchassugarcane,cotton,
groundnut, or coffee. The sample could have probably benefited from including a
strongplantationbasedagriculturaleconomy,whereperennialcrops(coffee,cocoa,
palmoil)havelongshapedtheagrariansystems(suchassomecountriesoftheGulf
ofGuineainWestAfrica.)25
3.1.2 OperationalizingtheComparativeWork
TheRuralStrucProgramwasconceivedwithtwomainphases.Themainobjectiveof
theFirstPhasewastogeneratebroadcountryoverviewsbasedondesktopstudies
on the role of agriculture in the economy. These studies specifically examined
marketstructuresandtheirevolution,thedevelopmentanddifferentiationoffarm
structures, and the risks of transition impasses and possibilities for adaptation.
Simultaneously,thisFirstPhasewasanopportunitytoidentifymissinginformation
relatedtotheprocessesofstructuralchangewithinagricultureandtoshareviews
onthegeneralapproachoftheProgramwiththenationalpartners.
The Second Phase was originally designed to produce specific information at the
regional and value chain levels, based on qualitative interviews with farmers,
middlemen, and other economic agents, and targeting the relevant issues brought
outbytheFirstPhase.However,theFirstPhaseresultshighlightedtheweaknessof
the knowledge base, and identified significant information gaps regarding the
processofruraltransformation(particularlyonruralhouseholdactivities,income,
andintegrationintomarkets).Consequently,theProgramdecidedtoengagemore
directlyinprimarydatacollectionatthehouseholdlevel.26
The objective of the household surveys in each country was to provide evidence
abouttheprocessesunderwayinagricultureandtheruraleconomybygenerating
originalinformation(bothqualitativeandquantitative).Itfurtheraimedtofacilitate
improved understanding of the roles of agriculture in local economies and rural
livelihoods(typesofruralincomegeneration,combinationofactivitiesandincome
sources,multifacetedlivelihoods).27
25Theselectionincludes,however,regionsengagedintropicalperennialcrops.Amongthecountry
cases,examplesarefoundinKenyaandNicaragua(coffee).Perennialsarealsostronglyrepresented
inMorocco(mainlycitrusandolivetrees).
26 Decision of the First Advisory Committee meeting, March 2007. The program benefited from a
governancestructureincludinga10memberAdvisoryCommitteefromtheacademiaandaSteering
Committeeofthecontributingdonors.
27 The First Phase was realized between April 2006 and March 2007. The Second Phase was
supposed to be implemented between June 2007 and June 2008. The new choices related to the
implementationofhouseholdsurveysobviouslyledtoanewschedule.TheactivitiesofthisSecond
Phase were launched in September 2007 and lasted till June 2009, with extensions for Kenya,
MoroccoandMexicountilJanuaryMarch2010.
18
3.2 RegionalFieldwork
3.2.1 DesignandLimitations
TargetinghouseholdincomesledtheProgramtofocusonthecoreissueofincome
estimates, which, in rural areas, means dealing with farm incomes and all the
difficulties of their approximation. The Program dealt with these difficulties by
employingaheavysurveyframeworkwithextensivequestionnaires.28
While the survey work suffered from a few specific localized difficulties (such as
delays and missing information resulting from Kenyas postelection violence in
early2008),themainconstraintofthefieldworkwasitslimitationtoaoneshot
survey,aconsequenceoftheoveralldurationoftheProgram,aswellasitsfunding.
This represents a key inconvenience given that the Programs hypotheses were
developed in dynamic terms. It is also a source of bias due to the interannual
variationoffarmincomes(e.g.impactofbadweatherconditionsonyields).
Awaytomitigatethissevererestrictionwouldhavebeentobenchmarkthesurveys
based on existing panels, but this option quickly appeared to be a deadend. The
first reason is that it would have been difficult within the allocated timeframe to
dealwithseveralexistingbaselines,surveyframeworksandmethodologies.
The second reason was the unavailability of such panels with a specific focus on
rural incomes. In developing countries, household panel data, when it exists, has
mainlybeendevelopedforpovertyestimationpurposes(notablywithinthecontext
ofstructuraladjustmentprogramsstartedinthe1980s90s).Consequently,itmost
often deals with household expenditures and frequently target urban households,
whichoftencorrespondtothemainshareofthecountrysamples.29
28 See annex 1 which presents the detailed methodology used for the fieldwork (units of analysis,
sampling procedures, dates of collection), its difficulties, as well as the technical solutions which
wereadoptedtodealwiththem.
29 This is broadly the case of the Living Standards Measurement Studies (LSMS), initiated by the
World Bank in the 1980s, which include 32 countries. In Africa, most of the poverty household
surveyswereimplementedonanationalbasis,usingaquitesimilarapproach.
19
Box5:RuralversusUrban:WhatDefinitionforEachCountry?
Though the definition of rural varies from country to country, there does seem to be a
commonality: there is rarely positive definition. Most of the time rural is the residual population
after subtracting urban population from total population (FAO definition). There is of course no
uniform definition for urban. It is most often based on the size of settlements, but also on
populationdensityoradministrativeboundaries,andsometimesontheprovisionofservices.Inthe
RuralStruccountries,definitionsofruralarethefollowing:
Kenya:TheKenyaNationalBureauofStatisticsdefinesruralasalocalitywithhumanpopulationof
lessthan2,000dwellers.
Madagascar:Ruralareascorrespondtodistrictswheretheproportionofagriculturaleconomically
activepopulation(asdefinedfortheAgriculturalCensus)exceeds50%(RSIIMadagascar,p.26).
Mali: "Rural households" include all households living in rural areas, which are defined as the
oppositeoftowns.Throughatleastoneofthemembers,ruralhouseholdsareinvolvedinagricultural
activitiesbroadlydefined(RSIIMali,p.20).
Mexico: A rural locality is defined by the national statistical system (INEGI) as a place with less
than2,500dwellers.However,thisthresholdisdebatedandthereisacommonreferencetothelimit
of5,000inhabitants,whichwasselectedbythecountryteam(RSIIMexico,p.6).
Morocco:Ruralareasaredefinedbydefault:ruralisconsideredanyareathatisnotincludedinthe
scopeofanurbanarea.Urbanareaschangetheirboundariesovertimeduetotheexpansionofcities
and the reclassification of rural localities to urban. There is no statistical definition of the rural
population(RSIIMorocco,p.6).
Nicaragua: The official definition of rural areas corresponds to districts with less than 1,000
dwellers(RSIINicaragua,p.11).
Senegal:Theruralisdefinedinoppositiontotheurban,whichhasanadministrativedefinition:
allcommunesareclassifiedasurban,eveniftheyhavealltheattributesofruralareas,particularly
theimportanceoffarming(RSIISenegal,p.39).
Thoughmanylocalcasestudiesexist,littlehasbeendoneandisavailableonrural
incomes.Thisisoftenaconsequenceofthedepletionofnationalstatisticalsystems,
butitalsofrequentlyresultsfromstatisticalframeworksthatdonottargettherural
economy, just agriculture. This creates a real difficulty in conceptualizing the
processes of rural change underway. In this context, a rare exception is the RIGA
Project,developedbytheFAOincollaborationwiththeWorldBank,whichoffersa
coherentframeworkforacrossnationalcomparisonofruralincomesources(Box
6).30
30 In the coming years, the new LSMSISA Program (LSMS Integrated Surveys on Agriculture),
launchedin2009bytheWorldBankandtheBillandMelindaGatesFoundationinsevensubSaharan
African countries, will provide panel data focusing on agriculture and linkages between farm and
nonfarmactivities.
20
Box6:TheRuralIncomeGeneratingActivitiesProject(RIGA)
TheRIGAprojectintendedtofillsomeofthemajorgapsintheunderstandingoftheruralnonfarm
economy (RNFE) by using a database constructed from a pool of Living Standards Measurement
Study(LSMS)andothermultipurposehouseholdsurveysmadeavailablebytheWorldBankandthe
FAO. It analyzed sources of rural household income in 18 countries from 32 household surveys:
Ghana 1992 & 1998; Kenya 200405; Madagascar 199394 & 2001; Malawi 2004; Nigeria 2004;
Bangladesh 2000; Indonesia 1992 & 2000; Nepal 199596 & 200304; Pakistan 1991 & 2001;
Vietnam 199293, 199798 & 2002; Albania 2002 & 2005; Bulgaria 1995 & 2001; Tajikistan 2003;
Bolivia2005;Ecuador1995&1998;Guatemala2000&2006;Nicaragua1998,2001&2005;Panama
1997&2003.
TheRIGAdatabaseiscomposedofaseriesofconstructedvariablesaboutruralincomescreatedfrom
theoriginaldatasources.Thesampleofcountriesandtheindicatorsbuiltoffergeographiccoverage,
aswellasadequatequalityandsufficientcomparabilitytoallowforcrosscountryanalysis,despite
pervasivedifferencesinthequalityandlevelofinformationavailableineachsurvey.
AnalysesbasedontheRIGAprojecthavebeenextensivelypublished.Theyallowto(i)evaluatethe
participation in and income received from RIGAs, (ii) analyze the role of household assets in
participationineachactivity,(iii)analyzetheroleofhouseholdassetsintheincomereceivedfrom
eachactivity,and(iv)disaggregateruralnonfarmactivitiesbyindustry.
Source:Carlettoetal.2007,http://www.fao.org/economic/riga/en/
TheRIGAresultswereusedextensivelybytheWDR08,mostnotablytodiscussthe
role of rural activity and income source diversification as a way out of poverty.31
TheywerehowevernotdirectlyusablefortheRuralStrucanalysisduetodifferent
yearsofreferenceandmissingcountrycases.
SincetheProgramlackedeasyoptionsforbenchmarkingthehouseholdsurveys,a
way to mitigate the drawbacks related to the one shot data collection was to
complementthesurveyswithspecificfieldworkanddeskreviewsonselectedvalue
chainsandthecharacteristicsofthesurveyedregions.Theseactivities,allowedfor
contextualization:afinetunedanalysisofthehouseholdsurveysresultsthatbears
in mind the historical background of the processes of change underway, notably
regardingtherestructuringofagriculturalmarkets.Thevaluechainswereselected
bythenationalresearchteamswithreferencetotheirimportanceintheeconomyat
bothnationalandregionallevel.Eachvaluechainanalysispresentedcharacteristics
of supply and demand, their evolution in the context of liberalization, and the
existing integration and differentiation processes resulting from the global
restructuringofagrifoodmarkets.
The selected value chains, which included both staples and commodities, are
presentedbycountryinTable2.
31RIGAresultsarealsoamainreferenceofIFADsRuralPovertyReport2010whichmakesuseofthe
RuralStrucsurveyresultsaswell(IFAD2010).
21
Table2:MainValueChainsAnalyzedintheRuralStrucCountryStudies
Country ValueChains
Mali Meatanddairy,drycereals,rice,onion,cotton
Senegal Groundnut,cassava,rice,dairy,maize,tomato
Madagascar Rice,maize,potato,dairy,greenbean
Kenya Maize,milk,sugarcane
Morocco Cereals,redmeat,oliveoil,tomato,citrus
Nicaragua BasicGrains,vegetables,dairy,coffee,sesame
Mexico Maize,dairy,fruitandvegetables
Sources:RuralStrucPhaseIIreports
3.2.2 SelectionoftheSurveyedRegions
DuetothegeneralobjectivesoftheProgramanditsresources,thepurposeofthe
householdsurveyswasobviouslynottoobtainastatisticallyrepresentativesample,
but rather to provide a comprehensive picture of rural realities. Consequently,
within each country, the Program decided to focus on a selection of regions
illustrativeofdifferentunderlyingtrendsthathadbeenpreviouslyidentified.
Regions were chosen by the national teams, based on the First Phase results and
their own expertise. Their goal in selecting regions was to illustrate the regional
dynamicsrelevantforunderstandingtheprocessesofchangecurrentlyunderwayin
thecountry.Differentcriteriawereuseddependingonthecountry,butallrelatedto
market access (infrastructures and proximity to cities), the presence of integrated
value chains, the level of public investments and public goods, and the situation
regardingnaturalresources.
Threetypesofregionswerespecified,withreferencetotheirexistingtrends:
- losingregions,ontheotherend,whicharecharacterizedbytrendstoward
marginalization due to local constraints (low factors endowment, lack of
public goods), poor connection to markets, high poverty rates, and where
householdsustainabilityappearstobeincreasinglydifficult;
Basedonthisgeneraltypology,aminimumofthreedifferentregions(onepertype),
but sometimes more, was selected for data collection in the sevenstudy countries
(seeTable3below).Surveyedlocalitieswerechosenbythenationalteamsinevery
22
regionbasedontheirlocalknowledge,withtheobjectiveofillustratingtheregional
dynamics. Within each locality the selection of households to survey was
randomized.
Forcertainsurveyedregions,finetuningbasedonthefirstsurveyresultsledtothe
identificationofsignificantdifferencesbetweendifferentareasofthesameregion.
Consequently, a few of the original surveyed regions were split in two in order to
provideamoreaccuraterepresentationofregionalcharacteristics(theideabeingto
avoidmisleadingeffectscomingfromaveragingoppositeextremes).Thischoicewas
usually made based on statistically significant differences in household incomes
betweensurveyedlocalitiesinthesameregion,andsometimesbasedonparticular
localconditions(remoteness,naturalcharacteristics).ThiswasthecaseinSenegal,
Madagascar and Mexico, where several original regions were split in two.32 These
choices helped to take into account different households asset endowments and
agrarian structures, reflected in income patterns. The main characteristics of the
regionsaswellasmapsofthesurveyedzonesareprovidedinAnnex3.33
Thus,duetothecharacteristicsofthesamplingmethod,theProgramssurveysare
statistically representative at the locality level (village or community) only.
However, because the Program relied on national teams of experts to select the
surveyed regions, with reference to their factor endowments and connection to
markets,theresultsprovideanaccurateestimateofthecountrysexistingregional
trendsintermsofagriculturaldevelopment,ruralincomesandruraldiversification.
They shed light on the diversity of the rural situations at the national level, a
situationconfirmedbythesecondphasesnationalreports(seeChapter3).
In the end, around 8,000 rural household surveys encompassing 57,000 people
were implemented in 26 regions34 of the seven selected countries between
November2007andMay2008beforethefulldevelopmentofthefoodpricecrisis.
Assuch,thedatacollectedrefermainlytothe2007cropseason.Fortypercentofthe
surveyedhouseholdsareinthethreenonSSAcountries.
32 In Senegal: Lower Delta (Bas Delta) and Upper Delta (Haut Delta) for the Senegal River Delta
region; Mekh 1 and 2 for the North of the Groundnut Basin (Bassin arachidier). In Madagascar:
Antsirabe1and2,andAlaotra1and2.InMexico:theSotavento(Veracruzstate)wasdividedinthe
lowlands(TierrasBajas)andthemountains(SierradeSantaMarta).
33 In Mexico, it was decided to drop the results of Ixmiquilpan, in the Otomi region of the Hidalgo
state, which had been selected as a losing region. The inconsistencies in the survey results were
insurmountable.TheSotaventosubregionofSierradeSantaMarta,characterizedbydifficultaccess,
low provision of public goods and a population mainly indigenous, somewhat offers the
characteristicsofalosingregionandmitigatesthedroppingofIxmiquilpan.
34Duetotheregionalfinetuningexplainedabove,theresultsaredisplayedbetween30regionsand
subregions(amongthe26surveyedregions,5regionsbeingdividedintwosubregions,minusthe
droppedMexicanregionofIxmiquilpan).SeedetailedtableinAnnex1.
23
Table3:SelectedSurveyedRegionsintheRuralStrucCountries
ExAnteclassification
"Winning" Intermediary "Losing"
Koutiala
Mali Dima Tominian
Macina
Bassinarachidier :
Senegal SenegalDelta North(Mekh) Casamance
South(Nioro)
Alaotra
Madagascar Antsirabe Morondava
Itasy
ElViejo Terrabona
Nicaragua MuyMuy
ElCu LaLibertad
Tequisquiapan
Mexico Sotavento(Veracruz) Ixmiquilpan(Hidalgo)
(Quertaro)
Sources:RuralStrucPhaseIIreports
Surveys in each region were based on the same positioning and questioning and
usedthesamesurveyinstrumentframework.Inspiteofdatalimitations,thisdesign
offers a set of comparable statistics referring to the same period of time (a key
difference from RIGA) that documents both overarching patterns of development
andthegreatdiversitywithinruralsocieties.35
3.3 ThePartnershipatWork
OneoftheoriginalcharacteristicsandstrengthoftheRuralStrucProgramwasthe
core methodological choice of developing activities through local partnerships,
relyingonnationalteams.Thischoicefacilitatedofcoursetheimplementationofthe
Program, notably the process of data collection, but it also strongly improved the
quality of both the data and the analysis, by providing an additional safeguard in
terms of accuracy and consistency of the collected information and of the general
understanding of the processes underway. In the end, it fostered both local
ownershipandthepublicpolicydebate.
35The contributing donors of the Program agreed to provide public access to the RuralStruc
databases (country databases and core merged database). This dissemination, including the
adequatedocumentationusingtheinternationalstandards(metadataandvariabledescription),will
beprogressivelyimplementedin2011withsupportfromtheAcceleratedDataProgramcoordinated
bytheWorldBankandthePARIS21Secretariat.DataarealreadyavailablethroughtheWorldBanks
MicroDataLibrary:http://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/670
24
BetweenthelaunchingworkshopofthePrograminApril2006andthepublication
of the first draft of this synthesis in June 2009, the national and the coordination
teamsengagedincontinuousexchanges,whichintensifiedduringthelaunchingand
ending stages of each phase, during joint field missions, and at several collective
events(seeAnnex2).
The same terms of reference, adjusted collaboratively, were used for each phase
and,aboveall,adeepconsultativeprocesswasadoptedforthedesignofthesurvey
instrument. The same methodological framework was used in each of the seven
countries,includingcommondefinitionsandselectionofcoretransversalvariables
tobe used for the analysis, with the necessary local adaptations. The major
difficultiesrelatedtovariabledefinitionsanddataanalyseswerereviewedduringa
specificworkshop,aswastheoutlineoftheSecondPhasereport.Acommoneffort
was also engaged in order to build an aggregated merged database focusing on a
core set of variables that each national team extractedand/or calculated from the
nationaldatasets.Last,butnotleast,thecountryresultswerethoroughlydiscussed,
based on the crosscountry data analysis and the national reports, as a way to
consolidatethefinaloutcomesoftheProgram.
InthetwocountrieswhereaformaldisseminationeventforphaseIIoccurred(Mali
inApril2010andSenegalinJune2010),itconsistedofthepreparationofasetof
policy briefs by the national teams that presented results and policy
recommendations. These were discussed during a workshop involving farmers
organizations and civil society representatives, administration, local governments,
privatesector,anddonors.
International dissemination will continue in 2011 and 2012 and will involve the
countryteams.BeyondseveralpresentationsoftheProgramanditsfirstresultsin
various forums since its launching in 2006 (see Annex 2), a first step was
undertaken in August 2009 when the Program organized a preconference
workshop during the XXVIIth International Conference of Agricultural Economists
(IAAE2009)inBeijing.
25
4. SynopsisoftheReport
ThisfinalreportoftheRuralStrucProgramproposesacomparativeanalysisofrural
change articulated with the existing debate on agriculture, rural development and
structural transformation. It relies on the extensive fieldwork and analyses
developed by the country teams, based on desk reviews and rural household
surveys,whicharepresentedin14countryreports.36Thiscountrybasedmaterial
has been complemented by a literature review which provides the necessary
backgroundforinterpretingtheProgramsresultsandhighlightingitscontribution
tothematicresearchandthepolicydebate.
Thereportconsistsofsixchapters,andFigure1proposesanoverviewofhowthey
fittogether,servingasaguidetofacilitatethenavigationofthereport.Thewaythe
chaptersaredraftedallowsthereadertofollowtheprogressionofthedocumentor
togodirectlytothechaptersofher/hisinterest.Thereportiscompletedbyannexes
which provide additional information on the methodology, the local partnerships,
the description and the location of the surveyed regions, as well as data results
whichcouldnotfitintothecoredocument.
The first chapter on Setting the Scene and Selecting the Tools has explained the
motivation of the Program with reference to the past and ongoing international
debates,aswellasthemethodologyused.Specifically,itshowedhowtheProgram
employed a twostage process that involved both qualitative and quantitative
research,anditpresentedtheProgramsthreehypothesesrelatedto:theextentof
integrationprocessesinagricultureandtheirconsequencesonfarmhouseholdsand
the agricultural sector (hypothesis one); the development of the rural nonfarm
economy(RNFE)andthewayitreshapesruralrealities(hypothesistwo);therisks
of transitional deadends with possibly some households and regions left behind
withintheprocessofstructuraltransformation(hypothesisthree).
Chapter2onTheChallengesofStructuralTransformationactsasareminderabout
theoverallprocessesofstructuralchangeandparticularlythecharacteristicsofthe
economic and demographic transitions. It provides a frame of reference for the
discussion for the rest of the report, addressing more particularly the question of
theviabilityofthehistoricalsequenceofstructuraltransformationinaglobalizing
world. It points the specific situation of the least developed countriesmainly in
subSaharanAfricawhichremainattheearlystagesoftheirtransitionprocesses.
The chapter also presents the characteristics of the RuralStruc countries with
regard to their demographic and economic structures, highlights their main
challengesandthedifferentroleplayedbyagriculture.
36The14RuralStruccountryreportsarepostedontheWorldBanksRuralStrucwebpage:
http://www.worldbank.org/afr/ruralstruc
26
Chapter3beginstheworkofexaminingtheRuralRealitiesinthesurveyedregions
by focusing more particularly on the place of agriculture in households activities
andincomesandtheextentofpoverty.Afterageneralpositioningunderliningthe
central role of agriculture across very different regional settings, the chapter uses
micro level survey data to present the income characteristics of the households.
Twothemesdominatethisreview:thestrengthandpersistenceofabsolutepoverty,
and the extent to which households are still engaged in agriculture, especially in
subSaharan Africa. The chapter shows that this poverty holds when calculated a
numberofdifferentways:perhead,peradultequivalent,andeveninkilocalories.
Thelastsectiondiscussesthetypesofobservedlivelihoodstrategiescallingonthe
WDR08s typology which refers to its three pathways out of rural poverty (farm
specialization, rural labor, and migration). It leads to the definition of two large
groupings of households, strongly specialized in onfarm activities or more
diversifiedwithoutanysignificantofffarmspecialization.Theunderstandingofthe
characteristicsofhouseholdsactivitiesandincomesistheobjectiveofthenexttwo
chapters.
27
Figure1:ATooltoNavigatetheReport
Chapter2:
TheChallengesofStructuralTransformation
Hypothesis
3
Hypothesis
2
Chapter4:
ExploringOfffarm Chapter6:
Chapter3: Diversificationand FromRegional
RuralRealities: theRNFE Patternsof
Agricultureand Chapter5: Rural
Poverty Searchingfor Transformation
Onfarm toPolicy
Specialization Guidelines
Hypothesis
1
Chapter1:
SettingtheScene&SelectingtheTools
28
Thepreviouschapterunderscoredseveralnewissuesthathaveemergedasgrowing
internationalconcernsinthepolicydebateinrecentyears,andthathavechanged
the policy landscape. Among them, the financial crisis has probably, and
unexpectedly,contributedtotheveryrecentanddiscernibleresurrectionofatheme
which had long been ignored in the policy agenda: structural transformation.
Though this topic had remained fully relevant in academic circles, it was broadly
absent from the discussions of policy makers; and reconnecting structural issues
withthepolicydebatewasacoremotivationfortheRuralStrucProgram.
Thepoliticalcomebackofstructuraltransformationstillremainsverylimited.Short
term issues and rescue plans require the majority of governments and donors
attention, and consequentlyrestrict their ability tostrongly reengage in longterm
structural policies. However, two major recent contributions are worth citing: the
2010 UNRISD report on Combating Poverty and Inequality, the subtitle of which is
Structural Change, Social Policy and Politics; and the newly released Economic
Report on Africa 2011, published by the African Union and the Economic
Commission for Africa and titled Governing development in Africa the role of the
state in economic transformation. New interest on the donors side can also be
identified,astheWorldBanksChiefeconomistrecentlycalledforaNewstructural
economicsasaframeworkforrethinkingdevelopment(Lin2009).
Twofactorscanbeputforwardtoexplainthisprogressivenewfocusonstructural
issues.First,thefinancialcrisishasraisedquestionsaboutthesustainabilityofthe
existinggrowthmodel.Assuch,newstructuralsolutionsarebeingsoughttoallowa
more sustainable and inclusive future development regime, a process exemplified
by the many attempts to improve world governance and the growing role of the
G20.Second,thedramaticactionsofrichcountrygovernmentsindealingwiththe
consequencesofthecrisisthroughbailoutsservesasaclearreminderofthelimits
of marketonly approaches and suggests that states still have a role to play,
particularlyindealingwithregulatoryandstructuralissues.
Withthisevolvingcontextinmind,themainobjectivesofthischapteraretoprovide
background on the processes of structural change currently underway and to
address specific challenges faced by the RuralStruc countries and regions with
respecttotheireconomicanddemographictransitions.Thechapterwilladdressthe
situationofsubSaharanAfricainparticular,asitwasthelastregionintheworldto
beginitsstructuraltransformation.
29
Figure 3 and Figure 4 present the economic transition of each of the RuralStruc
countries(andsomecomparators)from1965to2005usingthreebasicindicators:
GDP per capita, the share of agriculture in GDP and its share in employmentan
efficientwaytomeasurethestructuralevolutionofaneconomyawayfromonethat
is entirely centered on agriculture. The differences between countries and the
additionofcomparatorsshowverysignificantdifferencesintheextentandpaceof
structuralchange.
37ThisworkwasundertakenduringthefirstphaseoftheProgram.Itreliedoninternationalsources
inordertofacilitatetheoverallpositioningoftheProgramandthebackgroundofthecountrystudies
developedbythenationalteams.
38 The graph displays a line for SSA aggregate rather than one each for the four RuralStruc SSA
countries for reasons of clutter. Further, at the scale presented, the differences between SSA
countriesintermsofevolutionareslight.
30
Figure2:EvolutionofGDPperCapitabetweenSelectedCountriesandRegions(19602009)
7000
Mexico
6000
5000
US$2000percapita
Brazil
4000
3000
Thailand
China
2000
Morocco
1000 Nicaragua
SSA
0
Sources:WorldDevelopmentIndicators
Figure3displaystheshareofagricultureinemploymentandinGDPovertime,and
thesquigglylinesthatresultcouldwellbetermedthecountryssignature,fornot
only their visual resemblance, but also because they summarize every individual
countrysuniquedevelopmenttrajectory.Thefigureillustratesthedifferentweight
ofagricultureovertime,highlightsthepositioningofworldregionsthroughcountry
examples,andshowshowtheshareofagricultureinGDPdecreaseswhenmoving
from SSA to Asia and Latin America. It also stresses the decreasing share of
agricultural employment in the labor force. This change occurs slowly at first, a
situation exemplified by the stagnant employment structure observed in sub
SaharanAfrica,andalsobyChinawherethedecreaseissimilarlyveryslow.
The difference between agricultures share in GDP and its share in employment is
worth highlighting. This difference illustrates a wellknown characteristic of
structural transformation: the inequality of incomes between agriculture and the
other sectors of the economy, which speaks to differences in factor productivity
(Timmer & Akkus 2008). Figure 4 displays this structural gap (AgGDPAgEAP),
whichclearlyhighlightsruralurbanincomedifferences.Thestructuralgapwidens
during the early stages of economic development, a consequence of rapidly
expandingeconomicactivityincitiesandoftheresultantaccumulationofwealth.It
later reduces as the economy diversifies overall, and as urbanization continues,
leading to the progressive convergence of rural and urban sectors into a fully
integratedeconomyi.e.,withagapequalorneartozero.
31
Figure3:ShareofAgricultureinGDPandinEAPOvertime(19652005in%)
100
Mali 1967
90 Madagascar Kenya 1965
Senegal 1966
1980
80
China 1965
Indonesia
70
1965
AgEAP/EAP
60 Morocco
1980
50 Brazil 1965
Mexico
1965
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
AgGDP/GDP
Sources:WDIandFAO
Note:Finalyearis2005.Startingyearisprovidedwiththecountryname
Figure4:StructuralGapandGDPperCapita(19652005,5yearaverages)
LogGDPpercapita(US$2000)
0
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9
10
Indonesia
1965
StructuralGap(AgGPAgEAP)
20
Mali 1967
30
50
Kenya 1965
60 Senegal 1980
Madagascar 1966
70
Sources:WDIandFAO,authorscalculations
Note:Finalyearis2005.Startingyearisprovidedwiththecountryname
32
AmongtheRuralStruccountries,thecomparisonofgapvaluesconfirmsthatMexico
is deeply engaged into its structural transformation. It is a diversified economy
whereagriculturenolongerplaysamajorrole(5%oftheGDP).However,evenafter
engaging in this transition, risks of growing marginalization in Mexicos rural
economycontinuetoexist(25millionpeoplestillliveinruralareasandbetween15
and 20% of the labor force remains in agriculture). Mexicos difficulties in this
convergenceprocessareshownthroughacomparisonwithBrazil,whosegapvalue
isdecreasingmuchmorerapidly.39
The cases of Morocco and Nicaragua40 are more tenuous because agriculture still
plays a significant role in overall valueadded (respectively 15 and 20%). The
convergencebetweentheruralandurbansectoriswellunderway,andthisprocess
has been especially quick in Morocco. However, the successful deepening of these
two countries economic transitions will clearly rely on their capacity to skillfully
manage their internal economic integration in a way that avoids marginalizing
remoteareas(themountainzonesinMoroccoandAutonomousCaribbeanRegions
in Nicaragua). Agricultural policies could play a significant role in limiting the
exclusionprocesses.ThisissueisofficiallyaddressedbytheMoroccanGovernment
which,in2008,launchedanewruraldevelopmentstrategyLePlanMarocVert
based on two pillars: the development of the agroindustrial sector (mainly based
on nucleus of smallholders supplying export oriented processors, termed
aggregators), and the promotion of family agriculture. The relative levels of
attentionaffordedtothetwopillarsandhowdifferentapproacheswouldaffectthe
marginalizationofruralhouseholdscontinuetobestronglydebated(RSIandRSII
Morocco).
InsubSaharanAfrica,theprocessofstructuralchangehasbarelybegun.Fiftyyears
aftertheirpoliticalindependence,SSAcountriescontinuetobecharacterizedbythe
weightoftheagriculturalsectorinGDP.Onaverageitstandsatabout20%,butin
most countries, including Kenya, Mali and Madagascar, it is over 30%.41 Sub
Saharan African countries are also notable for the weight of agriculture in their
employment structures. It employs on average 65% of the subcontinents
economically active population, (excluding South Africa) and in many countries
39ThesituationofChinaisworthnoticing:whilethecountryhasexperiencedrapidgrowth,astrong
increase of GDP per capita and a dramatic decrease of the economic weight of agriculture, the
structural gap is still widening. This very specific situation is the result of booming cities, mainly
alongthecoast,andlaggingruralareaswhereasignificantshareofthepopulationstilllive(760m
people or 56% in 2008). This population is still principally engaged in agricultural activities (the
AgEAP is around 500m people), and the gap between urban and rural incomes is a source of
increasingsocialandpoliticaltension.
40NicaraguaisnotdisplayedinFigure3andFigure4becauseitstimeseriesistooshort.
41Theweightofagricultureisalsoverysignificantinforeigntrade.Itistheprimaryforeignexchange
earnerfornonminingornonoilcountries.
33
ThemoststrikingphenomenonliesinthegreatinertiaofSSAseconomicstructures.
SSAstrajectoriesinthetransitionarestagnant(seeFigure3andFigure4).Though,
its populations show significant mobility, demonstrated most effectively by the
speed of urbanization. With an urbanization ratio (percentage of the population
living in urban areas) approaching 40%, the urban population has increased by a
factor of 12 since 1960 (see Table 8). However, this urban dynamic has not been
accompaniedbyanysortofsignificantindustrialization.Thisurbanizationwithout
industrialization phenomenon so widely observed in subSaharan Africa is in
contrast with patterns seen in other developing regions, notably Asia, where
changes in the economic structure happened very quickly (see Figure 5). It has
resulted in an overwhelmingly high share of services in SSA economies, mainly
relatedtoinformalurbanactivitiesandtothemarketingofagriculturalproducts.42
Figure5:EvolutionofGDPStructure:SSAvs.Asia(19652005) 43
Agriculture/GDPin% Manufacturing/GDPin%
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
42 The main other sectors are extractive industries and construction, which were respectively
dropped from the primary and secondary sectors in order to highlight the specific trends of
agricultureandmanufacturing.
43LatinAmericancountriesarenotincludedascomparatorsbecausetheireconomicdiversification
mainlyoccurredbefore1965.
34
ThelackofadynamicmanufacturingsectorinSSAhasmeantthatincreasesinthe
economically active population have mainly concerned agriculture or the informal
urbansector,whichplayedtheroleofshockabsorbersforAfricaspopulation.The
informalurbansectorrepresentsabout30to45%ofnonagriculturalGDPand70
to90%ofoverallnonagriculturalemployment(Jtting&DeLaiglesia2009).
Table4:ComparedDynamicsofGDPpercapitaGrowthbetweenRegions(19602007)
% variation
per year coef.
North Africa & Middle East 2.06 1.68
Sub-Saharan Africa 0.72 3.10
Latin America & Caribbean 1.73 1.38
East Asia & Pacific 5.44 0.76
South Asia 2.72 0.99
source:Arbache&Page(2007)
In the last two years, the literature on African economic development has been
brimmingwithveryoptimistictitlesreporting Lionsonthemoveandan Emerging
Africa where Poverty is falling much faster than (we) think!44 These victory
statements must however be carefully discussed based on a more historical
perspective.
Though the recent growth period and Africas apparent resilience to the financial
crisis are good news, it is not clear that they are the result of structural solutions
44These titles are respectively those of McKinsey (2010), Radelet (2010), and SalaiMartin &
Pinkovskiy(2010).McKinseysAfricanlionsseemtohavebeenshrewdlynamedtocompletethezoo
ofemergence(Gabas&Losch2008),alongwiththealreadywellknowAsiandragonsandtigers,and
the Latin American jaguars. It is important to keep in mind that the lions counted by McKinsey
includethewholeAfricancontinent,theGDPofwhichissharedbetweenNorthAfrica(41%),South
Africa (21%), and the rest of SSA (38%)based on Africas GDP breakdown for 2008 in constant
2000US$(sourceWDI).
35
that will sustain growth in the long term. 45 With some exceptions (situations of
catchingupandimprovementsingovernance),growthhasinitiallybeenbrought
about by a boom in raw materials. Growth was slower in SSA than in other
developingcountries(notablyEastAsia)anditwasmainlyconcentratedinservices
and constructionthe investment rate remained the lowest of any developing
region(Ali&Dadush2010).Recentprogresshasnotsofarchangedthestructural
anemiaofthesubcontinent.Aboveall,gapswiththerestoftheworldhavebeen
continuingtowiden.46
1.2 NewPatternsinDemographicTransitions
Economic and demographic transitions are closely intertwined. World population
growth is currently rapid and characterized by differential growth rates across
societies. Consequently, countries are at different stages in demographic
transitiona process characterized by a successive fall in both the mortality and
birth rates.47 As a result of these different stages in demographic transition an
increasing share of the worlds population comes from developing countries. This
trend will simultaneously challenge economic growth, exacerbate the existing
asymmetries between regions, and finally bear upon every regions economic
structures.
According to the United Nations estimates,48 the worlds population should reach
9.2billionpeoplein2050morethantwoadditionalbillionpeoplethantoday(see
Table 5). Although these statistics are widely discussed,49 the distribution of this
population increase across regions receives less attention. Whilst Europe shows
characteristics of the final stage of demographic transition (with an ageing and
decliningpopulation),subSaharanAfricaandSouthCentralAsiaarestillbooming,
45GDPpercapitahasbeengrowingonaveragearound3.5%peryearbetween2004and2008and
bouncedbackin2010to2.3%afterthe2009drop.
46 By computing the World Banks World Development Indicators, Arrighi & Zhang (forthcoming)
compareSSAsGrossNationalProduct(GNP)percapita(includingSouthAfrica)totheGNPofwhat
they name the First World (North America, Southern and Western Europe, including Scandinavia,
Israel,Australia,NewZealandandJapan).TheyclearlyshowthattheshareofSSA(asapercentageof
FirstWorldsGNPpercapita)droppedfrom5.6%in1960to2.3%in2005(Table1,p.43).
47Inthefirststageofthetransition,thedropinthemortalityratebeforeanycomparabledeclinein
thebirthrateleadstohighpopulationgrowthwhichthenprogressivelydiminisheswhenbirthrates
slow down. Progresses in healthcare and welfare have exacerbated the scale of the process and
shortenitscycle.
48TheUnitedNationsWorldPopulationProspectsareamajorreference.Theprojectionsarebased
onasetofassumptionsnotablythefertilityratewhicharerevisedeverytwoyears.Themedium
variantresultsofthe2008revisionhavebeenselected.
49 According to many specialists, the UN projections are underestimated (Guengant & May 2009).
They are based on a convergence paradigm with a fertility rate target for 2050 which is
contradictedbymanynationalcensuses.Asanexample,the2009Malianpopulationcensus(INSTAT
2009) gives a 3.6% yearly increase of the Malian population between 1998 and 2009, a far higher
ratethanthe2.4%oftheUNWorldPopulationProspects.
36
demonstrating different phases within the transition. These latter two regions,
however, are growing at different rates: SSAs population should double by 2050,
reaching1.7billionpeople,whileSouthCentralAsiashouldonlygrowby40%.50
Thus,by2050subSaharanAfricashouldbecomethesecondmostpopulousregion
of the world (after South Asia). Simultaneously, East Asias population growth
(mainlyChina)shouldcometoahaltasaconsequenceofhugegrowthinincomes
(and also potentially due to the radical birth policies in place in China since the
1970s,theconsequencesofwhichisadebatedissue).Asaresult,EastAsiashould
progressivelyfacethesameproblemspresentlyseeninEurope(i.e.,theburdenof
anageingpopulation)whichwillheavilyweightontheregionsgrowthrate.Japanis
alreadyconfrontedwiththissituation.
Table5:WorldPopulationbyRegion,AbsoluteandShare(19602050,inmillions)
50 Beyond this overall picture of a booming subSaharan African population, there are of course
significantdifferencesbetweenSSAcountries.Firstly,thegrowthrateofmanycountries,mostlyin
SouthernAfrica,hasbeenaffectedbythepandemicofHIV.Then,totalfertility(numberofchildren
perwoman)isunevenlydeclining.MostoftheSahelianandCentralAfricancountries,aswellasthe
African Horn, still face very high fertility (6 to 7 children per woman), while some countries (e.g.
Senegal,Nigeria,Kenya)havebegunagradualandhaltingslowdown(4to5childrenperwoman).
Thesetwogroupscorrespondto85%ofSSAspopulation.Thecountrieswhichareclearlyengagedin
theirtransition(3to4childrenperwoman)areGhana,CtedIvoireandSouthernAfrica(withthe
exceptionofMozambique),SouthAfricabeingfaraheadintheprocess(2.5childrenperwoman).See
UnitedNations,WorldFertilitydata2008,Guengant(2007),andGendreau(2010).
37
Table6:PopulationoftheRuralStrucCountries(19602050,inmillions)
Year 1960 1990 2010 2050 20102050
Kenya 8.1 23.4 40.8 85.4 44.5 109%
Madagascar 5.1 11.2 20.1 42.7 22.5 112%
Mali 5 8.6 13.3 28.3 14.9 112%
Senegal 3 7.5 12.8 26.1 13.2 103%
Morocco 11.6 24.8 32.3 42.6 10.2 32%
Nicaragua 1.8 4.1 5.8 8.1 2.3 40%
Mexico 37.9 83.4 110.6 128.9 18.3 17%
Source:UnitedNations,WorldPopulationProspects,2008Revision
The main economic concern with the demographic transition relates to the
evolution of the populations activity structure, which in turn reflects its age
structure (Bloom et al. 2001). This evolution is revealed by different dependency
ratios, or activity ratios, which summarize the respective portions of active and
inactive people in theeconomy.51 In the firstphase of demographic transition, the
population is young with a high share of inactive youths; during the second stage,
thesecohortsbecomeactiveand,iftheconditionsforgrowthexist(goodeconomic,
institutional, and political environment), offer a potential bonus to the economy,
named the demographic dividend. Finally, the third stage corresponds to the
ageing of these cohorts, thus increasing the dependency ratio (or decreasing the
activityratio).
Figure6illustratesthesestaggeredanddifferentiateddemographictransitions.Due
toitshighpopulationgrowthratesincethe1960s(higherthan2.5%peryearover
40 years, with a peak at 3% in the 1980s), subSaharan Africa faced the weakest
activityratioeverrecordedduringthe1980sand1990s,withonlyaboutoneactive
51 The ratio commonly used is the dependency ratio, which relates economically active population
(EAP, aged 1564) to the economically inactive population (nonEAP, <15 and >64). The ratio is
calculatedbydividingthetotalnumberofnonEAPbyEAP.However,theProgramdecidedtousethe
activityratio(EAP/nonEAP)whichismoreillustrativefortheProgramspurposes.Onemustnote
that these ratios referring to the EAP overestimate the active population: the working age group
includes many inactive and unemployed persons. As such, real dependency or activity ratios
including the employment rate should be used. In many developing countries, and notably in SSA,
thisapproachismadedifficultbythesizeoftheinformalsectorandpoorinformationonthelabor
market.Onthisdiscussion,amongothers,seeOudin(2003).
38
personforeveryinactiveperson.52Understandingthisheavyburdenhelpstocreate
perspective on SSAs two decades of economic crisis and structural adjustment, as
wellasonitscurrentsituation.Duringthesameperiod,EastAsiabenefitedfroman
outstanding demographic dividend. Its activity ratio grew beyond 2 active people
foreveryinactiveandcertainlyfuelledtheeconomicgrowthoftheregion(Bloomet
al.2001).53SouthAsia,whosetransitionlagsbehindEastAsiasbyabout30years,
shouldgetthisdemographicwindfallaround20352040.YetSSAwillhavetowait
after 2050 to potentially reap the benefits of a more favorable demographic
structure.
Figure6:ActivityRatiobySelectedRegions,19502050
2.40
2.20
2.00
EAP/nonEAP
1.80
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
Whenexaminedintermsofyearlycohortsofpeopleparticularlyyearlycohortsof
younglabormarketentrantsthesedifferentdemographictrendsrevealacoming
surgeinthelaborsupplyoverthenextdecadesinSSAandSouthAsia.
Figure 7 displays the size of the yearly cohort of labor market entrants, and
illustrates the same trends between the worlds most populous regions (Asia and
52The ratio was less than one in some countries. The real activity ratio, including the effective
employmentrate,wouldbeworse.
53TheactivitystructuresgapbetweenSSAandEastAsiaishighertoday:1.2versus2.5(seethedots
inFigure6).
39
Figure7:YearlyCohortsEnteringtheLaborMarketbySelectedRegions,19552050
40
35
30
YearlyCohorts(Million)
25
20
15
10
0
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
EasternAsia SubSaharanAfrica SouthCentralAsia
Source:WorldPopulationProspects,2008revision
54Cohortsarecommonlycalculatedbytaking1/10ofthe1524agegroup,creatinganestimateof
the new entrants in the labor market, i.e. youth looking for a job or an activity that provides an
income.Thisisdifferentfromtheincreaseofthelaborforce,whichcanbeestimatedbyusingthenet
increase(n+1n)oftheEAP(1564agegroup).ThesecondcalculationbasedonEAPsgivesalower
yearlycohortthanthenewlabormarketentrants(12minsteadof17min2010forSSA).However,
beyondthepreviousdiscussionabouttheimprecisionoftheEAP,itcanbemisleadingalsobecause
mostdevelopingcountries'labormarketsincludemanypeoplecontinuingtoworkafter65,notably
retireesoftheformalsectorwhotrytoaugmenttheirpensionincomes.Assuch,theyearlycohortof
labormarketentrantsgivesaclearerestimateintermsofnewlaborsupply.
55ThefiguresforSouthandCentralAsiaare:ayearlycohortof35mpeoplein2010,37min2025,
andanaccruedamountof575mnewlabormarketentrantsoverthe15yearperiod.
40
Table 7 shows what these trends mean for the RuralStruc countries: in SSA the
forecastedpeakperiodforlaborsupplywillbeafter2050.Italsoshowsthemajor
differencebetweenSSAandnonSSAcountries(wherethepeakperiodhasalready
passed or will do so soon, confirming their later stage within the demographic
transition).Duringthenextdecades,achievingadequateeconomicgrowthtocreate
demandforthecominglaborsurgewillbeamajorconcernforsubSaharanAfricas
societiesandtheirgovernments(WorldBank2009c,UNRISD2010).
Table7:LaborMarketEntrantsintheRuralSrucCountries(inThousands)
NewLaborMarketEntrantsin PeakofAnnualAdditional
PeakTime
2010 LaborSuply
Kenya 847 1,545 >2050
Madagascar 405 736 >2050
Mali 278 524 >2050
Senegal 269 452 >2050
Morocco 638 644 2005
Nicaragua 125 129 2015
Mexico 1,984 2,008 2015
Source:WorldPopulationProspects,2008revision
41
2. StructuralTransformationinaGlobalOpenEconomy
Theevolutionistviewthatunderliesthecanonicalmodelofeconomictransitionis
insufficientlyquestionedtodaygiventhenewconfigurationoftheglobaleconomy.
Indeed,theglobalizationprocesswhichbeganattheendofthe1970sisuniqueand
too often mischaracterized as a second globalization, with reference to a first
globalizationoccurringbetweenthe1860sandtheFirstWorldWar.Thisperiodof
time was certainly characterized by an increasing movement of goods, labor and
capitalbetweenEurope,itsimmediateperiphery(Russia,OttomanEmpire)andthe
New Worldsmainly the USA (Berger 2002), but it was not an effective
globalizationaffectingthewholeworld.Ratheritprimarilyrepresentedaprocessof
convergenceintheNorthAtlanticeconomy,drivenbymigrationflows(ORourke&
Williamson 1999), and governed by a significantly different geopolitical order
(specificallybyEuropeancolonialempiresandtheAmericansphereofinfluencein
LatinAmerica).
The processes at play today represent the growing integration of the world as a
whole. This globalization is facilitated by continuous technological progress in the
transportationofgoods,capital,andinformation,strengthenedbytheliberalization
policies begun in the early 1980s, and result in a greater concentration of assets
beingheldbyglobalfirmsandinstitutionalinvestors,aswellasthedevelopmentof
intrafirm trade and the outsourcing of production. Additionally, globalization is
alsocharacterizedbyaconvergenceinthinking,relatedtocommonconcernsabout
globalchange.Thisisparticularlyevidenttodayinregardstotheimpactofhuman
activitiesonnaturalresourcesandclimate.
2.1 IstheHistoricalSequenceofStructuralChangeStillViableToday?
One of the main questions to explore is whether or not, or to what degree, the
historical sequence of structural change is viable for todays late developers. A
caveat is necessary here because this debate includes many traps. Though it has
many variants, the historical path of structural transformation is a stylized fact of
history,confirmedbystatisticalevidence.56Assuch,itmustbenotedthatthisisa
positive, not a normative statement. However, notions such as development or
56 Timmer & Akkus (2008) have testedthe evolutionofthe structural pattern in 86 countries. The
resultsconfirmtherobustnessofthishistoricalprocess.TheauthorsincludedthesevenRuralStruc
Programcountriesinthesample,whichdonotexhibitstrongdivergencefromthegeneralpattern.
42
emergence are more ambiguous and carry certain overtones related to the
European(orWestern)viewofworldhistory.57Inthisperspective,thestructural
trajectory of todays developed countries is used as the evolutionary measuring
stickagainstwhichchangesineconomiesandhumansocietiesarejudged(Gabas&
Losch2008).Keepinginmindthelimitationsandbiasesinherentinthisframework,
thisdocumentneverthelessusesthetermsfirstorlatedeveloperstodescribea
countryspositionwithregardtotheobservedhistoricaltransitionprocesses.
Timmer and Akkus (2008) argue that, if countries are lagging in the process of
structuralchange,itismainlyrelatedtoeconomicgrowthdifficultiesanddoesnot
implyfailureofthehistoricaltransformationprocess.Whilethisistrueinabsolute
terms, it surely understates the role of specific historical conditions in past
transitionsandthepotentialdifficultyofreplicatingthestructuraltransformationin
thesamewaytoday.
2.1.1 TheImportanceoftheMomentinTime
Prospects for change in every country or region depend not just on internal
conditionsintermsofpopulation,education,naturalresources,etc.,butalsoonthe
relationship and room for maneuver that the country has with the outside world
(Gore 2003). For example, limited competition for a countrys industrial exports
couldmeaneasierindustrialization.Andbecauseopportunities,constraintsandthe
balance of power evolve continuously throughout world history, the historical
contextmatters.Consequently,itisimportanttohighlighttheneedforahistorical
perspectiveindiscussingtheongoingprocessesofstructuralchange.
Often today, the evolutionary frame of reference tends to omit three major
characteristics of previous transition processes. The first omission refers to the
existingpowerrelationsatthetimeoftheWesternEuropeanandNorthAmerican
transitions over the 19th and the better part of the 20th centuries. These early
transitions from agrarian societies towards more diversified economies cannot be
disconnected from European political and military hegemony, which developed
starting in the 16th century and was expressed most overtly through colonization
andunfairtreaties.58
57Rist(1996)referstodevelopmentasaEuropeanbeliefwhichisgroundedinaunilateralvisionof
historyorinthetheftofhistoryifonefollowsGoody(2006).Thetermnewworldsreflectsthe
sameEuropeanperspective,whichgavelittlecredenceatthattimetoindigenouspeoples.
58TheconditionsthatledtoEuropeanhegemonycannotbedevelopedhere,butthediscoveryand
dominationoftheAmericasappeartohavebeencritical(Grataloup2007).Further,Pomeranz(2000)
notes that it was also related to the fortunate location of coal in Western Europe which deeply
changedthecontinentsrelationshiptonaturalresourceswhencomparedtothatofChina.
43
Thishegemony,whichisfullyembeddedinthehistoryofworldcapitalism(Braudel
1979,Wallerstein1989),reducedoreliminatedcompetition59andallowedforvery
attractive situations of both supply and demand with captive markets. Together
with the agricultural revolution of the 18th century (Mazoyer & Roudart 1997), it
madespecializationandindustrializationpossible(notablythroughconsistentfood
suppliesbasedoncheapimports),andfacilitatedhighbusinessprofitabilitywhich
resultedinincreasedcapitalaccumulationandinvestment.WhentheUnitedStates
wentthroughitstransitioninthemidlate19thcentury,itreproducedanddeepened
manyofthefeaturesoftheEuropeantransition.
The second omission is the huge outflows of migrants from Europe during the
transition, an opportunity that was of course fully intertwined with European
hegemony(Hatton&Williamson2005).Between1850and1930,nearly60million
Europeans migrated to new worlds: the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, and
Africa (mainly Algeria and Southern Africa).60 These white migrations (Rygiel
2007) facilitated the adjustment of European economies and theirmanagement of
labor surpluses resulting from their demographic transitions, from rural
depopulation,andfromtheinsufficientpaceofjobcreationinurbansectors,despite
astrongprocessofindustrialization(Losch2008).
ThethirdomissionisspecifictotheLatinAmericanandAsiantransitions,whichare
frequently called into the debate to confirm the infallibility of the pattern of
structural change. Latin American and Asian countries began their transition
processes during the very specific period of national selfcentered development
(Giraud1996)thatcharacterizedtheinternationalregimebetweenthe1929crisis
andthe1970s,i.e.,thebeginningoftheglobalizationperiod.Throughouttheworld,
nationstates implemented their own development projects (McMichael 1996)
characterized by importsubstitution, protection and strong state intervention
(Chang 2002). Public policies were of paramount importance for both
industrialization (Evans 1995, Amsden 2001) and agriculture modernization
(Djurfeldt et al. 2005), and they initiated the socalled developmental state. The
independent Latin American countries engaged in this process between the two
WorldWarsandcontinuedthesepoliciesduringthreedecadesafterWWII.61They
werefollowedbymanyofthenewlyindependentAsiancountriesinthe1950s;and,
in both cases, Cold Warperiod funding played its role. Although stateled
59Bairoch(1997)pointsoutthatin1750IndiaandChinaaccountedforslightlyoverhalfofworld
manufacturingproduction.
60 The estimates vary, depending on whether migrants who returned to their home countries are
counted.EuropeanmigrationstotheAmericasmainlyconcernedtheUSAacountrythattookinup
to1.3millionimmigrantsayearattheturnofthe20thcentury(Daniels2003),foratotalofabout35
millionmigrants.CanadaandthesouthernpartofSouthAmerica(Argentina,SouthernBrazil,Chile)
wereotherimportantdestinations.
61 See the huge work produced by the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America
(CEPAL).
44
Withregardtotheseprevioustransitions,thecaseofsubSaharanAfricaappearsto
bequitespecific.Thereasonsforitslackofstructuraltransformationoverthelast
fifty years can be largely explained by the historical sequence that led to the
continentslateinsertionintotheglobaleconomy,andtheconditionsunderwhich
this was finally accomplished. One can particularly mention the constraints of
colonial rule (with captive markets and explicit obstacles to industrialization and
education),whichledtoadeepspecializationinprimarysectors.Then,thepolitical
conditions under which African states were created, especially their inherited
colonialbordersandadoptionofexternaladministrativesystems,resultedinyoung
stateslackinginstitutionalthickness(Amin&Thrift1993).Thismadeattemptsat
nationalpoliticalintegrationverydifficultandcostly.
Finally, and perhaps above all, during the early 1980s African states found
themselves simultaneously confronted by globalization and the restrictive policies
of structural adjustment, while facing the heavy burden of their demography
(notably their lowest ever activity ratios). At that time, most African states were
only twenty years old. This strongly restricted their institutional capacity to
effectivelydealwiththeseissues,andisanimportantfactthatistoooftenforgotten.
As such, they never had the necessary room for maneuver to engage in strong
modernizationpoliciesandcreateandimplementcoherentdevelopmentstrategies
(aswasdoneinAsiaandLatinAmerica).
2.1.2 TheDifficultiesofReplication
a. GrowingGapsandShorterDistances
Though each country may be at a different stage of its own economic and
demographic transitions, each one looks out upon the same world. As a result of
their specific development trajectories and diverse modalities and sequences of
integration into the global economy, they each have different comparative
advantages. However, comparative advantages are not necessarily deterministic.
The late developers can benefit from the technological progress and past
experiencesofthefirstdeveloperstohelpbuildtheirownskillandassetbases.At
thesametime,theycanseizenewopportunitiestoaccessgrowingglobalmarkets.
However,theseadvantagestolatedevelopingcountriesareconstrainedbythefact
thattheymustalsodealwithhuge(andstillgrowing)asymmetriesinproductivity
andcompetitiveness,andnotjustontheinternationalmarketbutintheirdomestic
marketaswell.Theymustcompeteonastormyopenfield(Birdsall2006),where
theirproductivityischallengedbyfirmsfromabroad(particularlyfromthemajor
45
emergingcountries),whiledealingatthesametimewiththeinstabilityoftheworld
economic environment and the growing consequences of global change. These are
dramaticchallengesforthestructuraltransformationofthelatedevelopers.
TheoverallproductivitygapfacedbySSAisaboutonetofivewithotherdeveloping
countries, and one to 100 when compared to OECD countries.62 Such a gap is a
major and enduring obstacle to global competitiveness: even if comparative
advantages can exist for specific factors (e.g., the cost of labor), these are not
enough. One must bear in mind that competitiveness is not based on production
costs alone, but also includes an economys responsiveness to markets quality
requirementsandthevolumeofproductitiscapableofsupplying.Thoughquality
requirements are a main barrier to entry into the production of sophisticated
products, the volume of supply determines market share, which at the end of the
dayisthecoreindicatorofcompetitiveness.
Thisobservationisvalidforallsectorsofactivity,formanufacturingaswellasfor
agriculture, and for all countries. As such, it is important to note that the current
contextofincreasingfooddemandandhighpricesisequallyfavorabletoproducers
around the world, but that it will require significant effort for late developing
countriesproducerstotakeadvantageofthesenewopportunities.Theywillhave
toquicklyprovideadditionalsupplyandtoupgradethequalityoftheirproducts.If
not,thenewdemandwillbemetbyothers,andtheirmarketshareswillsuffer.
62 Overall productivity is calculated by applying valueadded to the total working population. The
average constant values per workerbased on 2000 to 2005 seriesare around $500 for SSA,
$2,500fortheotherdevelopingcountries,and$50,000forOECDcountries(UNCTAD2006).
46
Africawherealonghistoryofverysloweconomicgrowthdidnotaffectthefastpace
ofurbanization(Fay&Opal2000).Evenwithoutthepromiseofjobs,citiesretained
theirallure(services,largerrangeofopportunitiesthaninthecountryside,wayof
life,etc.).
Despiteasignificantlevelofheterogeneitypresentintheinformalsector,63itcanin
generalbecharacterizedasoneoflowproductivity,markedbyunderemployment,
a lack of job security and low returns.64 These factors largely contribute to
explainingthedevelopmentofurbanslums,whichareproliferatingaroundcitiesin
thedevelopingworld(UNHabitat2003,Davis2006).
b. RestrictedRoomforManeuver
Beyondcompetitivenessgapsandthechanginggeographyoftrade,latedevelopers
transitionprospectsarealsohinderedbytwoadditionalconstraintsthatwerenot
present during previous transitions: limits on the range of available policy
interventionsandontheavailabilityofopportunitiesforinternationalmigration.
63Ranis&Stewart(1999)distinguishbetweentwoinformalsubsectors:atraditionalsubsectorofthe
socalled sponge type, stemming from the surplus of agricultural labor, with incomes sometimes
lower than rural incomes; and an informal subsector now undergoing modernization that revolves
aroundtheformalurbansector.
64UnderemploymenttrapswhichwerealreadydetectedbyTodaro(1971)fortyyearsago.
65 There has been an extensive literature on this urban bias and its effect on development since
Liptonsinitialwork(1977)andBatescontribution(1981),whichsomewhatoverlooksmanyother
factors related to the idiosyncrasies of every country. The major explanations advanced to explain
this urban bias are: the legacy of colonial regimes and an adverse political context where rural
Africanpopulationhaddifficultiesinexpressingtheirvoice,whileurbanconstituenciesweremore
directlyabletoputpressureongovernments.Amongthecitedobstaclestovoicewere:authoritarian
political regimes, low threat of rural based Communist insurgencywhen compared to Asialow
populationdensityandcommunicationobstacles.
47
protection from food imports (thus favoring cheaper food access for urban
dwellers). These policies contributed to the heavy burdens faced by African
farmers.66
Today, the most active and remunerative migration routes are concentrated in
regions peripheral to the EU and the USA,69 and in the future the options for
migration will likely depend on the demographic evolution of the high income
countries(plusChina)andtheirdemandforforeignlabor.Thisdemandwilllikely
66 Anderson & Masters (2009) show a 40year trend of disprotection while other developing
countrieswereprotectingtheiragriculturenottospeakofthesituationofOECDcountries.
67SeeamongothersMaimbo&Ratha(2005);Lucas(2005,2008).
68Discussionsontheliberalizationofmigrationoftenreferonlytotheliberalizationoftradeinlabor.
The main reference here is mode 4 of WTOs General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) on
movement of natural persons (individuals travelling from their own country to supply services in
anotheri.e.,migrantworkers).Onthistradeperspective,seeWintersetal.(2003).
69SouthSouthmigrationsmustnotbeunderestimated.Halfofdevelopingcountriesmigrantsreside
in other developing countries. However, as demonstrated by Ratha & Shaw (2007), 80% of these
migrations take place between countries with contiguous borders and with relatively small
differences in income. Consequently they only accounted for 10 to 30% of developing countries
remittanceearningsin2005.Thesemajordifferencesinreturnsbetweendestinationcountriesare
fullyconfirmedbytheRuralStrucsurveys(seeChapter4).
48
2.2 TransitionOptionsforLateDevelopers
All these facts limit the ability of the late developing regions to replicate the
historical transition process, and there is a growing debate in the development
community and in academia about the best options for transition under these
circumstances. Discussions refer particularly to SSA and frequently compare the
subcontinentwithAsia.Oneofthemostcriticalquestionsunderdebateishowto
managethelaborsupplythatexitsagriculture(Headeyetal.2010).
Yetbeforediscussingoptionsitisnecessarytoexaminemorecloselythedivisionof
populationbetweenruralandurbanareas,whichwilldeterminatetheextentofthe
geographicalandsectoralchallengesrelatedtoafastgrowinglaborsupply.Though
itsfiguresaredebatable,theUnitedNationsUrbanizationProspectspresentsuseful
estimatesandpermitsthisexamination.
Table8showstheurbanizationratiofortheprincipalregionsoftheworldovertime
andintothefuture.Itillustratestheveryrapidprocessofurbangrowthunderway
inSSA,andshowsthatthisprocessisquickevenwhencomparedtoSouthAsia.An
importantfactisthatthesubcontinentshouldremainmainlyprimarilyruraluntil
sometimearound2030.
Table8:UrbanizationRatiobyWorldRegions(19602050,in%)
Urban
Year 1960 1990 2010 2025 2035 2050 population
multiplier
EasternAsia 20.2 33.0 48.5 59.2 65.5 74.1 4.8
SouthCentralAsia 18.1 27.2 32.2 39.6 46.5 57.2 5.1
SubSaharanAfrica 14.8 28.2 37.3 45.2 51.2 60.5 9.5
LatinAmerica/Caribbean 48.9 70.6 79.4 83.5 85.7 88.7 4.4
NorthernAmerica 69.9 75.4 82.1 85.7 87.6 90.2 2.0
Europe 56.9 70.5 72.6 76.2 79.5 83.8 1.5
49
Table9:RuralPopulationbyWorldRegions(19602050,inmillions)
Asmentionedabove,330millionoftodayschildrenwill,withcertainty,enterSSAs
labor market in the next 15 years. Based on the forecasted urbanization ratios
(Figure8),195mofthemshouldbeinruralareas(59%)and137mincities(41%).
Theseworkerswillpresenttheregionwithbothanopportunityintermsofgrowth
andaseriouschallengeintermsofemployment.70
Whataretheoptionsintermsofemploymentcreation?Morebroadly,whatshould
be the policy priorities to facilitate sustainable growth that will be able to foster
economic transition on one side, and to both benefit from and support the
demographictransitionontheother?
In this debate, views are often strongly divided between industrialists and
agriculturists, or urbanists and ruralists. For the former, manufacturing can be
theonlyrealdriverofAfricandevelopmentandconsequentlyofthesubcontinents
structuraltransformation.Theirviewspositthatagriculturalproductivityistoolow,
the challenges too great, and the expected progresses too slow; and consequently,
that it would be more realistic to push hard on developing manufacturing and
services.Thelattergrouppointsoutthatpovertyisaboveallaruralissue,andthat
theruralpooraredeeplyengagedinagriculture.Assuchagriculturecanbeamajor
tool for poverty alleviation, especially in light of rapidly rising demand for food.
Additionally, agricultural development creates opportunities for diversification
70Bycomparison,thelaborforcesurgeinSouthCentralAsia(theotherboomingregion)willresult
in575mnewworkersoverthesameperiodoftime.64%ofthem(370m)shouldliveinruralareas
and36%incities(205m).
50
through the processing of products, and rising rural demand driven by increased
agriculturalincomes.
Figure8:YearlyCohortsEnteringRuralandUrbanLaborMarketsandRuralPopulationShare
insubSaharanAfrica,19552050
35 100
90
30
80
25
YearlyCohorts(Million)
70
60
20
50
%
15
40
10 30
20
5
10
0
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
rural urban ruralpopulation
Source:UnitedNations,WorldUrbanizationProspects,2007Revision,andWorldPopulationProspects,
2008Revision.Authorscalculations
Inordertohelpclarifythislongstandingdebate,itisusefultolookmorecloselyat
both the economies of cities and of rural areas, and to review their respective
capacitiestoabsorbagrowinglaborforce.
Today, although manufacturing is a very narrow sector in SSA, many believe that
currentconditionspresentanewopportunityforindustrialization.Amongthemain
argumentsputforwardinsupportofthisviewareanimprovedbusinessclimatein
71The dualistic model proposed by Lewis (1954), suggesting labor transfers from a traditional
agriculturebased sector (with low productivity and a surplus of labor) towards a modernurban
industrializingsector,wasamajorcontributiontodevelopmenteconomics.Seearecentutilizationof
LewisperspectiveabouttheroleofagricultureintransitioninBerthelier&Lipchitz(2005).
51
Aspreviouslymentioned,insubSaharanAfrica,industrializationdidnottakeplace
overthelastfourdecades,despiteahugeprocessofurbanizationwhichhasoffered,
and continues to offer, all the economic advantages of density vaunted by the
WDR09. Upgrading from the current environment to a buoyant manufacturing
sector will require more than just the exploitation of a countrys comparative
advantage(e.g.,laborcosts):itwilltakeheavyinvestment.Thegovernmentshould
play a large role, procuring infrastructure and offering incentives to encourage
privateinvestment,thoughthespecifictypesofincentivesitshouldofferarehighly
debated(Lin&Chang2009).Yet,giventhechallengesSSAwillfaceovertheshort
andmediumterm(the15yearperiodtowhichthischapterfrequentlyrefers),itis
difficult to anticipate the creation of hundreds of thousands jobs per year in
manufacturing. As a consequence, first priority should be given to upgrading the
existing productive base, which means providing adequate incentives and support
the most promising parts of the informal sector, where there is potential for
modernization.
On the rural side, with reference to Christiaensen and Demerys 2007 book title,
there is a need to get down to earth or, more precisely, to get down to basic
arithmetic(Headeyetal.2010).ThebigfigurespresentedintheRuralStrucreport
areunambiguous:around65%ofSSAspopulationstillliveinruralareas,thesame
percentageofthelaborforceisengagedinagriculture,and60%ofthenewworkers
enteringthelabormarketbetweennowand2025willberural.Thesenumbersoffer
astrongreminderthatruralissuesmustbeaddressedinordertodealwithpoverty
andmanagetheeconomicanddemographictransitions.Assuch,ruralactivitieswill
account for the major part of the equation of youth employment (World Bank
52
2009c),andfailureinruraldevelopmentwouldonlyacceleratedepopulationofthe
countrysideandcreateanadditionalburdenforcities.
Ruralactivitiesreferstobothagricultureandtheruralnonfarmeconomy(RNFE),
which are strongly interrelated. As described by an abundant literature, it is
increasing farm income that drives rural demand, which in turn fosters the
developmentofnewactivities,ruraltransformation,andeconomicchange.
Due to the growing demand for food that has resulted from booming populations
and from rising urbanization, there is no doubt that agricultural growth will be
steady for the decades to come. The critical question here, with reference to the
transitionchallengesofthelatedevelopers,isaboutthegrowthmodelwhichwillbe
encouraged.Thiswillconditionthelaborabsorptioncapacityofagriculture,aswell
as the overall sustainability of its development. Favoring family farms and labor
intensive practices will not have the same consequences on labor absorption as
favoring large scale managerial enterprises and capitalintensive production
techniques.Similarly,promotingthemultifunctionalityofagriculturewithaspecific
focus on resources management will have a different impact on absorption and
sustainabilitythanpromotingastrongintensificationbasedonindustrialinputs.
Theabovediscussionhighlightstheneedtounderstandthecharacteristicsofrural
situations.This is a prerequisitefor assessing their constraintsand their room for
maneuver, and consequently for identifying their options for fostering their rural
transformation. Though a better appreciation of factor resources and their
availability is indispensable, it is not enough. The existing rural realities and the
economic environment under which rural households sustain their livelihood and
developtheiractivitiesneedtobeunderstood.Thisincludesthenatureandextent
ofeachactivityandsourceofincome,andhowthesearepossiblymodifiedbyon
goingdynamicsrelatedtoglobalization.Exploringthisrealitythroughtheresultsof
the field work implemented by the RuralStruc Program is the objective of the
followingchapters.
53
54
The RuralStruc countries belong to the three worlds of agriculture (see Box 2 in
Chapter1)andthesurveyedregionsweresupposedtopresentdifferenttrendsin
terms of integration into markets, regional dynamism and economic returns,
translated into income levels. The expectation was also to observe very different
situationsamongregionsalongthelinesoftheiraprioriclassificationwinning,
losing and intermediatecorresponding to different opportunities in terms of
exitpathwaysoutofruralpoverty,andconsequentlydifferentsituationswithinthe
processofstructuraltransformation.
However,theresultsprovedsurprisinglymorenuanced.Differencesamongregions
areindeedimportant;andthelargestgapisbetweenthesurveyedregionsinsub
Saharan Africa and those located elsewhere, reflecting very different levels of
wealth and development. But despite this diversity two glaring similarities stood
out:theconsistentimportanceofagricultureintheactivitiesofruraldwellersand
thestaggeringmagnitudeofpoverty,almostacrosstheboard,inbothabsoluteand
relativeterms.
Thischapterprovidesanoverallpictureofruralrealitiesinthesurveyedregions.It
focuses first on agricultures role in activities and incomes, then proposes a
comparisonofestimatedruralincomestointernationalanddomesticpovertylines
andtakesnoteoftheirdistribution.Itsubsequentlyfinetunestheincomeestimates
and specifically addresses the situation of the lowest income households, in
particularbyassessingtheirfoodvulnerability.Finally,itreliesupontheWDR08s
typology to identify the main categories of households based on their income
structure, which can indicate trends in terms of rural diversification and possible
pathwaysoutofruralpoverty.
72Annex3presentsabriefoverviewoftheirmaincharacteristics.
55
Mali, and durum and wheat in Morocco. Traditional commodities produced for
exportorlocalagroindustriesarealsopresentineveryregion,aswellasfruitsand
vegetablesandlivestockwith,insomecases,dairyproduction(seeChapter5).
Figure9:ShareofSurveyedRuralHouseholdswithFarms
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Morondava
Mekh1
Mekh2
Terrabona
Dima
Souss
Chaouia
Itasy
ElViejo
Koutiala
Bungoma
Casamance
Nyando
NakuruN.
Antsirabe2
Antsirabe1
Saiss
BasDelta
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
Tequis.
Macina
HautDelta
MuyMuy
SierraSM.
Nioro
T.Bajas
Tominian
LaLibertad
ElCu
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys
73TheProgramdefinesafarmhouseholdasanhouseholddirectlyengagedinagriculturalactivities
(sensu largo) and earning incomes, in cash or in kind, from these activities, whatever the level of
productiveassetsandtheirownership(forexampleowned,rented,orlentland).SeeChapter4for
thedefinitionofhouseholdactivities.
56
In Souss, 25% of the households are fully engaged in offfarm activities. This
diversificationresultsfromboththeproximityofseveralsurveyedzonestoAgadir
(Moroccosfifthlargestcitynearly800,000persons)anditstourismindustry,and
above all from the development of agricultural waged labor in the coastal plains
commercialfruitandvegetablesector.AlthoughtheSotaventoregioninMexicoalso
shows a slightly higher share of nonfarm households than in the other surveyed
regions (15%), it is Tequisquiapan that is the most dramatic outlier among the
RuralStruc surveys. There, only 28% of households are farm households. The
surveyedregionofTequisquiapancorrespondstosixlocalitiesselectedinavalley
northofthecityofSanJuandelRio(around210,000inhabitants),150kmsouthof
thecityofQuertaro(whosemetroareaishometoaroundonemillioninhabitants).
Withastrongurbannetwork,74theregionhasbeenafastgrowingzoneoverthelast
two decades. It has seen the development of both agribusinesses (vegetables and
poultryexportedtotheUSA)andmanufacturing(maquiladorasaswellashightech
industries like aeronautics), which led to the emergence of a strong labor market
andtheexitofmanyruraldwellersfromagriculture(Rello&Morales2002).
Access to markets and public goods (often provided in urban areas), and ease of
networkingduetothequalityofcommunicationinfrastructure,stronglyimpactthe
scopeofdiversificationofruralhouseholds.Themapspresentedonpage61show
thetraveltimeinhourstothenearestcityof50,000inhabitants.Theyreflectboth
the urban structure of the country as well as the efficiency of its transportation
network; they display a remarkable heterogeneity among the RuralStruc SSA
countries.75
74The valley of San Juan has four cities of between 25,000 to 55,000 inhabitants, including
Tequisquiapan(27,000).
75Thisthresholdof50,000inhabitantscomesfromtheWDR09sagglomerationindexandwasused
asone the variables forthe regressionwork basedon the surveyresults (see Annex 5). It was not
possible to generate equivalent maps for the three nonSSA countries, but their degree of
urbanization and their infrastructure networks would have in each case resulted in an orangered
colorformostofthesurveyedregions.
57
Box 7: Density, Distance, and Division: the Three Major Geographic Features of Economic
DevelopmentAccordingtotheWDR09
The World Development Report 2009 titled Reshaping Economic Geography (World Bank 2008a)
distinguishes three geographic dimensions of economic development that shape market forces:
density(theeconomicoutputperkm2),distance(betweenlaggingandleadingregionswhereactivity
is concentrated), and division (thickness of barriers related to borders, currencies, regulations,
ethnicity,etc.).
The three Dsdensity, distance, divisioncorrespond to three scales: local, national, and
international. They create disparities in welfare both regionally and among countries which can
destabilize parts of a country, entire nations, and even some world regions (p.22). Consequently,
governmentshavetoworrybuttheyhavemanyinstrumentstoreducethesedisparities.TheWDR09
distinguishes three types of instruments: institutions (i.e. land, labor and trade regulations), which
arespatiallyblind;infrastructure(whichfacilitatemovementofgoods,people,servicesandideas),
whicharespatiallyconnective;andinterventions(fiscalincentives,preferentialtradeaccess,etc.),
whicharespatiallytargeted.
TheWDR09proposesaruleofthumbforeconomicintegrationwhichisanIforaD,or:foraone
dimensional problem (density, distance, or division), spatially blind institutions; for a twoD
challenge,institutionsandinfrastructure;andforathreeDpredicament,thethreeinstruments.
If, the report offers tools for analyzing existing asymmetries, its standardized and evolutionist
approach (see Chapter 2) has raised many criticisms pointing its unilinear vision of ruralurban
transition, or its blind spots, like the role of financial markets in the redrawing of the map of the
world(see,forinstance,Hart2011).
76Thiscalculationismadeonthefullregionalsampleincludingallthehouseholds(withfarmsand
without farms) and is based on the share of the regional means corresponding to the regional
structure of incomes(see Chapter 6 for the discussion on calculation of means). Offfarmactivities
aredetailedinChapter4andincludeagriculturalwageandnonagriculturalwageemployment,self
employment,publicandprivatetransfers,andrents.
77 In every country, regions have been sorted from left to right, from the poorest to the richest in
relativeterms.ThispatternappearsclearlyinFigure11.
58
Surveyed regions in Mali, Madagascar, Morocco and Nicaragua are most heavily
involved in farm activities, while, unsurprisingly, Mexico shows a very different
profile (though the Tierras Bajas zone does illustrate some agricultural
specialization). Senegal and Kenya reveal however different patterns: with the
exceptionofCasamance,wheremanyregionalcharacteristicsaresimilartoMali,all
Senegalese as well as Kenyan surveyed regions display a strong level of offfarm
incomearound 60%. Strong connections to cities due to higher densities and
betterinfrastructurenetworks(Box8)arepartoftheexplanation.Nonetheless,the
weight of offfarm activities does not necessarily imply a disconnection from
agriculture: many of these activities are related to agriculture, notably trade of
agriculturalproductsandwagedlaborinagroindustries.
Figure10:Averageshareofonfarmandofffarmincomesperregion
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Nyando
Bungoma
Tequis.
Mekh1
Mehk2
Nioro
Antisrabe2
Alaotra1
Antsirabe1
Alaotra2
Macina
Morondava
BasDelta
Souss
Diema
HautDelta
MuyMuy
Terrabona
ElCua
Itasy
SierraSM
Chaouia
ElViejo
Tominian
Koutiala
Siass
LaLibertad
NakuruN.
Casamance
Onfarm Offfarm
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys
59
Box8:Urbanization,TransportationNetworks,andRuralLivelihoods
The subSaharan African countries are broadly part of the WDR08s agriculturebased world
(althoughSenegal,oneoftheveryfewexceptions,isclassifiedastransformingcountry).However,
the RuralStruc SSAcountries illustrate very differenteconomic dynamics. Levelsof population and
populationdensities,ratesofurbanizationandtypesofurbannetworks,andthequalityanddensity
of communication infrastructure all strongly impact the strength of market connections and,
consequently,ruralhouseholdstypesofactivities.
Thefollowingmaps,wherethesurveyedzonesaredisplayed,clearlyshowthesizeofremoteareas
andtheregionalimbalancesintermsofmarketaccess.Theyalsoshowhowdifferentcountriesareat
differentstagesofurbanizationandhavedivergentpopulationpatterns.WhileMaliandMadagascar
display highly polarized situations where the transportation network shapes the overall pattern,
KenyaandSenegalillustratedramaticprocessesofdensification.
InKenya,acountrywhereurbanizationisbooming(theshareofurbanpopulationjumpedfrom32to
45% over the last ten years), rural people living in the central highlands, the central part of the Rift
Valley,andthewesternregionscanaccesscitiesofatleast50,000inhabitantsinlessthantwohours.
NakuruNorth,oneofthesurveyedregions,isveryclosefromthecityofNakuru,whichisthefourth
largestcityinthecountry(withanestimated2010populationof544,000)afterNairobi,Mombasa,and
Kisumu.However,overthelast20yearsthewesternpartofthecountryhaswitnessedaspectacular
processofprogressivedensificationofitsruralareasandtheemergenceoftwoconurbations.One,the
Westernconurbation,northofLakeVictoriasKenduBay,istodayhometoaround3.9millionpeople
andincludesanetworkof13cities,thelargestbeingKisumuandBungoma.TheotheristheNyanza
Kisiiconurbation,southofKenduBay,andhometo2.1millionpeopleandfourmaincities(Harreet
al.2010).TheBungomasurveyzoneispartoftheruralareasoftheWesternconurbation,whilethe
Nyando zone is between the two conurbations (east of Kendu Bay) and enjoys similarly high
populationdensities.
InSenegal,thehistoricaltrendofpopulatingthewesternpartofthecountryhasacceleratedsincethe
midtwentieth century with the development of the Bassin arachidier and its main cities (This,
Kaolack, Diourbel), which flourished with the groundnut industry. However, the last three decades
have seen a progressive shift towards the coastal area. A majority of the Senegalese population is
locatedwithin100kmoftheAtlanticcoastandinlessthantwohourscanreacheitherDakar,Mbour,
ThisorStLouis.ThecontrastindensitieswithneighboringMaliisremarkable.
Nevertheless, these maps say nothing about the asymmetric distribution of a countrys urban
population among its cities. When using the primacy index (population of the largest city /
population of the second city), Senegal and Mali reveal the extreme weight of their capital city.
Although West African urbanization is becoming more dense in general, the persisting situation in
these two countries weakens their urban structures. See the Africapolis study (Denis & Moriconi
Ebrard2009)andthepreviousWALTPSwork(ClubduSahelOECD1998).
LevelofUrbanConcentrationintheRuralStrucCountries:
Primacy Reference
Largestcity Secondcity
indices year
a e
Kenya Nairobi Mombassa 4.2 2010
b
Madagascar Antananarivo Toamasina 7.8 2005
a e
Mali Bamako Sikasso 11.3 2010
a e
Senegal Dakar This 10.5 2010
a e
Morocco Casablanca Rabat 1.9 2010
b
Nicaragua Managua Len 6.5 2005
b
Mexico Mexico Guadalajara 4.9 2003
a b e
Sources: eGeopolis/Menapolis&Africapolis, UnStats( =estimates)
60
Travel time to the Nearest City of 50,000 in the four SSA Countries
ETHIOPIA
SUDAN
Lodwar
COMOROS
UGANDA
Antsiranana
Eldoret NAKURU e
l
n
Kakamega a
n
Meru h
Kisumu C
Lake
Nakuru Nyeri Garissa u
e
Victoria iq
b
m
Thika z
a
NAIROBI M
o
Mahajanga
NYANDO Machakos
ALAOTRA
TANZANIA INDIAN
OCEAN
ALGERIA Fianarantsoa
INDIAN
OCEAN
MAURITANIA Toliara
DIMA Gao
0 40 80 120 160 200 Kilometers
Ambovombe
0 40 80 120 Miles
MACINA
Kayes Mopti
Niono NIGER
IBRD 38602
SENEGAL
Sgou
Koulikoro JUNE 2011
BAMAKO TOMINIAN
Koutiala
NIGERIA
BURKINA FASO TRAVEL TIME TO THE NEAREST CITY > 50.000 (in hours)
Sikasso KOUTIALA
GUINEA BENIN <2 24 48 816 >16
GHANA
HOUSEHOLD SURVEY ZONES
SIERRA
TOGO
This Mbak
This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank.
Diourbel
The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information
DAKAR MALI shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank
Mbour Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any
Kaolack endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.
Tambacounda
NIORO
THE GAMBIA
G AMBIA
ATLANTIC
Kolda
OCEAN
Ziguinchor CASAMANCE
GUINEA-BISSAU GUINEA
61
2. AWidespreadRuralPoverty
If agricultures role remains so important in the surveyed regions, what are their
characteristicsintermsofincomelevelandincomedistribution?Inresponsetothis
question, the following section compares household results aggregated at the
regional level with the objective of providing a general positioning of the sample
with reference to existing baselines. It also discusses income differences within
countries and between countries.78 Due to the methodology adopted, the
comparisonisofcourseonlyindicative.
2.1 AverageIncomesandPovertyLevels
2.1.1 OverallPresentation
Afirstandverystrikingobservationistheverylowlevelofincomeinthesurveyed
regions,evenifthereisanotabledistinctionbetweenSSAregions,wherepovertyis
overwhelming, and nonSSA regions (see Figure 11 and Table 10).79 Not
surprisingly, due to the strong and wellknown ruralurban divide in terms of
welfare, the average income in these rural areas is clearly belowthe national GDP
per capita: only the surveyed zones of Alaotra 2 (Madagascar) and El Cu
(Nicaragua)exceedthisthreshold.
ThelargestgapbetweenobservedhouseholdincomesandpublishednationalGDP
percapitaisrecordedinMexicowhereaverageincomesinsurveyedregionsare
four to seven times below the national average ($12,780 PPP). The situation of
Mexico is worth taking into consideration because the country is by far the most
engagedinitsstructuraltransformationandcanthereforeinformdiscussionabout
the major characteristics of the process of change. The observed gap confirms the
high level of income inequality within the country and an uneven spatial
distributionofpoverty,whichishighlyconcentratedinruralareas,asconfirmedby
thenationalGiniindexes(RSIMexico).80Ithighlightsthedifficultyofbringingabout
convergence between rural and urban incomes which is one of the most sensitive
structural problems to be dealt with during the transformation process, as
78 To allow for comparison, household incomes per capita aggregated at the regional level were
converted from local currency units (LCU) into international dollars at purchasing power parity
(PPP) for theyear 2007, which is the year of reference of thecollected information (see Annex 1).
ThesameconversionintointernationaldollarswasappliedtoGDPpercapitaanddomesticpoverty
linesinitiallyexpressedinLCU.
79 The estimated total income per household is an aggregate of monetary incomes and incomes in
kind(selfconsumption)valuedatthemarketprice(seeAnnex1).
80Thisincomegapisofcoursestrengthenedbytheselectionofthesurveyedregions,asthesouthern
part of the country is more broadly affected by rural poverty and characterized by smaller farm
structures.
62
emphasizedbyfasttransitioningcountrieslikeChinatoday(seethestructuralgap
discussion in Chapter 2). This gap also reveals a rural pattern exacerbated by the
survey methodology but which has also a more generic dimension: focused on
localities defined as rural according to the selected definition (below 5,000
dwellers),thesurveyhasconsequentlyexcludedmanyofthebetteroffhouseholds
(including some farm households), who prefer to live in large rural boroughs or
smalltownswheretheyaccessbetterservices(RSIIMexico,p.28).Asdiscussedin
Chapters4and6,thisactuallycomplicatesthetaskofcapturingofanevolvingrural
realitywheretheruralisprogressivelydissolvedwithintheurbanthroughrural
depopulationandurbanization.
Table10:OverallAnnualIncomeintheSurveyedRegions
GlobalAnnualincomepercapitain$PPP
GINI
ExAnteclassification #HH Mean Median Min Max Perc05 Perc95
Tominian losing 155 196 155 29 2,229 50 405 0.37
Dima intermediary 148 303 205 33 5,568 60 727 0.47
Mali
Koutiala winning 153 301 265 13 995 82 613 0.30
Macina winning 154 422 350 31 1,595 64 942 0.37
Casamance losing 239 360 263 1 3,059 33 1,022 0.47
Mekh1 intermediary 111 436 323 23 2,442 55 1,166 0.44
Nioro intermediary 252 376 305 16 2,828 78 988 0.41
Senegal
HautDelta winning 61 443 268 26 2,238 78 1,106 0.47
Mekh2 intermediary 113 641 511 38 2,996 125 1,578 0.39
BasDelta winning 121 1,014 757 64 6,696 182 2,675 0.56
Antsirabe2 winning 303 340 247 56 2,640 102 822 0.40
Alaotra1 intermediary 385 429 315 41 2,679 133 1,078 0.38
Morondava losing 506 493 384 39 2,440 132 1,255 0.38
Madagascar
Itasy intermediary 503 520 404 95 3,678 176 1,221 0.36
Antsirabe1 winning 206 626 440 65 6,272 130 1,456 0.43
Alaotra2 intermediary 115 1,181 788 125 7,521 180 3,309 0.53
Bungoma intermediary 299 527 341 5 4,484 30 1,629 0.48
Kenya Nyando losing 285 568 259 6 11,224 29 1,924 0.56
NakuruN. winning 289 1,973 1,077 14 22,222 197 6,375 0.51
Chaouia losing 228 1,960 882 11 25,833 77 9,832 0.63
Morocco Sass intermediary 261 2,941 1,242 9 73,849 81 10,144 0.67
Souss winning 240 3,583 1,493 20 54,054 106 12,497 0.66
MuyMuy intermediary 299 1,140 543 24 38,466 64 3,783 0.63
Terrabona losing 281 1,136 560 4 20,616 71 3,663 0.60
Nicaragua LaLibertad losing 288 2,038 895 12 106,712 75 3,179 0.60
ElViejo winning 290 1,908 1,006 7 50,864 132 5,919 0.68
ElCu winning 300 2,835 1,166 27 32,946 179 11,246 0.65
SierraSM. intermediary 175 1,571 1,162 264 15,922 391 4,049 0.41
Mexico TierrasB. intermediary 145 2,728 2,024 216 16,907 548 8,225 0.41
Tequis. winning 364 2,486 1,888 50 21,808 470 6,575 0.39
7,269
Source:RuralStrucSurveys
63
When considering the absolute and relative poverty lines of $1 and $2 PPP, the
differencebetweenSSAandnonSSAcountriesisstaggering.81InSSA,nearlyallthe
surveyedregionsarenearthe$1line,thepoorestregionofMalibeingclearlybelow.
OnlytherichestregionsofSenegal,MadagascarandKenyaareabove$2aday.While
Nyando and Bungoma in Kenya are as badly off as the other SSA regions, Nakuru
Northisanotableexceptionandhasanestimatedaverageincomecomparablewith
theothernonSSAcountries(Figure11).
The gap of average income per capita between the poorest and the richest zones,
highlighted when focusing on the income differences between regions, is an
indicator of regional differentiation. The smallest gap is found in Morocco with a
ratioofonly1.8,andthehighestisinMadagascarandKenya(3.5).82Afirstlookat
incomedistributionsshowsstronginequalitiesacommonfeatureofmostagrarian
systemsevidencedbytheveryhighincomesoftherichest5%households,which
are a clear reminder of the shortcomings of average values.83 When using the
median income per capita, the patterns seen within and between the surveyed
regionsareclearlymodified.Thoughtheordinalrankingofregionsfrompoorestto
richestremainsunchanged,profilesaremorecompact,particularlyinMoroccoand
Nicaragua(Figure12).
81 Annex 4 shows the domestic poverty lines for each country. However, the national definition of
poverty,ofteninfluencedbypoliticalconsiderations,andthelargevarietyofthresholdtypesdonot
facilitate the overall discussion. It is worth noting that 11 out 19 SSAs surveyed regions and sub
regions are below domestic poverty lines (the exceptions are Kenya and Madagascar, where the
povertythresholdsareverylow).
82ThefigurerecordedinMoroccoisstriking,becausetherelativehomogeneityamongregionsisin
starkcontrastwiththehugeheterogeneitywithinregions,amongthehighestofthesevencountries,
asexpressedbytheGiniindices.Thepresenceofsomehighincomehouseholds,whoseearningcome
mostly from rents (housing), obviously impacts the samples means and explains this pattern of
apparenthomogeneitywhichisunderminedbytheincomedistribution(RSIIMorocco,p.151).The
intraregionalheterogeneityalsoresultsfromthedefinitionofthesurveyedregionsparticularlyin
Sass and Soussand from the choice of grouping plain and mountain localities. In Souss, the
identificationofasubregionforTaliouineinthemountainareacouldhavebeenanoption.
83 More broadly, and perhaps unsurprisingly, Gini indices tend also to be higher in the richest
surveyedregionsineverycountry,withtheexceptionofMaliwheretherichestregionMacinais
internally equal, which reflects the homogeneity of land assets and production techniques in the
irrigationschemeofOfficeduNigerwheresurveyswereconducted.
64
Figure11:AverageAnnualIncomeperCapitaintheSurveyedRegions($PPP)
4,000 $12,780
3,500
3,000
2,500
$PPP/capita
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
Casamance
Terrabona
Dima
Macina
Tominian
Sass
SierraSM
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
LaLibertad
Tequis.
Nioro
BasDelta
ElViejo
T.Bajas
Itasy
Koutiala
ANtsirabe2
Nyando
Morondava
Antsirabe1
Chaouia
MuyMuy
HautDelta
Souss
Bungoma
ElCu
Mekh1
Mekh2
NakuruN.
Mali Senegal Madagascar Kenya Morocco Nicaragua Mexico
GDPpercapita $1 $2
Sources:RuralStrucSurveysforthehouseholdincomes,WDIdatabaseforGDPdata
Figure12:MedianAnnualIncomeperCapitaintheSurveyedRegions($PPP)
4,000 $12,780
3,500
3,000
2,500
$PPP/capita
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
Casamance
Dima
Tominian
Macina
Terrabona
SierraSM
Sass
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
LaLibertad
BasDelta
ElViejo
Tequis.
Nioro
Nyando
Koutiala
Morondava
Chaouia
T.Bajas
ANtsirabe2
Itasy
Antsirabe1
MuyMuy
HautDelta
Souss
Bungoma
ElCu
Mekh1
Mekh2
NakuruN.
GDPpercapita $1 $2
Sources:RuralStrucSurveysforthehouseholdincomes,WDIdatabaseforGDPdata
65
It is worth noticing that, in spite of the limitations of the survey sample, the
differences in income levels and income distributions between rural areas of the
sevencountriessaysomethingaboutstructuraltransformation:inSSA,attheinitial
stages of economic transition, the overwhelming rural majority is poor and
inequality is limited (with Gini indices between 0.35 and 0.45). In Morocco and
Nicaragua, which are moving quickly in the transition, average rural incomes are
notably higher but with a strong inequality (Ginis between 0.6 and 0.7). This
translates into wide differences between average and median incomes. Mexico,
whichisthemostadvancedintheprocessofstructuraltransformation,displaysthe
highestmedianruralincomesofthesamplefortwoofthesurveyedzonesandlower
Ginis (0.4).84 In this country, as reminded above, the inequality question has been
displaced: it is now a rural vs. urban issue and the marginalization of the
countrysideelcampohasbecomeacriticalpoliticalconcern.85
AfinalremarkaboutSSAisrelatedtotheapparentdisconnectbetweenhousehold
income results as shown in Figure 11, and the distance to markets results,
illustratedbythetraveltimemapsdisplayedabove.Incomeresultsdonotseemto
reflectproximitytomarkets,buttheydoseemtobecorrelatedwitharegionsshare
of onfarm income as shown in Figure 10. On one side, Mali and Madagascar are
characterized by strong regional heterogeneity of access to markets and by the
importanceoftheironfarmincomeshares.Ontheother,SenegalandKenyaexhibit
easiermarketaccess,aswellasmoreinvolvementinofffarmactivities(whichcan
account for up 40% of earnings). Yet in all four countries, rural areas are equally
poor.Thethree(relative)exceptionstothispovertyamongthe19surveyedregions
are Nakuru North in Kenya, Bas Delta in Senegal, and one Alaotra subregion in
Madagascar. Nakuru and Bas Delta do not have a better access to cities than the
other surveyed regions (Bungoma and Nyando and the Bassin arachidier,
respectively).Thisobservationisaclearreminderofanobviousfact:timetourban
markets is not the silver bullet, and the characteristics of urbanization count
(economicdiversification,publicgoods,existingservices,levelsofurbanincome
seefurtherdiscussioninchapter4).
2.1.2 CharacterizationandClassificationoftheSurveyedRegions
What do these results mean with regard to the ex ante classification of winning,
losing and intermediary regions, which was adopted by the national teams for
84 This evolution has similarities with the debated Kuznets curve, which has been contradicted by
new evidence (see Bourguignon & Morrisson 1998, Deininger & Squire 1998). However, the
discussionfocuseshereonruralareasonlyandnotonoverallcountryresultsandthisevolutionin
inequalityshedslightontheprocessofruraltransformation(seeChapter6).
85 Inequalities, rural poverty, and growing discontent about the consequences of NAFTA led to a
strong social movement initiated by rural producers organizations in 2002 named El campo no
aguanta mas! (the countryside can't stand it anymore!). See Snchez Albarrn (2007), Puricelli
(2010).
66
InMali,Koutiala,atthecenterofthecottonzone,waschosenasawinningregion.It
was supposed to illustrate the success of the cotton white revolution in the
savannah region. The disappointing income results reveal a crisis in the sector
which affects all aspects of regional dynamism. The longstanding unfavorable
international cotton price, coupled with uncertainties resulting from delayed
reforms has resulted in a progressive reduction in cultivated area and led to a
decreaseinfarmincomes.Largefamilysizesandmigrationstothecottonzonefrom
other parts of Mali (initially motivated by the high returns on cotton) explain
growingtensionsonresources.Thus,thesituationofKoutialaillustratesthefamous
paradox of Sikasso, named after the other major cotton growing area of Mali,
whichexpressesthecontradictionbetweenthesuccessstoryofthecottonsector
andtherelativelylowlevelofincomeperpersoninthecottonregion(seeBox9).
Even if regions income levels are generally consistent with their exante
classifications, it is worth mentioning the specific situation of the Senegalese
regions, the design of which was finetuned during the analysis and led to the
identification of subregions (see Chapter 1). The main remark is the weakness of
regional variations. Casamance is indeed the poorest of the surveyed regions, but
due toa deep crisisinthe groundnut sector theBassin arachidierwhich wasthe
historicallinchpinoftheSenegaleseeconomyisnolongeranybetteroff.Mekh2
was, however, somewhat able to obtain better economic returns through crop
diversification (cassava) and offfarm activities (handicraft). Similarly the Haut
Delta,inspiteofitscontractproductionoftomatoes,issimilartotheotherlagging
regionsandismuchpoorerthantheBasDelta.
86TheonlycountrywheretheexanteclassificationisfullyrespectedisMorocco.
67
engaged in maize as well as high value products, notably in the dairy and
horticulture industries. There are also many offfarm opportunities in the city of
Nakuru, boosted by its strategic positioning on the Mombasa Nairobi Uganda
corridor.AnotherspecificcharacteristicofNakuruNorthisitslowdependencyratio
(half of the two other regions), which reveals higher productive capacities per
householdandconsequentlyhigherearningspossibilities(seenextsection).
TheAntsiraberegioninMadagascarisahighlydiversifiedagriculturalregion(rice
and temperate cereals, horticulture, dairy), that is well connected to markets and
benefitsfromgoodinfrastructure:Antsirabe,thethirdlargestcityinthecountryat
around200,000dwellers,isonly150kmfromthecapital,Antananarivo,withwhich
itisconnectedwithapavedroadingoodcondition.Ithadoriginallybeenselected
withoutdoubttoillustrateawinningregion.However,severenaturalconstraints
(badweatherconditionsandphytosanitaryproblems,i.e.potatodisease)strongly
affected yields and, consequently, farm incomes during the surveyed crop season.
Additionally,theregionalanalysisshowedthattheregionwasquiteheterogeneous,
withremoteareasfacingmarketingdifficultiesandthereforeturningmoretowards
selfconsumption activities that brought lower economic returns. This led to the
programsdecisiontodistinguishbetweenthetwosubregions.
InNicaragua,thesurprisecomesfromthetwoareasmainlydedicatedtolivestock
productionMuy Muy and La Libertadwhich were supposed to illustrate very
different situations. While Muy Muy, a region located in the milky way (the so
called dairy belt), was originally chosen as an intermediary region because of the
development of integrated dairy value chains, the income estimates revealed a
harsher reality than expected, mainly due to the fact that farmers do not benefit
fromhighermilkpricesthatarecaptureddownstream.Onthecontrary,LaLibertad,
selected as a losing region because of several constraints (remote mountain area
withinsufficienttransportinfrastructureandlackofpublicinvestments),appeared
betteroff partly due to larger land holdings and a specific opportunityto produce
andsellfarmprocessedcheese.
Lastly, in Mexico, the aggregated results for the Sotavento region are, asexpected,
lowerthanforTequisquiapan.Nevertheless,andsurprisingly,theaverageincomeof
the Tierras Bajas subregion is higher than that of Tequisquiapan, the winning
region, and proves that the returns from intensive maize production can be
significant,andprovemorelucrativethanafullspecializationinofffarmactivities
(seebelowandBox19).
68
Box9:TheParadoxofSikassoandKoutiala
InMali,cottonisastrategicsectorandisoftenconsideredasthedriverofdevelopmentofthesouth
of the country. The cotton sector directly involves 275,000 producers and nearly 3 million people.
Cotton fiber has been thefirst exportofMali for several decades. Consideredas"the whitegold of
Mali", cotton has continuously grown since the 1960s, especially after the devaluation of the CFA
Franc in 1994, with few exceptions related to crises in the value chain management (the most
dramatic case is the cotton holdup of 2001, when cotton production shrank by half as a
consequenceofasowingstrikebyfarmersdissatisfiedwiththenewprices).
A public monopsony, the CMDT (Compagnie Malienne de Dveloppement des Textiles), has been in
chargeofthedevelopmentofthecottonsector(providinginputs,extension,collecting,ginningand
marketing),butalsoofthebroaderruraldevelopmentinthecottonarea:roads,capacitybuildingof
producer organizations, rural credit, technical support, training and literacy programs, etc. The
development of cotton allowed farmers to invest in equipment and livestock and to increase their
assets,contributingtocottonsreputationasapowerfuldriverforpovertyalleviationandregional
development. However, the Malian Poverty Assessment (EMEP) survey (DNSI 2004) and other
related studies showed that cotton production areas, such as Sikasso, were regions where poverty
waswidelyspreadwithoneofthehighestchildmalnutritionratesinthecountry.Withoutproviding
anexhaustiveexplanation,themaincharacteristicsofthisparadox,accordingtoWodonetal.(2005)
andMesplSompsetal.(2008),arethefollowing:
(i)Povertyinthecottongrowingregionsisgloballylessseverethaninotherregions;
(ii)Differencesathouseholdconsumptionlevelarequitesensitivetocottonpricesandvolumesproduced,and
tootherconditionsaffectinglocalagriculture,notablyrainfall.Asaresult,thefactthattheEMEPsurvey
was implemented in 2001 the year of a major strike by cotton producers directly impacted the
surveysresults;
(iii) The Malian cotton producers are clearly better equipped in durable goods (bicycles, motorcycles, radio,
television) than farmers in other regions. This equipmenttranslates the benefits of cottonproduction
over the longterm, regardless of the specific circumstances of a particular year. It also refers to the
preferentialaccesstocreditprovidedwithinthecottonsector;
(iv)Theeducationlevelisgenerallybetterincottongrowingareas,forbothprimaryschoolfrequentationand
levelofadultliteracy;
(v)Duetocottonsreputationintermsofmonetaryreturns,Sikassoistheonlyregionafterthecapital,Bamako,
withapositivenetmigrationflow.However,thisevolutionhasimpactedtheincomepercapita,making
theregion,insomeways,avictimofitssuccess;
(vi) As a consequence, it is possible to derive a slightly positive balance in favor of cotton areas from this
analysis. This benefit, however, is far from overwhelming. It is highly dependent on prices, and is
somewhatfragileinthelongrun(degradationofnaturalresources).
The RuralStruc Programs Second Phase results reinforce these findings. The dependency ratio in
Koutialaisthehighestofthefourstudyregions,reducingthepositiveeffectsofcottonproductionin
termsofaverageincome.Whilethepriceofcottonwaslowduringthereferenceperiodofthesurvey
(cropseason200607),thelevelofincomeinthecottongrowingregionofKoutialaiscomparableto
the Dima region, a remote rainfed area, which is characterized by a high level of international
emigration. However, the cotton producers of Koutiala are betteroff than those of the Tominian
zone, the poorest of the surveyed zones. These disappointing income results, however, mask an
importantissue:inthecottonareas,farmersare,onaverage,lessvulnerablebecausetheyarebetter
equippedandmorecapitalized,particularlyinlivestockwhichplaysaclearbufferrole.
Source:RSIIMaliandcommunicationwiththeRuralStrucMaliTeam,2009.
69
2.1.3 DistributionofRuralIncomes
Acloserlookatthedistributionofincomesconfirmsthestrongdifferencebetween
SSAandnonSSAcountriesandtheimportanceofintraregionalinequalities.When
aggregating the survey results at the national level in order to compare the
distribution profiles, and when using income classes with $1PPP intervals, the
differenceoftheshapeofthecurveisstriking(Figure13andFigure14).
Inthesample,thereachofabsolutepoverty($1/day/person)rangesfrom3%ofthe
populationintheMexicansurveyedregionsto74%intheMalianregions.IntheSSA
surveyedregions,90to95%ofthehouseholdsarecapturedwithinthefirstthree
classes (Kenya being slightly betteroff and Mali clearly worseoff). In Mexico,
Nicaragua and Morocco, the distribution is smoother, and the Mexican sample
showsamarkedlydifferentpattern,peakingatthe$34incomeclass.Inthethree
nonSSA countries, incomes per person per day upwards of $13 are relatively
common(between5and15%ofthesample).
Soastobettercharacterizetheregionsandtheirincomestructures,theresultshave
beensplitintohouseholdquintiles,eachconsistingof20%ofthehouseholdsample
(seeFigure15andFigure16).Thisbreakdownshedsanewlightontheruralreality
ofthesurveyedregions.
A major issue is the level of income in the first quintiles, which remains dire. The
worstincomespercapitaarerecordedinthepoorestregionsofMali,Senegaland
Kenya,withayearlyaverageof$64PPP(Tominian),$54PPP(Casamance),$51and
$61inNyandoandBungomarespectively,i.e.only15%ofthevalueofthe$1aday
absolute poverty line. The first quintiles in Madagascar are somewhat better,
around $150. A major surprise comes from the poorest regions of Morocco and
Nicaragua,whicharejustaspoorastheregionssurveyedinMadagascar.Withthe
exceptionofMexico,thefirstquintilealwaysaccountsforlessthan$1aday.
70
Figure13:DistributionofHouseholdsbyIncomeClassesinSSASurveyedCountries
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
]01]
]12]
]23]
]34]
]45]
]56]
]67]
]78]
]89]
]1011]
]1112]
]1213]
>13
]910]
$PPP/capita/day
Mali Senegal Madagascar Kenya
Source:RuralStrucSurveys
Figure14:DistributionofHouseholdsbyIncomeClassesinnonSSASurveyedCountries
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
>13
]910]
]01]
]12]
]23]
]34]
]45]
]56]
]67]
]78]
]89]
]1011]
]1112]
]1213]
$PPP/capita/day
71
Figure15:IncomesperHouseholdQuintilesbySSASurveyedRegions($PPP,percapita)
3,000 3,000
2,500 2,500
2,000 2,000
1,500 1,500
1,000 1,000
500 500
0 0
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
Casamance Mekh1 Nioro HautDelta Mekh2 BasDelta
Tominian Dima Koutiala Macina
SENEGAL
MALI
3,000 3,000
3,101 5,946
2,500 2,500
2,000 2,000
1,500 1,500
1,000 1,000
500 500
0 0
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
Antsirabe2 Alaotra1 Morondava Itasy Antsirabe1 Alaotra2
Bungoma Nyando NakuruNorth
MADAGASCAR
KENYA
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys.
$1PPPpovertyline();$2PPPpovertyline(___)
72
Figure16:IncomesperHouseholdQuintilesbynonSSASurveyedRegions($PPP,percapita)
8,000
10,461 12,551
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
MOROCCO
8,000 8,000
9,895
7,000 7,000
6,000 6,000
5,000 5,000
4,000 4,000
3,000 3,000
2,000 2,000
1,000 1,000
0 0
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
NICARAGUA MEXICO
Source:RuralStrucSurveys.
$1PPPpovertyline();$2PPPpovertyline(___)
Morebroadly,twocommonfeaturescanbenotedfromthequintiledistributions:
- Theincreaseoftheaverageglobalincomeperpersonfromquintile1to4is
relatively linear (the income of quintile n being from 1.3 to 2 times the
incomeofquintilen1),whileasharperjumpisrecordedforquintile5(the
incomeofQ5rangingfrom2.7to5.4timestheincomeofQ4,inDima,Mali,
andElViejo,Nicaragua,respectively).
- Theprofileofthefifthquintilediffersfromregiontoregion,yettheincome
distribution of the richest quintile clearly indicates the same kind of
phenomenoninmanyregions:theaverageofthefifthquintileispulledupby
a handful of betteroff households, benefiting from very specific social and
economic conditions (a oneoff high amount of received remittances, rents
related to housing rentals, unusually good endowment in land and capital
translated in higher agricultural output, etc.). This feature is illustrated by
thedescriptivestatisticsofQ5inAnnex4.
73
2.2 FineTuningtheIncomeGroups
2.2.1 ImprovingtheComparabilitybyusingAdultEquivalentRatios
While per capita ratios were used in the previous sections to compare the survey
results with poverty lines or GDP per person, it appears more accurate to use an
EquivalentAdultapproach(EqA)inordertotakeintoaccounttheverysignificant
differences that can exist between households, regions and countries in terms of
householdstructures.AdultEquivalentswillbeusedfromnowoninthefollowing
sectionsandchapters.
These variations in size and structure translate into different dependency ratios,
whichdirectlyimpactboththeproductioncapacity(numberofeconomicallyactive
householdmembers/inactivemembers),theconsumptionpatternand,infine,the
availableincomeinEqA.AsseeninTable11,thehigherdependencyratiosfoundin
theSSAcountriesconfirmtheweightofyoungpeopleandillustratetheunachieved
demographictransitionofthecontinent(seeChapter2).
87
Households with more than 20 members represent 19% and 12% of the sample in the two
countries,buttheyrespectivelyaccountfor39%and24%ofthesurveyedpopulation.
74
Figure17:SizeofHouseholds(NumberofPersonPresent)88
Source:RuralStrucSurveys
Onaverage,forthesurveyedhouseholds,theratioisaround1.1to1.2inMaliand
Madagascar, 1.0 to 1.1 in Senegal, but reaches 1.3 in Kenya, with the exception of
Nakuru, which shows a very atypical situation.89 The nonSSA countries are far
ahead in the transition process and should reveal lower ratios: this is the case in
MoroccoandintwoMexicanregions,butNicaraguaaswellasSotaventosSierrade
SantaMartaappearspecific.90Thesedifferencesareimportantintermsofpresent
productivecapacity,butarealsoindicativeoftheloomingchallengesrelatedtoan
increasing labor force. This conversion in Equivalent Adult allows a better
comparabilitybetweenaverageincomesandimprovestheregionallevelsinarange
of14to28%.
88Figure17displaysboxplotsthatdepictthedistributionoftheregionalsamples.Thebottomofthe
boxgivesthefirstquartile,thetopoftheboxthethirdquartile,andthehorizontallinewithinthebox
isthemedian.Extremevaluesareexcludedfromthepresentfigure.
89ThemeandependencyratioobservedinNakuruNorthisconsistentwithotherpaneldata,which
showratiosof0.60(RSIIKenya,p.79),andacknowledgedbynationalstatistics.Amongthepossible
explanations, one can note the demographic characteristics of the city of Nakuru North, which is
exceptionally youthful with about 55% of the population less than 20 years and 75% less than 30
years (Republic of Kenya, 2005). This phenomenon is probably related to the very low level of
childrenintheNakuruNorthdistricthouseholds(only55%havechildren)andcouldbeexplainedby
permanentmigrationofyoungpeopletohostfamiliesinthecity.
90 Population growth rates have clearly fallen in Nicaragua since the midnineties. However, rural
areasshowaquitespecificpatternrelatedtotheconsequencesofthecivilwar(fewermaleadults)
andtolongtermmigration(longtermmigrantsarenotcountedinthehouseholdnumberofpersons
presentonwhichtheratioiscalculated).ThelaterisapplicabletotheSierradeSantaMarta,which
alsorevealshigherbirthratescharacteristicofindigenouspopulations.
75
Table11:HouseholdStructureandIncomeperAdultEquivalent
2.2.2 AreFarmHouseholdsBetterOfforWorseOff?
76
livelihoods in this somewhat remote area. But the situations of Souss (Morocco),
Tierras Bajas and Tequisquiapan (Mexico) are more paradoxical because higher
returns from nonfarm activities could have been expected. This surprising result
fromthesurveytempersthecommonviewaboutvibrantruralnonfarmactivities.
ItwillbeexploredfurtherinChapter4).91
Table12:HouseholdGlobalIncomeswithandwithoutaFarm
HouseholdsWithFarm HouseholdsWithoutFarm
Observations $PPPperEqA Observations $PPPperEqA
n % Mean Median n % Mean Median
Tominian 155 100 234 187 0 0
Dima 148 100 368 252 0 0
Mali
Koutiala 153 100 368 318 0 0
Macina 154 100 516 418 0 0
Casamance 239 100 439 316 0 0
Mekhe1 110 99 531 394 1 1 120 120
Nioro 240 95 460 358 12 5 972 585
Senegal
HautDelta 58 95 525 307 3 5 489 527
Mekhe2 111 98 775 609 2 2 448 448
BasDelta 120 99 1,212 889 1 1 421 421
Antsirabe2 303 100 409 296 0 0
Alaotra1 336 87 526 388 49 13 373 321
Morondava 501 99 597 469 5 1 591 676
Madagascar
Itasy 497 99 625 490 6 1 373 250
Antsirabe1 206 100 744 525 0 0
Alaotra2 103 90 1,455 1,052 12 10 405 369
Bungoma 299 100 641 429 0 0
Kenya Nyando 283 99 661 306 2 1 495 495
NakuruN. 289 100 2,258 1,213 0 0
Chaouia 225 99 2,280 1,002 3 1 2,309 1,890
Morocco Saiss 261 100 3,419 1,503 0 0
Souss 181 75 4,758 2,122 59 25 2,208 1,157
MuyMuy 290 97 1,436 670 9 3 803 734
Terrabona 260 93 1,457 690 21 7 1,470 1,081
Nicaragua ElViejo 264 92 2,678 1,176 24 8 1,440 1,279
LaLibertad 283 98 2,353 1,251 7 2 1,350 1,269
ElCu 299 100 3,619 1,428 1 0 995 995
SierraSM. 155 89 1,937 1,444 20 11 947 645
Mexico T.Bajas 125 86 3,383 2,506 20 14 1,651 1,158
Tequis. 101 28 3,697 2,873 263 72 2,565 2,055
6749 520
Source:RuralStrucSurveys
91InNicaragua,althoughtheshareofhouseholdswithoutafarmisnotablysmaller,theresultsreveal
a rather specific situation where the comparison between farm and nonfarm households displays
oppositeresultsdependingonthetypeofratio(meanormedian).Themedianincomesofnonfarm
householdsarehigherthanthoseoffarmhouseholds,buttheaverageincomeforfarmhouseholdsis
higherthanfornonfarmhouseholds.Thisindicatesthattheresultsaredistortedbyasmallnumber
ofspecializedandbetterendowedfarmers.
77
2.2.3 TheWealthStatusofFemaleheadedHouseholds
In terms of gender, with the exception of the two West African countries and
Morocco, the share of femaleheaded households is around 10% of the sample.
SignificantlyhighersharesexistinAlaotra1,ElViejo(20%)andNyando(30%).92
Whenafemaleheadsahousehold,householdsizesarelogicallysmallerinnuclear
family contexts. The variation of the average income between male and female
headed households is however less important than one might have expected: in a
rangeof10%lower,withafewexceptions(Macina,ElViejo,andNyandoagain).On
thecontrary,itisworthnotingthespecificcaseofTequisquiapanandoftheSierra
deSantaMartainMexico,whereaverageincomesoffemaleheadedhouseholdsare
notably higher. Even if the survey faced difficulties in capturing the reality of
migrations(cf.Annex1),theseresultsspeakforthemselves:whileincomesreflect
theroleofremittances,householdsizesaresmallerandillustratetheconsequences
of long term migrations (these households are in the early stages of their family
cycle and migrants are mainly young adults, below 40 years of age, leaving their
spouseinchargeofthehousehold).
92ThecaseofNyandoappearsexceptional.ItisconfirmedbypaneldatafromtheTegemeoInstitute
showingarapidincreaseoffemaleheadedfamilieswith80%ofwidows,AIDSbeingoneofthemost
probableexplanations.
78
Table13:Share,SizeandAnnualIncomeofFemaleHeadedHouseholds
2.2.4 ViabilityoftheLowIncomeLevelHouseholdsandFoodInsecurity
Toshedsomelightonthisdirereality,itwasdecidedtousekilocalories(Kcal)asa
unitforincomemeasurementinordertoappreciatewhetherquintile1households
were able, or not, to sustain their minimum food requirements with their existing
79
incomes.Thisapproachis,ofcourse,aproxybecausehouseholdsneedscannotbe
reducedtofoodneedsonly.However,itprovidesanestimateandhelpstorefinethe
comparison among surveyed regions. To do so, household incomes in EqA were
transformedintokilocaloriesbyusingthelocalcostofhouseholdsmainfoodstaple.
IncomesinKcalperEqAperdaywerethencomparedwiththeaverageindividuals
dailyfoodneeds,estimatedbytheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)at2,450Kcal
peradultpersonperday.93
Thecostofthekilocalorievariesstronglyfromonecountrytothenext,andbetween
regionswithinthesamecountry(Table14):from$0.10PPPto$0.49PPPfor1,000
KcalofcorninMexicoandinNyando,Kenya,respectively.Thecostofakilocalorie
depends,ofcourse,onthetypeofcerealcultivatedintheregionandontheoverall
environmentofthevaluechains.Malisdrycereals(millet,sorghum,maize),mostly
consumed in rainfed areas, are notably less expensive than rice ($0.11 PPP vs.
$0.19 for 1,000 Kcal). But rice costs in Senegal, are less than in other countries
($0.15 PPP) with little regional variation. These low costs can be explained by
strongmarketcompetitionbetweenimportedbrokenriceandlocalrice.Similarly,
Mexicosleastexpensivekilocalorieresultsfromgovernmentsupporttoproduction
of large commercial farmers (through credit mechanisms and technical assistance
fortheacquisitionanduseoftechnicalpackages)helpingthemtoresistthestrong
competitionfromimportedcornandleadingtorelativelygoodoverallproductivity
atthenationallevelandfromthepermanentpressureofcheapimportsfromthe
USA.
Table14providesanewvisionofthedirerealityofthefirstquintilehouseholdsand
helpstobetterunderstandhowpoorruralhouseholdscantrytoadapttosuchlow
overallincomelevelsinPPP.94
93TheadoptedmethodologyandconversiontablearepresentedinAnnex1.
94 It also presents new income gaps between regions. Using Tominian, the poorest region of the
RuralStruc sample as a baseline (index 100), the income conversion into kilocalories modifies the
scale between the richest and poorest regions. When excluding the Mexican zones where the
kilocaloriecostisveryspecificthelargestgapisdividedbynearlytwowhenlookedatinKcal(2.8to
1insteadof4.4to1).
80
Table14:FirstQuintileTotalIncomein$PPPandKcal
Q1TotalIncomeperEqAperDay Kcal
Priceof Main
Available
1000Kcal in$PPP inKcal Consumed
/Daily
in$PPP Staples
Mean Index Mean Index Needs
Tominian 0.12 0.21 100 1,730 100 0.7 Millet
Dima 0.12 0.26 123 2,132 123 0.9 Sorghum
Mali MilletSorgh.
Koutiala 0.11 0.39 188 3,557 206 1.5
Maize
Macina 0.19 0.36 171 1,870 108 0.8 Rice
Casamance 0.15 0.18 86 1,197 69 0.5
Mekh1 0.16 0.25 120 1,556 90 0.6
Nioro 0.15 0.34 164 2,268 131 0.9
Senegal Rice
HautDelta 0.16 0.30 144 1,863 108 0.8
Mekh2 0.15 0.56 271 3,755 217 1.5
BasDelta 0.15 0.72 349 4,825 279 2.0
Antsirabe2 0.23 0.38 183 1,647 95 0.7
Alaotra1 0.21 0.49 235 2,319 134 0.9
Morondava 0.20 0.53 253 2,626 152 1.1
Madagascar Rice
Itasy 0.25 0.64 309 2,564 148 1.0
Antsirabe1 0.23 0.57 274 2,471 143 1.0
Alaotra2 0.21 0.64 308 3,041 176 1.2
Bungoma 0.44 0.20 98 462 27 0.2
Kenya Nyando 0.49 0.16 78 329 19 0.1 Maize
NakuruN. 0.34 0.92 441 2,693 156 1.1
Chaouia 0.18 0.58 281 3,241 187 1.3
Morocco Saiss 0.16 0.61 296 3,841 222 1.6 Wheat
Souss 0.21 0.77 372 3,679 213 1.5
MuyMuy 0.18 0.36 176 2,026 117 0.8
Terrabona 0.20 0.40 194 2,013 116 0.8
Nicaragua ElViejo 0.20 0.64 311 3,222 186 1.3 Maize
LaLibertad 0.19 0.79 382 4,174 241 1.7
ElCu 0.18 0.88 426 4,912 284 2.0
SierraSM. 0.10 1.49 720 14,942 864 6.1
Mexico T.Bajas 0.10 2.25 1,086 22,549 1,304 9.2 Maize
Tequis. 0.10 2.18 1,050 21,795 1,260 8.9
Source:RuralStrucSurveys
14 out of the 27 surveyed zones where the daily Q1 income is below the $1 PPP
povertyline(i.e.allcountriesexceptMexico)wouldtheoreticallybeabletosatisfy
theirverybasicfoodneeds.Inthe13otherzonesthesituationofthepoorestismost
criticalandconfirmsastrongfoodinsecurity.AllthepoorestregionsineverySSA
surveyedcountryarecharacterizedbyaveryhighhouseholdvulnerability.Thecase
ofBungomaandNyandoinKenyaisparticularlyawfulandexacerbatedbythehigh
costofmaizeinWesternKenya.Itisalsoworthnotingthesituationoftworegions
in Nicaragua (Muy Muy and Terrabona). When moving back to the full sample
(Table15),11outof19SSAsurveyedzoneshave10%ormoreoftheirhouseholds
whichareunabletoreachthe2,450Kcalthresholdandamongthemthreeexceed
20%(Casamance,Antsirabe2,andNyando).
81
Table15:HouseholdIncomeDistributionExpressedinKilocalories(%)
ClassesofTotalIncomeinKcal
perEqAperday
<=2450 24514900 >=4900
Tominian 19 41 40
Dima 12 24 64
Mali
Koutiala 5 10 86
Macina 14 25 60
Casamance 22 22 56
Mekh1 17 15 68
Nioro 12 25 63
Senegal
HautDelta 13 31 56
Mekh2 4 9 87
BasDelta 4 4 92
Antsirabe2 29 41 31
Alaotra1 11 38 51
Morondava 6 28 65
Madagascar
Itasy 6 38 56
Antsirabe1 8 27 65
Alaotra2 3 19 77
Bungoma 15 14 71
Kenya Nyando 22 21 57
NakuruN. 1 1 97
Chaouia 7 7 86
Morocco Saiss 8 4 87
Souss 8 5 87
MuyMuy 12 13 75
Terrabona 13 13 74
Nicaragua ElViejo 8 6 85
LaLibertad 5 8 88
ElCu 3 8 89
SierraSM 0 0 100
Mexico TBajas 0 0 100
Tequis. 1 1 98
Source:RuralStrucSurveys
82
Figure18:HouseholdsPerceptionofEvolutionoftheirFoodSecurity
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Tominian
Dima
Macina
Morondava
Nyando
Souss
Bungoma
Casamance
Itasy
ElViejo
Terrabona
Nioro
Antsirabe2
Antsirabe1
NakuruN
Koutiala
HautDelta
BasDelta
Chaouia
Sass
ElCu
Mekh1
Mekh2
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
MuyMuy
LaLibertad
Mali Senegal Madagascar Kenya Morocco Nicaragua
83
3. ExistingLivelihoodStrategies
Facingsuchdifficultsituationsinmanyofthesurveyedregions,aburningquestion
is: How do rural households engage in livelihood strategies likely to help them to
facetheirneedsandbuildafuture,particularlyfortheirchildren?
The WDR08, with its main reference to exit pathways out of rural poverty,
providesahelpfulframeworkfordiscussionoftheProgramsresults.Basedonthe
approachdevelopedbytheRIGAproject(seeChapter1),theWDR08distinguishes
fourtypesoflivelihoodstrategiesamongruralhouseholds(WorldBank2007,p.75):
(i) farmoriented households deriving most of their income from farming
activities;95 (ii) labororiented households, which sustain their livelihoods from
wagelaborinagriculture,intheruralnonfarmeconomy,orfromnonagricultural
selfemployment; (iii) migrationoriented households choosing to leave the rural
sectorentirely,ordependingontransfersfrommemberswhohavemigratedoron
public transfers; and (iv) diversified households, which combine income from the
previousoptions(farming,offfarmactivitiesandmigration).
3.1 FollowingtheWDR08sTypology
Usingthesamedefinitions,96Table16anditscompanionfigure(Figure19)display
the survey results based on the WDR08 categories and gives an overview of how
rural households are distributed among the four livelihood strategies groups. The
first observation is that the share of the farmoriented category logically confirms
theroleofagricultureandofonfarmincomesinthesurveyedregions.In18outof
30regions,onfarmincomerepresentsthemajorsourceoflivelihood;amongthese
regions 12 count for more than 50% of the interviewed households. This share
reaches80%infourregions:KoutialaandMacinainMali,SassinMorocco,andEl
Cu in Nicaragua. In Kenya and Senegal farm orientation does not appear as a
generalizedpattern,andMexicoisconfirmedasaspecificcase.
95 In fact, the WDR08 refers to five strategies, the farmoriented category being split in two:
subsistence farming and marketoriented farming. This discussion on the farmoriented group is
engagedfurtherinChapter5withthepresentationoftheProgramsresultsonmarketinsertion.
96 The threshold for each group is 75% of the total income: farmoriented household rely on farm
production(alltypes);labororientedhouseholdsarebasedonwages(alltypes)andnonfarmself
employment; migrationoriented households earn their income from transfers (public and private)
and other nonlabor sources (rents, etc.); diversified households have neither farming, labor, nor
transferincomesourcescontributingtomorethan75%oftotalincome.
84
1 in Senegal, Nyando in Kenya and El Viejo in Nicaragua, where one third of the
households are similarly labororiented. Migrations never appear as a strong
pattern, even in countries like Morocco, Nicaragua and Mexico, where many
households are traditionally engaged in migrations.97 Few households are
migrationoriented: only Dima in Mali, Chaoua and Souss in Morocco, and Muy
MuyandTerrabonainNicaraguareachasignificant78%.
Thirdly,householdspecializationmainlyoccursforfarming.Ontheotherextreme,
thediversificationcategoryiswellrepresentedinallthesurveyedzonesandleads
in12regions,withamaximumof84%inSotaventosSierra(Mexico).Nevertheless,
this importance of diversification can be misleading and is, of course, highly
sensitivetotheselectedthresholdof75%ofincome,whichtendstooverpolarize
the survey results. Besides, Davis et al. (2007) consider this threshold as a
specializationlevelratherthananorientation.Totestandconfirmthesensitivity
of the threshold, the sample was broken down based on the 60% limit (see Table
16). This 15% change strongly modifies the overall pattern: the share of the
diversified group is halved everywhere, except in the Sotavento, attesting to the
resilienceofitsdiversifiedorientation;insomeregionsthecategorysimportanceis
reduced by threefold or more (Antsirabe 1, Alaotra 2, Chaouia, Muy Muy,
Tequisquiapan). The diversified category remains dominant only in the two
Sotaventozones;andthetransferofhouseholdsmainlybenefitsthefarmoriented
group(inMaliandMadagascar)andthelabororientedgroup(KenyaandSenegal).
ThelabororientationofTequisquiapanshouseholdsisstronglyincreased(86%).
IftheProgramsresultsarecomparedwiththoseoftheRIGAprojectforNicaragua
and Madagascarthe only two common case studies (but with different years of
reference,2001and1993respectively)significantdifferencesemerge,notablyin
Nicaragua(seeTable16),wheretheshareoflabororientedhouseholdsaccording
toRIGAis48%,insteadofamaximumof30%foundintheRuralStrucstudy.Onthe
contrary, the share of farmoriented households is much lower (RIGA shows 19%,
whereas the RuralStruc surveys find from 43 to 85%). The results are not so
markedly different in the case of Madagascar, even though the years of reference
span over more time: 15 years). One probable explanation for these differences is
that RIGAs findings are based on aggregated national results, whereas RuralStruc
data illustrate regional situations. Although the survey methodologies, level of
analysis and years of reference differ, these gaps illustrate the difficulty of
establishing comparable measurements of income across countries, which was
clearlyindicatedbytheWDR08(WorldBank2007:Box3.2,p.76).
97SeeChapter4onthedifficultiesofcapturingremittances.
85
Table16:LivelihoodStrategiesintheSurveyedRegions(WDR08sTypologyin%)
7269
Madagascar 1993(*) 2653 59.4 9.5 1.4 29.6
Nicaragua 2001(*) 18.9 48.2 0.9 32.0
1839
Source:RuralStrucSurveys,adaptedfromWDR08,p.76(WorldBank2007);(*)RIGAresultsinDaviset
al.2007,p.162.Themainstrategyisshaded.
86
Figure19:LivelihoodStrategiesintheSurveyedRegions(WDR08sTypology)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Dima
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
Tequis.
Macina
Mehk1
Mehk2
NakuruN.
Tominian
Nyando
Morondava
BasDelta
Itasy
Nioro
ElCu
Casamance
Koutiala
Sass
Souss
ElViejo
Antsirabe2
Antsirabe1
Chaouia
Bungoma
Terrabona
HautDelta
MuyMuy
SierraSM.
LaLibertad
T.Bajas
Mali Senegal Madagascar Kenya Morocco Nicaragua Mexico
3.2 MovingForward
Thistypologyoflivelihoodstrategieshelpstobetteridentifytheconfigurationofthe
studied regional economies. So far, it confirms the domination of farmoriented
households and the more limited role of alternative strategies based on offfarm
activitiesormigrations.Italsoservesasareminderthatthealternativeoptionsto
farming are quite restricted and illustrates the limitations of existing local
opportunities,whichdonotnecessarilyappearwhendiscussingdataaggregatedat
thenationallevel.
AsremindedbytheWDR08,whatismoredifficulttoascertainistheeffectivenessof
theselivelihoodstrategiesasexitoptionsoutofpoverty.Thelackofdynamicdata,
thehighheterogeneityamonghouseholds,andthesmallnumberofhouseholdsper
type of strategy at the regional level prevent any discussion of income levels per
livelihoodstrategy.98
98Ahouseholdsincomestructuredoesnottellwhetheritisengagedinasuccessfulincomestrategy.
Each of the strategies can become a pathway out of poverty, but many households do not manage to
improvetheirsituationovertime,reflectingthemarkedheterogeneityineachoftheactivitiesandthe
factthatincomevarieswidelyforeachofthestrategies(WorldBank2007,p.77).
87
The utilization of the WDR typology applied to the wide range of situations
illustrated by the RuralStruc Program mainly leads to two large groupings of
households:oneisstronglyspecializedinonfarmactivitiesandtheotherismore
diversified, without any significant specialization in one of the offfarm activities.
But, in fact, little is known about the characteristics of these activities. What
comprisestheonfarmandtheofffarminthesurveyedregions?Definingthese
characteristicsistheobjectiveofthetwonextchapters.
88
Unsurprisingly,intheregionssurveyedaspartoftheRuralStrucProgramfarming
activities are extremely prevalent. However, each region is also home to a large
amountofofffarmeconomicactivity.Thisobservationraisestwoquestions.First,
what are the characteristics of these rural offfarm activities? Second, what
determinestheextentandprogressionoftheirdevelopment?Theseinquiriesserve
asstartingpointsforadiscussionofthesecondhypothesis(H2)oftheRuralStruc
Program,concerningtheadaptationofruralhouseholdstochallengespresentedby
theirchangingenvironment.Aretheseprocessesofadaptationnewandhavethey
ledtoareshapingofruralareas?Oraretheysimilartohistoricalpathsofstructural
transformation? And, above all, do they contribute to the improvement of rural
livelihoods? In other words, is the much praised ruralnonfarm economy (RNFE)
thebestanswerfordealingwithrecurringruralpoverty?
The results obtained from the surveys provide a rather nuanced picture of the
changes currently underway. They depict very different types of diversification,
which are strongly related to the opportunities presented by every regional
situation. After a first section which briefly reviews the existing literature on the
question of diversification, the chapter addresses the different types of offfarm
activities in which RuralStruc households engagewage labor (agricultural and
nonagricultural),selfemployment,transfers,andrents.
1. TheExistingQuestionofRuralDiversification
1.1 ABriefOverviewofRuralDiversificationanditsRelatedDebate
Animportantresearchtrendhashighlightedtheobservationthatruralhouseholds
in developing countries increasingly derive their incomes from nonagricultural
activities and transfers. One of the most up to date reviews of this literature is
providedbyHaggbladeetal.(2007)whodescribethemultifacetedcharacteristics
of the ruralnon farm economy. Haggblade (2007) stresses that the longstanding
debate on RNFE covers four perspectives which are all rooted in development
economics. The RNFE can be considered alternatively through the lens of
agricultural growth linkages, for its contribution to employment, for its role in
regional development, and for its essential contribution to household income
strategies.ThislastisthelensadoptedbytheRuralStrucProgram.
This increasing rural diversification at the household level results from both
positiveandnegativechanges,orpullandpushfactors.Onthepullsideamajor
driver is the growth of new employment opportunitiesthat derivefrom improved
89
Facingallthesechanges,alongwiththegrowingcostsofmanyservices(particularly
education and health in subSaharan Africa), many rural households have to deal
withanincreasingneedforcashandmorestableincomes.Underintensefinancial
stress, they engage in risk management or coping strategies99 where they seek
additional incomes outside of agriculture. As summarized by Barrett & Reardon,
diversification is the norm. Very few people collect all their income from any one
source,holdalltheirwealthintheformofanysingleasset,orusetheirassetsinjust
oneactivity(2000,p.12).
Basedonmanyexistingreferences,Haggbladeetal.(2010)pointoutthatnonfarm
activities account for about 30% of fulltime rural employment in Asia and Latin
America,20%inWestAsiaandNorthAfrica,andonly10%inSubSaharanAfrica.
Howeverwhenreferringtoincomedata,whichincluderevenuesfromseasonaland
99 Ellis (1998) reminds the common confusion between risk strategies and coping behavior. Risk
management is an exante strategy to anticipate failures, while coping is the expost response to a
crisis.Ellispointsouthoweverthatcopingcanbemorethanexpostbehaviorandcorrespondstothe
emergenceofnewlivelihoodpatternsresultingfromdistressandcrisisreasons.
90
parttimeactivities,theestimatedfiguresaresignificantlyhigher:50%forAsiaand
Latin America, and 35% for Africa. They all suggest that the old vision of rural
economiespurelyfocusedonagriculturenolongerfullyreflectsreality.100
1.2 HowtoClassifyRuralActivitiesandIncomes
The discussion of the diversification of livelihoods is difficult because of a lack of
agreement on the definition of different types of activities and incomes. It is also
complicatedbytheexistingparalleldebatesontheRNFEwhicharenotnecessarily
related to the household point of view. Thus, it remains necessary to clarify the
picture.
Barrett&Reardon(2000)provideabreakdownofthedifferenttypesofeconomic
activities in which a rural household can be engaged by using a threeway
classification.Itdistinguishesthesector(primary,secondary,tertiary),thefunction
(self or wage employment), and the location (local or elsewhere) of each activity.
Referring to this classification, the common definition of the RNFE includes all
activities other than agricultural activities (i.e. all secondary, tertiary, and non
agricultureprimaryactivitiesforwhateverlocationandfunction).
Transfers are a separate category because they are not an income generating
activity but an income source, transferred from household members living
elsewhere (typically remittances) or from other households (donations), or from
public or nongovernmental bodies (typically subsidies or social grants). The
100Foradditionalsourcesthantheonesalreadymentionedandfordiscussionsee,amongothers:for
a general approach Barrett & Swallow (2005), Ellis (2000, 2004), Wiggins & Davis (2003); for
regional issues, Reardon et al. (2001) on Latin America, Barrett et al. (2001) and Bryceson (1999,
2002)onAfrica.
91
Program also considered the specific case of rents, which are an income different
from transfers generally generated by rental revenues (from physical assets) or
securities.
Considering the above, the RuralStruc Program made choices in terms of income
classification. The programs taxonomy takes the perspective of the household,
rather than of the activity, because its purpose and objectives are to facilitate the
identificationofpatternsthatexpressthecomplexlivelihoodstrategiesadoptedby
rural households. Consequently, the analysis of the offfarm group includes all
activitiesconductedandincomesgeneratedawayfromthefamilyfarm,regardless
ofthesectororfunction.Thisincludesagriculturalwageemploymentplusallother
nonagricultural activities and incomes. The offfarm group is larger than the
RNFEbytheamountofagriculturalwagelabor.101
Thus,onfarmincomeincludes:cropandlivestockproduction,onfarmprocessing
of products,102 and earnings from hunting, fishing and gathering of natural
resources.103 Offfarm income corresponds to:wage employment (agricultural and
nonagricultural), selfemployment, public and private transfers, and rents (Figure
20).
101Thisisthedefinitionofofffarmadopted,amongothers,byBarrett&Reardon(2000),Winters
etal.(2001),Davisetal.(2007),andHaggbladeetal(2010).
102Manyauthorsincludeagroprocessingasawholeinruralnonfarmactivities(seeHaggbladeetal
2010).ThisisverydebatableandtheProgramconsidersthattheonfarmprocessingofrawproducts
should be included in onfarm activities as in most cases it directly contributes to adding value to
farmoutputs. This is particularly true inSSA, where processingoften concerns the products ofthe
family farm itself. When products are processed by agroindustries or smallscale independent
enterprises, labor earnings are obviously offfarm and considered as nonagricultural wage
employmentorselfemployment.
103 Occasional hunting, fishing and gathering are not agricultural activities per se but, as common
rural practices based on the utilization of natural resources, they can be included in the onfarm
income.
92
Figure20:ClassificationofActivitiesandIncomesofRuralHouseholds
Rural Incomes
Off-farm
Agricultural activities
On-farm
Non-agricultural activities
Non-Ag Wage
Self-employment
Labor
Source:Authors
93
2.1.1 WidespreadDevelopmentbutLowReturns
Whileagricultureremainsthebackboneofrurallivelihoodsinmostofthesurveyed
regions(asshowninChapter3),offfarmactivitiesexisteverywhereandprovidea
substantial complement to onfarm income orin some casesprogressively
replaceit.Figure21displaystheparticipationratesofsurveyedruralhouseholdsin
offfarm activities, distinguishing strictly farm households (with no offfarm
activitiesandincomes),farmhouseholdscombiningbothtypesofincomes(onand
offfarm),andnonfarmhouseholds(i.e.,withoutafarmandthereforewithnoon
farmincome).
Figure21:ParticipationinOfffarmActivitiesintheSurveyedRegions(%ofHouseholds)
Mexico
Tominian Mali
Tequis.
100% Dima
T.Bajas Koutiala
SierraSM. Macina
80%
ElCu Casamance
60%
LaLibertad Mekh1
Nicaragua 40%
ElViejo Nioro Senegal
20%
Terrabona HautDelta
0%
MuyMuy Mekh2
Souss BasDelta
Saiss Antsirabe2
Morocco
Chaouia Alaotra1
NakuruN. Morondava
Nyando Itasy
Bungoma Antsirabe1
Kenya Alaotra2 Madagascar
InthesubSaharanAfricanregions,thelevelofparticipationofruralhouseholds
which are all farm households with a very few exceptions in offfarm activities is
extremelyhigh(between80and95%)and,contrarytowhatonemayhavethought,
higher than the levelsobservedin the nonSSA regionswhere patterns of onfarm
specializationareobserved.SpecializationisparticularlyevidentinMoroccoandin
Nicaragua, where a significant share of households rely exclusively on farming
activities(notably50%inSassandTerrabona,75%inElCu).ThethreeMexican
94
Whentranslatedintoearnings,offfarmactivitiescontributiontooverallhousehold
incomes strongly varies by region, as shown in Figure 22. Contrary to the results
presentedbyReardonetal.(2007),aworkwhichcompiled40studiesinAfricaand
LatinAmerica,thedifferencesbetweenSSAandnonSSAregionsarelessimportant
than the differences observed within each group of countries, and SSA regions do
notappeartobelessdiversifiedthannonSSAones.
Figure22:AverageRegionalValueandShareofOfffarmIncomeintheSurveyedRegions
2,600 100
2,400
90
2,200
80
2,000
1,800 70
1,600 60
in$PPPperEqA
1,400
%
50
1,200
1,000 40
800 30
600
20
400
10
200
0 0
Morondava
Bungoma
Casamance
Tominian
Dima
Terrabona
Nioro
Chaouia
Koutiala
HautDelta
BasDelta
Saiss
Macina
ElCu
Nyando
Mekh1
Mekh2
Souss
SierraSM.
LaLibertad
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
MuyMuy
NakuruN.
Tequis.
Itasy
ElViejo
T.Bajas
Antsirabe2
Antsirabe1
OffFarmIncome OffFarm/Totalincome
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys
Theparadoxclearlyhighlightedbythischartisobviouslythegapbetweenthevalue
ofofffarmincomeanditscontributiontotheoverallhouseholdincome.Inthenon
SSAregions,thevalueandthesharefollowthesametrend,whileintheSSAregions,
with the exception of Nakuru North, Kenya, very low earnings from offfarm
activitiescontributealargeshareoftotalhouseholdincome.Thismajorfact,which
is particularly illustrated by Senegal, recalls the high level of poverty discussed in
Chapter 3 and draws attention to the limited value of available diversification
strategies,atopicwhichwillbeexploredfurther.
Atthecrossnationallevel,offfarmactivitiesgeneratelowincomesinSSAregions,
where they provide the average household with less than $400 PPP per EqA per
year (in Mali, Madagascar, or Casamance in Senegal that number dips below $200
PPP).TheexceptionstothispatternaretheBasDelta(Senegal)andNakuruNorth
(Kenya), where the value of offfarm incomes is higher and illustrative of more
95
dynamicregions.Notethatthisdynamismcannotbesimplyreadasproximitytoa
city. Other regions in Kenya and Senegal show that a connection to a city is not
enoughtofostergoodreturnsfromdiversification(forexample,NyandoinKenyais
quiteclosetoKisumu,acitylargerthanNakuruseemapsinChapter3).InnonSSA
countries,withtheexceptionoftheagriculturalbasedregions,thevalueofofffarm
incomesishigher(from$600to$1,600PPPperEqA).Tequisquiapan($2,600PPP),
where70%ofhouseholdsdonotengageinonfarmactivitiesatall,isconfirmedasa
specific case. It illustrates the situation of wealthier regions where the role of
agriculture has significantly diminished, but where the overall welfare of rural
households is not necessarily better than in regions that are more focused on
agriculture(seeChapter3).
2.1.2 HeterogeneityofOfffarmSources
Animportantresultisthesignificantdissimilaritybetweensurveyedregionswhich
appearsstronglywhentheofffarmincomeisfurtherbrokendownintoitsdifferent
sources.Thebreakdownrevealsdiversesituationsandstrategies,andhighlightsthe
opportunities and constraints of the local environment, which shape economic
alternatives.
Thefirsttrendisrelatedtoregionalwealthlevels:thediversityofofffarmincomes
risesinricherregions.HouseholdsinnonSSAregionsengageinabroadervarietyof
offfarmactivities.Theirmainofffarmincomesourcesaremorebalanced,andthe
three largest sources generally contribute 75 to 80% of overall offfarm income,
(with a few exceptions). In SSA regions, however, the primary activity most often
contributes the major share of offfarm income, with the three main sources
frequentlyaccountingfor90to95%ofthetotal.
TheothermajortrendistheimportanceofselfemploymentinSSAregions,andthe
decreasingimportanceofthisactivityinricherregions.Selfemploymentisthetop
offfarmactivityin15of19SSAregions,butinonly1of11nonSSAregions(in2if
thespecificcaseofrentsinMoroccoisleftasideseesection2.3).InmostWestern
African regions a combination of selfemployment and migration dominates off
farm strategies, while in Kenya and Madagascar selfemployment pairs with
respectivelynonagriculturalandagriculturalwagelabor.
96
Table 17: Main Offfarm Activities and Incomes in terms of Contribution to the Overall Off
farmIncome(%ofaverageofffarmincome)
2.2 CharacteristicsofOfffarmActivities
As a way of further exploring the diversification options available to households,
thissectionandthenextwillreviewthescopeandimportanceofeachcategoryof
offfarmincome.Whilethereisnotenoughevidencetodrawconclusionsaboutthe
absolutelevelofeffectivenessofeachtypeofactivityasapathwayoutofpoverty,
comparisons can be made between diversification patterns observed in different
regions and intermediary conclusions can be drawn about the extent of
opportunitiesfordiversificationoutofagriculture.
Thediscussionwillbecentereduponthelevelofdevelopmentofeachactivity(the
share of households involved) and the returns that households earn from them
(earningsperEAP).104Acaveatmustbemadeaboutreturns,however.Thesurvey
was not sufficiently detailed to identify the specific economic activity of each
104Annex4displaystheseresultsbysurveyedregion.
97
2.2.1 AgriculturalWageEmployment:aCommonActivitybutRarelyan
ExitOption
a. AgriculturalWageLaborandFarmStructures
In the regions studied by RuralStruc, particularly those in SSA, but also in the
surveyed regions of Morocco, Nicaragua and Mexico, family farms dominate. The
Program defines familybased farming as a form of production characterized by a
particularkindoflinkbetweeneconomicactivityandfamilystructure,onewherethis
relationship influences the choice of activities, organization of family labor,
management of the factors of production and transfer of property (Blires et al.
2002).Thisdefinitionmakesitclearthatwithinthesefamilybasedstructuresmost
agricultural labor is provided by the members of the household, who are not
directlypaidfortheirwork.Familyfarmscanalsohowevermakeuseofanexternal
workforcewhentheyareunabletomeetalloftheirlaborneedsinsidethefamily,
for instance in peak period of the activities. External labor can consist both of
locallyformed mutualaid groups (relatives and other members of the community
who work on a reciprocity basis without any monetary compensation) and paid
workers,whocanbeeithercasuallaborersorpermanentagriculturalemployees.107
105Theprogramchosetousethisproxyratherthanconfinetheanalysisofofffarmactivitiestothe
householdlevelbecauseitallowsfordifferencesinthenumberofEAPsperhouseholdtobetaken
intoaccount.
106 On agricultural wage labor related to horticulture, see McCulloch & Ota (2002) on Kenya,
Maertens&Swinnen(2007)onSenegal.
107 Agricultural wages can be fully paid in cash and also partly or fully in kind (e.g. a quantity of
product for the staples, and/or meals, housing on the farm for the permanent employees).
Agriculturalworkersareoftencasuallaborers,whichmakesitcomplicatedtoestimateannualvalues
ofagriculturalwages.
98
Labor demand rises with the emergence of larger family farms or with the
development of managerial and/or largescale entrepreneurial farms which rely
mostly on an external workforce. This type of farm differentiation is generally
limitedinsubSaharanAfricancountrieswherethemajorityoffarmsaresmallscale
unitswithfewassets.Itismoreprevalentinotherregions.
TheRuralStrucsampleshowsdifferentlevelsoffarmdifferentiation.Farmsizes108
are bigger in the two Latin American countries, mainly in Nicaragua where the
average farm operates on 15 to 20 Ha of land.109 SSA countries show smaller
acreages,particularlyKenyaandMadagascarwheremeansarearound1Ha.Some
surveyedregionsoftheHighlandsinMadagascararehometoevensmallerfarms,a
consequence of growing populations cultivating a limited amount of arable land
(and also of the hilly landscape).110 The case of the two West African countries is
morespecific.There,largerfamilyfarmshavedeveloped,butfamilystructuresare
also bigger (as discussed in Chapter 3) and tend to include several households on
thesamefarm.111ThisiswhyFigure23displaysthedistributionofplotsizesinthe
sample by hectare per family worker (EAP). Figures on average regional farm
sizeswouldbemisleading.ExtremesarenotablyimportantinNicaraguawhereland
inequalitiesarehigh.InLaLibertadforinstance,aremotelivestockregionlocated
intheagriculturalfrontier,20%oftherichesthouseholdsownlargescalelatifundia
whichaccountfor53%ofthetotallandintheregion.InElViejo,aregionlocatedin
thePacificplains,knownforunequallanddistributionandlandconflictsaswellas
for being heavily engaged in the production of export crops such as sesame and
sugarcane,6%ofthesurveyedhouseholdsarelandless.Asimilarsituationexistsin
Alaotra, in Madagascar, where 10% of surveyed households are without land
access.112 They are mainly families who migrated in the region to benefit from
agricultural labor opportunities. In Morocco, land access can also be an issue,
especiallyinregionswherevastacreagesofgovernmentagriculturaldevelopment
108Thevariablehereislandused,i.e.thefarmareausedbythehousehold,whetherownedornot,
forcropsandbreeding,includingfallowland(seeAnnex4).
109 Farm structures in Mexico reflect the impact of the agrarian reform even if strong disparities
subsist at the national level. The surveyed regions are however characterized by small to medium
farms. The average size of the surveyed farms in the Sotavento region is around 10 Ha in the
lowlandsand6Hainthemountain,whileinTequisquiapansizeissmaller(2Ha)andcoexistwith
severalagribusinesseswhichhirejornaleros(laborers).
110InMadagascar,betweenthelasttwocensuses(1985and2005),thenationalaveragesizeoffarms
droppedfrom1.2Hato0.86Ha(RSIMadagascar).
111Thenumberofactivepeople(EAP)perhouseholdisbetween6and9personsinaverageinthe
surveyed regions of Mali and Senegal, which corresponds to twofold or threefold the situation of
otherregions(seeAnnex4).
112InadditiontoAlaotraandElViejo,alreadymentioned,theothersurveyedregionswithsignificant
99
schemes exist. These very differentiated situations are not common in SSA where
landaccessismainlybasedoncustomarylandtenurerights.
Figure23:DistributionofFarmSizeperFamilyWorker(EAP)
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys
It should be noted, however, that whatever the farm structure, some demand for
farmlaboralwaysexists,atleastduringthepeakseason(generallyharvest,butalso
transplanting in the case of irrigated rice).113 The major constraint, when farm
differentiationislimited,isthatlaborsupply appearsforallatthesameperiodof
theyear,duringthedryseason,whenlabordemandisscarce,whilelaborshortages
arefrequentatharvesttime.Itexplainsthedevelopmentofmutualaidgroupsand
stimulates,whenpossible,shorttermmigrationsfromotherregionswithdifferent
croppingseasonsordifferentlevelsofavailablelabor.Suchisthecaseofmigrations
from the Bassin Arachidier to the Senegal River Delta in Senegal, and of similar
migrationsinMoroccoforthewheatharvest,andinElCu,Nicaragua,forthecoffee
harvest.Morebroadlythissituationofcyclicalimbalancesbetweenlaborsupplyand
labor demand highlights the importance of structural underemployment which is
characteristicofmanyruralareasindevelopingcountries.
113Peaksoflaboroccurforallmajorregionalproductions:inthericegrowingregionsofMadagascar
(Alaotra, Itasy), Mali (Macina), and Senegal (Bas Delta); for horticulture in Madagascar (Itasy and
Antsirabe)andMorocco(SoussandSass);forpineappleintheTierrasBajasofSotaventoinMexico
(wheremaizeisonthecontrarystronglymechanized);forcottoninKoutiala(Mali);forcoffeeinEl
Cu(Nicaragua);andforsugarcaneinElViejo(Nicaragua),NyandoandBungoma(Kenya).
100
b. ExtentandCharacteristicsofAgriculturalWageLabor
Itisworthmentioninghoweverabiasrelatedtothesurveymethodology.Thefocus
onhouseholdspreventsafullcaptureoftheimportanceofagriculturalwagelabor:
wagesearnedinagriculturebyhouseholdsmembersduringshorttermmigrations
in other regions are posted in the transfer category, and wages locally paid to
migrants have to be counted on the migrant households side. It probably
underestimatesthelocalweightofagriculturalwages.
Behindtheseoverallfigures,twomajorfactshavetobestressed.Thefirst,perhaps
unsurprising, observation is that wage work in agriculture mainly engages the
poorest households in each region, and its frequency decreases as overall income
rises.114 This inverse relationship between agricultural wage employment and
overallhouseholdwealthisclearlyillustratedbytheshareofagriculturalwagesin
income per quintile.115 Agricultural wages account for between 20 and 30% of
overall income for households in the bottom two quintiles, and then its weight
decreasessharply,theexceptionbeingNicaraguawherethesharesremainhightill
quintile4(inMuyMuy,ElViejo,LaLibertad).116
Agricultural wage work is a major source ofincome for the poorest households of
thefirstquintiles,notablyintheregionswherelandlesshouseholdsexist.117Insome
extremecases,householdsrenttheirlandtolargerandbetterofffarmersoragro
businesses, employing themselves as agricultural workers as they lack the
114Thereisanegativecorrelationbetweentheshareofagriculturalwagesintheoverallhousehold
incomeandtheleveloftotalincome.Theresultisslightlynegativefortheoverallsample(Pearson=
0,068) and higher for the nonSSA regions (Pearson = 0,24). Similarly, the level of agricultural
wagesdecreaseswiththefarmsizewhichindicatesbetterassetsandpossiblybetteroffhouseholds,
butalsoabetteremploymentrateofthefamilylabor.Thecorrelationsbetweenthetotalfarmsize
(landused)andthevalueofagriculturalwagesaresignificant:0,114**inMadagascar,0,096**in
Kenya,0,112**inMorocco,0,059*inNicaragua,and0,059*inMexico.(*)Correlationissignificant
atthe0.05leveland(**)Correlationissignificantatthe0.01level.
115 The shares of agricultural wage labor in the overall income are displayed per quintile and
surveyedregioninChapter6(Figure37).
116 The case of Mali and Senegal is again more specific. Even if household members engage
sometimesinagriculturalwagelabor,itremainsveryoccasionalandtheamountsearnedaresmall
(some percents for all quintiles). This limited development of wage labor is explained by the
importanceofthefamilyworkforce(seeabove)whichlimitsthedemandforexternallabor.
117 Agricultural wages of landless households account for about 50% of their overall income in
Alaotra,65%inSoussandTequisquiapan,75%inSotavento,andmorethan90%inNicaragua.
101
necessary means to develop their own plots. This situation was observed
particularlyinSouss(RSIIMorocco).
The second major fact is the low level of earnings related to agricultural wages.
Figure 24 illustrates the differences in labor prices between SSA and nonSSA
surveyedregions.Theofficialminimumwagevariesbetween$PPP3and6perday
inSSAand$PPP8and10innonSSAcountries.118Thecurrentagriculturalwages
observedduringthesurveys,mainlypaidinformally,arelogicallylower,withafew
exceptions in regions facing strong pressure temporary or not on the labor
market. This is the case of regions with important demand peaks, like the rice
producing regions of Mali, Senegal, and Madagascar, and notably the Delta in
Senegal, and of regions with a significant number of largerscale farms or
agribusinesses in horticulture (Souss, El Viejo, Tequisquiapan) or livestock (La
LibertadandTequisquiapan).
Figure 24: Potential and Actual Returns from Agricultural Employment in the Surveyed
Regions
18.0 2,600
2,400
16.0
2,200
14.0 2,000
1,800
Dailywagein$PPPperworker
12.0
Annualearnings in$PPPperEAP
1,600
10.0
1,400
1,200
8.0
1,000
6.0
800
4.0 600
400
2.0
200
0.0 0
Terrabona
Tequis.
Dima
Morondava
Souss
Nioro
ElCu
Bungoma
Macina
HautDelta
Itasy
Chaouia
Koutiala
Saiss
MuyMuy
SierraSM.
LaLibertad
NakuruN.
Mekh1
Mekh2
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
Nyando
ElViejo
Casamance
Antsirabe2
BasDelta
Antsirabe1
Tominian
T.Bajas
Themainissuehereisthatinmanyregions,especiallypoorerones,theselocallabor
pricesmainlyrefertothepeakseason,whentheavailableextralaborforceoffamily
118 The figures correspond to minimum national wages in Mali and Mexico and to minimum rural
wagesintheothercountries.
102
farmsislimited;knowingthatduringtheoffseasonthereisnolabordemandatall.
They are daily prices for casual labor and cannot be converted to a monthly or
yearlybasis.119Paradoxically,wheninterregionalmigrationsexist,likeintheDelta
region in Senegal or in El Cu, Nicaragua, the benefits of this temporary labor
demand are reaped by migrant workers. As a consequence, the average income
earned from agricultural employment is very limited in the SSA surveyed regions,
between$200and$300PPPperEAPperyear,andevenmoreinsignificantinMali.
Incomesabove$1,000PPP(equivalentto$2.7PPPperday)onlyappearinsomeof
thepreviouslymentionedregionsofMorocco,Nicaragua,andMexico,wheremore
permanentlaboropportunitiesexist.
Thesefigures,aswellasthenarrownumberofhouseholdsengagedinagricultural
labor, confirm the limited contribution of agricultural wages to income
diversification and to poverty alleviation (Reardon et al. 2007). Even in
Tequisquiapan where the reported average daily agricultural wage is $18 PPP
(thankstothesubstantialdevelopmentofagribusiness),returnsaveragedoverthe
courseoftheyeararelow.Inthiscasetheyarearound$6PPPperEAPperday.At
theend,daysinwhichanagriculturallaborercanearn$18areseverelylimitedin
number.
2.2.2 NonagriculturalWageEmployment:LimitedtoSpecificRegional
Settings
119IntheSenegalRiverDelta,LesGrandsMoulinsduSngal,asubsidiaryofLaCompagnieFruitire,
is one of the very few agribusinesses engaged in horticulture production for export (mainly
productionofcherrytomatoesundergreenhouses).Thecompanyemploys1,200temporaryworkers
over a period of 4 months and 80 permanent workers. The wage for the temporary workers is
FCFA50,000 per month ($193 PPP), which is quite similar to the $8 PPP daily agricultural wage
observed in the Bas Delta region (at a standard 22day work month). But if the earnings of these
luckyfew,thataccrueintheirentiretyoverthecourseoffourmonths,wereaveragedoverayear,the
dailyratewouldbe$PPP2.1perday.Sources:RuralStrucinterviews,March2008.
103
The breadth of the category, as well as the importance of the informal sector and
small businesses in most of developing countries, means that distinguishing self
employment from nonagricultural wage employment can be a real issue. It raises
questionsaboutcertaintypesofjobs,whichalthoughnominallywaged,aremostly
carriedoutinsmallworkshopsorsmallbusinessesatthemicrolevelforinstance
taxidrivingorapprenticeshipandarethereforedifficulttoanalyzewhenincluded
in the same grouping as formal office work (e.g. civil servant) or industrial work.
Thecategoryisveryheterogeneousandthismustbekeptinmindwhencomparing
verydiverseeconomicandinstitutionalcontexts.
IntheRuralStrucregions,about25%ofthesurveyedhouseholdswereengagedin
agricultural wage labor, but nonagricultural wage employment only engages15%
ofthemanddisplaysstrongdifferencesbetweenregions(Figure25).
Intermsofparticipation,KenyaandMexicostandout,with40%oftheirhouseholds
involvedinnonagriculturalwagelabor,whileMadagascarand, aboveall,Maliare
falling far behind. Even in Mexico and Kenya, disparities are important:
Tequisquiapan and Nyando count 57% of their households participating in non
agricultural waged activities, Bungoma and Nakuru 34%, and the two Sotavento
subzonesonly21%.InSenegal,theBasDeltaandthenorthoftheBassinArachidier
(Mekh) reach 20 and 25%. Souss, Terrabona and El Viejo, in Morocco and
Nicaragua,attain15%,thesampleaverage.
104
Figure 25: Participation in and Returns from Nonagricultural Wage Employment in the
SurveyedRegions
60 3,000
55
50 2,500
Annualearningsin$PPPperEAP
45
40 2,000
%
35
30 1,500
25
20 1,000
15
10 500
0 0
Morondava
Bungoma
Casamance
Tominian
Dima
Terrabona
Nioro
Chaouia
Koutiala
BasDelta
HautDelta
Saiss
Macina
ElCu
Nyando
Souss
Mekh1
Mekh2
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
MuyMuy
LaLibertad
NakuruN.
SierraSM.
Tequis.
Itasy
ElViejo
Antsirabe2
Antsirabe1
T.Bajas
Mali Senegal Madagascar Kenya Morocco Nicaragua Mexico
HHwithNonAg.Wages AverageannualearningsfromNonAg.Wages
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys
Thissituationisobviouslychallengingandraisesaquestionaboutthedeterminants
ofnonagriculturalwageemployment.Asusualtherearemicroandmeso/macro
levels of explanation for the observed differences between households. At the
microlevel,asbroadlyreportedintheliterature,120thecapabilityofhouseholdsto
seizelocaljobopportunitiesmainlydependsontheirskills,asshownbytheexisting
positiveandsignificantcorrelationbetweenlevelofeducationandparticipationin
nonagricultural wage labor.121 Table 18 illustrates the vast differences between
RuralStruc countries when it comes to education. Interestingly, a households
incomequintileseemstohavenoeffectonitsparticipationinnonagriculturalwage
labor. Households in every income group engage in this type of labor, and the
correlationbetweennonagriculturalwageparticipationandtotalincomelevelcan
evenbenegative.
120SeeforinstanceReardonetal.(2001),DeJanvry&Sadoulet(2001).
121 The Pearson correlations between the level of education of the most educated member within
eachhouseholdandthelevelofnonagriculturalwagesispositivelysignificantineverycountry,but
particularly in the SSA countries: Mali (0,286**), Senegal (0,225**), Madagascar (0,220**), Kenya
(0,286**),Morocco(0,083*),Nicaragua(0,194**)andinMexico(0,194**)
*Correlationissignificantatthe0.05leveland**Correlationissignificantatthe0.01level.
105
Table18:EducationleveloftheSurveyedHouseholds(countryaveragein%)
Secondary
Primary
Primary Secondary School
No education School
School started School started finished or
finished
University
Mali 84 10 2 4 0
Head of Household
Senegal 79 16 3 2 0
Madagascar 18 56 7 18 1
Kenya 0 68 14 8 9
Morocco 50 15 22 10 3
Nicaragua 39 4 52 5 1
Mexico 24 38 22 1 15
Mali 40 20 33 7 0
in the Household
Highest Level
Senegal 17 40 25 14 4
Madagascar 6 34 8 28 24
Kenya 0 26 28 26 20
Morocco 7 4 42 39 9
Nicaragua 0 0 8 56 36
Mexico n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys.
Atthemesoandmacrolevels,beyondthefewjobsrelatedtoeducation,healthand
localadministration(primaryschoolteachers,medicalassistants,civilservants),the
opportunitiesfornonagriculturalemploymentdependonregionaldynamics.These
encompass existing natural assets, the level of population and population growth,
thequalityofinfrastructureandprovisionofpublicgoods,densitiesandaccessto
cities(ashighlightedinChapter3bythetraveltimemaps)and,lastly,thepresence
of leading economic sectors that enhance economic growth and generate labor
demand. Local effects can be huge and can distort regional results when surveyed
ruralhouseholdareintherangeofafactorythatprovideshundredsofjobsforits
neighborhood.
106
Box10:TheDevelopmentofFreeTradeZonesandNonagriculturalWageLaborinNicaragua
InNicaragua,factoriesoperatingunderFreeTradeZones(FTZs)haveincreasedconsiderablysince
the1990s.Thefirstindustrialpark,"LasMercedes,"openedin1976with11factories.Today,theFTZ
systemconsistsofadozenindustrialparkswithabout50firms,mainlyfromTaiwanandtheUSAand
with the vast majority engaged in the production of apparel for export (to the USA mostly). The
sectorhasbeenverydynamicintermsofjobcreation:thenumberofjobsincreasedfrom1,003in
1992to38,792in2001,andaround70,000today.15,000newjobsareexpectedinthe3to5next
years.Itisestimatedthat55%oftheworkersareyoungwomenwithloweducationlevels.
Factory work is highly concentrated in the Matagalpa and Managua zones and benefits the nearby
rural areas (Corral & Reardon 2001). In the RuralStruc surveys, it is mainly found in Terrabona
wheretheannualsalariesgeneratedbyjobsinFTZsrangefrom$2,500to4,500PPPpercapita.This
is in line with estimates made by other studies, which place monthly salaries at a maximum of
US$500/monthin2009.InJanuary2010,theGovernmentofNicaragua,laborunionsandtheprivate
sectorsignedanagreementwhichwillsetsalaryadjustmentsintheFTZforthenextthreeyears.The
objective is to protect jobs as well as to offer predictability, so investors can effectively develop
financialplansfortheirfirms.Thisagreement,knownastheSocialLaborConsensusAgreementby
the Free Zones Tripartite Labor Commission, establishes minimum wage increases over the next
threeyearsofeight,nineandtenpercent,respectively.
Sources:RuralStrucSurveysandRSIINicaragua
InSouss,Morocco,thedevelopmentofservicesrelatedtothetourismindustrywith
thenearbycityofAgadirandthecoastalresortsoffersomelimitedopportunities.In
the two other regions, nonagricultural employment remains mainly related to
agriculture through the processing and marketing of agricultural products, and to
constructionandservices.
InSenegal,BasDeltabenefitsfromagoodconnectiontothecityofStLouis,andthe
location of Mekh on the major highway between SaintLouis and Dakar helps
explain the relatively higher participation of surveyed households there in non
agriculturalwageemployment.Nioro,andaboveallCasamance,arefartherfromthe
dense area of economic activity around the coast, (even if they are close to
populationcenters)andCasamanceisontheothersideofTheGambia.However,as
previously discussed in Chapter 3, these differences in terms of opportunities and
marketaccessdonotsignificantlychangeoverallhouseholdincomes.
107
Box11:ThemaquilasofthetextilesectorinLaFuente(Tequisquiapan,Mexico)
ThevillageofLaFuenteinthemunicipioofTequisquiapanisveryillustrativeofthedeepprocessof
densification and diversification of the rural economy in the south of the Quertaro state. With
3,884dwellers(2005census),LaFuenteislocated18kmfromTequisquiapan(26,858inhabitants)
and 24 km from San Juan del Rio, a city of 210,000 which is connected by interstate highway to
Quertaro and Mexico City. In spite of its urbanized environment, La Fuente remains significantly
involved in agricultural activities with 24.3% of the local value added coming from agriculture in
2000, while agricultures share dropped to 3.5% in Tequisquiapan. Three maquilas are however
settled in the village with a workforce of 150, 100 and 80 employees. All workers are La Fuente
residentsorcomefromnearbyvillages.Thelargemajorityofthemarewomen.
The two largest factories are specialized in ropa barata (cheap clothings), i.e. basic apparel for
export,andhavebeensufferingoverthelastyearsfromintensecompetitionwithChina.Thethird
maquila Lecuria La Fuenteis specialized in fine lingerie for the upper segment of the domestic
marketandsellsitsproductsunderthebrandVanitytohighendboutiqueslikeLiverpoolorPalacio
de Hierro. This market positioning and the higherskill tasks required have so far protected the
company from foreign competitors. The business was founded by two associates, including the
maquiladirector,atextileengineerwhowasborninthevillage.Thelandforthefactorywasbought
fromanejidatario(alocalresidentbenefitingfrompropertyrightscomingfromtheejidosystemthe
collectivelanddistributedundertheagrarianreform).
ThefabricisdirectlyimportedfromSouthKoreaandJapanandiscutbylaserbeforesewingtogether
inlingeriepieces.Thisisahighlyspecializedwork(tenmonthsarenecessarytotrainaworker)and
consequentlytheworkiswellpaid.Laborcontractsarebasedonapriceperminuteandminutesper
piece,andworkersarepaiddependingoftheiryieldaboveorbelowtheaveragetimeneededtosew
a piece. The standard contract for a permanent worker provides a monthly Mexican $2,400 wage
($330PPP),plussocialsecurityandbenefits.Agoodworkercanearn30%more(M$3,120or$427
PPP, $5,130 PPP per year). Short term contracts also exist on a weekly basis for extra work when
peaks occur. These contracts are offered to trained reserves andare better paid(+30%) at M$800
perweekbutwithoutbenefits.ThesewageshavetobecomparedtoM$500weeklywagesforfarm
workersor,mostoften,M$120140perday($1619PPP)forcasualwork.
49 households were surveyed in La Fuente by the RuralStruc Program. Only 14 have a farm (see
Tablebelow).Inspiteofthepresenceofwellpaidnonagriculturaljobs,farmhouseholdsearnmore
onaveragethannonfarmhouseholds($13,645insteadof$8,286PPP).Thisisbroadlyexplainedby
the multiactivity pattern of the farm households which are all also engaged in offfarm activities,
mainly agricultural and nonagricultural wage labor (notably practiced by women). Half of the
sampleshouseholdsearnagriculturalwages,andhalfreceivenonagriculturalwages.15%earnboth
of them. 55% of the households of La Fuente have an average annual income per EqA higher than
$2,000PPP(and10%higherthan$5,000PPP).
LevelandstructureofincomeinLaFuente
Total income
Means of share of total income (%)
(mean in $PPP)
Ag. Non Ag. Self- Public
Households # HH EqA On-farm Remitt. Rents
wages wages empl transfers
without farm 35 8,286 2,542 0 34 39 20 2 4 1
with farm 14 13,645 3,800 28 22 25 6 7 0 13
Sources:RuralStrucinterviews,January2008;RuralStrucSurveys;RSIIMexico
108
Perhaps the most paradoxical situation is in Kenya, one of the most urbanized
countriesofsubSaharanAfrica,andaplacewherethaturbanizationprocessisstill
booming (see Box 8 in Chapter 3). This urban growth however was not
accompanied by industrializationthe lack of which is a major feature of
urbanization in SSAand therefore nonagricultural employment comes mainly
fromlowskillandoftentemporaryjobsintheagroprocessingindustry(sugarcane
plants,canning),construction,handicraft,andinlowpaidservices(trade,transport,
catering).
Asaconsequenceofthesemuchcontrastedpatternsbetweenregionsandcountries,
major differencesareobserved in households participation in, and earningsfrom,
nonagricultural employment. Nevertheless, incomes earned from these activities
are limited in the surveyed regions. The striking result here is the difference
betweenSSAregionsandnonSSAregions.InSSAregions,theaveragereturnsarein
therangeof$500PPPperEAPperyear,whileinMorocco,Nicaragua,andMexico,
returnsarenear$1,500PPP/EAP/year.NakuruandTequisquiapandeservespecial
attention. In Nakuru returns are around $1,500 PPP on average, much closer to
levels observed in Nicaragua and Morocco than to levels in the rest of Kenya. In
Tequisquiapan, remuneration for nonagricultural wage labor can reach $2,500
PPP/EAP/year, well above any other opportunities observed in the RuralStruc
surveys.
ThetwocasesofNakuruandTequisquiapan,andmorebroadlyKenyaandMexico,
illustrate well the previous discussion on the importance of economic settings in
determiningtheoptionsavailableinnonagriculturalwagelabor.InNakuruNorth,
where about 34% of households are engaged in nonagricultural wage labor, the
proximity of the city and nearby local tourism assets (Nakuru national park) give
some household members access to jobs in public administration, education
(teachers), trade and transportation (the city is located on the main Kenyan
transportcorridor),andthetourismindustry.However,inNyando,morethanhalf
of the households are engaged in nonagricultural wage employment (20% more
than in Nakuru), but their earnings are clearly lower. Nyandos workers are
employed in poorly paid jobs coming from sugar plants and petty services. The
differenceinthetypeofnonagriculturalwagelaboravailableisdecisive.InMexico,
the higher returns in Tequisquiapan further confirm this point. They are a direct
result of the well paid and sometimes highlyspecialized jobs available in the
maquilas.
109
Figure 26: Distribution of Households per Classes of Nonagricultural Income (Kenya and
Mexico)
40
35
30
%ofhouseholds
25
20
15
10
5
0
NonAg.Wagein$PPP/year
Mexico(Tequisquiapan) Kenya(allregions)
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys
Overall,nonagriculturalwagelaborappearstobealimitedoption,theavailability
of which is highly dependent on the characteristics of the regional economy.
Opportunities, when they exist, most often come in the form of low skill and low
payingjobs,therareexceptionbeingmanufacturing.Withouta significantamount
offurthereconomicdiversification(whichisnotnecessarilyrelatedtourbanization,
asexemplifiedbyKenya),thisoptionisfarfrombroadlyaccessibletothemajority
ofhouseholdsintheshortandmediumterm.
2.2.3 SelfEmployment:aPrevalentCatchallStrategy
Asalreadymentionedinsection1ofthischapter,selfemploymentrepresentsthe
most common offfarm income in most of the surveyed regions and is the main
diversificationoptioninthepoorestones.Contrarytowageemploymentwherethe
workerisalabortaker,withselfemploymenttheworkerisalabormakerwho
seizesexistingopportunitiestodevelophisownactivitydependingonhis/herskills
andcapital.
110
ThisdiversityisillustratedbyFigure27belowwhichpresentsabreakdownofthe
activities in which the surveyed households in Senegal engage. It displays the
number of active persons (EAP) engaged in each of the main categories of self
employment by gender, and shows both the diversity and genderspecialization of
theactivity.
Figure27:SelfemploymentActivitiesinSenegal
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys
The returns from these selfemployment activities are highly dependent on the
purchasing power of customers, which directly relates to the regional level of
wealth.Returnstoselfemploymentactivitiesarethereforeasdiverseasthearrayof
activities themselves. When the selfemployment activity does not involve any
specializedequipmentoruniqueskill,setreturnstendtobeclosetothelocallabor
price.
Thereisastrongheterogeneityamongsurveyedregionsinregardstotheshareof
householdsparticipatinginselfemployment.Thesurveyalsoobservedahighlevel
ofvarianceinthereturnsfromselfemploymentatthehouseholdlevel.Asshownby
Figure28,thesecharacteristicsevolveinoppositedirectionsandhighlighttwomain
typesofsituations.
The first type corresponds to regions with medium to high participation in self
employment (between 35 and 80%) but low returns to these activities. This type
includesmostoftheSSAregionsaswellasthoseoftheSotaventoinMexico,where
the level of engagement in selfemployment is the highest in the survey. In this
groupofregions,theaverageannualreturnfromselfemploymentisaround$500
PPP/EAP, the Bassin arachidier and Delta in Senegal, and the Sotavento reaching
$750PPP/EAP/year.
111
Thesecondtypecorrespondstoregionswithaloworverylowlevelofparticipation
inselfemployment(around5to15%).ThisisthecaseofMoroccoandNicaragua,
andsomewhatofTequisquiapan,whereruralhouseholdsarelittleengagedinself
employment because other opportunities exist (wage labor and migrations). The
returns to selfemployment in these regions are incomparably higher, on average
around$1,500PPP/EAP/year,withSoussandTequisquiapanexhibitingevenhigher
average returns (between $2,500 and 3,000 PPP/EAP/year, though these results
mainly indicate wealthier regional contexts). Nakuru in Kenya is again a specific
case, one where the levels of returns to selfemployment rival those observed in
Morocco and Nicaragua. Nakuru is widely stratified in terms of selfemployment
earnings, however.Though many households areengaged inthis activity (77%), a
limitednumberofthemhaveveryhighreturns,pullinguptheregionalaverage.122
Figure28:SelfEmploymentReturnsintheSurveyedRegions
100 3,500
90
3,000
80
Annualearningsin$PPPperEAP
70 2,500
60
2,000
50
%
1,500
40
30 1,000
20
500
10
0 0
Terrabona
Tequis.
Dima
Morondava
Souss
Nioro
ElCu
SierraSM.
Bungoma
Macina
HautDelta
Chaouia
Itasy
Koutiala
Saiss
NakuruN.
MuyMuy
BasDelta
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
LaLibertad
Casamance
Mekh1
Mekh2
Nyando
ElViejo
Antsirabe2
Antsirabe1
Tominian
T.Bajas
HHwithSelfemployment AverageannualearningsfromSelfemployment
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys
Behindthisdiversity,twomajorpatternsappear.Thefirstonecorrespondstoasort
of positive diversification, where selfemployment contributes significantly to
household income. It is generally a fulltime activity, a microbusiness with some
equipment, which explains why betteroff households, with more or better assets
and/or the ability to make a significant initial investment due to their financial,
socialorhumancapital,aremoredisposedtotakeadvantageoftheseopportunities
12240%ofthehouseholdsearnlessthan$500PPPperEAP/year,anumbercloserfromtheotherSSA
averages(61%earnlessthan$1,000PPP/EAP/year).
112
shaped by the local market. Of the entire survey sample, 41% of households are
engaged in selfemployment, but only 13% earn more than $5,000 PPP per year
from this activity.123 These households are not necessarily located in regions
broadly engaged in selfemployment: 58% of the Moroccan and 27% of the
Nicaraguanhouseholdshavingaselfemploymentactivityareinthisgroup,against
22%inMexicoandKenya,andonly13%inSenegal.
The second pattern illustrates a more neutral diversification, where the poorest
andmostmarginalizedhouseholdsdevelopcopingorsurvivalstrategiesbymostly
accessing minor selfemployment activities with very low returns. These activities
aremostoftenacomplementtotheironfarmincomes,butpayfartoolittletoserve
asaviablepovertyexitoption.Afull51%ofsurveyedhouseholdsengagedinself
employmentearnlessthan$1,000PPPperyear,or$2.7PPPperday.
Afinalresultisthatselfemploymentactivitiesarenotlimitedtoplacesthatofferno
permanentwagedactivitiesoutsideofagriculturetheconventionalwisdomonthe
issue. The diversity of the regional situations shows that both coping strategies in
poor rural areas with limited options, and positive diversification strategies in
richer and diversified regions are possible. Further, selfemployment incomes
benefitsubstantiallyfromdynamiceconomicenvironments.
2.3 OtherOfffarmIncomes:ASubstantialComplement
As previously mentioned, offfarm incomes are not only generated through local
activities implemented by the household members, they are also generated by
activities implemented in distant locations by migrant workers who can send a
portion of their earnings home. These remittances play a very significant role in
several surveyed regions. They constitute the major part of the private transfers
income category, which can also include gifts or donations from other households
(thoughthesearemuchmorerare).
Publictransfersareanotherofffarmincomegroup,andtheyrefertosubsidiesfrom
the central state or local government (support to economic activities or social
groups),aswellasgrantsfromNGOsorotherlocalcommunities.IntheRuralStruc
surveys,publictransfersaremainlyobservedandareonlysignificantinMexico.124
Theothercategoryofnonactivitygeneratedofffarmincomeisrents.Thiscategory
includes rental revenues from physical assets (land, equipment and housing), and
would have included securities income if any had been observed. Between 5 and
10% of the surveyed households reported rental revenues, with the exception of
123Thisthresholdissomewhatarbitrary.Itcorrespondsto$14PPPperday.22%ofthehouseholds
earnmorethan$3,000and4%morethan$10,000.
124Othertransferswereobservedfound,mainlyinTominian,Mali(supportfromareligiouscharity
topoorfamilies),andinsomevillagesofMadagascar,andtheyaremarginal.
113
householdsinKenyawherethenumberismuchhigher(40%).Butrevenuesfrom
rentalsareverylow:45%ofhouseholdswithrentalrevenuesearnlessthan$100
PPPperyear.125
2.3.1 Migrations:DifferentPatternsforDifferentRegions
Ruralhouseholdshavealwaysdevelopedlivelihoodstrategieswhichcombinefixed
and mobile assets, where assets consist of both physical and human capital
(Augustins 1989). As such, today, millions of people move every year to another
region,toacity,oracrossbordersandoceans,seekingtoreducewhattheyseeas
thegapbetweentheirownpositionandthatofothersinwealthierplaces(Blacket
al. 2005). Adopting a more structural and historical perspective, migration is
frequentlyabouttheintersectoralmovementoflaborandresultsfromdifferences
inreturnstolaborbetweeneconomicsectors,notablybetweenagricultureandthe
restoftheeconomy(Larson&Mundlak1997).Thesemigrationsoflaborhavebeen
oneofthemostpowerfuldriversofeconomictransformation(seeChapter2).
Oftentimes migrations are not permanent, do not include the entire household, or
both.Thissortofintermediatetypeofmovementcreatessituationswheretransfers
of goods and cash between different geographical settings and between different
household members are frequent. As such, the development of temporary
migrations (which can still be longterm), facilitated by improved conditions of
transportation,hasresultedinasignificantincreaseofprivatetransfersandnotably
of international remittances, the role of which in economic development has been
muchdiscussedoverthelastdecade.
However, this global picture can be misleading. Not only do patterns of mobility
differ broadly across regionsas illustrated by the RuralStruc countries (see Box
12)buttheimpactofremittancesvariesdependingonwhetheramicroormacro
levelanalysisisundertaken.Atthemacrolevel,privatetransfersfromabroadcan
weighheavilyonnationalaccounts,buttheimpactofthesemoniesattheregional
orhouseholdlevelcanbeverydifferent.Thisisparticularlythecaseinruralareas,
forwhichtheroleofmigrationshasoftenbeenoverstated.AsnotedbyReardonet
al. (2007), both the literature and the conventional wisdom among policy makers
tend to emphasize the importance of migrant remittances, but many field studies
suggest that the share of households involved in migrations is actually relatively
low.
125 The exception here is Morocco which deserves a specific comment: 19 households have rental
revenues above $10,000 PPP per year which mainly correspond to urban rentals in the regional
cities.ThesehighincomesofcourseimpacttheregionalaveragesandexplainwhyinMoroccorents
appear as the first source of offfarm income, which is a major distortion. The exclusion of these
households from the sample was discussed but it was considered that they were part of the rural
realityandassuchdeservedtobetakenintoaccount(RSIIMorocco,p.40).
114
IntheRuralStrucregions,migrationsareacommonfeature.Alltypesofmigrations
(domestic or international, long or short term)128 concern 24% of the sample on
averageandthecorerangeisbetween15and40%ofthesurveyedhouseholds.The
exceptions are Alaotra in Madagascar, La Libertad and El Cu in Nicaragua, the
SotaventoinMexico,wherethenumberofhouseholdsengagedinmigrationsdrop
below10%.Ontheoppositeend,TominianandDimainMali,andNioroinSenegal,
exceed60%(seeFigure29).
Thedeterminantsofmigrationareofcoursemultipleandrelatetothemanypull
and push factors existing in individual regions. The economic situation of the
household,thelackofopportunitiesatthelocalorthenationallevel,thehopesofa
distantEldorado,andtheimportanceofexistingobstaclescombinethemselvesand
shapeindividualorcollectivedecisions(migrationisoftenachoiceatthehousehold
rather than individual level and sometimes, for international migrations, it is a
decision of the community as a whole). Therefore, migration often relies on the
ability of certain groups to create and maintain bonds of solidarity with diaspora
members.
126 Official banking and cashtransfer channels are an important vehicle but significant flows are
transferredfromabroadthroughinformalnetworks.
127 This is particularly the case in Mexico where it is increasingly difficult today to capture
information about remittances, many respondents refusing to answer. This situation is mainly
relatedtoillegalmigrationwhich,evenifoverwhelminglydeveloped,isunderofficialscrutiny,andto
fearslinkedtothecriminalizationofmoneytransfers.Surveyorswereconfrontedwiththisproblem
duringtheRuralStrucsurveys.
128 During the survey, longterm migrants were defined as persons who are geographically distant
fromthehouseholdformorethansixmonthsyearlyandsending(ornot)remittances,whateverthe
amount.
115
Box12:DifferentPatternsofInternationalMigrationintheRuralStrucCountries
Patternsofinternationalmigrationdependbothongeographyandonnationaltrajectories.Mexico,
MoroccoandNicaraguahavetakenadvantageoftheirgeographicpositionandhave,onaverage,10%
oftheirtotalpopulationlivingabroad.ThisoptionislesspossibleinsubSaharanAfricancountries,
except in Mali where about 11% of the population lives abroad. Kenya and Madagascar display
extremelylowrateofemigration.
Mali Senegal Madagascar Kenya Morocco Nicaragua Mexico
Israel 8
Italy 15 1 11 1
Netherlands 6
Runion 17 0
Spain 1 5 25 1
UnitedKingdom 1 34 1
UnitedSates 3 1 11 2 36 90
Others 1 3 3 7 9 1 2
Subtotal 7 46 78 57 91 40 92
BurkinaFaso 25
Comoros 14
Todevelopingcountries
CostaRica 49
Gambie 1 27
CtedIvoire 41
Mauritania 1 9
Nigeria 9 1
Tanzania 26
Uganda 8
Others 16 18 8 9 9 11 8
Subtotal 93 54 22 43 9 60 8
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Sources:RathaandShaw2007,authorscalculations.
116
Householdswithinternationalmigrantsarealsolikelymoreskilledandhavebetter
socialnetworks,bothofwhichfacilitatethesuccessofthesemigrations.Incomeand
human and social capital, the key determinants of international migration, all
combine to present unique, customized opportunities to households. There is no
clearrelationshipbetweenoneindividualdeterminantandthesuccessofmigration
asallthreeareimportant.
Remittances are the top offfarm income in only three of the 30 surveyed regions
(Tominian and Dima in Mali, Terrabona in Nicaragua). They are ranked as the
secondlargestofffarmincomesourceinnineothers(includingregionsinSenegal,
MoroccoandNicaragua,seeTable17).However,eveninregionswheremigrationis
important,earningspermigrantareverydiverse(Figure29).
Figure29:ImportanceofMigrationsperSurveyedRegions
80% 4,500
70% 4,000
Annualearningsin$PPPpermigrant
3,500
60%
3,000
50%
2,500
40%
2,000
30%
1,500
20%
1,000
10% 500
0% 0
Terrabona
Tequis.
Dima
Morondava
Souss
ElCu
Nioro
SierraSM.
Bungoma
Macina
HautDelta
Chaouia
Itasy
Koutiala
Saiss
BasDelta
MuyMuy
LaLibertad
NakuruN.
Nyando
Mekh1
Mekh2
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
ElViejo
Casamance
Antsirabe2
Antsirabe1
Tominian
T.Bajas
117
A core group of regions displays earnings between $1,000 and 2,000 PPP (Dima,
Mekh1andBasDelta,allthesurveyedzonesinMorocco,andMexico),whileKenya
andMadagascarshowevidenceofverylowtransfers.Thefivesurveyedregionsof
Nicaragua, where average returns are above $2,500 PPP, clearly stand out.129 In
comparison,theearningsofMexicanmigrantsappearsurprisinglylowgivenwhatis
knownaboutthedevelopmentofmigrationsinthatcountry.130
Fromthisverydiversepicture,threemainpatternscanbeidentifiedbasedonthe
regionalimportanceandthedurationofmigrations,aswellasthemaindestination
of migrants (Figure 30). The first pattern observed corresponds to international
longterm migrations, mostly towards OECD countries (Dima, Souss and Sass,
Tequisquiapan).Thesecondpatternillustratesmigrationstoneighboringcountries.
It is exemplified by the specific case of Nicaragua with shortterm migrations to
CostaRicaandElSalvador,wheremigrantsareengagedinwagedactivities,mainly
inagriculture(exportcrops)andservices(construction,maidservantsandsecurity
guards in particular). One of the explanations of the higher returns observed in
Nicaraguarelatestothefactthatmigrantsmaintaincloserlinkswiththehousehold
because of the proximity of their destinations. Migrants often return home after a
coupleofmonthsawayandcarrythemainpartoftheirincomeswiththemincash,
whichisnotthecaseofthelongtermmigrantswhoorganizetransfersonamore
irregularbasis.Thethirdpatterncorrespondstointernalmigrations,tothecapital
city or major cities, or to other rural regions. These migrations can be heavily
weightedtowardsshorttermwork,asshownbyTominianandKoutialainMali,or
byTerrabonainNicaragua,butcanalsobelongterm.Inthepoorestregionsandfor
thepooresthouseholdsthesemigrationsdonotaimonlyatgeneratingincome(in
KenyaandMadagascartheydont).Theyaremoreaimedathelpingtodecreasethe
numberofmouthstofeedduringtheintercropseason,whenonfarmfamilylabor
isnotneededandthelaborsurplusismassive(RSIIMali).Or,moredurably,they
are a radical way to reduce household expenses. The activities of these migrants
(maidservants, odd jobs) often earn them very low returns and simply provide a
waytosustaintheirmostbasicneeds.
129ThehighreturnsinElCuandLaLibertad(morethan$4,000PPPpermigrants)mustbeputin
perspective with the little number of households involved (5%) and migrants destination: mostly
theUSAandSpain.
130EventhoughtheSotaventoisnotatraditionalemigrationzone,shortandlongtermmigrationsto
theirrigatedperimetersofthePacificCoasthavedeveloped.Theearningsfrommigrationdeclared
duringthesurveyweremainlyrelatedtolongtermmigrants.Theirlevelisfullyrelatedtothecaveat
presentedaboveaboutsurveyconditions.
118
Figure30:MigrantsDestinationbySurveyedRegion
Tominian
Tequis.100% Koutiala
T.Bajas Dima
SierraSM. Macina
80%
ElCu Casamance
60%
ElViejo Mekh1
40%
LaLibertad Nioro
20%
Terrabona HautDelta
0%
MuyMuy Mekh2
Souss BasDelta
Sass Antsirabe2
Chaouia Alaotra1
NakuruN. Morondava
Nyando Itasy
Bungoma Antsirabe1
Alaotra2
Table19identifiesthesepatternsbyprovidingabreakdownofmigrationin23out
ofthe30surveyedregions,basedontheirmajorcharacteristics.
119
durably, they are a radical way to reduce household expenses.131 The activities of
these migrants (maidservants, odd jobs) often earn them very low returns and
simplyprovideawaytosustaintheirmostbasicneeds.
Table19:MainMigrationPatternsamongtheSurveyedRegions
% of households with migrants
>50 30-50 10-30 <10
Sass
>50% of migrants by
Capital
city Tominian
Chaouia El Viejo El Cu
Other Koutiala Antsirabe 2 Kenya (all) Tierras Bajas
regions Madagascar Sierra SM
(others) Alaotra 1 & 2
>40% of migrants are short term
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys
The seven remaining surveyed regions (the six Senegalese regions plus Macina)
present a very mixed picture in terms of the destination of migrationsas clearly
displayed by Figure 30. They illustrate strong combinations of all available
migratoryoptions.ThissituationisexemplifiedbytheBassinarachidierinSenegal,
whosemigrationpatternprovidesfurtherevidenceofaregionalcatchallstrategyin
termsofactivitiesandincomes.GoodconnectionstoDakar,This,andSaintLouis
offer multiple opportunities that help households cope with the deep crisis in the
groundnut sector. Nevertheless, this strategy of engaging in multiple activities,
characterizedbytheaccumulationofpetitsboulots(oddjobs),withinthevillage,
in the nearby small town, or in the capital city and, for some households, abroad,
offersonlyapartialansweranddoesnottrulyofferanexitoptionoutofpoverty(as
evidencedbythelowlevelofincomesoftheregion)seeBox13.
131 The Pearson correlations between the number of members of the households present and the
total number of migrants is positively significant in Mali (0,390**), Senegal (0,144**), and
Madagascar(0,168**)
**Correlationissignificantatthe0.01level.
120
Thesecondconclusionreferstoanemergingpatternwhichprogressivelyreshapes
manyruraleconomies.Bettertransportationandcommunicationeverywherehave
deepened the opportunities for connections to a wide array of locationsthe
nearby city, the regional or the national capital, locations outside the home
countrywhich lead to family networks connecting members of the same
householdworkinginthesedifferentplacesandfordifferentperiodsoftime.These
networks correspond to new composite multilocalized systems, which clearly
redefine countrytocity linkages. In these archipelago models, the household
remains firmly based in the countryside and inserted in its rural environment
(economically, socially, and culturally), with a decision center (the head of
household)whichmanagesseveralincomesourcesearnedbyhouseholdmembers
livingandworkingindifferentlocations(likearchipelagoislandscoordinatedwith
their capital).132 Though these new family networks can facilitate permanent
migration and exit from the countryside, they are most often a way of leaving to
stay133.Bycombiningmultiplelivelihoodstrategies,householdsadjusttotheirnew
and evolving environments and maintain their affiliation to the local community,
evenifsomemembersmustleavetoallowthemtodoso.
132 The concept of archipelago model was initially developed in Andean studies in the 1970s to
describe the multiple settlements of households across varied ecological landscapes related to the
altitude (see Van Buren 1996). It has then been applied to the new patterns of rural economies
characterized by the importance of short and long term migrations, notably in Mexico. See
particularly:Quesnel&delRey(2005),Lonardetal.(2004),delRey(2008),andGastellu&Marchal
(1997). In parallel, the concept was also used for qualifying the spatial dynamics of globalization
(Veltz1996,Viard1998)
133ThisistheevocativetitleofCortesbook(2000)onBolivianpeasantcommunities.
121
Box13:MigratingtoDakartoSellPhoneCards:AnIllusoryPathwayoutofPoverty
A good example of the petits boulots in which many Senegalese households engage is the sale of
mobile phones cards a proliferating activity which characterizes all African cities. Many young
people coming from rural areas of Senegal try their luck at Dakars traffic lights for a couple of
months.
Figureshelpheretounderstandtherealityofthiswayofsustainingoneslivelihood.Thesepeddlers
earn CFA75 ($0.28 PPP) for every CFA1,000 phone card sold (a 7.5% margin), or CFA900 for a
CFA10,000 phone card (9%). They can thus make $2 a day by selling 7 CFA1,000 phone cards
(earning them CFA525), knowing that selling a CFA10,000 card is a rare event. This target is not
unrealistic but the competition is harsh. It is worth recalling that, on this meager income, vendors
must also pay for meals and a place to sleep. Since the price of a basic place to spend the night is
about CFA30,000 per month, it means a worker must reach a sales target of 400 phone cards per
month.Thereareofcoursewaysofmitigatingthesecoststoacertainextentsharingaroomwith
manyothersorevensleepinginthestreetbutthepointremainsthat,withthistypeofmigratory
activity,itisachallengeeventocoveronescosts.Theresultisthatthisactivitydoesnotprovideany
realroomformaneuvertobringbackanycashtothevillage.
Source:RuralStrucinterviews,October2009
2.3.2 PublicTransfers:SpecifictoMexico
Inthesurveyedregions,publictransfersareonlysignificantinMexico.Sinceitisan
uppermiddle income economy with a strong fiscal base, the Mexican state has
implemented a welldeveloped public support system targeted toward rural areas
(Lonard&Losch2009).Thetransferprogramsmainlyfocusonpovertyalleviation
withsocialsafetynetsthattargetspecificsocialgroups(e.g.Oportunidadesforthe
poorest),andsubsidiestotheagriculturalsectorthroughseveralsupportprograms
(Procampo for production, Aserca for marketing, and Alianza for investment). The
level of support a farm receives from Procampo is related to the size of its area
undercultivationandassuchtheprogrambenefitseveryfarmnomatteritswealth
level. The two other programs however are dedicated to large farms or agro
businesses.Thesetransfershaveplayedasignificantroleandtheirmultipliereffect
onincomeshasbeenconfirmedthroughresearch(Sadouletetal.2001).Theyhave
been complemented over the past few years by new programs related to
decentralization (e.g. Ramo 033 or remote areas programs) and environmental
protection,whichmainlybenefitlocalgovernmentsorcommunities.
More than fifteen public programs were observed in the income structures of the
surveyedhouseholds.MostofthefarmhouseholdswereinvolvedintheProcampo
program which explains why a higher share of households is involved in public
transfers in the two Sotavento zones (80%), rather than in Tequisquiapan (where
very few households have farms). However, there are questions about how well
thesetransfersaretargeted.IntheSotaventotheyrepresentbetween12and20%
ofhouseholdincomeinallquintiles,whichindicatesadisconnectbetweenthelevel
ofincomeandtheamountoftransferallocationreceived(seeBox14).
122
Box14:InequalityofAccesstoPublicTransfersinMexicosSotaventoRegion
InthetwosurveyedzonesoftheSotavento,publictransfersarethefirstandsecondsourcesofoff
farmincomesinTierrasBajasandSierradeSantaMarta,respectively.Theyrepresent32%oftotal
offfarm income, and constitute on average 15% of total income. 77% of the surveyed households
receivegrantsfromsocialprograms,and24%ofthemreceivesubsidiesfromProcampo(RSIIMexico
Sotavento,p25.)
Asreflectedbythechartbelow,oneofthemoststrikingsurveyresultsinSotaventoistheinequality
ofthedistributionofpublicsubsidies,bothwithregardstosocialgroupsandgeographicareas.The
richesthouseholdsbenefitfromalevelofpublictransfersseventimeshigherthanwhatisreceived
bythepooresthouseholds,and50%higherthanthesumofthesubsidiesreceivedbythehouseholds
of the three lowest quintiles. This inequality has also a strong spatial dimension: in Tierras Bajas,
where threequarters of the richest households surveyed in the Sotavento are located, the average
level of public transfers isregionally higher ($1,797 PPP)than in the mountainarea($1,329 PPP);
aboveall,subsidieslevelsarestronglycorrelatedwithincomes.
Instead of smoothing income inequalities and compensating for differences in asset provision, it
appears that public transfers in fact contribute to accelerated differentiation with a "transition"
towards a specialization in agriculture on bigger farms and attendant measures (safety nets) for
otherhouseholds.
RepartitionofPublicTransfersbySurveyedZoneandLevelofHouseholdIncome
8,000
7,000
6,000
Public Transfers(in$PPP)
Tierras Bajas
R = 0.415
5,000
4,000
Sierra SM
R = 0.0905
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
TotalHouseholdIncomebeforeTransfers(in$PPP)
SierraSantaMarta TierrasBajas
Sources:AdaptedfromRSIIMexico
123
3. OfffarmDiversificationandRuralTransformation
Broadly, the literature suggests that diversification is the norm among all
developingcountriesruraleconomies,andthatitleadstotheemergenceofvibrant
RNFEs.However,theRuralStrucresultsprovideamorenuancedpicturethathelps
to temper these general conclusions. Indeed, though diversification is present
everywhere, its characteristics are dramatically different and vary significantly
betweenregions,asclearlyhighlightedbythesurveyresults.
Differences,bothbetweenandwithinregions,areimportantandreflectthestrong
heterogeneity of the studied situations. One notes however a major distinction
between SSA and nonSSA countries which plainly echoes different levels of
economic development. This distinction does not refer to households levels of
participation in offfarm activities (these areinfact quite similar betweenthe two
groups of countries), rather it refers to the specifics of diversification: the type of
activityanditseconomicreturns.
In nonSSA countries, where the level of wealth is higher and the economy more
diversified, offfarm activities are more lucrative. They correspond to a more
positive diversification and often represent a fulltime activity. This means that
households, or some household members, specialize in other activities while in
parallel other households more fully specialize in agriculture. This is clearly
illustrated by the surveyed regions in Nicaragua and Morocco, and in
Tequisquiapan, Mexico, where the number of households combining onfarm and
offfarmactivitiesisdramaticallylowerthaninSSA.
Thus, based on the RuralStruc observations, one can put forward that the
characteristicsofofffarmdiversificationsomewhatmirrortheprocessofeconomic
124
transitionasawhole:anincipientlowreturndiversificationattheearlystagesof
structuraltransformation,andamorematurediversificationwhichconsolidatesthe
processofchangeatlaterstages.
The second result relates to the difficulty of capturing the whole of the process of
economic diversification. Because they targeted rural households onlyi.e,
householdssettledinareasdefinedasruralthesurveysmissedthosehouseholds
whichmigratedintourbansettingsduringtheprocessoftransformation.Thesenew
urban households were able to access better services and living conditions, to
engageinbroaderofffarmactivities,andevensometimestokeeptheirownfarm
asituationobservedintheMexicansurvey.Thismethodologicalbiasleadstomore
generalconclusions.Itshowsthatthedistinctionbetweenruralboroughsandsmall
cities is at least somewhat theoretical and that a major challenge in terms of
information systems is to capture the reality of the ruralurban continuum which
evolvesthrough the process of densification. Morefundamentally,it highlights the
somewhat ephemeral nature of the rural nonfarm economy. The RNFE tends to
growandatthesametimebedissolvedintotheurbanizationprocessitself,withthe
migration of offfarm specializers into urban areas, and cities moving to the
countryaconsequenceofincreasingdemographicdensitiesandoftheterritorial
developmentofcitiesrelatedtotheurbangrowthprocessitself.
Thethirdoutcomereferstowhatislearntfrommigrations.Thoughitisdifficultto
capture information on the amount of transfers, the surveys do show that 24% of
thehouseholdsinterviewedareengagedinmigration,asomewhatlowlevelwhich
is however consistent with many rural studies. The surveys also show that the
economic returns from migration are definitely related to the destination of
migrants, which is itself strongly influenced by geography (particularly by the
nearness of high income countries). However, in addition to the direct income
benefit of migration in the form of remittances, there is also a network effect that
canprovidemoreindirectreturns.Thesurveyresultspointtothedevelopmentof
archipelagosystemswherebyahouseholdearnsincomefromastringofmembers
in different locations. These workers can be spread along a geographic continuum
fromrural,toperiurbantourban,andcanbelocatedinotherregionsofthecountry
orevenabroad.Butallremainpartofthesamehousehold.Thistypeoforganization,
facilitatedbyimprovementsintransportandcommunicationinfrastructure,allows
125
for greater diversification and risk management, and improves the economic
prospectsofhouseholds.
Ifcharacteristicsofthehistoricalpathwaysofstructuraltransformationarepresent,
thedevelopmentofthesenewtypesoflinkagescouldmodifythemodalitiesofrural
transformationbyfosteringadditionalopportunitiesintermsofactivities.Butthey
also highlight the necessity of access to services and of an adequate provision of
public goodsin addition to infrastructurein order to strengthen ruralurban
linkagesandtocreateefficientdensity.
126
AmajorfindingoftheRuralStrucsurveys,discussedinChapter3,wasthepersistent
importance of onfarm activities in rural livelihoods. In almost all of the regions
surveyed, between 90 and 100% of rural households have a farm, the major
exception being one region in Mexico: Tequisquiapan. Further, the share of
householdsonfarmincomesremainsverysignificantineveryregion,thoughthere
is noteworthy variance due to the differing importance across regions of the off
farmdiversificationprocessespresentedinChapter4.
A core objective of the program, as reflected in its first hypothesis (H1), was to
investigate the extent to which the restructuring of agrifood markets linked to
liberalizationandglobalizationhasleadtotheemergenceofmodernvaluechains,
and to assess the persistence of more traditional products and market
organization patterns. A subsequent question was related to the development of
specialization in agricultureone of the WDR08s possible exit pathways out of
ruralpovertynotablythroughgrowingverticalintegration.
Theimpactsofnewintegrationprocessesalongglobalizedvaluechains,aswellas
the spread of the socalled supermarket revolution, are known to have affected
developing countries to very different degrees. These differences are directly
related to the integration of national markets and their connection to the global
economy, and as such to the overall process of economic transition. This is why
overfocusing on upheaval in agrifood marketsoften done in the literaturecan
besomewhatofastrawman.Ittendstoovershadowtherealitythatlargeareasof
theruralworldremaindisconnected,anditthereforeoveremphasizesintegration
dynamics which play out only gradually. Due to the large range of situations
representedintheRuralStruccountries,significantvariationswereexpectedamong
them.However,thefindingsaboutnewintegrationpatternssuggestthatacrossthe
sample they remain quite limited. In looking for these patterns, the Programs
investigationofonfarmactivitiesbecamesomethingofanelusivequestforanew
agriculture. The selection of countries of course weighs heavily in this conclusion,
andtheMexicansurveyedregionshaveclearlyevolvedsignificantly,buttheoverall
picture remains gray. It is marked everywhere by the extent and consequences of
ruralpoverty.
Afterabriefoverviewofthegeneralcharacteristicsandconsequencesoftheglobal
restructuring of agrifood markets, the chapter focuses on the main features of on
farmactivitiesinthesurveyedregions,notablytheimportanceofselfconsumption
andcommercialization.Thenitreviewsthedifferentpatternsofcropspecialization
or diversification and finishes with an assessment of the ongoing processes of
marketintegration.
127
1. GeneralBackground:TheBigRestructuring134
The process of agricultural liberalization has been occurring over a long period of
timeandisnotyetcomplete.Startingintheearlyeighties,agriculturewassubjected
tothesameprocessofstatewithdrawalthataffectedothereconomicsectors,butat
aslowerpaceduetothefactthatgovernmentsperceiveditasastrategicsector.135
Thisprocess,farfromfinished,continuestodaythroughthedifficultandseemingly
neverendingWTODohaRound(seeChapter1).Theliberalizationofinternational
marketsisparticularlydifficultwithreferencetothequestionofmarketaccessand
publicsupports,butchangeswithinnationalmarketshavebeen moreradical.The
dismantlingofregulatorybodiesandpubliccompaniesandthesubsequentwaveof
privatization have led to the entrance of new players into the market (often with
stronginternationalconnections),tothegradualdisseminationofnewrulesofthe
game,toprogressivenewbalancesofpower,andtotheemergenceofwhatcanbe
referredtoasanewfoodregime.136
1.1 TheMainProcessesofChangeUnderway
1.1.1 DomesticMarketLiberalization
a. ContextPriortoLiberalization
134Theobjectivehereisnottoprovideanextensivereviewoftheabundantliteratureonthisglobal
restructuringbutrathertogivethenecessarybackgroundreminderaboutthemajordevelopments
ofthelastthreedecades.
135 Agriculture has always been over the time and whatever the political regimes a state affair
(Coulombetal.1990).Inlastresort,thesectorprovidestheverybasicneedofthepopulationand
governmentsconstituents.
136 On food regimes see Friedmann & McMichael (1989) and McMichael (2009) for a genealogy.
McMichaelsuggeststheprogressiveconsolidationofanewcorporatefoodregime.
128
alongthecommoditychains;andiv)facilitateexportsbymanagingtheentiretyof
thenationalagriculturalsupply.
On the other hand, a few traditional nonstaple markets (mostly fresh products,
such as fruit and vegetables and dairy) were almost free, with little or no state
intervention or price regulation. Spot transactions involving many small, non
specializedandunorganizedbuyersandsellerscharacterizedthesemarkets,where
fewif anygrades or standards existed, poor market information systems
prevailed, and informal contracts, largely enforced through social networks, were
thenorm(Fafchamps2004).
Due to the weakness of the private sector, states also intervened in processing,
mainlythroughparastatals.Thisoftenoccurredinkeyindustriesinthetraditional
export sector such as groundnut, palm oil, tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, etc. Many
industrial crops were produced by public, vertically integrated firms aiming for
economies of scale. State control was justified by the need to process quickly,
particularly because of perishability, and by stringent quality requirements of
exportproducts(likepalmoilortea).
b. WithdrawaloftheState
Table20andTable21presentsomeexamplesofthedismantlingofformerpublic
bodies in RuralStruc countries.137 These restructuring processes all occurred over
anextendedperiodoftime(fromtheendofthe1970stotheendofthe1990s).As
discussedpreviously,dependingoneachcountryshistoricaltrajectory,thestarting
point,thescope,andthepaceofliberalizationwereallcountryspecificandexplain
largevariationsamongcountries.
137 These tables only provide a couple of examples per country while most of the time dozens of
parastatalsexisted.Seethecountryreportsformoredetails.
129
Table20:ScopeofMarketReformsinnonSubSaharanRuralStrucCountries
BEFOREliberalization AFTERliberalization
Morocco
ONICL 198896:progressiveliberalizationofthegrain
Statemarketingboard:fullcontrolonmarketing
market
ofgrainsthroughfixedprices(especiallywheat),
OfficeNationalInterprofessionneldes andstrictlycontrolledimports Quotassubsistforthenationalflour
CralesetLgumineuses
OCE Statemarketingboard:monopolyonexportsfor 1985:endofthemonopolyandliberalizationof
OfficedeCommercialisationet citrus,horticulturalproducts,cannedfoodsetc. exports
dExportation
Nicaragua
ENABAS 1984:eliminationofpricedifferentialforbasic
Statemarketingagency:monopolyonstaples
grains
commercializationandexportcropssuchas
EmpresaNacionaldeAlimentosBsicos peanuts,sesameandsoy 1990:fullliberalizationofstaple
commercialization
Mexico
CONASUPO 1989:endofmarketingmonopolyonimports
Staterunenterprise:monopolyonimports, andondomesticmarketforallstaplesbutmaize
supervisionofexports,anddomesticmarket andbeans
CompaaNacionaldeSubsistencias supplyforstapleswithcontrolledprices 1999:endofmarketinterventionformaizeand
Populares beans
INMECAFE Statemarketingboard:supporttofarm 1993:dismantlingoftheboardand
InstitutoMexicanodelcaf production,processingandmarketing,and liberalization
monopolyoncoffeeexports
Source:RuralStrucCountryReports,Phases1and2
130
Table21:ScopeofMarketReformsinSubSaharanRuralStrucCountries
BEFOREliberalization AFTERliberalization
Mali
OPAM 1986:endofthemonopoly
Statemarketingboard:monopolyon
commercializationofgrains 1989:liberalizationofimportsanddomestic
OfficedesProduitsAgricolesduMali commercialization
OfficeduNiger Parastatal:managementofwater,landand 1994:endofinterventiononrice(except
irrigationinfrastructureintheOfficearea; forextension)
monopolyonmarketingandprocessingofrice
CMDT
Semipubliccompany(40%totheFrench
DAGRIS,nowGeocoton):inputssupply,
extension,marketing,andprocessingofcotton Ongoingliberalizationsince2004
seed,supplyofcottonfibertothedomestic
CompagnieMaliennedeDveloppement publictextileindustry(COMATEX)andexports
desTextiles
Senegal
ONCAD Statemarketingboard:monopolyon 1979:liquidation
commercializationofdomesticagricultural
products(groundnut,grains)andimports,and
Officenationaldecommercialisationet 1991:liberalizationoflocalmarketandimports
dassistanceaudveloppement supervisionofproducers'cooperatives ofrice
SONACOS
Socitnationaledecommercialisation Staterunenterprise:processorforgroundnutoil 2006:privatization
desolagineuxduSngal
Madagascar
BCSR 198386:endofmonopolyondomestic
commercializationofrice
Statemarketingboard:fullmonopolyonrice 1990:privatizationofimports
BureaudeCommercialisationetde 1991:endofthebufferstock
StabilisationduRiz 2005:endofimporttaxes
HASYMA Semipubliccompany(36%theFrenchDAGRIS,
nowGeocoton):inputssupply,extension,
2004:privatization(90%ofthecapitalheldby
marketing,andprocessingofcottonseed,supply
DAGRIS)
ofcottonfibertothedomesticpublictextile
HasyMalagasy industryandexports
Kenya
NCPB Statemarketingboard:monopolyongrain 199195:privatizationandliberalizationof
NationalCerealsandProduceBoard marketing(domesticmarketandexports) marketing
KCC 1992:endofmonopoly
1999:collapseasaconsequenceofnew
Cooperativecompany:monopolyonprocessing competition
andsalesofdairyproductsinallurbanareas 2000:buyoutandcreationofKCCHoldings
KenyaCooperativeCreameries 2003:takeoverbytheGovernementand
"revitalization".CreationofNewKCC.
CBK Statemarketingboard:monopolyoncollection, 2001:endofmonopoly.Nowadvisoryroleonly
TheCoffeeboardofKenya processingandexportsofcoffee
TBK Statemarketingboard:regulationofthetea
industry(production,research,processing,trade
nochange
andpromotionondomesticandinternational
TheTeaBoardofKenya markets)
KTDA
Publicdevelopmentagency:managementof
2000:privatization.NowKenyaTea
productionthroughprovisionofinputs,
DevelopmentAgencywithtechnicalsupportto
extension,collection,processingandmarketing
theindustry
oftea
KenyaTeaDevelopmentAuthority
Source:RuralStrucCountryReports,Phases1and2
131
c. NewMarketRegulation
Statewithdrawalfromagriculturalmarketsandthedismantling ofparastatalsand
regulation systems have generated a new economic and institutional environment
at the national level. These changes had several consequences that can be
summarized by two interlinked main features. First, value chains rapidly became
marketdrivenanddependentonsupplyanddemandvariations.Manynewprivate
actors emerged but were often eliminated later because of intense competition.
Often, one of the conditions for survival was to increase alliances with foreign
capital, a phenomenon that exacerbated an asymmetrical situation between many
fragmentedproducersandlargerbutfewermarketingagentsorprocessorswhich
progressivelycontrolledthevaluechains.Theresultwasaprocessofconcentration
with the emergence of many big players that deeply transformed market
dynamics.
1.1.2 TheNewAgrifoodMarkets
Thesemajorchangesinthedomesticmarketshavetobeputintoperspectivewith
other major restructuring processes within international agrifood markets. These
processes are the result of the liberalization dynamics described above, as well as
more specific developments related to new patterns in food demand, which have
beenboostedbytheincreasingmobilityoffactorsresultingfromglobalization(see
Figure31).
The main consequence of this evolution, which started in the 1980s, is a trend
towardsincreasinglevelsofintegrationwhichfeedsandconsolidatestheongoing
restructuring of domestic markets. The main attributes of these processes of
integration are the development of standards and closer relationships between
producersandbuyers.Thesechanges,ofcourse,developatverydifferentpacesin
different countries. The aim of the following section is to provide a frame of
referencetounderstandwhatchangesareunderwayinordertobetterpositionthe
discussionoftheRuralStruccountries.
132
Figure31:NewPatternsandTrendsintheAgrifoodSystemResultingfromLiberalizationand
Globalization
NEEDFORCONTRACTSand
INCREASINGINTEGRATION
Source:Authors
a. NewPatternsinAgrifoodDemand
There are several major trends behind the observed changes on the demand side
which can be summarized as follows: i) the worlds population is becoming
increasinglyurban;ii)growingincomesresultinquicklyevolvingdiets,withmore
proteins and highvalue foods (meat and dairy, fruits and vegetables) instead of
staples;iii)untilthecurrentperiodofgrowingfoodprices,structurallydecreasing
priceshavestimulatedagrifoodmarketdynamics;andiv)anincreasinglyintegrated
world trade environment and improved transportation systems have spurred the
convergenceofdietarypatternsandfoodpreferences(FAO2004).
133
about a need for more safety standards.138 This change is evident in the growing
attention paid to the risks associated with agricultural inputs (residues from
pesticides,veterinarymedicines,etc.)andwithmicrobiologicalcontamination.The
implementation of stricter food safety and quality standards in the high income
countrieshashadstrongimpactsontheevolutionofsupplychains.Exportersand
retailers, in particular, employ new forms of production and marketing contracts,
whiletechnicaland/orfinancialassistancecanbeprovidedtostrengthenthesenew
linkages.
Further,thisshiftofmarketsfromsupplydriventodemanddriveninacontextof
increasing incomes (at the aggregate level) has also transformed relationships
among commodity chain stakeholders. Today, consumers in rich countries are
increasinglylookingforsafetyandforinformationonthewayproductsaregrown
and traded, to ensure socially fair and sustainable agricultural practices. This
growth in consumer awareness has progressively supported a range of new
alternativeinitiativesininternational,national,andlocalagrifoodsystems,andhas
fueledchangesinretailpatternsasfairtrade,organic,andotheralternativefoods
haveenteredmainstreamvenues.Withtheemergenceofthesenichemarkets,new
types of standards and specific controls have been established parallel to the
implementation of more generic certification structures. For instance, efforts are
made to protect the integrity of organic standards to further differentiate organic
foods and to promote different forms of short supply chains for local community
development.139
Contracts, in their various forms and with varying degrees of obligations, usually
reducerisksforthebuyerandsellerandhaveappearedinresponsetotheremoval
of the formerly controlled marketing systems as a possible way to guarantee
standards and requirements for the purchaser. For the producer, selling under
contractarrangementsislessriskywhentherequirementsfortheproductarehigh
anditscharacteristicsarecomplex.Also,itisoftentheonlywaytoaccessspecific
markets. For this reason, contracts have progressively spread to emerging fresh
product chains and niche markets, where product attributes are clearly defined in
terms of norms and standards, and where the final value of production allows for
the coverage of specific costs of contracts (selection, negotiation, monitoring, and
enforcement).
138 It is worth noting that this expanding trade in agricultural products has also developed from
OECD countries towards many low income and middle income countries (notably exports of meat
products)andisoftenassociatedwithlowerconcernsintermsofhealthandfoodsafety.
139 The creation of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), which
bases its organic certification on issues such as health, ecology, fairness and the principle of
precaution,isagoodillustrationofthistrend.
134
Since the 1980s, growing longdistance trade and increased Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI), facilitated by liberalization policies and the implementation of
Free Trade Agreements (FTA), have broadly modified the scope of agricultural
production and marketing. They are the consequence of both a more open
international economy resulting from economic liberalization and of progress in
technology (internet for finance and information on the software side; shipping,
storage, processing on the hardware side). These factors all greatly increase the
efficiency of international trade and domestic marketing, and have paved the way
for major investments by new players everywhere, particularly in processing and
retailingsincethe1990s(Barrett&Mutambatsere2005).Consequently,ahandful
of vertically integrated transnational corporations and strategic alliances between
majorcompanieshavegainedgrowingcontroloverspecificnationalmarkets(Box
16)andoverglobaltrade,processingandretailingoffoodproducts(Vorley2003).
The tremendous development of these processes in the case of the distribution of
productshasresultedinthesupermarketrevolution(Box15).
Box15:TheWorldSpreadoftheSupermarketRevolution
The penetration of modern food retailing varies among developing countries. Reardon & Timmer
(2007,p.2840)write:Experiencingsupermarketsectortakeoffindevelopingcountriesintheearlyto
mid1990s,thefirstwaveincludemuchofSouthAmerica,EastAsiaoutsideChina,andSouthAfricaa
set of areas where the average share of supermarkets in food retail went from roughly only 1020%
circa1990to5060%onaveragebytheearly2000s.ThesecondwaveincludepartsofSoutheastAsia,
Central America and Mexico where the share went from circa 510% in 1990 to 3050% by the early
2000s,withthetakeoffoccurringinthemidtolate1990s.Thethirdwaveincludescountrieswherethe
supermarketrevolutiontakeoffstartedonlyinthelate1990sorearly2000s,reachingabout1020%of
nationalfoodretailbycirca2003;theyincludesomeofAfricaandsomecountriesinCentralandSouth
America(suchasNicaragua,PeruandBolivia),SoutheastAsia,andChinaandIndiaandRussia.Sub
Saharan Africa presents a very diverse picture, with only South Africa firmly in the first wave of
supermarketpenetration,buttheresteitherintheearlyphaseofthethirdwavetakeoffofdiffusion
orinwhatmaybeapendingbutnotyetstartedtakeoffofsupermarketdiffusion.
135
Box16:TheRestructuringoftheMexicanMaizeIndustry
Mexico is a good example of a country where a deep process of restructuring has occurred in the
agricultural sector. It began at the endof the 1980s with the termination of a staterun companys
monopolyonmarketing (Conasuposee Table 20, Yunes Naude 2003), price deregulation, and the
implementationofNAFTAwiththeUSAandCanadain1993(Appendini2001).Duringthisprocess,
the maize sector received preferential treatment due to the crops importance as the main
componentofMexicandiets,itsweightintheagriculturalsector,anditssocial,cultural,andpolitical
status.First,producerswereofferedtransitional,nondistortivetargetedsupportthroughasubsidy
basedonplotsizecalledProcampo,thatwasduetoexpirein2008.Second,thedomesticvaluechain
was protected from a surge of NAFTArelated imports through a transitional quota system. US
imports would be limited to a yearly dutyfree quota of 2.5 million tons, subject to a 3% annual
increase.Importsbeyond2.5milliontonsweretobetaxedatarateof215%.Thisquotasystemwas
alsoplannedtobeprogressivelydismantledby2008(Ledermanetal.2005).
Allofthesepolicychangesledtostrongprocessesofconcentration.Mexicoslargecommercialmaize
farms benefited from numerous public supports. One was the Procampo subsidy, which awarded
morefundstofarmswithlargeracreageundercultivation.Thoughthisprogramwasdesignedwitha
caponsubsidyamounts,itresultedinasituationwhereMexicoslargemaizefarms(only10%ofthe
total) were capturing 53% of Procampos resources by 2003. Moreover, large farms also benefited
from specific programs designed to support their modernization and their connection to markets.
The Aserca and Alianza programs targeted farms with the best prospects for productivity growth
withlargesubsidiesformarketingandinvestment.Overtime,theMinistryofAgricultures(Sagarpa)
budget shifted in favor of the latter programs. While Procampo represented 70% of its budget of
during President Zedillos term (19952000), it fell to 50% under President Foxs administration
(20012006),withthedifferencegoingtofundAlianzaandAserca(Zahniser&Coyle2004).
The concentration of production led to shifts in the geography of the sector (RS II Mexico, p.36).
Mexicos2millionsmallholderspreviouslydominatedthenationalmarketandaremostlylocatedin
thecentralandsouthernregions.Thecountrys300,000largecommercialfarms,whichhaveinthe
last20yearsgrowntooccupy23%ofthelandundercultivationwhilesupplying35%ofthemarket,
are mostly located in the northwest (particularly Sinaloa), where irrigation is widespread and
productivitycanbeupto9.8tons/ha(vs.1.4tons/haforsmallholderselsewhere).Ontheprocessing
side, state withdrawal, privatization, the end of fixed tortilla prices, and supports to the industrial
flourindustryledtoastrongerosionoftheartisanaltortillasector.Inturn,apowerfuloligopolyof
industrial millers came to control 52% of the flour supply (SAGARPA 2007) and leveraged this
control to vertically integrate tortilla producers through licensing systems (Lonard 2010). Today,
twomajorgroupssupplytheindustrialflourmarket:Maseca(75%)andMinsa(15%).Thedominant
positionoftheindustrialproducerswasstrengthenedbytheirinvolvementinimportingyellowcorn
fromtheUSA,andtheybenefitedgreatlyfromthegovernmentsdecisiontoonlysporadicallyenforce
the quota restrictions and import duties discussed above (Wise 2009). Imports of maize increased
from1.3milliontonsin1992to8.8milliontonsin2008,wellbeyondtheallowancescreatedunder
the quota system. More than half of these maize imports (which are 9598% yellow corn) are
controlledbysevencompanies(deIta2008).TheseincludethetwomajormillersMaseca(inwhich
ADMholdsa25%equitystake)andMinsa(associatedwithCornProductsInternationalwhichtook
control of Arancia Mexican corn refining company in 1998)as well as CargillContinental, three
major companies involved in the poultry and feed production industries (Bachoco, Pilgrims Pride,
andPurina),andDiconsa,astateownedcompanyspunofffromtheformerConasupothatremains
chargedwithsupplyingbasicfoodproductstomarginalizedruralcommunities.
The incorporation of yellow corntraditionally used for feed stuffsinto flour production is a
dramaticchangethatismodifyingthestructureoftheMexicanmaizemarket,aswellasconsumption
patterns (tortillas are traditionally produced with white maize). It is directly resulting in domestic
producer prices well bellow the international reference price, while final tortilla prices have
continuedtorise(Appendini2008).
136
1.2 ExpectedConsequencesofRestructuringforFarming
Predictably, all these changes in agrifood markets have upstream consequences at
the producer level. However, questions remain about the strength, the amplitude
andthepaceofthisglobalrestructuringforfarming.
Intheory,globalmarketspresentanopportunityforthesuppliersnewvaluable
consumers and new products year roundas far as they are able to connect.
Contractualizationisoftenseenasatoolforfosteringsmallholderintegrationinto
these new markets, increasing and stabilizing their incomes. The WDR08
strengthens this view and argues that contractualization and development of
agricultural entrepreneurship is one of the ways for smallholders in developing
countries to escape from poverty. Indeed, smallholders are constrained by capital
and liquidity difficulties, as well as by a lack of access and / or capacity to adopt
technological innovations, and contract farming with supermarkets, processors or
export agents could help them overcome these constraints. These views have
fosteredarenewedinterestinvaluechainapproacheswithinthedonorcommunity,
leadingtoanextensiveliteratureaswellasnewprogramsandprojects.140
However,aspreviouslymentionedandasreiteratedbyReardon&Timmer(2007),
amongothers,contractualizationimpliesincreasingrequirementsintermsofnorms
and standards, sometimes including specifications on how the product should be
grown, harvested, transported, processed and stored. Consequently, contracts and
thenewmarketswithwhichtheycanconnectfarmersarearealopportunityonly
forthoseproducerswhoareabletorespondtotheirrequirements.Fortheothers,
increasing contractualization of supply chains presents a substantial risk of
marginalization, particularly when the overall economic and institutional
environment is not favorable for the large majority of producersthe situation of
many countries, notably in Africa (Gibbon & Ponte 2005). This evolution could be
decisiveforthedevelopmentofmodernvaluechainsandcouldhaveaclearimpact
onfarmstructures.Thecoreissuehereistoidentifyhowdevelopedtheseprocesses
ofdifferentiationare,soastobeabletoanticipatetheirimpacts,bothpositiveand
negative.
140
See World Bank (2007), p.127. A good illustration in terms of applications of these new
approachesispresentedinWebber&Labaste(2010).
137
Indeed, as they try to facilitate the adoption of their specifications and to reduce
theirtransactioncosts,supermarketsandmajorretailersoftenchosetoworkwitha
reducednumberofsuppliersthatareabletoprovidehighvolumesandhighquality
induecourse.
Box17:RegoverningMarkets
138
Box18:TheKenyanSuccessStoryinHorticulturalExports:HowManyandWhom?
Inthelasttwodecadeshorticulturalproducts(fruits,vegetables,andcutflowers)havebecomethe
largestcategoryinworldagriculturaltradeandnowaccountfor20%ofglobalagriculturalexports.
In SSA, horticulture exports have developed rapidly but production remains localized in a few key
regions. Kenya is a famous example: it is the second largest horticultural exporter on the sub
continent after South Africa, the secondlargest developing country exporter of flowers after
Colombia, and the secondlargest supplier of vegetables to the EU after Morocco. Horticulture has
becomeKenyassecondlargestcommodityexportsector,aftertea(Englishetal.2006).
Thoughthisisanindisputablesuccessstoryintermsofmarketshares,exportearnings,andgrowth
(fearsexisthoweveraboutitsimpactonwaterresources),itisusefultoexaminethedevelopmentof
these horticulture exports and to put them in perspective with the structure of the Kenyan
agricultural sector as a whole. Although information is scarce because there are no statistics, it is
possible to build a generalized picture from targeted surveys and interviews with major
stakeholders,notablyexporters.
Severalauthorsreportthat,intheearly1990s,themajorityofhorticultureexportswereproduced
bysmallholders(Harris1992andJaffee1994,amongothers).However,Dolan&Humphrey(2000)
estimatedthat,bythelate1990s,when horticultureexportsweremuchlarger,40%ofthemcame
from the exporters own estates or leased land, 42% came from large commercial farms, and only
18% came from smallholders, who had difficulty meeting the safety and quality requirements of
internationalbuyers.Jaffee(2003)offeredmoreoptimisticfiguresonsmallholderengagement,with
smallholdersshareoftheexportmarketat27%forfreshvegetablesand85%forfreshfruit,foran
overallsectorshareof47%.Theseestimatesstillrepresentasituationwherethemajorityofexport
growthoccurredoutsideofsmallholderagriculture.
Theestimationofthenumberofsmallholdersinvolvedintheindustryisequallydifficult.According
tothelastnationalsurvey,whichismorethan15yearsold(*),thenumberoffarmsinthecountry
wasestimatedat3.4million,whilethenumberofsmallholdersengagedinhorticulturalexportswas
very low: less than 20,000 according to Jaffee (1995) or Asfaw et al. (2008). English et al. (2006)
estimate the total employment generated by the horticultural export industry in a range of 120 to
150,000jobsin2003,with1/3inthecutflowerindustrywheresmallholdersarenotinvolved.The
other2/3isinfruitsandvegetables,whereemploymentissplitbetweensmallholderfarms(40,000
jobs),processingplants(10,000),andinthelargeestatesandpackhouses(50,000).
This analysis indicates that although the sector offers important macrolevel returns and
opportunitiesfortensthousandsofhouseholds(whomMcMulloch&Otashowtobericherthanthe
averagehouseholdintheirarea),onemustkeepinmindthesizeoftheoverallfarmingsectorandthe
existing dynamics of the labor market. There were 840,000 new labor market entrants in 2010
(650,000fortheruralsectoralone)seeChapter2.Further,Muendo&Tschirley(2004)showthat
in Kenya, over 90% of smallholder farmers in nonarid regions produce horticultural products,
mostlyfordomesticconsumption;andthatfruitsandvegetablesforthedomesticmarketaccountfor
over 90% of total horticultural output by volume. This overall perspective serves as a useful
reminder of the challenges that remain despite the impact of horticultural exports on Kenyas
economy,aswellastheexistingpotentialforgrowthinotherproductionsectors,whichcouldalso
benefitfrompolicymakersattentionandsupport.
(*)The1994WelfareMonitoringSurveyisthelastsurveytooffernationalcoverage.The1997versiondoesnot.
139
2. AnElusiveNewAgriculture
Theseprocessesofchangeunderwayinagrifoodsystemsandtheirconsequencesin
terms of increasing integration of agriculture obviously occur at different speeds,
depending on local and national characteristics. The RuralStruc countries are no
exception and the regions surveyed by the Program illustrate a large diversity of
situations.
Thestrikingresultsofthefieldworkarehoweverthecontinuedhighshareofstaple
cropsinthefarmproductionofsurveyedhouseholdseveninregionsinvolvedin
export cropsand the particularly important proportion of selfconsumption. The
latter is not a surprise per se, as a large share of agricultural production in
developingcountriesconsistsofselfconsumedstaplecrops.Nevertheless,intheex
ante winning regions of the survey, one could have expected results showing
deeperlevelsofcropdiversificationandconnectiontomarkets.Thisisnotthecase
and, even in the most integrated regions of the sample, agricultural production
patternsremainrelativelydomesticorientedandtraditional.141
This section will first review the patterns of agricultural production observed and
will then discuss the extent of crop diversification and conditions of market
integration.
2.1 CharacteristicsofOnFarmIncome
2.1.1 GeneralOverview
Onfarmincomescanbedividedintofourmaintypesofruralincomes(seeFigure
20inChapter4):crops;livestock;incomefromhunting,fishingandgathering;and
incomefromonfarmtransformationprocesses(suchastheonfarmtransformation
ofmilkintocheese).Figure32showsthatcropproductiongeneratesthemainshare
of onfarm income and dominates regional output everywhere. Its dominance is
onlychallengedinLaLibertadinNicaragua,ChaouiainMorocco,andNakuruNorth
inKenya,wherelivestockaccountsforaround50%ofonfarmincome.
141 Of course, as mentioned in Chapter 1, the selection of countries and regions does not include
major tropical export commodities areas, where a longstanding connection to markets has deeply
affectedthepatternoftheruraleconomyoveralongperiodoftime.Nevertheless,severalsurveyed
regions are engaged in these export commodities as well as in highvalue crops. The meaning of
traditionalherecorrespondstothosecropswhicharenotinvolvedinnewintegratedvaluechains.
140
Thefigurealsoshowsusthatthesurveyedfarmhouseholdsdonotrelysomuchon
naturalresourcesforincomegeneration.142Themainactivitiesinthiscategoryare:
fishing in the Office du Niger zone in Mali (Macina), in Lake Victoria in Kenya
(Nyando),andalongthePacificCoastinNicaragua(ElViejo);andthegatheringof
fruits in Tominian and Koutiala (Mali). Processing of onfarm products remains
surprisingly limited. Where it does occur, processing concerns livestock products
(mostlylowqualitycheeseproduction)andinitialprocessingofcoffeeinNicaragua,
cheeseandoliveoilinMorocco(Sass),andgroundnutpasteinSenegal.
Figure32:OverallStructureoftheOnFarmIncome(in%persurveyedregion)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Morondava
Bungoma
Bas Delta
Saiss
Koutiala
Dima
Souss
Tominian
Macina
Tequis.
Casamance
Mekh 1
Haut Delta
Mekh 2
Nakuru N.
Alaotra 1
Alaotra 2
El Viejo
Antsirabe 2
Antsirabe 1
Terrabona
Itasy
Muy Muy
Chaouia
Nioro
Nyando
El Cu
Sierra SM.
T. Bajas
La Libertad
Source:RuralStrucSurveys
142Theestimationofincomesgeneratedbygatheringactivitiesisoftendifficultbecausetheyrelate
to small amounts of products that are gathered throughout the year and which are often self
consumed. However, wild fruits, animals and fish often play a core role in the food security of the
ruralhouseholds.
141
Inordertoanalyzeagriculturalproductionfurther,fivemaincategoriesofproducts
(presented in Table 22) were designed by summarizing more than 30 products
identifiedduringthesurveys.Thistypeofgroupingexerciseisalwayscomplicated,
particularly when it includes different regions and their different consumption
patterns,astheutilizationofproductsvaries.143
Table22:CategoriesofProductsUsedforDataAnalysis
Rice, maize, wheat and durum, other cereals (millet, sorghum, fonio, barley), cassava, potato,
Staples
other staples (peas and beans - niebe, voandzou, chick peas, lentils, etc.), soy
Traditional
Cotton, groundnut, sesame, coffee, sugar cane
Commodities
Fruits and Vegetables Olive, citrus, other fruits, green beans, tomato, onion, other vegetables
Livestock Products Milk, other livestock products (butter, meat, etc.), live animals
Forage, others (coconut, herbs and spices, etc.), other sub-products (sweet potatoe, cassava,
Others
groundnut leaves, etc.)
Source:RuralStrucSurveys
Figure 33 displays the overall structure of the households gross farm product
across the regions.144 The striking result is the large share of staple food crops.
Ninety percent of the farm households in the sample are engaged in staple
production(98%inSSAand76%innonSSAregions).In18outofthe30surveyed
zones(themainexceptionsbeingMorocco,andmorepartiallyKenyaandSenegal),
staple production is above 50% and sometimes reaches 80% of the gross farm
product. Generally, staple production concerns one main type of product, usually
cereals,andisricethroughoutMadagascar,inMacina(Mali),andinSenegalsDelta
and Casamance; millet and sorghum in the three other regions of Mali and in the
Bassin arachidier in Senegal; wheat in Morocco; and maize in Kenya, Mexico and
Nicaragua.Theproductionofcerealsismainlyrainfedbut,insomecases,farmers
143Thisisthecaseofpotato,ahorticulturalproductthatisalsoselfconsumedandcanbeconsidered
asastaple inMadagascar, the only placein the surveyed regions (with Saiss, Morocco) where it is
significantlygrown.Thisisalsothecaseofgroundnut,thetraditionalexportofSenegal,whichwas
considered as such even if groundnut is increasingly consumed locally, as a consequence of the
adverse evolution of the value chain. Lastly, sugar cane is a traditional export commodity, but in
Kenyatheproductionismainlysoldonthedomesticmarketandisinsufficienttoanswerthelocal
demand.
144 In this chapter, dedicated to onfarm production and commercialization, the survey results are
displayed in absolute and relative gross farm product per household (total value of sales and self
consumption of crops and livestock productions) instead of income. This option reflects the
methodological choices of the Program because the breakdown of costs by type of product was
impossiblewithinthesurveyframework(totalcostswereappliedrespectivelytogrosscropproduct
andgrosslivestockproducttocalculatecropandlivestockincomesandthenthetotalfarmincome).
142
have also developed irrigated rice (Madagascar, Senegal, and Mali) and maize
(Mexico).145
Beans are the second staple crop in Nicaragua, and in Antsirabe (Madagascar)
potatoaccountsforanimportantshareofthestaplefoodproduction.Although,the
potatovaluechainoriginallydevelopedinresponsetourbandemand,theproduct
progressively transformed local consumption patterns and is now widely self
consumed as well as sold. Roots, tubers, and plantains are grown in most regions
(except in Morocco). In Senegal, cassava developed in the Bassin arachidier and
appearsasoneofthemajordiversificationoptionsinresponsetothedeterioration
ofthegroundnutsector.
Theimportanceoflivestockincome(inabsoluteandrelativeterms)canbeaffected
byspecificconditions.ThisisthecaseofChaouiainMoroccowhereaverybadcrop
season deeply affected cereal yields and obliged many farmers to sell off their
productiveassets(livecattleandsmallruminants).146Similarly,thesignificanceof
livestockinthecottonzoneofMali(Koutiala)resultsfromthelowpriceofcotton
thataffectedthegrowersin2007.Manyofthefarmersdecapitalizedandsoldtheir
livestockto maintain their purchasing power. Conversely, the good crop seasonin
Macina led to the opposite effect, with low sales of, and increased investment in
145 Though traditional irrigated production systems existed in Madagascar, irrigation development
has benefited from public infrastructure through irrigation schemes in other countries, notably
SenegalandMali.IrrigatedmaizeinMexicomainlyconcernslargecommercialfarms.However,the
situationofSotaventosTierrasBajaszoneissomewhatuniqueduetoitsnaturalfloodplains.
146 Due to a severe draught, the Moroccan production of cereals dropped by 73% during the crop
season2007andaffectedmostoftheregions,notablyChaouia(RSIIMorocco,p.145),andlivestock
salesincreasedsignificantlyinabsoluteandrelativeterms(p.156).
143
livestock.InMali,andmoregenerallyinallofsubSaharanAfrica,livestockisoftena
patrimonialasset,whichprovidesdraftforce,suppliesmanureforcropproductions,
and also embodies financial savings which are stored to help deal with difficult
times.
Horticultureisacommonactivity,asvegetablesaregrowneverywherefordomestic
consumption.Inmanysurveyedregions,however,specializationinhorticulturehas
occurred. This specialization is often encouraged by favorable natural conditions
and stimulated by urban development, which led to specific private investments.
This is particularly the case in Saiss and Souss in Morocco, where production of
fruitsandvegetablesforexportsortheagroindustry(mainlyfruitsandtomato)has
become a major industry over the last two decades and where processing and/or
exportingcompaniesarefosteringdevelopmentthroughcontractualarrangements.
ThesamephenomenonoccursinNakuruNorth.Eventhoughthesurveyedzoneis
notlocatedintheregionsfamousflowerproductionarea,surveyedhouseholdsare
involved in tomato production (and sell to a canning company). Fruits and other
vegetablesarealsodynamicsectors.IntheSenegalRivervalley(HautDelta),tomato
production has developed due to the presence of a processing plant that provides
thelocalmarketwithtomatopaste.Thefactthatmanyofthesurveyedhouseholds
are located in the collection area of the factory explains the high share of
horticultureintheirgrossproduct.Freshproductstargetingcitiesalsodevelopedin
AntsirabeandItasy(Madagascar),wheretemperatefruitsandvegetables(peaches,
apples, carrots, etc.) can be grown.147 Onion production has flourished in Saiss
(Morocco)andalsoinOfficeduNiger(Macina,Mali)whereitsuppliesthedomestic
and regional markets, contributing nearly 20% ofthe regionsgross farm product.
Lastly,inTerrabona(Nicaragua),therichesthouseholdshaveengagedinirrigated
horticulture production that is mainly sold domestically through traditional spot
markets, but also through more integrated value chains (procurement systems of
supermarkets).
147Asmallandnowfamous(becauseoffrequentcitationinliterature)greenbeanproductionfor
exportmarketshasdevelopedinItasy,whichiscloselylinkedtothepresenceofanexportoriented
processingfirm:Lecofruit(seeBox21).
144
Figure33:MainFarmProductionsperSurveyedRegion(in%ofGrossFarmProduct)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Casamance
Chaouia
Dima
Tominian
Koutiala
Bungoma
Nyando
Terrabona
Tequis.
Morondava
La Libertad
Macina
Nioro
Haut Delta
Antsirabe 2
Antsirabe 1
El Viejo
Itasy
Nakuru N
Saiss
Souss
Sierra SM.
T. Bajas
Muy Muy
Mekh 1
Mekh 2
Bas Delta
Alaotra 1
Alaotra 2
El Cu
Mali Senegal Madagascar Kenya Morocco Nicaragua Mexico
2.1.2 SelfConsumptionvs.Sales
145
Table23:MalianHouseholdsParticipationinFoodMarkets
HHswithFoodPurchases HHswithStapleSales
Tominian 60% 8%
Dima 64% 53%
Koutiala 58% 77%
Macina 71% 89%
Source:RuralStrucSurveys
148 Selfconsumption includes gifts to family, and to social and religious networks. It also includes
foodreserves(seeAnnex1).
149 The case of Tominian is however amazing: 30 to 40% of households do not participate in food
marketsatall,eitherasbuyersorsellers.
146
Figure34:ShareofSelfconsumption(%ofGrossFarmProductperHouseholdQuintile)
MALI SENEGAL
100% 100%
90% 90%
ShareofGrossFarmProduct
ShareofGrossFarmProduct
80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
50% 50%
40% 40%
30% 30%
20% 20%
10% 10%
0% 0%
Q1Q2 Q3 Q4Q5 Q1Q2Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1Q2Q3Q4 Q5 Q1Q2Q3Q4Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5
Tominian Dima Koutiala Macina Casamance Mekhe1 Nioro HautDelta Mekhe2 BasDelta
MADAGASCAR KENYA
100% 100%
90% 90%
ShareofGrossFarmProduct
ShareofGrossFarmProduct
80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
50% 50%
40% 40%
30% 30%
20% 20%
10% 10%
0% 0%
Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
MOROCCO NICARAGUA
100% 100%
90% 90%
ShareofGrossFarmProduct
ShareofGrossFarmProduct
80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
50% 50%
40% 40%
30% 30%
20% 20%
10% 10%
0% 0%
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q1 Q3 Q5
MEXICO
100%
90%
ShareofGrossFarmProduct
Legend 80%
Selfconsumption 70%
Sales 60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
Source:RuralStrucSurveys
147
Onthecontrary,householdsthatselfconsumemuchoftheirownoutputcoulddo
so because there is little demand for their products, most often because their
connectiontomarketsisdifficult.151Whendemandexists,eitherthroughproximity
to a large market or through the presence of a specific buyer, selfconsumption
decreases. Demand effects are more likely to appear at the regional level simply
because market access does not vary strongly within a region, even if differences
canofcourseoccuratthesubregionallevel(thisisnotablythecaseinremoteareas
of Chaouia or Souss in Morocco, and was the reason made for the distinction
betweenAntsirabe1and2).
The second phenomenon is related to risk and level of income. Households with
very weak incomes face food security challenges (see Chapter 3) and adopt risk
management practices, whereby they prefer to retain control over their own food
supplybyproducingitwithinthehousehold.Thiscanbetermedasupplyeffect.
Becauseofaheightenedlevelofrisk,householdsareunwillingtoselltheiroutput
on the market, and consequently selfconsume a large portion of it. Consequently,
supplyeffectsaremorelikelytoarisebetweenincomequintilesinthesameregion.
Nicaraguaisagoodillustrationofacountrywheredifferencesbetweenhousehold
quintiles dominate the pattern of selfconsumption. In lowincome quintiles self
consumption rates often reach 60%, and a number of households (2040%) are
completelyuninvolvedwithagriculturalmarkets(i.e.,theirselfconsumptionshare
is 100%). Yet only one region, La Libertad, is characterized by physical seclusion
150ThecaseofMali,whichdisplaysverysmalldifferencesbetweenquintiles,ischallenging.Itcanbe
explained by the low level of income, even for the richest households, and a preference for
maintaining grain reserves given that high level of stocks are taken as a sign that households are
betteroff.Additionally,the200405cropseasonwasverybadandin2007manyhouseholdswere
stillreplenishingtheirstocks.
151Theconnectionofruralproducerstoagriculturalmarketsisfrequentlydiscussedandacommon
approach.Nevertheless,theconnectionofruralconsumerstomarketsforgoodsandservicescanalso
bearealstumblingblock:whenthereisnothingorlittletobuy,thereisnoincentivetosell,andto
increaseoutput.Thisreversesideofmarketsissurprisinglymostlyignoredinthepolicydebate.
148
Riskmanagementstrategiesseemtobeamainreasonforthislimitedconnectionto
agricultural markets. However, one can also suggest that, due to the limited
quantities produced by very small farmers, middlemen show little interest in
engaging into costly collection of products while they can access larger quantities
fromlargefarmersaclearargumentforcollectiveactiononsmallproducersside.
Specificlocalconditionscanalsoshapethecharacteristicsofhouseholdsstrategies.
This is the case of Terrabona where alternative offfarm options (wagelabor in
agricultureandinmaquiladoras)allowadualstrategy,mixingselfconsumptionof
farm products on one side, and insertion into labor markets on the other side:
households prefer to maintain food crop productions for family consumption and
earn cash revenues from wage labor in order to meet specific monetary needs
(schooling,health,consumptiongoods,etc.).
2.2 RegionalPatternsofProductDiversification
The previous section displayed the types of farm products and the importance of
selfconsumptioninthesurveyedregions,butwhatisthedegreeofspecializationor
ofdiversificationoffarmproduction?
Inordertoanalyzeonfarmproductionfurther,Figure35belowdisplaystheoverall
structureofhouseholdsgrossfarmproductacrossregions.Itfocusesonthetypeof
products on which households concentrate. It tells the share of farm output self
consumed and the share of onfarm income that comes from selling the two most
importantsalesproducts.Italsodisplaysthenameofthedominantsalesproducts
ofeachregion.
Thehighpresenceofselfconsumptionattheaggregatedregionallevel,especiallyin
poorerregions,isclearlyconfirmed;howeveritalsohighlightsthepatternsofon
farmdiversification.InsubSaharanAfrica,householdsin13of19surveyedregions
earn on average more than 70% of their onfarm income either through self
consumption alone or through selfconsumption plus the sale of only one type of
product.Thisisthecasejustintwoofthe11nonSSAregionsandsubregions:the
twoSotaventozonesinMexicowhereaveryspecificprocessofdeepspecialization
inmaizeproductionhasdeveloped(Box19).Generally,aswealthincreases(moving
149
fromthepoorestregionsonthelefttotherichestregionsontheright),theshareof
selfconsumptionfallsandtheshareofOtherProductsSoldrises.
Figure35:FarmOutputBreakDownbySelfconsumptionandMainSales
100
Liv
Liv
Liv
Liv
Onion
90
Millet Liv
Liv Grnut
Liv
Livestock Rice
Liv
Livestock
Rice
Livestock
Liv
80
Liv
Livestock
Liv.P
Cane
Rice
70
Groundnut
Livestock
Groundnut
Forage
Rice
Cotton
Rice
Cassava
F&V
Rice
60
Rice
Fruits
Liv.P
Livestock
Rice
Cassava
Liv.P
Liv.P
Maize
Livestock Cane
Livestock
Potato
50
Potato
Maize
Tomato
Sesame
Livestock
Liv
Livestock
40
Livestock
Maize
Maize
Fruits
Beans
Coffee
30
Onion
Maize
20
10
0
0
Terrabona
Tequis.
Diema
Morondava
Souss
ElCu
Nioro
Bungoma
Macina
HautDelta
Chaouia
Itasy
Saiss
SierraSM
Koutiala
NakuruN.
LaLibertad
BasDelta
MuyMuy
Nyando
ElViejo
Mekh1
Mehk2
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
Casamance
Antisrabe2
Antsirabe1
Tominian
T.Bajas
Mali Senegal Madagascar Kenya Morocco Nicaragua Mexico
Onfarmdiversificationisatrendnotonlybetweenpoorerandricherregions,but
alsobetweenpoorerandricherhouseholdswithinregions.In20ofthe30surveyed
zones, households in the fifth household quintile are more diversified than
households in the bottom quintile: sales of their top three products make up a
smallerportionoftheironfarmincome(onaverageabouteightpercentagepoints
less,thoughthedifferencecanreach16%).Thisincreaseinonfarmdiversification
between the poorest and richest quintiles is seen in 10 of 11 nonSSA zones and
only 10 of 19 SSA zones, consistent with the previous observation that
diversificationislesswidespreadinSSAingeneral.
150
products.Ofthe20zonesmentionedwhererichandpoorhouseholdshavethesame
topsalescrop,thatcropisastaplein11cases.Notonlyisitcommontoseericher
householdsprimarilysellingstaples,itiscommontoseehouseholdsinthebottom
quintilesellinglivestockortraditionalcommodities(coffeeinElCu,groundnutin
Senegal,cottoninKoutiala).
ThesamepatternisobservedbetweenregionswhenlookingatFigure35.Contrary
to expectations, one does not notice instances of the richest region in a country
primarily selling a highvalue product, while poorer regions primarily sell a low
value staple. The possible exceptions are Morocco and Nicaragua, where richer
regionsaremorespecializedinfruitandcoffee,respectively.
Thus,itcanbeconcludedthatthetypesofproductsgrownresultfromtheunique
situation in each region in terms of natural resources, public goods, private
investments,andthepresenceorabsenceofspecificbuyers.Wherelargeshiftsinto
sales of different products occur, they seem to encompass all households in the
region. The differences between richer and poorer households tend to be in the
diversification of their onfarm income sources. Richer households tend to have
moreonfarmincomesources,witheachsourcemakingupasmallershareoftotal
income. A defining characteristic of these diversification patterns is heterogeneity.
Farmers each make use of their individual asset endowments to respond to
opportunities arising from the natural and economic environment of their region.
Staplesandcertaincommoditiesseemtobewithinreachofallfarmersinanygiven
region.Butricherhouseholds,withmoreassets,areabletotakebetteradvantageof
more of these opportunities, resulting in generally higher levels of diversification
amongricherhouseholds.
Itisimportanttonotethat,eveninareasofcropspecializationsuchasMexico,the
samemechanismsareatplay.Richerhouseholdswithbetterassetendowmentsare
moreabletotakeadvantageoftheopportunitiespresentedbytheirenvironment.It
is simply that in this specific case, because of unique conditions, it makes more
sense to specialize in maize than to diversify into other products. It is clear,
however,thatspecializationintheRuralStrucsurveyedregionsisanexception.The
reasonsarethatrichhouseholdsarepresentedwithanenvironmentthatgenerally
promptsthemtodiversifyratherthanspecialize.
151
Box19:TheSotaventoException:OnfarmSpecializationandtheCollapseofSelfconsumption
In the RuralStruc survey, Sotavento in the state of Veracruz is very specific and has been
characterized by specialization in maize production, increased integration in marketing channels,
anddramaticreductioninselfconsumption.
The significant development of maize in the 2000s occurred in spite of an adverse economic
environment.Indeed,between1994and 2007,realpricesofmaizefellby60%aconsequenceof
themajorrestructuringofthesector(seeBoxBox16)whileinputpricesgrewbyaboutthesame
proportion(Lonard&Palma2002,Zahniser&Coyle2004,RSIIMexico).Despitetheseunfavorable
circumstances maize acreage increased in the two surveyed Sotavento zones (Tierras Bajas and
SierradeSantaMarta).Theincreasewasmostpronouncedinthelowlands,a30%riseinproduction,
while in the mountain areas itgrew by a more meager 6%. However, in Veracruz state as awhole
maizeacreagefellby18%overthesametimeperiod.
Thisspecifictrendcanbeexplainedbytwoverydifferentsetsofreasons(RSIIMexicoSotavento).
In the lowlands, large floodplains offered high fertility and allowed economies of scale through
mechanization. Large farms developed but small producers were able to participate in this
restructured market through producers organization. They allowed smallholders access to
mechanization services, contracts (mostly informal) with buyers or large farms, and the incentives
offered to the commercial sector by Aserca and Alianza programs (Brun 2008). In the Sierra,
remotenessrestrictedopportunitiesfordiversificationbothonfarmandofffarmandinlightof
theProcampoprogrammaizeremainedthebestagriculturaloption.Asaconsequence,inbothzones,
onfarmspecializationincreasedandotherfarmproductswereabandoned,likericeinthelowlands
(intheSierrathisevenincludedbeans,whicharetraditionallyintercroppedwithmaize).
This specialization in maize production was accompanied by an amazing collapse in self
consumption, notably in Tierras Bajas where it is now nearly absent. This situation is quite far
removed from the traditional food system based on homegrown maize (with la milpa, small plots
wherelocalvarietiesofmaizeandbeansaregrownforfamilyconsumption)andcanbeexplainedby
four major features. First, to access public credit and technical support via the large enterprises,
producerswererequiredtosellalloftheiroutputtotheprivatefirms.Second,theopportunitytosell
alloftheiroutput,ratherthanstoreitonthefarm,offeredawelcomerelieftofarmersbecausethe
newhybridmaizevarietieswerehighlyvulnerabletorodentsafterharvest,makingstoragedifficult.
Third, in the Sotavento lowlands, the maize harvest was completely mechanized through services
provided by the firms. And fourth, in the lowlands, women were increasingly engaged in offfarm
activitiesandnolongerabletodedicatetimetothepreparationoftortillasfromfarmgrownmaize.
Consequently,farmersselltheirhybridcornandbuyindustrialmaizeflourorpreparedtortillasat
the local marketsa consequence of the rapid restructuring of the maizetortilla complex
(Appendini&Gmez,forthcoming).
ThisSotaventoexceptionamongthesurveyedregionsissignificant,asitshowsthepotentiallystrong
impact of new marketing channels when supported by a combination of drivers of change. It also
illustrates how quickly productionconsumption patterns can be radically modified overatenyear
period.Finally,ithighlightsthestrongimpactthatpublicsupportprogramscanhaveinhouseholds
processesofadaptation.
152
2.3 RegionalPatternsofMarketIntegration
Withtheexistingfarmproductionpatternspresentedabove,itisnotsurprisingto
find a high prevalence of traditional forms of commercialization and market
integration in the surveyed regions. Highvalue exports, which were supposed to
introduce new types of marketing arrangements through connection with foreign
buyers located in higher income countries and highly competitive markets, are in
factextremelylimited.
Outside of Mexico, the surveyed regions of the RuralStruc countries show a more
classical picture shaped by longstandingtrade systems, mainly based on informal
arrangements. This occurs for all types of products and stakeholders. However,
several value chains have specific market structures, which lead to specific
organization.
2.3.1 TraditionalMarketingPrevails
Traditionalmarketingreferstotherangeofmiddlemenandruralintermediaries
whoconnectthecountrysidewithnational,regionalandinternationalmarkets(i.e.,
retail systems and exporters). They include wholesalers and the agents or
brokers152workingforthem,aswellasindependentbuyers.Thistypeofmarketing
presentsfarmerswithtwooptions,oftenwithimprecisescopes.First,farmerscan
sellspot,eitherdirectlyatthefarmgateorinthevillagemarkettoabrokerora
wholesaleragent.Ortheycansellonaroutinebasistoawholesaler,knowingthat
this second option does not necessarily entail a formal arrangement, and
consequently does not guarantee either a specific sales quantity or a better price
than what could be earned on the spot market. This latter situation does
correspond,however,toatypeofformalizationofthecommercialtransactionover
time.
152Awholesalertakespossessionoftheproduct;abrokerdoesnot.
153
Box20:TheContrastedDevelopmentofModernFoodRetailingintheRuralStrucCountries
According tothe Regoverning Markets program (Reardon & Huang 2008), the RuralStruc countries
canbeclassifiedintothreelevelsofmodernfoodindustrydevelopment:advancedstagecountries
are those where more than 40% of overall food sales are in supermarkets (Mexico); intermediate
stage countries are those where the supermarkets share is between 10% and 40% of food sales
(Nicaragua, Kenya, and Morocco); and in initial stage countries supermarkets make up less than
10%ofsales.ThisisthecaseofthethreeotherSSAcountries,inspiteofotherwisestrongdifferences
betweenthem.
Mexico:Thedevelopmentofmodernfoodretailingoccurredinthreestages.Before1980,thedevelopmentof
supermarkets focused on large cities in the north and center of the country and was mainly based on
domesticcapital,althoughsomechainsweresetupwithUScapital.Inthe1980s,supermarketsbeganto
move from their regional bases and started their consolidation through alliances with both domestic and
foreigncapitalinacontextofintensecompetition.From1990,veryrapidexpansionoccurred,impelledby
theentryofgiantchainsfrom theUSA(Walmart)andFrance(Carrefour) (Schwentesius &Gomez2002).
Today, supermarkets make up 55% of modern food retailing. However, strong regional disparities and a
significanturbanruraldividearemaskedbycountrysoverallaverage.
Nicaragua:Supermarketsbegandevelopinginthe1990s.InitiallyonlyNicaraguanenterpriseswereinvolved.
Then, Costa Rican enterprises established a competitive supermarket chain and regional enterprises like
Hortifruti engaged in wholesaling. Finally, in the 2000s, Walmart bought up regional supermarkets and
intermediary companies such as Pali, La Union, Paiz and Hortifruti. Supermarkets deal today with about
20%oftheconsumerdemandforqualitystandards(RSINicaragua,p.5860).
Morocco:FollowinginitialandlimiteddevelopmentinCasablancaandRabatintheearly1960swithMonoprix
(France), supermarkets started to grow in the 1990s led by several Moroccanowned chains, notably
Marjane,LabelVieandAswakAssalam.Thefirstmajorforeigninvestmentwasmadein2001whenAuchan
(France) entered into a joint venture with ONA (Omnium Nord Africain), Moroccos largest consortium of
private companies, and took control of Marjane and then Acima in 2002 (Codron et al. 2004). ONA holds
51%ofthejointventureandAuchan49%.Thenumberofhypermarketsgrewfrom6storesin1993to19
in2007(RSIMorocco,p.104).
Kenya:Supermarketshavedevelopedfromatinynichemarketonly15yearsagotoalmost2030%ofurban
food retail today, and continue to gain prominence quickly. The first store outside Nairobi was built by
UchumiinNakuruin1993,startinganationalcompetition.Therivalrybetweenthetwoleadingchains
Uchumi and Nakumattbecame an important growth driver as a new strategy by one chain forced
imitationand/oracounterstrategybyitscompetitor(Neven&Reardon2004).In2003,therewerealready
225largeformatstoresinKenya209supermarketsand16hypermarkets.
Madagascar:Theshareofsupermarketsinretailingremainslimited,butsupermarketshavedevelopedinthe
main cities of the country through three foreign companies. Until the recent political events the settings
wereasfollows:theSouthAfricanchainShoprite,operatinginMadagascarsince1992whenitboughtout
local assets of the French Champion, has seven stores (five in Antananarivo, one in Antsirabe and one in
Toamasina); Leaderprice (France) has three stores in Antananarivo; and Score (bought by the Vindemia
group, now subsidiary of the French Casino), has three hypermarkets in Antananarivo and two
supermarketsintheotherprovinces(RSIMadagascar,p.63).
Senegal: Modern food retail is very limited in the country with only three supermarkets in Dakar. Initially
createdbySCOA(France)underthebrandnameScore,theyarefranchisedwithCasino(France)since2007.
Mali:ThereisnosignificantmodernfoodretailinMali.
Sources:RSCountryreportsandotherreferencescited.
154
Inthesurveyedregionstraditionalmarketingisdominant.Figure36classifiesthe
existing methods of commercialization into four main categories: spot and
wholesalersales(thetwotypesoftraditionalmarketing),andsalestocooperatives
and agribusinesses.153 It shows that the two first categories account for a large
majorityofthetotalvalueofsales,withveryfewexceptions.Spotsalesatthefarm
gateoratthevillagemarketaccountfor100%ofsalesinTominian,Mali,and95%
in the Bassin Arachidier (Senegal) or in Chaouia (Morocco). However,
commercialization with wholesalers is also significant, particularly in Madagascar
for rice (Alaotra, where wholesalers are based) and horticulture products
(Antsirabe1,inthevicinityofthecity),andinNicaragua.
Figure36:MethodsofCommercializationintheSurveyedZones(%ofthevalueofsales)
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Morondava
Bungoma
Casamance
Tominian
Dima
Nioro
Terrabona
HautDelta
Chaouia
Koutiala
BasDelta
Saiss
Macina
ElCu
Mekh1
Mekh2
Nyando
Souss
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
MuyMuy
LaLibertad
SierraSM.
Tequis.
Itasy
ElViejo
T.Bajas
Antsirabe2
Antsirabe1
NakuruN
153Thiscategoryreferstoagroindustriesinchargeoftransformationofrawagriculturalproductsto
semiprocessedproducts(e.g.fromcottontocottonfiber)orprocessedproducts(e.g.fromtomatoto
tomatopasteorcannedtomato).Italsoreferstobusinessesthatclean,gradeandpackagehighvalue
products,likefruitsandvegetables,forthedomestic,butmainlyexportmarket.
155
Sotavento,newproducers'organizationswerecreatedtosupportthedevelopment
ofmaizeproduction,buttheseorganizationswereassembledprimarilyasawayto
accesspublicsubsidies(seeBox19).InTequisquiapan,farmerssellmaizeorforage
to producers organizations which are often under contractual arrangements with
largecattleenterprises.
2.3.2 UnderdevelopedContractualization
However,beforepresentingthesurveyresults,threecaveatsarenecessary.First,an
objectivetheProgramteamshadinmindwhenselectingregionsandlocalitiesfor
the survey was to display different situations illustrative of different stages of
integration. Consequently, no conclusions can be drawn from the observed
differencesinthenumberofcontractsbetweenregionsandsubregions.Second,as
recalled in the methodology (Annex 1), the analysis of contractualization cannot
afford imprecision. The definition of types of contracts is a core issue, and while
formalcontractsrefermostofthetimetowrittencontracts,informalcontractscan
correspondtoawiderangeofsituationswheretrustbetweenbuyerandselleristhe
main component. In each of these situations, understanding the existing
arrangements requires a careful survey design. Third, to really make a statement
about contractualization one must analyze the level of contracts along the entire
154
It is worth notice that sales to agroprocessors can sometimes occur through the channel of
farmers organizations or socalled cooperatives which are in fact creations of the agroindustry,
whichisalsotheirsolebuyer.ThisisthecaseforSOCASinSenegalandforCMDTinMali.
156
Even given these caveats, the main conclusion from the survey is that
contractualization at the producer level is low almost everywhere in the selected
regions.Table24makesthispointclear:only539ofthehouseholdssurveyed(7.4%
ofthesample)claimedtobeengagedinatleastonecontractualarrangement.155
155Contractual arrangements displayed in this table include formal written contracts as well as
informalcontractsperceivedbytheproduceraseffective.
157
Table24:ImportanceofFormalandInformalContractualArrangementsperSurveyedRegion
HH with contract
type Type of industry and contracting agents
# %
Tominian 1 0.6
Dima 0 0.0
Mali
Koutiala 0 0.0 df Cotton industry (CMDT)
Macina 16 10.4 I Rice industry
Casamance 11 4.6
Mekh 1 26 23.4 I Cassava wholesalers
Nioro 1 0.4
Senegal
Haut Delta 54 88.5 F Tomato processor (SOCAS )
Mekh 2 33 29.2 I Cassava wholesalers
Bas Detla 12 9.9 I Rice industry
Antsirabe 2 16 5.3 I Vegetables collectors
Alaotra 1 2 0.5
Morondava 15 3.0 I
Madagascar
Itasy 50 9.9 F Green beans processor (Lecofruit ) and tobacco
Antsirabe 1 46 22.3 F/I Milk industry (Tiko ) and vegetables collectors
Alaotra 2 8 7.0 I Rice industry
Bungoma 75 25.1 F Sugar industry
Kenya Nyando 7 2.5 F Sugar industry
Nakuru North 16 5.5 F/I Milk industry and tomato processing
Chaouia 1 0.4
Morocco Saiss 20 7.7 F Milk Industry
Souss 1 0.4
Muy Muy 9 3.0 I Milk industry (Parmalat and Eskimo )
Terrabona 4 1.4
Nicaragua El Viejo 13 4.5 F/I Sesame and sorghum industry
La Libertad 20 6.9 I Milk collectors
El Cua 47 15.7 I Coffee Industry
Sierra S. M. 0 0.0 df Producers' organizations
Mexico Tierras Bajas 6 4.0 F/df Maize Industry and Producers' organizations
Tequis. 29 8.0 F Producers' organizations
539 7.4
Source:RuralStrucSurveys
Note:F=formal;I=informal;(df)defactocontracts
a. InformalContracts
Growing urban demand for fresh products has led to the development of value
chains that are structured by wholesalers and are supplied by producers with
informal agreements. This is particularly common when the competition between
middlemenishighandwhentheproductisperishable.
ThisisthecaseofthefruitandvegetablesectorsinAntsirabe,whichareintegrated
on the basis of informal agreements between individual producers or farmers
organizations and brokers who supply urban wholesalers. The producers who
benefit from these agreements are generally the biggest producers with the best
factor endowments (correlations are statistically significant) that allow them to
158
reachsurplus.Inthesameway,intheBassinarachidier(mainlyMekh2,Senegal),
cassava producers have also developed informal contractual agreements with
middlemenbasedontransactionroutineandreputation.Thesecontractsguarantee
the flow of supply to urban areas, whereas production is widely dispersed
throughouttheregion.
In the Sotavento region, informal contracts have also developed between farmers
and producers organizations for the purpose of accessing public transfers andfor
offering technical assistance and inputs in exchange of the commercialization of
products. Although farmers did not claim to be engaged in contracts, their
membershipinproducersorganizationsoftenmeansdefactocontracts.
b. SupplyContractswithAgroProcessors
These contracts are a very old practice, which initially developed to guarantee
supply (and thus profitability) to industrial investments. Severalexamples exist in
thesurveyedregions,especiallyinthedairyindustry.InMadagascar,privatization
of the parastatal monopoly did not significantly change the configuration of the
valuechain,whichislargelycontrolledbyTiko,aprivatefirmthatplays(orplayed,
untiltherecentpoliticalevents)acentralroleintheMalagasydairyindustry.Tiko
wascollectingmorethan90%ofthemilkmarketedinthemainproductionregion
(Antsirabe) and processing most of the dairy products in the country. With Tiko,
contractedproducersdelivermilktocollectioncenters,whereitisrequiredtomeet
qualitycriteriastipulatedinaformalcontract.Inreturn,theagroindustryprovides
inputsandsometimescashadvances.Inthiscase,producerswithlargerherdsare
foundtobemoreinvolvedintheseintegrationstrategies.Similarpatternsexistin
SassandSouss,Morocco,andinNakuruNorth,Kenya.
Comparable formal supply contracts also exist with sugar factories in Kenya
(Bungoma) or with the tomato industry in both Haut Delta (Senegal) and Nakuru.
Thisspecificmarketconfiguration,withoneagroprocessorandmanysupplierscan
be seen to include situations of monopsony. In these cases there are no contracts,
butthereisasortoftacitcontractualizationresultingfromtheknowledgethatthe
producers do not have any options other than to sell to the monopsonist. A good
exampleisthecaseofcotton:75%ofthefamilyfarmsintheKoutialaregiongrow
159
cottonandtheyhaveadefactoacontractwiththeCMDT,evenifnothingisactually
written. The sector is vertically integrated, with the provision of inputs through
producers organizations; a system of credit secured by cotton sales; extension
services and technical support; and fixed prices, which are negotiated to a certain
extent.156
c. ContractsRelatedtoHighvalueExports
Contracts with highvalue export companies are the typical contract cases cited in
theliterature.However,intheRuralStruclocalitiessurveyed,onlytwoexamplesof
thistypeofarrangementwerefound.ThefirstisthefamousLecofruitcaseinIfanja,
Itasy(Madagascar),wherefarmersgrowgreenbeansforexport(seeBox21).The
othercaseisinthecoffeeregionofElCu,Nicaragua.Inthisregion,organiccoffeeis
mainly promoted by COMANURRL (Cooperativa Multisectorial Alfonso Nez
Rodrguez),whichsellsconventionalandorganiccoffees.Farmersproduceorganic
coffeeunderstrictspecificationsforthecooperative,atadeterminedprice,andthe
cooperativeprovidestechnicalassistancetoitsmembersincludingaccesstocoffee
management and planting material (new varieties of coffee), agricultural inputs
(fertilizersandotheragrochemicals),andtoexpensiveequipmentorinfrastructure.
Duetotheverylimitedinformationandthefewcasesgatheredbythesurveys,itis
difficult to draw conclusions about the consequences of contractualization on
households incomes. There is also of, course, a reverse causality issue to contend
with:ingeneral,ahouseholdslowlevelofproductionisoneofthebiggestbarriers
to its participation in contractual agreements. It was noted previously that
procurement systems or agroindustries prefer to work with large suppliers in
order to lower their transaction costs. Thus, as previously mentioned, with the
exception of Madagascars green bean producers (whos plot area is restricted by
thecontractingcompany),thehouseholdswhoengageincontractstendtobethose
withthebestfactorendowments.157
However these results are obviously rough estimates, knowing that the fieldwork
did not specifically target the measurement of the impacts of contractual
arrangements.Manyotherfactorsinterfere,andapreciseanalysisoffarmincome/
contract linkages would imply specific research investments based on multiple
yearsofobservation.
156Forlongstanding,publicorsemipublicmonopsonieslikeCMDThadtheobligationtobuyall
producers outputs. After years of negotiation, CMDTs privatization has finally been launched in
2010; however, it will not fundamentally change the market pattern and the company will be
replacedbyregionalmonopsonies.
157Thisseemstobethecaseforlandinparticular.However,thesmallnumberofhouseholdswith
formalcontractsdoesnotallowanyconclusion.InAntsirabe1,wherethenumberofcontractsinthe
sampleissufficient,theTtestissignificant.
160
Box21:Lecofruit:MalagasySmallholdersSellingonEuropeanMarkets
The company " Lgumes Condiments et Fruits de Madagascar SA also known as Lecofruit was
installedinMadagascarin1989whenfreezoneswereimplementedandpromotedbytheMalagasy
state(withtaxexemptionsandotherfiscaladvantages).Initially,Lecofruitprocessedpicklesinsmall
amounts in partnership with approximately 100 farmers. To develop its export markets, the firm
associatedwiththeFrenchcompanySegmaMaille,whichguaranteedregularoutletsforitsproducts
inEurope.Accordingly,Lecofruitbegantodiversifyitsproductionwithgreenbeansandsnowpeas,
cucumbers,asparagus andbaby vegetables for export tothe European market. Currently, Lecofruit
focusesonextrafinegreenbeansproduction:thecompanyexported3,000tonsofproductsduring
the2004/05season,amongwhich70%weregreenbeans.Approximately90%ofthistonnagewere
processed and canned in the company factory in Antananarivo and sent to Europe by sea. The
remaining10%wasfreshgreenbeansandsnowpeasshippedbyair.
In2007/08,thecompanybranchedouttoinvolve10,000farmersundercontractintheproduction
ofgreenbeans.ProducersarelocatedinthehighlandsofMadagascarwherealongtraditionoffruit
and vegetable production exists. The company now also targets the growing areas connected to
major roads in order to optimize the costs of transporting products to the processing plant in
Antananarivo.
Farmers cultivate their own land which helps to overcome the problems of land availability in the
highlands. Production contracts are standardized and individual, though producers are obliged to
belongtoaproducersorganization.Acontractislimitedtoanareaofapproximately1are(1,000m)
to ensure that producers will be able to comply with all stages of the production until harvest, as
production is laborintensive. Other commitments relate to specific technical recommendations
(preparationofcompost,plowing,seeding,etc.)andtheneedfordailyharvestinordertomeetthe
extrafinesizerequirementoftheproduct.
Cash advances are provided to producers under contract by the company; seeds are given for free
andmineralfertilizerandpesticidecostsaredeductedfromthefinalpaymentoftheproduceronce
green beans have been delivered. Lecofruit provides a package of seeds, mineral fertilizers and
pesticides to ensure compliance with standards on maximum residue limits faced by agricultural
products exportedto the European Union. Some sanitary conditions that producers mustmeet are
alsostipulatedinthecontracts,suchaswashingofhandswithnonperfumedsoapbeforeharvesting
the beans, etc. Finally, producers are required to only deliver the production to Lecofruit. The
payment is periodic. The price paid to farmers is set in advance by the company and remains
unchangedduringtheseason:630Ariary/kgforgreenbeansin2007/08($0.83PPP).
Despite the balance of power that favors the processing firm in terms of prices, the number of
farmersinvolvedincontractfarmingwithLecofruithasneverfallen,whichmeansthatfarmersfind
the agreement as an interesting way to generate income and, above all, to provide cash to finance
theirotheragriculturalactivitiesortomeettheirneeds.
Sources:RSIIMadagascar,p.8485.
161
Nevertheless, based on the RuralStruc case studies, one can assume that the
implications of contractualization for incomes remain limited, with a few
exceptions.Thesurveyshowsthatincomedifferencesbetweenhouseholdswithor
withoutcontractsareoftenminimal.Itisworthnoticingthatthemaximumaverage
gross product earned from green bean production under contract in Itasy,
Madagascar, is a very low 43 $PPP per household per year. Similarly, the tomato
producers under contract with SOCAS in the Haut Delta in Senegal are not in a
significantly different economic position from other Senegalese households. The
main advantages of contractualization are certainly more related to access to
technicalpackages,credit,andasecuremarketingchannel,asshowninmanyofthe
surveyedregions.
162
3. OnfarmSpecializationandRuralTransformation
Onfarm specialization is one of the three exit pathways out of rural poverty.
Households surveyed by the RuralStruc Program are broadly specialized in
agricultureonfarm incomes keep a high share of their total incomebut they
remain poor. This contradictory assessment, highlighted by the third chapter,
justifiedacloseexaminationofthecharacteristicsofruralincomesingeneralandof
theobservedonfarmspecialization.
Asshownbythefourthchapter,whilenearlyallofSSAhouseholdsareengagedin
farmingmostofthemarealsodiversifiedandengagedinofffarmactivities,which
are part of general coping strategies. Complete onfarm specialization is very
limited.And does occur in several regionsin Nicaragua and Morocco, wheremore
robustvaluechainscanoffersecurereturns.
Onaverage,onfarmincomesarecharacterizedbyhighlevelsofselfconsumption,
the importance of staples, and more heterogeneous patterns of product
diversification that develop in response to regionspecific opportunities. This
pictureisquitefarfromthenewagriculturethathasbeenwidelydiscussedinthe
literature. The results do not display the increasing processes of integration, new
players,andnewrulesofthegamethatthisliteraturepredicts.
Sofar,inthesurveyedregions,selfconsumptionremainsverysignificant.Itslevels
aredrivenbothbyasupplyandademandeffect.Thesupplyeffectcorrespondsto
riskmanagement strategies that households employ to retain control over their
foodsupplyadirectresponsetoincompleteandimperfectmarkets.Thedemand
effect expresses the weak demand for their products that households face due to
pooraccesstoandintegrationwithmarkets.Limitedinfrastructurecanbeamajor
obstacle,butitcanbereinforcedbyweakmarketingsystemswheremiddlemendo
nothaveenoughincentivesincollectinglimitedquantitiesoflowvalueproductsa
consequenceoflowproductivityofstaplecropsparticularlyinlowdensityareas
wherecollectioncostsarehigh.
Most private collecting agents operating in the RuralStruc surveyed areas rely on
informal relationshipbased strategies to obtain output from small farmers, while
agribusinesses generally employ traditional contract farming practices.
Contractualization remains very low, even for those farms which are firmly
integratedintomarketsthroughongoingrelationshipswithwholesalersandother
buyers. Furthermore, contractualization rarely occurs at the producer level: it is
often downstream, between the wholesaler, or the collection unit, and the
processingfirmortheprocurementservice.
Theshareofselfconsumptiondecreaseswithwealthbothattheregionalleveland
the household level, and surveyed regions in subSaharan Africa are logically less
advanced in this process. The richest SSA surveyed households are also less
diversified than their nonSSA counterparts. This is mainly explained by differing
163
marketenvironments,whichoffersubSaharanAfricafeweropportunitiestoengage
in new value chains. This lack of opportunity also explains the persistently high
share of staple products in households production baskets, even when they move
away from selfconsumption and even when they become richer. Staples are not
only the prerogative of poor farmers. More generally, the development of onfarm
productdiversification(itsextentandthetypesofproductsinvolved)dependsona
process which encompasses a region as a whole. The result tends to be that all
households can participate in new value chains, with their level of participation
dependingontheirownassets(productionfactors,humanandsocialcapital).The
famoushighvaluechainsfocusedonexportsarefewandfarbetween.Theyemploy
a very small share of the farmers surveyed and their development depends on
existing operators (processors, exporters) and their capacity to develop contracts
withforeignmarkets.
In spite of the slew of changes that have occurred in many developing countries
agricultural sectors in the last few decades, old agricultural patterns persists. Full
onfarm specialization remains limited and onfarm incomes in general are
characterized by a trend towards product diversification: a way to seize existing
opportunitiesandalsotosharerisksineconomicenvironmentswhichoftenremain
uncertain.
164
The previous three chapters provided a detailed analysis of the level of income and the
characteristicsofonfarmandofffarmactivitiesinthesurveyedregions.Thegoalwasto
investigate the hypotheses of the program. How do farm households adapt to the new
evolving environment, and do they more fully specialize in agriculture as they become
moredeeplyinsertedintomarkets(hypothesisone)?Whatarethecharacteristicsofrural
households adaptation strategies in terms of combining activities towards more
diversifiedpatternsofincome(hypothesistwo)?
Aburningquestionremainshowever,whichreferstothelinkbetweenthesespecialization
anddiversificationpatterns,andtheleveloftotalincome.Whatdoesthisrelationshipsay
about the viability of different pathways out of poverty and the overall process of rural
transformation?
This sixth and final chapter explores this relationship. It begins with a review of the
determinants of total income, which were not directly addressed in Chapter 3whose
main goal was to present an overview of regional characteristics and rural poverty. The
chapter then finetunes regional patterns of income diversification, and discusses the
relationship between income levels and income structures, leading to an investigation of
regionalspecializationanddiversification.Theidentifieddynamicsatplayyieldevidenceof
povertytrapsformostoftheregionsinsubSaharanAfrica.
In its second section, the chapter proposes a grouping of households depending on their
incomebased room for maneuver and draws conclusions about the significance of the
observed rural realities in terms of policy making. It then suggests policy options for
facilitatingruraltransformationinthiscontext.
1. RegionalPatternsofIncomeDiversificationandSpecialization
1.1 UnderstandingtheRegionalLevelofIncome
A households level of income per capita results from an array of different factors. These
includethetypeofeconomicactivitiesinwhichitisengaged,thereturnstothoseeconomic
activities,theassetsavailabletothehousehold,thesizeandthedemographicstructureof
the household, and its economic environment. Chapters 4 and 5 explored the types of
activities in which households are engaged, and found a strong heterogeneity between
householdsandregions,withnoevidencethatanyoneparticulartypeofactivitywasthe
best option in every case. Consequently, the investigation of income determinants
presentedbelowdoesnottesttheusefulnessofparticularactivities.Rather,itfocuseson
determinantsthatallowahouseholdtotakeadvantageofregionalopportunities.
165
The analysis of the determinants of total income unfolds along four lines of inquiry:
household characteristics and human capital, assets related to farm productivity,
environmentandmarketaccess,andofffarmdiversification.Topursuethisinvestigation
the program engaged in a series of regression analyses. While a full explanation of the
regression work and descriptions of the variables used can be found in Annex 5, a brief
overviewofthemotivation,andasummaryofkeyresultsarepresentedbelow.
Theregressionworkprimarilytookplaceattheregionallevel(aggregatingthehouseholds
of each region), and was conducted in all thirty RuralStruc surveyed zones. The analysis
only includes households with farm, as including households without farm would have
reducedtheexplanatorypowerofvariablesrelatingtofarmassets.Ineachregression,the
dependentvariableisthelogofhouseholdincomeperadultequivalent.158
Theprogramdid,however,alsoengageinregressionworkatanaggregatedlevel.Forthese
specifications, all surveyed households in each country were usedas observations in one
catchallregression,andregionalaffiliationswerenotconsidered.Thisaggregatedlevel
regression has the benefit of capturing the effects on wealth of assets or environmental
conditions whose distribution varies significantly between regions but not within them.
Examples include irrigated landin Mali (where Macinais very well endowedwhile other
regionsarenot)andtransportationdifficulty(whereallhouseholdsinaregionlikelyface
the same transportation hurdles, but households in other regions will face different
problems).Table25andTable26giveanoverviewoftheresultsoftheregressionanalysis
anddisplaythesignificantvariables.
Table25iscomplexinthatitoffersmanyresultswithmanypossibleinterpretations.Itis
clearthattheregressionshavemoreexplanatorypowerincertainregions,whileinothers
they are not able to explain much of the variance in incomes. In general, the regression
does better in regions with higher shares of onfarm incomes (the importance of self
employmentinSenegalislikelywhytheregression,ladendownwithvariablesrelatedto
farming, has limited explanatory power). The main results by category of variable are
discussedbelow,exceptforthelevelofdiversification(diversificationindex)whichwill
bediscussedinthenextsection.
158 Every effort was made to run the same regression in all thirty surveyed zones. This was not always
possible,ascertainpiecesofinformationwereavailableinsomeregionsandnotinothers,orsomevariables
were locally irrelevant (e.g. irrigation); however, in general, the specification in each region is very similar
(seeAnnex5).
166
Table25:RegionLevelRegressionResults
Mali Senegal Madagascar Kenya Morocco Nicaragua Mexico #ofregionssignificant
Morondava
Antsirabe2
Antsirabe1
LaLibertad
Casamance
Terrabona
HautDelta
NakuruN.
SierraSM.
Tominian
Bungoma
MuyMuy
BasDelta
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
at at
Mekh1
Mekh2
Koutiala
Chaouia
Nyando
T.Bajas
ElViejo
Macina
Tequis.
Diema
ElCua
Nioro
5%level 10%level
Souss
Itasy
Saiss
HouseholdAssetsrelated DemographicsandHuman
NumberofPersonsinHH(Nb_PersonsPres_hh) P 17 1
DependencyRatio 1 4
NumberofLongTermMigrants/HH 4 0
Capital
NumberofShortTermMigrants/HH N N 2 0
HHheadhasatleastSomePrimaryEducation(binary) N N 4 2
HHheadhasatleastCompletedPrimaryEducation(binary) N N N 5 3
HHHeadhasatleastSomeSecondaryEducation(binary) N N 6 4
HHHeadhasatleastCompletedSecondaryEducation(binary) 2 0
HectaresofLandUsedbyHH,perEqA(LandOwnedinNic.) 19 3
HectaresofIrrigatedLandbyHH,perEqA N 4 0
toProductivity
HHusesTechnicalPackage(improvedseeds/fertilizer)(binary) N N 5 3
HHusesManure(binary) N 1 0
NumberofLivestockUnits(weightedavg)(#ofCattleinMexico) 19 1
HHUsesAnimalDraft(binary) 4 1
HHUsesTillerforDraft(binary) 2 1
HHUsesTractorforDraft(binary) 4 3
TransportationisEasyonlyPartoftheYear(binary) P P P P P 7 1
Integration
TransportationisDifficult(Qualitativebinary) P 4 3
Market
TransportationDifficultyinUnknown(binary) P 1 1
c_50000(c_portsinKenya,SubRegionsinMorocco) 4 1
Contract(binary) 5 1
DiversificationIndex 17 1
Table26:NationallyAggregatedRegressionResults
#significant #significant
Mali Senegal Madagascar Kenya Morocco Nicaragua Mexico
at5%level at10%level Legend
HouseholdAssetsrelated DemographicsandHuman
NumberofPersonsinHH(Nb_PersonsPres_hh) 6 0 Significantatthe5%level
DependencyRatio 4 0 Significantatthe10%level
NumberofLongTermMigrantsfromHH 1 1 NotIncludedintheregression(seeAppendix)
Capital
NumberofShortTermMigrantsfromHH N N 2 0 Includedbutnotsignificant
HHheadhasatleastSomePrimaryEducation(binary) 2 0 N Thecoefficientisnegative
HHheadhasatleastCompletedPrimaryEducation(binary) 1 1 P Thecoefficientispositive
HHHeadhasatleastSomeSecondaryEducation(binary) N 2 1
HHHeadhasatleastCompletedSecondaryEducation(binary) N 2 1
HectaresofLandUsedbyHH,perEqA(LandOwnedinNic.) 6 0
HectaresofIrrigatedLandbyHH,perEqA 4 0
toProductivity
HHusesTechnicalPackage(improvedseeds/fertilizer)(binary) 2 0
HHusesManure(binary) 1 0
NumberofLivestockUnits(weightedavg)(#ofCattleinMexico) 5 1
HHUsesAnimalDraft(binary) 3 0
HHUsesTillerforDraft(binary) 2 0
HHUsesTractorforDraft(binary) 2 1
TransportationisEasyonlyPartoftheYear(Qualitativebinary) 0 0
Integration
TransportationisDifficult(Qualitativebinary) P 4 2
Market
TransportationDifficultyinUnknown(Qualitativebinary) 1 0
c_50000(c_portsinKenya,SubRegionsinMorocco) P 2 0
Contract(binary) 4 0
DiversificationIndex N N 6 1
167
Conclusionsfromtheeducationvariablesarelessclear.Theeducationlevelof
the head of the household is less frequently associated with income in the
countries of North and West Africa (Senegal, Mali, and Morocco) and also
Mexico.InNorthandWestAfrica,thisisexplainedbytheoveralllowlevelsof
education (see Chapter 4). In Mali for example, 84% of surveyed household
headshavenoformaleducation.Thishoweverischanging.Thesurveysshow
that very frequently the most educated person in the household is not the
household head. Children are becoming better educated than their parents,
implyingthattheseregionsstandtobenefitfromincreasededucationinyears
tocome.160
159ThedifficultcaptureofmigrationincomesisofcourseanissueaddressedinChapter4.
160 There also seem to be important level effects, but not necessarily certificate effects. The most
significant difference in incomes is associated with the jump from having completed primary
educationtohavingsomesecondaryeducation.
168
variableinthesurvey.In7regionsithasthelargestcoefficientofanyvariable
in the regression. It is the second largest in 5 additional regions. The
implicationofthisfindingregardingtheimportanceoflandisthat,despiteall
oftheeffortsofthedevelopmentcommunityoverthelastdecadestofocuson
improvingtheoutputofafixedsizedplot,thebestwayforafarmertoimprove
hisincomeisstilltoacquiremoreland.Thishelpstoconfirmamainfindingof
chapter 5, that the differentiation processes related to farming that were
anticipated with increased economic integration have yet to be broadly
realized.
MarketAccessVariables:Evenwiththecaveatthatinsertionandintegration
into markets is difficult to measure, a main finding of the regression work is
that market integration does not necessarily imply improved incomes.
Whether or not it does is context specific. The regression suggests this
conclusionbyexaminingconnectionstomarketsalongtwoaxes:(i)distanceto
markets(includingaqualitativeassessmentoftransportationquality),and(ii)
levelofintegrationintovalue chainsthroughthenumberofhouseholdswith
contracts(whatconstitutesacontracthavingbeenmorespecificallydiscussed
inChapter5).
The variable on travel time to markets (c_50000) left little in the way of
patternstobediscerned.Further,thevariableabouttransportationqualityis
significant in the anticipated direction (poor quality associated with lower
incomes) in only 6 regions, spread out relatively evenly across RuralStruc
countries.However,therearealmostasmanyregions(five)whereanegative
assessment of transportation quality is significantly associated with higher
incomes.162
161Acaveathereisthatthesurveydidnotaddressadetailedreviewofintensificationpractices.The
technicalpackagevariablerepresentsaccesstofertilizerandimprovedseedsonly.
162 These regions are the following: Bas Delta (Senegal), the two Antsirabe zones (Madagascar), El
Cu(Nicaragua),andTequisquiapan(Mexico).Theseresultsarenotstraightforwardtointerpret,but
make a point about the relative importance of physical distance to a city visvis quality of roads.
169
In terms of contracts, the regression clearly shows that they are significantly
associated with income in Kenya and Nicaragua. It is interesting to note that
this does not have to do with prevalence of contracts: some farmers in all
countriesareengagedintocontractagriculture,andKenyaandNicaraguaare
not particularly well endowed. The difference is where the contracts are
concentratedontheincomespectrum.Forinstance,intheHautDeltaregionof
Senegal, where over 90% of farmers have contracts with the local tomato
processor SOCAS, the few households without a contract are actually richer.
Those with contracts are in a situation of heavy dependence, tightly bonded
withtheprocessor.Throughthisarrangementtheyreceivepreferentialaccess
tofarminputstheycanuseforothercropsbutthisisgenerallynotenoughto
alleviate poverty and furthers their dependence on the factory. Whether a
contract allows a farmer to increase his income or prevents him from taking
advantageofamorelucrativeopportunitydependsontheregionalcontext.
The conclusions from the regression work so far can be summarized under two
main results. The first is the persistence of old patterns of wealth. In regional
situations where agriculture plays a major role, income still responds in the same
way it did hundreds of years ago throughout the world: accessing land and
increasing the amount of land under cultivation remain the best way to improve
farm incomes. Further, depending on existing economic alternatives and local
constraints (availability of natural resources and access to resources), population
dynamicsremaindecisiveand,ashouseholdssizegoesup,incomeperheadfalls.
Thesecondresulthoweverpointsoutthatchangesareoccurring,butsporadically
and in a way that does not follow a set pattern. Households each individually are
respondingtotheirenvironmentwiththeirassetendowmentsinthebestwaythey
cantoimprovetheirownincomes.Sincetheseenvironmentandassetendowments
changesignificantlyfromregiontoregion,householdsstrategiesvaryaccordingly.
The effectiveness of specific strategies in terms of income generation will also
change extensively between regions. This is clear in the regression results.
Educationissignificantlyassociatedwithincomesinsomeareasandnotinothers,
without seeming to follow any set pattern. So is the type of draft force used, or
qualityoftransportationavailable.
AgoodillustrationofthisheterogeneityisprovidedinTable27.Itdisplaysthethree
variablesmoststronglyassociatedwithincomeineachregion.Thetopvariableis
theonewiththelargestcoefficient(inabsolutevalue)thatisatleastsignificantat
the 5% level. If there are less than three variables significant at the five percent
Where the transportation quality variable is negatively significant, physical proximity to a city
matters a lot.Where it is positively significant, it is betterto havea good road networkthanto be
physicallyclosetoacity(seeAnnex5).
170
level, the variable with the largest coefficient and significant at the 10% level is
used.
Theresultofthistableisstraightforward.LandUsedisatopdriverofincomeina
full half of the RuralStruc regions. The result is of course driven by the share of
poor regions (the case of Madagascar is clear), but significance exists also in
MoroccoandMexico.AfterLandUsed,thereisnoparticularvariablethatappears
as a main determinant of income in more than six regions. Additional patterns of
significanceinthechartareindiscernible.
171
Table27:VariablesMostStronglyAssociatedwithIncomebyRegion
Morondava
Antsirabe2
Antsirabe1
LaLibertad
Casamance
Terrabona
HautDelta
BANord1
BANord2
NakuruN.
SierraSM.
Tominian
Bungoma
MuyMuy
BasDelta
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
#of2nd
Koutiala
#of3rd
Chaouia
Nyando
T.Bajas
ElViejo
#of1st
Macina
Tequis.
BAsud
Diema
ElCua
Souss
Itasy
Saiss
total
HouseholdAssetsrelated DemographicsandHuman
Nb_PersonsPres_hh P N N N N N 0 4 2 6
DependencyRatio 0 0 1 1
NumberofLongTermMigrantsfromHH 1 0 1 2
Capital
NumberofShortTermMigrantsfromHH N N 0 0 2 2
HHheadhasatleastSomePrimaryEducation N N 1 1 3 5
HHheadhasatleastCompletedPrimaryEducation N 1 3 0 4
HHHeadhasatleastSomeSecondaryEducation N 4 1 1 6
HHHeadhasatleastCompletedSecondaryEducation 1 1 0 2
HectaresofLandUsedbyHH,perEqA(LandOwnedinNic.) 7 5 3 15
HectaresofIrrigatedLandbyHH,perEqA 2 1 0 3
toProductivity
TechnicalPackage N N 2 1 1 4
Manure N 0 0 1 1
NumberofLivestockUnits(weightedavg) 2 3 1 6
HHUsesAnimalDraft 1 0 2 3
HHUsesTillerforDraft 1 1 0 2
HHUsesTractorforDraft 2 1 0 3
TransportationisEasyonlyPartoftheYear P P P 0 3 3 6
Integration
TransportationisDifficult 1 0 1 2
Market
TransportationDifficultyinUnknown 0 1 0 1
c_50000(c_portsinKenya,RegionsinMorocco) N N N 2 1 0 3
Contract 2 0 2 4
DiversificationIndex P P P P P 0 1 5 6
MostStronglyAssociatedVariable N Thecoefficientisnegative
2ndMostStronglyAssociatedVariable P Thecoefficientispositive
3rdMostStronglyAssociatedVariable
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys
172
1.2 FinetuningtheRegionalPatterns
1.2.1 FirstOverview
The final line of inquiry into determinants of income in the regression involved
diversification. But before beginning to analyze the relationship between
diversificationandincomeitisusefultobacktrackslightlyandbeginwithanoverall
pictureofhouseholdincomesourcesbyregionandquintile.Figure37belowbuilds
on the analysis of Chapters 4 and 5 and provides a combined picture of income
structures by quintile and region.163 This is the first step on the way to
understandingdiversificationpatterns.Thechartsdisplayregionalincomepatterns
per quintiles using onfarm income as a whole and the six offfarm incomes
discussed in Chapter 4: agricultural wages, non agricultural wages, self
employment,publictransfers,privatetransfers,andrents.
Figure37:IncomeStructurebyQuintilesintheSurveyedRegions(in%of$PPP/EqA)
MALI SENEGAL
100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
50% 50%
40% 40%
30% 30%
20% 20%
10% 10%
0% 0%
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1Q2Q3Q4Q5 Q1Q2Q3Q4Q5 Q1Q2Q3Q4Q5 Q1Q2Q3Q4Q5 Q1Q2Q3Q4Q5 Q1Q2Q3Q4Q5
MADAGASCAR KENYA
100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
50% 50%
40% 40%
30% 30%
20% 20%
10% 10%
0% 0%
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
Antsirabe 2 Alaotra 1 Morondava Itasy Antsirabe 1 Alaotra 2
Bungoma Nyando Nakuru North
163TheFiguredisplaysthesharesofregionalmeansbyincomesourcesandbyregionalquintiles.See
section1.3fordiscussionofthemeaningofthedifferenttypesofaveragecalculation.
173
MOROCCO NICARAGUA
100% 100%
80% 80%
60% 60%
40% 40%
20% 20%
0% 0%
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
MEXICO
100%
Legend
Rents 90%
Private Transfers 80%
Public transfers
70%
Self Employment
Non Ag. Wages 60%
Ag. Wages 50%
On farm
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys
This overall picture confirms the important place of onfarm activities in regional
income structures, but also illustrates important differences between regions. The
shareofonfarmincomeremainshighformostofthequintilesinMali,Madagascar,
Nicaragua,CasamanceinSenegal,andSassinMorocco.Inanumberofregions,on
farm activities are the dominant income source of the richest households. On the
otherhand,offfarmincomesareverysignificantinSenegal,Kenya,Mexico,andin
ChaouiaandSoussinMorocco.Furthermore,theconfigurationofofffarmincomes
varies:selfemploymentisakeyactivityinSenegal;nonagriculturalwagesandself
employment are important in Kenya; agricultural wages play a large role in
Nicaragua;andMexicoismorebroadlydiversified.
Again, the above analysis clearly presents a diverse array of situations and
illustrates the heterogeneous nature of household diversification patterns among
theregions.Evenifitispossibletobroadlysuggestwhysomeregionsdiversifyand
others do not (comparative advantages, access to markets, urbanization,
institutions,etc.),andwhywithineachregionsomehouseholdsdiversifyandothers
donot(assets),themechanismscontributingtothemanycombinationsofincome
sourcesremainunclear.
174
1.2.2 CharacterizingtheTrends
To shed more light on this subject, the RuralStruc Program created an index of
household diversification that is based on the wellknown HerfindahlHirschman
index (HHi).164 The index is set between 0 and 1, and returns higher values as a
household becomes more heavily involved in more types of activities. Therefore,
higher values of the diversification index mean more diversification, while lower
valuesmeanmorespecialization.
Figure38,whichwasconstructedbasedontheoverallsample,tellsustheaverage
level of the diversification index by region and household quintile and, looking at
this figure, trends begin to emerge. These trends can be analyzed on three levels:
between countries, between regions of the same country (regional effects) and
betweenincomequintilesofthesameregions(quintileeffects).
a. CountryLevel
First, at the country level, there is a significant drop in the diversification index
when moving from SSA into nonSSA regions. In Morocco, Nicaragua, and
Tequisquiapan,theaveragevalueoftheindexhoversinthevicinityof0.15to0.2.In
most of the other survey regions (including 16 of 19 SSA regions), diversification
indicesarearound0.3.
The exceptions are few and noteworthy. The lower level of household
diversificationisobservedinSubSaharanAfrica,inKoutialaandMacina(Mali)and
in Morondava (Madagascar). These situations result from specific regional
situations that will be discussed further. The higher level of diversification is
observedoutsideofSubSaharanAfricainthetwozonesoftheMexicanSotavento
(TierrasBajasandSierraSantaMarta)andislargelyaresultofthewaytheindexis
constructed.165 Even with the presence of these exceptions, it seems that between
countries,householddiversificationtendstofallascountryincomesincrease.
164 Although constructed in a way that makes it more like 1HHi. See the definition of the index in
Annex1.
165 As the diversification index is based on seven types of incomes (onfarm and the six offfarm
incomes), the presence or absence of one of these types can have a large effect on a households
overallscore.Oneoftheseventypesofincomemeasuredbytheindexispublictransfers,whichexist
ineveryquintileineveryregioninMexico,andnowhereelseinthesurvey.Thissignificantlyraises
thediversificationindexinMexicorelativetoothercountries.Tequisquiapansindexisnotraisedin
this way because although public transfers are present, only 27% of households have onfarm
incomesandconsequentlytheweightofsubsidiesrelatedtoagriculture(Procampo)islower.
175
b. RegionalLevel
Patternsalsoemergebetweenregionsofthesamecountry.Howevertheseregional
effects donot follow any specific trend. Some regions tend toward diversification
withrisingincomes:inSenegal,theBasDeltaissignificantlymorediversifiedthan
Casamance; and in Kenya Nakuru North is more diversified than Nyando. But the
oppositeexistsasexemplifiedbyMaliandMexico.
Local characteristics are fully at play. It is clear, for example, that the higher
household specialization in the two richer regions of Mali (Koutiala and Macina)
reflectslongstandingGovernmentattentiongiventothecottonindustryinKoutiala
and to rice in the Office du Niger irrigation scheme in Macina. In Mexico, Sierra
SantaMartahouseholdshaveasignificantlyhigherdiversificationscorethantheir
compatriots in Tierras Bajas and Tequisquiapan. In the Sierra, households are
unable to either specialize in maize as do their neighbors in the lowlands, or to
specializeinofffarmactivitiesasdohouseholdsinTequisquiapan(seeFigure37).
Thisstemspartlyfromtheirisolation,theagroecologicalcharacteristics(mountain
area versus large flood plains), and the subsequent lack of access to technical
packages and the large maize buyers associated with them, but also from smaller
plotsizesandthelowerlandproductivityofmountainsterrain.
c. HouseholdLevel
A first trend to note is that the direction of the quintile effect (i.e. whether richer
householdstendtobemorespecializedormorediversified)appearstobethesame
forregionsofthesamecountry,withafewnotableexceptions(likeMorondavain
Madagascar,CasamanceinSenegal,orElCuinNicaragua).Secondly,apreliminary
attempt to classify regions by the nature of the relationship they exhibit between
diversificationlevelsandhouseholdquintilesyieldsadditionalresults.Thoughthese
relationships are diverse, eleven regions exhibit a pattern that could roughly be
described as an inverted U (the most common pattern). These regions are
characterized by a situation where at lower income levels (quintiles 13), as
householdsbecomericher,theyalsobecomemorediversified,butabovequintile3
or4theybegintospecializeagain.166
166Theregionsthatexhibitthistypeofpatternarethefollowing:Casamance,Mekh1and2andBas
DeltainSenegal,ChaouiaandSoussinMorocco,ElViejo,LaLibertad,andElCuinNicaragua,and
TierrasBajasandSierraSantaMartainMexico.
176
Figure38:DiversificationIndex(1HHi)perRegionandQuintile
MALI SENEGAL
0.5 0.5
0.45 0.45
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
0.3 0.3
0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
Tominian Dima Koutiala Macina Casamance Mekhe1 Nioro HautDelta Mehke2 BasDelta
MADAGASCAR KENYA
0.5 0.5
0.45 0.45
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
0.3 0.3
0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
Antsirabe2 Alaotra1 Morondava Itasy Antsirabe1 Alaotra2 Bungoma Nyando NakuruNorth
MOROCCO NICARAGUA
0.5 0.5
0.45 0.45
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
0.3 0.3
0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
Chaouia Saiss Souss MuyMuy Terrabona ElViejo LaLibertad ElCu
MEXICO
0.5
Legend 0.45
Quintile1 0.4
Quintile2 0.35
Quintile3 0.3
Quintile4 0.25
Quintile5 0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
SierraSantaMarta TierrasBajas Tequisquiapan
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys
1.2.3 TheDiversificationIncomeRelationship
177
Plotting all household of a region on a plan with axes representing income and
diversification,andconductingsecondorderpolynomialregressions,confirmsand
strengthens the classification identified above: 22 out of the 30 surveyed regions
displayaninvertedUpattern.167Amongthe8regionschallengingthisinvertedU,7
ofthemshowaUshapeandonehasadownwardslope(Box22).
Box22:ChallengingtheInvertedUPattern
ThesurveyedregionsinMadagascarchallengetheinvertedUpattern:fiveoutoftheeightregions
whosedistributionsdonotfollowthisshapearefoundhere.ExceptforMorondava,theyfollowaU
shape,whichmeansthatpoorhouseholdsarealreadydiversified,thenengageinspecialization,and
finallytendtodiversify.
Households in poorer quintiles in Madagascar are more diversified than in other surveyed regions
because there is a class of households which do not have the resources to survive by subsistence
agriculturealone.Highpopulationdensitieshaveresultedinverysmallfarmsizes(lowerthanhalfa
hectare),aswellasasizeablegroupoflandlesspeasants.Consequentlytheverypoorestmustseek
offfarmworkandfinditinagriculturalwagelaborsupportingthericeindustry(seeFigure37).Ona
perdaybasisthisisamongthemostpoorlypaidactivitiesintheentiresurvey.Householdsobviously
trytoexitthissituationandtoreachapointwheretheycansubsistonagriculturealone,whichis
equivalent to a specialization. The situation of Morondava, which is the exception among the
Malagasy surveyed regions and follows the inverted U shape, is explained by a lower population
densityandlargerfarms.There,thepooresthouseholdsareabletosurvivebysubsistencefarming.
Further,theregionislessspecializedinrice,andconsequentlyfeweropportunitiesforagricultural
wage labor exist. Therefore, income improvement means accessing additional sources of incomes
anddiversification,beforeapossiblespecializationinfeweractivities.
ThetwoothersurveyedregionswhichdonotfollowtheinvertedUpatternareKoutialainMaliand
ElCuinNicaragua.Koutiala,liketheregionsinMadagascar,displaysaUshape.Here,thecauseis
the presence of a cash crop with a guaranteed buyer. For poor households, deeper involvement in
cotton is the best option because it benefits from a somewhat secure environment. However, the
paradoxical limitations in the development of the cotton growing areas (decreasing land
availabilityand fertilitysee Box 9) means thatcotton canonly earn a household so much. Richer
householdaretheoneswhichengageindiversificationactivities.
ElCuistheonlyregiontodisplayafulldownwardslope,meaningatrendtowardsspecialization
acrossallincomelevels.Thedrivingforcehereisthesame:acashcropwitheasyaccesstomarkets.
However,returnstocoffeefarmingaremuchhigherthanreturnstocottonfarmingandsotheneed
tosupplementincomesisnotasstrong.
Based on the persistence of this inverted U pattern, one can postulate that
householdsprefertospecialize.Thisis,afterall,whatthosewiththemostresources
choosetodo.Ifhouseholdsprefertospecializebutatpoorerlevelsdonotdoso,it
must mean that they cannot. The implication of an inverted U pattern is therefore
167ItisworthnoticingthatthisinvertedUshapeholdsevenwhendroppingoffthehouseholdswith
thehighestincomes,whichbearheavilyuponthe5thquintilesaverages.TheonlyexceptionisSaiss,
Morocco,whereexcludingthefiverichesthouseholdsleadstoadifferentregressionresultandaU
shapeinsteadofaninvertedU(seeChapter4foradiscussionofexistinghighincomesinMorocco
relatedtorents).
178
thatpoorhouseholdsdiversifyasawayofearningmoremoneytomeettheirbasic
needs and mitigate their very high levels of risk, but beyond a certain income
thresholdtheybegintospecialize(Figure39).
Figure39:StylizedRepresentationoftheInvertedUPattern
HouseholdDiversification
HHs eventuallyreacha
tippingpoint
AsHHsget wheretheyhave
moreroomfor enoughmoneyto
maneuverthey begintospecialize
sendmembers
toearnmore
moneyinoff Theyeventually
farm becomelikeinupper
activities incomecountries
HHstoday,with
twopartners
Lowincome,low specializedin
diversificationand oneactivity
subsistencefarming each(max)
HouseholdIncome
Sources:Authors
168Onemustkeepinmindthatthisregressionworkwasappliedonfarmhouseholdsonly.
169 For example, diversification is positively associated with income in Senegal, and also positively
significant in 5 out of 6 regions in the regional level regression. The diversification variable is not
significantinHautDeltabecauseofthehighspecializationintomatoproduction(seeChapter5).
179
are respectively among the poorest and the richest subsets of the sample. In
Madagascar,thisrelationshipstemsfromthealreadyhighlydiversifiedstructureof
poor households incomes (see Box 22); inMexico, onthe other hand, it hasto do
withfarmhouseholdsspecializationinmaize.
Toconclude,theevidencefromboththeinvestigationofincomestructuresandthe
regression work indicates that the diversification income relationship is mainly
governedbyaninvertedUpattern,wherebypoorerhouseholdsdiversifytomitigate
risks,butmorewelloffhouseholdstendtospecialize.Thenextsectionintroduces
an additional perspective that further advances the idea of the inverted U pattern
andrelatesthisobservationtobroaderissuesofstructuraltransformation.
To illustrate the difference between these patterns and how it is related to the
householdsinvertedUshape,considerahypotheticalcountrywherenostructural
transformation has occurred, with the following stylized historical sequencing. At
the beginning of the transformation process, all citizens of this country are
subsistence farmers, and no one is involved in any other type of activity. The first
tentativestepsoftransitionwillnecessarilyinvolvesomepeopledoingthingsother
than farming. But it is unlikely that these early diversifiers will risk their food
supply and give up their plots. Consequently, the diversification observed at this
firststageoftransformationwillbelargelywithineveryhousehold.However,asthe
countrycontinuestotransitionandmarketsbecomemorereliable,earlydiversifiers
maygettothepointwheretheyarewellestablishedinanonfarmactivityandcan
relyonothersourcesofincomefortheirfoodsupply.Atthispoint,theymaystop
farming altogether and dedicate most of their time to the new activity (small
business or waged labor). When this switch and progressive specialization in off
farmactivitiesbegintooccur,diversificationwithineveryhouseholdstartstofallon
average across the country, but the diversification between households, which are
now each specialized in different activities, continues to grow at the regional and
nationallevels.Theendresultisacountrywheremanyhouseholdsarespecialized
and earn income from only one or a very limited number of activities, while the
regionsorthecountryasawholehavediversified.
Understanding this story makes it clear that a discussion of income levels and
diversification/specializationpatternsmustinfactbemorenuanced.Ratherthan
180
Atthebeginningofthetransformationprocesswithinhouseholddiversificationwill
bethemajortrendashouseholdstrytodiversifyfromtheironfarmbase,andthe
region as a whole remains characterized by the weight of agriculture (overall
specialization in farming). As the transformation continues, patterns of
specializationbegintoemergeandthendominateattheindividualhouseholdlevel.
Consequently, the diversification between households grows and the region
correspondstoamorediversifiedeconomy(Figure40).
Thisevolutionofthediversification/specializationpatternsbetweenthehousehold
andregionallevelscanbeillustratedbytheRuralStrucsurveydata,whichallowsa
comparison of different stages of transition within the structural transformation
processduetothecharacteristicsofthecountrysample.
Figure40:WithinandBetweenHouseholdDiversificationalongwiththeInvertedUPattern
HouseholdDiversification
HouseholdIncome
Sources:Authors
181
One can use the average share of offfarm income to explore this distinction
becauseitcanbecalculatedintwoways:onceasameanofhouseholdshares,and
onceasashareofregionalmeans(seeBox23).
Table28showsthatsignificantdifferencesbetweenthemeanofhouseholdshares
(MoHS)andtheshareofregionalmeans(SoRM)canexist.Thisisbecausethetwo
differenttypesofmeansrefertothetwodifferenttypesofpatterns.Sincethemean
of household shares calculates the offfarm share at the household level, it clearly
refers to patterns within households. The share of regional means indicator,
however,referstomorethanthat.Asaregionwideaggregate,italsotakesaccount
of patterns occurring between households and expresses the average regional
patternofchange.
Thedifferencebetweenthesetwomeanssayssomethingaboutthediversification/
specialization pattern in every surveyed region. This pattern can be captured and
synthesizedbycomputingadiversificationgap(definedasthedifferencebetween
MoHSandSoRM)(Box23).
Thediversificationgapisagoodillustrationofaregionsstagewithinthestructural
transformation process. A negative value of the gap corresponds to a stage of
transitionwherehouseholdsarestilldeeplyinvolvedinonfarmactivities.Theyare
individually testing out diversification without giving up their farming plots and
theirshareofofffarmincomesremainslimited(evenifhouseholdsareengagedin
many offfarm activities, they tend to be to low return coping activities). The
region as a whole remains specialized in farming, but a limited number of
households(therichest)havealreadydiversified170pullingtheregionalmeansata
higher value (which explains why MoSH < SoRM and why the gap value can be
stronglynegative).
170Someofthesehouseholdsareengagedinservices(e.g.,health,education,localadministration,or
tradeandtransportation)andearnhigherrevenues.
182
Box23:FromIncomeDiversificationMeanstotheDiversificationGap
Calculatingaveragesharesisasimpleoperationthatcanproducenuancedresultsbecausethereare
twowaysofperformingit.
In the first way, each individual households shareofofffarm income in total income is computed,
and then these shares are averaged at the regional level: this is the mean of household shares
(MoHS).Inthesecondway,theaverageofvalueofofffarmincomeiscomputedforanentireregion,
andthen divided by theaverage of regional households total income: this is theshareof regional
means (SoRM). In simple terms, the distinction between these two variables is that the mean of
householdsharessmoothestheeffectofoutlierswhiletheotherdoesnot.
Thesemeanscorrespondtotheformulasbelow:
In the RuralStruc surveys, the difference between these two means is strongly correlated with
income (the Pearson correlation is relatively high: 0.60). The value of this difference is directly
influenced by the distribution of those households engaged in diversification along the income
gradient.Anegativesigncorrespondstoasituationwheretherichesthouseholdsdiversifywhilethe
majority does not. A positive sign corresponds to the opposite, when the poorest households
diversify.
Thedifferencebetweenthetwomeansisnamedthediversificationgap.
183
Table28:DiversificationGapintheSurveyedRegions
Specialization/Diversification
Pattern Diversification
AverageIncome
MeanofHH ShareofRegional Gap
$PPPperEqA
offfarmShares offfarmMeans (MoHSSoRM)
(MoHS) (SoRM)
Tominian 0.26 0.30 0.04 235
Dima 0.35 0.51 0.16 368
Mali
Thus the diversification gap, as a single and composite indicator, reflects the
complexities of rural income diversification and illustrates the process of rural
transformation.ItexplicitlyaccountsforaninvertedUshape,wherebypatternsof
householddiversificationobservedatearlystagesofeconomictransitiongiveway
tohouseholdlevelspecializationandemergingpatternsofregionaldiversification.
Assuch,itisinterestingtonotetherelationshipbetweenthediversificationgapand
incomesdisplayedinFigure41,whichplotseachregionasasingledatapointonthe
incomediversificationgapspace.
184
Figure41:TheRelationshipbetweenIncomeandtheDiversificationGap
4,500
Souss
4,000
ElCu
IncomeperEqA($PPP)
3,500 Saiss
T.Bajas
3,000
Tequis.
ElViejo
2,500
NakuruN. LaLibertad Chaouia
2,000 SierraSM.
Terrabona MuyMuy
1,500
Alaotra2
BasDelta
1,000
Bungoma HautDelta
500
Dima Nioro Tominian
0
0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
DiversificationGap
Source:RuralStrucSurveys
At low levels of income, the gap can take any number of negative values, but it is
generally not until the gap gets to be positive that incomes begin to grow
substantially.Severalfeaturesofthisfigurearenoteworthy.Thefirstistheshapeof
the trend line. It is clearly upward sloping and confirms, as noted previously, a
strongpositiverelationshipbetweenincomeandthediversificationgap.Butthere
alsoappearstobeanexponentialcomponenttothisrelationshipsuggestingthat,up
until a given level of the diversification gap, incomes do not generally rise. Then,
after passing a threshold value, incomes increase rapidly. Thus, every region that
has a diversification gap of above 0.05 has an average income above $1,000
PPP/EqA/year. Alternatively, of the regions with a negative value for the
diversificationgap,allbuttwohaveincomesbelowthis$1,000PPPthreshold.
Beyond the general shape of the distribution, the specific position of the sub
SaharanAfricancountriescanbenoted(Figure42).EverySSAregion,saveAlaotra
2,hasadiversificationgapoflessthan0.05.Further,alloftheseregions(saveBas
DeltaandNakuruNorth)haveanaverageincomebelow$800PPP/EqAverynear
the$2PPP/daythreshold.Thismeansthat16ofthe19subSaharanAfricanregions
arecharacterizedbyverylowincomesandlimitedregionaldiversification.Among
these16regions,theexplanatorypowerofthediversificationgaponincomeisvery
small. This suggests that households may be encountering something of a barrier:
one in which they are unable to transition from patterns of household
diversification to patterns of regional diversification (i.e. household
specialization)because their incomes are too low and diversification
opportunitiesaretoolimited.Thisobservationindicatesthepossiblepresenceofa
185
povertytrap(Box24)andreferstotheideaoftransitionimpassessuggestedinthe
Programsthirdhypothesis.171
Figure 42: The Income Diversification Gap Relationship in SSA and nonSSA Surveyed
Regions
4,500
4,000
3,500
IncomeperEqA($PPP)
3,000
2,500
NakuruN.
2,000
Terrabona
1,500
BasDelta Alaotra2
1,000
500
0
0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
DiversificationGap
SSA nonSSA
Source:RuralStrucSurveys
Theunderlyingexplanationfortheseobservationsislikelythereturnstoavailable
economicactivities.AspresentedinChapter4,inverypoorregionsofsubSaharan
Africa, it is possible for a household to be deeply diversified in many lowreturn
171 The three SSA regional outliersNakuru North, Alaotra 2, and Bas Deltacorrespond to the
highestregionalaverageincomesoftheSSAsampleandaretherichestregionineachcountry.In
NakuruNorth,thenegativegapvaluecorrespondstoasituationwheretheregionalincomeispulled
byafewricherhouseholdswhicharedeeplyengagedinofffarmactivities.InAlaotra2,thepositive
gap value highlights a situation where the richest households are deeply specialized in onfarm
activities (rice), pulling down the offfarm regional average. The position of Bas Delta, near the
thresholds,ismoreneutralandreflectingthehigherreturnstotherichesthouseholdsactivities.
172InTerrabona,oneofthetwopoorestregionsinNicaragua,householdsaremainlyengagedinon
farm activities with low return offfarm diversification. But the richest households have access to
betterpaidjobsinmaquiladoras.
186
activities(asituationwhereallEAPhouseholdmembersandoftenchildrenworkat
leastoneand,sometimes,multiplejobs).Inthissituation,ahouseholdmaystillnot
earn enough to make their income sufficiently secure so that they can begin to
specialize.Atthispoint,thehouseholdbecomestrapped:itcannotearnmore,andit
consumesallthatitearns(andsometimesevenmoreifitconsumesitsassets).This
isthedefinitionofapovertytrap.
OutsideofsubSaharanAfricahowever,thepooresthouseholdsineveryregionare
engaged in activities that earn them much higher incomes (see Chapters 4 and 5).
Consequently,availablediversificationoptionsareabletoprovideenoughsecurity
to eventually allow households to begin to specialize. And as households begin to
specialize, they become more productivewhich means higher returnsand
incomesincreaseatagreaterrate.
Box24:ThePovertyTrapPattern
Povertytraps,atabasiclevel,aresituationswherehouseholdsareunabletoaccumulateassetsover
timeandremainmiredinpoverty.Theycantgetaheadforfallingbehind(Barrett&Carter2001).A
vast literature describes the causes, symptoms, and mechanisms of poverty traps, the existence of
which depends on locally increasing returns to scale and exclusionary mechanisms that keep some
people from enjoying higher return livelihoods or technologies (Barrett & Carter 2004). Locally
increasingreturnsoftenappearwhenpoorhouseholdsmakelessthanoptimalallocationdecisions
because they have to deal with risks. Poverty traps are also accentuated by the existence of
exclusionary measures, like lack of credit access or of lack of financial skills, which prevent
householdsfromaccessinganyroomformaneuver.
Anexamplewouldbeahouseholdthatspendsallitsresourcesonseedsandallitsfamilylabor
onstapleproductionsothatitwillhaveenoughtofeeditself.Ifthehouseholdwasnotsofood
insecure it might invest in fertilizer, which would greatly increase the returns to the
householdsoverallexpenditure.Asaconsequenceofthischoicehowever,landdegradationcan
occurrapidlyandfallingfertilityresultsinincreasinglylowerreturnseachyear,whileatthe
same time the family is possibly growing. In order to cope with this adverse situation, the
household will send members to work in other sectors or areas to try to make up for lost
productivityonthefarm,notalwayssuccessfully.
This kind of coping strategy, is frequently observed in the RuralStruc data. Consequently, the
overall picture of a region whose rural households are on average struggling with poverty traps is
characterized by withinhousehold diversification (households diversify in low returns activities).
ThisisthesituationillustratedbyFigure42wherethesurveyedregionsseemtobestuck,unableto
specializeandunabletoincreasetheirincomes.
At this point in the discussion it is clear that the surveys microlevel data on
diversification/specialization patterns illustrates a countrys stage within the
structural transformation process. Further, most regions in a country follow the
same pattern. It corroborates the idea that there are national characteristics that
determine the possible alternatives for diversification or specialization. These
characteristics include assets, market functionality, business climate, institutional
arrangements, overall governance and political stability. The specific alternatives
187
theymakeavailablefurtherillustratesacountrysstageintheeconomictransition
process.
A final remark has to be made. The trends which have been presented, and their
characteristics,arebasedonthesurveydataandcorrespondtothesituationsofthe
surveyedhouseholdsintheirrespectiveregions.Thesetrendsarenotdeterministic;
rather they suggest where regions stand in the diversificationspecialization
process.Theyillustratechangeswhichoccurredinthepastandsuggestthecauses
of observed transition impasses. They do not predict future paths, as these will
dependontheidiosyncrasiesofeverylocalcontextandthenatureofitsinteractions
withtheoutsideworld.
188
2. PolicymakingGuidelines
Fromthepreviousanalyzes,itappearsthatifthedeterminantsofruralhousehold
incomeandhouseholddiversificationaremostlymicro(householdassets,portfolio
characteristics, managerial skills), the determinants of returns to an activity refer
broadly to meso and macro conditions. Markets are decisive, but the institutional
environment is equally critical. The low returns to nonagricultural activities and
the difficulty of onfarm diversification observed in subSaharan Africa are clear
remindersofthelimitationsoftheoverallcontext.
2.1 MethodologicalConsiderations
2.1.1 ReengaginginDevelopmentStrategyDesign
Though there are no obvious recipes, a review of the last two decades of
developmentpoliciesprovideawellknownshoppinglistofpolicymeasuresthat
everyone can find in every good publication related to economic development in
general,andruraldevelopmentinparticular.Themainingredientsintherecipefor
success are: public goods provision (infrastructure, research, information, and
capacity building), improvement of imperfect markets (that involves both the
sourcingofinputsandthecommercializationoftheproduct,andimpliesthecutof
transaction costs), incentives for the development of missing markets (credit,
technical support, assurance), and risk mitigation mechanisms. What is more
difficult is to mix these ingredients in the policy bowl, to devise genuine policies
(because good recipes are homemade), and to define their adequate sequencing
basedonnecessaryprioritizationandtargeting.
Toidentifyprioritiesforaction,theProgramsresultssuggesttheneedtoreengage
indevelopmentstrategiesinordertodealwiththecriticalchallengesfacedbymany
developingcountries.ThisisparticularlythecaseforsubSaharaAfrica,acontinent
thathastosimultaneouslymanageitsdemographicandeconomictransitions,inthe
contextofglobalization,andunderthenewconstraintsofglobalclimatechange(see
Chapter2).
Indeed, in many countries, there has been a longterm neglect of overall strategy
design (most often since the end of the seventies): a consequenceof liberalization
policies and state withdrawal, of policy segmentation, and of disinvestment in
189
2.1.2 PrioritizingandTargeting
A critical issue for policy makers is, most often, the need to do everything at the
sametime.Ofcourse,thisisnotpossibleduetolimitationsonfinancialandhuman
resources.Choicesneedtobemade,andmakingthemisevenmoredifficultunder
the specific conditions of many developing countrieswherethemeansforpolicy
makingarelimited.
Given this setting, prioritization and sequencing are required. They need to be
supported by adequate analyses for which general, sector, and regional diagnoses
must be developed in order to identify existing binding constraints. Adopting the
Programs perspective to rural transformation, a preliminary step would be to
190
Then,prioritiesneedtobediscussedintermsoftargets,whichcanbedefinedfor
groupsofeconomicagents,sectors(typesofproducts),andregions.Thoughitisnot
theProgramspurposetoproposeprioritiesandtargetsforthedifferentcountries
and surveyed regions,it is possible to provide an illustration of afirst step ofthis
kind of finetuning. This helps to identify a set of priorities and facilitate the
definition of possible building blocks, which contribute to the design of the
necessarypolicyinstruments,thusfeedingtheoverallpolicyprocess.
Four groups of households were defined with reference to their levels of total
income and their levels of onfarm income in order to assess their capacity for
investmenta core indicator of the existing room for maneuver for action at the
household level, an understanding of which is crucial for identifying appropriate
incentivesorsupports.
Figure 43, which has an unusual shape, plots each of the 7,269 households of the
RuralStrucsampleasasingledatapointonthetotalincometotalonfarmincome
space (in PPP per adult equivalent): betteroff households (>$4 per day);
capacity households (>$2 per day); and poor and extreme poor households
(<$2perday).Eventhoughtheexerciseremainshighlytheoretical,onecanconsider
thatforhouseholdsabove$2perday,basicneedsarecoveredandearningsareno
longer fully allocated to consumption, but can also be used for investment and
savings.Above$4PPP,existingoptionsforincomeallocationareobviouslygreater.
The situation below $2 PPP is more critical: all revenues are dedicated to basic
needsandtheyarestillnotenough.Amongthosebelow$2PPP,thepoorgroupis
made up of those households that could exit poverty if they were to double their
current onfarm income. The extreme poor group corresponds to those
householdswhichcouldnot.Eveniftheyweretodoubletheironfarmincomethey
wouldstillremainbelow$2PPP.
173 A clear reference here is the Growth Diagnostics method developed by Hausmann, Rodrik and
Velasco(2005)whichcouldbeusefullyadaptedtoaregionalapproach.
191
Figure43:MethodofTargetingHouseholdsGroups
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys
Table29presentstheshareofthesurveyedhouseholdsthatfallsintoeachincome
group,andFigure44performsthisbreakdownattheregionallevel.Together,they
showtheverydifficultsituationsfacedbySSAregions,particularlythoseinMaliand
Senegal,andechothediscussionofpovertytrapspresentedinthediversification
specializationanalysis.Theyareastrongreminderofthestarkrealityfacedbymost
rural households. The two poor groupswhich include the vast majority of
households surveyed in subSaharan Africaface huge challenges. The extreme
poorgroupwouldremainpoorevenifitsonfarmincomesweredoubled.Anditis
quite clear that the prospect of raising the poor groups farm revenues by 100%
appearsoutofreachinmostregionalsituationsovertheshorttomediumterm.
192
Table29:DistributionofHouseholdsperTargetGroupintheRuralStrucsSample
Target Groups
Extreme Poor Poor Capacity Better Off
Mali 69.8 19.7 7.7 2.8
Senegal 58.5 15.6 11.8 14.0
Madagascar 49.9 25.8 13.6 10.8
Kenya 45.7 12.5 12.8 29.0
Morocco 21.9 8.0 13.6 56.5
Nicaragua 24.6 13.8 14.4 47.3
Mexico 7.3 2.6 10.2 79.8
TOTAL 40.2 16.0 12.6 31.1
SSA 53.6 20.2 12.3 13.9
non-SSA 19.8 9.6 13.2 57.4
Sources:RuralStrucSurveys
Figure44:DistributionofHouseholdsperTargetGroupandRegion
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Terrabona
Tequis.
Dima
Souss
Nioro
Morondava
ElCu
SierraSM.
Bungoma
Macina
HautDelta
Itasy
Chaouia
Koutiala
Saiss
NakuruN.
MuyMuy
LaLibertad
BasDelta
Mekh1
Mekh2
Alaotra1
Alaotra2
Casamance
Nyando
ElViejo
Antsirabe2
Antsirabe1
T.Bajas
Tominian
193
Theresultspresentedinthesefiguresprovidepreliminarylessons,andareahelpful
stepinthinkingaboutpossiblepolicyorientations.
Itisunrealistictoexpecthouseholdswhoseincomesarelessthan$2perEqA/day,
andwhicharenotabletosatisfytheirbasicneeds(thepoorandextremepoor
groups),toengageinanyinvestmentontheirown.Theywillneedlocalpublicgoods
provisionintermsofinfrastructure(e.g.transportation,water,andelectricity),land
rights,andresearch.
Theywillalsoneedmoredirectsupportthroughsmartsubsidies,174particularlyto
facilitateinputaccessandextensionservices,aswellasverylowinterestrateloans
which are the only way to improve the existing farming systems, facilitate
innovation, and increase productivity.175 Price risks are another major stumbling
block.Theincreasingvolatilityofglobalmarkets,aswellasthewellknownseasonal
volatility of domestic food markets, require actions which the private sector has
littleincentivetocarryout.Publicsupportisneededforimplementinginformation
systemsa preliminary and indispensable stepand, beyond those, stabilization
instruments have to be adapted to local situations depending on the type of
instability(endogenousorimported).176
Further, any support related to public goods provision and market improvement/
facilitationwill benefit all farm households. Capacityand betteroff groups will
ofcoursebeabletotakefulladvantageaswell.Assuch,thesepoliciesdonotpitone
incomegroupagainstanother.Theycanbenefitallruralhouseholdswhileallowing
thepoortocatchupmorerapidly.
174Thecaseofsubsidiesisverysensitivebutpositionshavechangedoverthelastyears(WorldBank
2007).Itisnowacknowledgedthatsmartsubsidiescanhelptounlockaccesstoinputmarketsfor
the producers and provide incentives to the providers. Voucher systems are a major reference as
they facilitate targeting (farmers groups and regions). The major issue is of course the adequate
managementofthistypeofsystemandtheabilitytoscaledown.
175InsubSaharanAfrica,Fuglie(2009)demonstratedbasedonlongtermreviewandmodeling
that total factor productivity levels has grown at a very low pace over the last 45 yearsa major
differencewithotherdevelopingcountrieswithacoupleofexceptionsinWestAfrica.
176ThepricestabilizationsystemswhichdevelopedworldwidebetweenthetwoWorldWarsand
wereimplementedbythecolonialpowersintheirformercolonieswerealldismantledduringthe
liberalization wave of the 1980s (with a few exceptions like the Ghana Cocoa Marketing Board).
Manyattemptsweremadetoimplementmarketinstruments(options,futures)tobecompletedby
safetynetsforthemostvulnerablehouseholds;butresultswereverylimitedanduneven.Theneed
for governments involvement in market management is more accepted today, notably since the
2008foodpricecrisis.However,structuraloptionsforinstabilityreductionandmanagementremain
highly debated. They refer to keeping high productivity growth through investment and to
maintainingcopinginstrumentsavailableforcrisisresponse(e.g.individualcountryreserves,price
bands).SeeByerleeetal.(2005),Poultonetal.(2006),WorldBank(2007),Galtier(2009),Timmer
(2010).Thedominantroleplayedbyglobalfirmsinagriculturalmarketssincestatewithdrawalfrom
supplymanagementisamajorissue,andmanyproposedsolutionsdepend stronglyoncooperation
betweenfirms.However,theirwillingnesstodosoissubjecttosomedebate(Losch2007).
194
Again, strengthening the education level will benefit all rural households.
Concurrently,itwillalsohelptheonfarmside.Higherskillsmeanpossibleaccess
to new agricultural technical packages and cultivation practices that facilitate
greater productivity and easier compliance with the more stringent demands of
modernagriculturalmarkets.
2.2 BuildingBlocksforFosteringRuralTransformation
Though the section has focused so far on heterogeneity and the resultant need to
reengage in targeted development strategies on a national (or even subnational)
level, there are trends that emerge in the RuralStruc results and common themes
thatappear.TheProgramhasdistilledtheseresultsintobuildingblocksforpolicy,
keeping in mind the pressing need to make choices and thus to be very selective.
ThesebuildingblocksaremainlytargetedtosubSaharanAfrica,whichfacesmajor
transition challenges. They are not recommendations in and of themselves, but
ratherframeworksthatshouldbekeptinmindwhilecreatingtargeteddevelopment
strategies.
There is no doubt that agriculture must remain a firm priority. In the agriculture
based countries of subSaharan Africa, the major push for structural
transformationandforprogressivelyunlockingthepovertytrapshastooccurin
agriculture.Evenifpublicpoliciesarealsoneededtofacilitatethedevelopmentof
othersectors,transformationwilldependfirstonincreasingfarmincomesandon
creatingamoresecureeconomicenvironment,changeswhichwillthenfosterrural
demandandfacilitateruraldiversification.
Based on the evidence gathered over the two phases of the RuralStruc program,
three main building blocks are suggested: a clear support to family agriculture; a
priority for staple production and the improvement of staple markets; and the
strengtheningofruralurbanlinkages.
195
2.2.1 SupportingFamilyFarms
However,theargumentsinthefarmsizedebateareoftenasfollows.Advocatesof
largescale farming highlight the wide and growing gap in output per hectare
betweenlandthatisfarmedbylargescale,mechanizedoperationsandlandthatis
workedbysmallholders.Theyarguethatdevelopingcountries(notablyinSSA),by
beginning to favor large scale production and thereby producing more food from
their own land, could control their growing trade deficitsin foodandreducetheir
vulnerabilitytoswingsininternationalfoodprices.
Proponentsofsmallholderagriculturesimilarlyoftenframetheirargumentsinthe
languageoffoodsecurity.Theypointtothewellknownlackofeconomiesofscalein
agricultureandrefertomanyfailuresofpreviouslargescaleagricultureprojects.178
They strongly argue that family labor has many benefits, such as the absence of
costs of worker supervision, very high effort levels by workers (who are directly
177 As highlighted in Chapter 4, family agriculture is defined by the strong link between household
structure and farming activity in terms of assets and management. Its opposite is managerial or
capitalist agriculture based entirely on a waged labor force and on shareholding This type of
agriculturetargetsreturnstocapitalinvestment,whilefamilyagriculturemainlytargetsreturnsto
labor(Lamarche1991,Losch&FrguinGreshforthcoming).
178InthecaseofAfrica,seePoultonetal.(2008)whoalsoshowthatthefewapparentsuccessesin
EasternandSouthernAfricawerenurturedbystrongpublicsupport.
196
interested in the farms output), flexibility and adaptation (to varying labor needs
over the year and to varying economic results depending on the crop season)and
theimportanceoflocalknowledgethatcanmakethesmallholdermodelefficient.179
For example, the recent Awakening Africas Sleeping Giant study (World Bank
2009b) demonstrated that: African smallholder agriculture has competitive
production costs when compared to large scale farms (in this case to those of the
Cerrado region in the centralsouth of Brazil), is competitive in its domestic
markets, but is disadvantaged in global markets due to high logistics costs (which
relates to countries economic and institutional environment and not to farm
size).180
Thus,thissmallvs.largescaledebateisanexampleofthekindraisedinChapter1,
a situation where a discussion about policies that will have longterm effects is
beingdrivenbyafocusonshorttermissues(inthiscasethe consequencesofthe
foodpricecrisis).Bytargetingfoodproductiononly,itfailstotakeintoaccountthe
broader role that agriculture plays in economic development and forgets its
contributiontostructuraltransformation.
Knowing that currently the majority of rural people are involved in family
agriculture,andthatnonfarmactivitiesarebothdirectlyandindirectlysupported
by farmers incomes (and will develop with their improvement), the relevant
questionforruraldevelopmentthenconcernsthetypeofagriculturaldevelopment
modelwhichwillofferthebestoutcomesintermsofoverallrevenues,employment,
andpovertyalleviation.
Thisobservationsuggeststhatifgovernmentsweretoencouragelargemanagerial
farmswhich most probably would mean new technical systems and
mechanizationtheywouldriskhamperingthedevelopmentoflaboropportunities
relatedtomorelaborintensivefamilyagriculture.Inthislight,therecenttrendof
largelandpurchasesinAfricabyforeignoperatorsistroublingandparadoxical.As
reminded by Brooks (2010), large numbers of African young people with
179 See Hazell et al. (2007b), Wiggins (2009), BinswangerMkhize et al. (2009). There are few
exceptions to the lack of economies of scale in agriculture. They are mostly related to the
transformationorpackagingofperishableproducts.Byerlee&Deninger(2010)alsoshowthatnew
computer related technologies for farm management and technical operations could challenge this
historicaladvantageofsmallfarms.
180 The study confirmed existing economies of scale for some specific products (oil palm,
horticulture)andpointedtheadvantagesoflargescaleforreachinghighqualityrequirements.
197
agriculturalexperiencearejoiningthelaborforce,(when)thelandthatcouldsecure
theirfuturesmaypassunderlongtermrightstoforeignersbecauseofconstraintson
capitalandpropertyrights.
These arguments have strong consequences in terms of policy design. They mean
that, among the many policy ingredients related to public goods provision and
market improvements, a priority is to focus on land access and land rights, a
conclusionconfirmedbytheProgramssurveyresultswhichshowthatlandaccess
remainsthemostcriticaldeterminantoffarmincome(seesection1.1,thischapter).
In countries that are deeply constrained in terms of land availability, the only
solution for increasing both farm income and farm employment is through labor
intensive improvements in land productivity. Although input markets are a main
stumblingblock(intermsofaccessandcosts),theadoptionoftechnicalinnovations
at the farm level offers a wide range of sustainable answers.181 They imply secure
landtenurewithoutwhicheconomicrisklevelisunacceptable.
Incountrieswhereincreasingtheamountoffarmlandundercultivationremainsan
option,unlockingaccesstothisresourcethroughinfrastructureprovision,adequate
regional planning and land rights can be a powerful means for increasing farm
incomeandfarmlabor.ThisisthecaseinmanypartsofAfrica,notablytheGuinea
savanna where only 10% of 400 million hectares of potential farm land are
currentlycultivated(WorldBank2009b).182Inthesesituations,apreliminarystep
is the cataloguing of existing resources, critical information that does not exist in
mostSSAcountries.
181 Most of these technical innovations refer to agroecological practices which have been fully
endorsed by the International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for
Development(IAASTD2009).Onecanciteimprovedcultivationpracticesandplotmanagement,like
erosion control through terracing and ground cover, agroforestry, integrated croplivestock
systems,etc.
182 In the RuralStruc countries, this is the case in Mali (the broad savanna zone near the Guinean
border in western Mali and the inland Niger delta), in Madagascar (the western and northeastern
partsofthecountry),andinNicaragua(theCaribbeancost).SeeRSICountryreports.
198
Additionally,thedifficultandrarelydiscussedquestionoflandaccessforyouthhas
toberaised.Manyyoungpeoplearelockedinagrariansystemswherelandtenure
andfarmmanagementareunderthecontroloftheelders.InSSA,younghousehold
headsmostoftenremaindependentontheirfatherorgrandfatheruntiltheelders
death, a situation that hampers initiatives and technical innovations which could
moreeasilybeadoptedbyyoungpeople.Facilitatingaccessofyoungruraldwellers
to farm land, the transmittal of farm assets to young family workers, and the
standingdownofeldersisacriticalissuethathastobetackledbypublicpolicies.It
will directly contribute to the economic insertion of youth and to agricultural
growth.
Afinalrecommendationrelatestoincreasingtheeconomiesofscaleoffamilyfarms,
which are often hindered by the relatively limited production levels of each
individual farm. This obstacle can be overcome through effective producers
organizations, though developing these groups requires adequate incentives and
supports.Producersorganizationscanfacilitatethemarketingofproductsthrough
primary collection, but also play a major role regarding investments in storage
facilities or equipment for transformation of products, and organizing profitable
inputsupply.Largervolumesofproductscanmoreoverfacilitatecontractualization
withdownstreameconomicagents(wholesalers,agribusinesses,exporters),andthe
producers organizations can use their increased bargaining power in contract
negotiation.
2.2.2 PromotingStapleCrops
IntheRuralStrucsample,stapleproductionisabove50%ofgrossfarmproductin
18outofthe30surveyedzones.Insomecasesthisnumberreachesashighas80%.
Thisresultexpressesadualreality(seeChapter5).First,itillustratestheremaining
importanceofselfconsumption.Itsshareinhouseholdsgrossfarmproductreflects
riskmanagementstrategies(supplyeffect)thathouseholdsemploytorespondtoa
persistently insecure environment (incomplete and imperfect markets and
sometimesunstablenaturalconditionswhichcanaffectthecropseason).Second,it
mirrors a potentially weak demand due to poor access to and integration with
markets(demandeffects):theimportanceofstapleshighlightsthatlackofexisting
market opportunities in the surveyed zones, as well as regional situations where
alternatives related to traditional commodities or new value chains are limited.
EvenifnonSSAsurveyedregionsdisplaymoreonfarmdiversification(theselected
Mexicanregionsbeinganexception),theimportanceofstaplemarketsisageneral
pattern. It concerns households at all income levels, as even households in richer
quintilescanbestronglyengagedinstapleproductionandcommercialization.
Theseresultsprovideevidencebasedjustificationforgivingprioritytopoliciesthat
supportstapleproductionandtheimprovementofstaplemarkets.Anditmustbe
recalledthatthisprioritywasthemainstayofthestructuraltransformationofAsian
economies,with the clear objectives of poverty alleviation, diminishingfood costs,
199
andofmanagingandslowingtheexitfromagricultureawaytoadjusttothepace
oftheoverallstructuraltransformation.
Moregenerally,thiscaseforstaplescanbesupportedbyfourbroadarguments.The
first argument refers to their inclusiveness, which results from their widespread
development:everyfarmhouseholdisengagedinstapleproduction(98%and76%
of the surveyed households in SSA and nonSSA regions respectively), while other
agricultural products concern a more limited population. Most notably, this is the
case of the oftcited high value exports, which frequently only impact tens of
thousandsofproducersinacountryorless(outofhundredsofthousandsoreven
millions).Thus,targetedpoliciespromotingandsupportingstaplescanimpactthe
overwhelmingmajorityofruralhouseholds.
Generally, staple products are not very valuable when compared to other farm
productslikehorticultureorlivestock.Theyofferalowerreturnanditisquiteclear
that a production increase in staples cannot be the only solution for poverty
alleviation.However,risingfoodpricesareresultinginprogressivelybetterreturns
tostaplefarming,andinanycasetheconstraintofrelativelylowearningsisoffset
bythebreadthofstapleproduction,whichoffersmajorleverageintermsoflabor,
overallincome,andgrowthlinkages.Bycontributingstronglytofarmincomes(and
thus rural incomes) at the aggregated level, staples can play a major role in
increasingruraldemandandfacilitatingtheemergenceofotheractivities.Thispro
staple option was a decisive component of the Asian Green Revolution, which
facilitatedtheruraltransformationofAsiancountries(Delgadoetal.1998).Itisalso
worthnotingthatitiseasierforproducerstoaccessstaplemarketsbecausetheydo
nothavethesamestandardsrequirementsthatarefoundinthemarketsforhigher
valueproducts,particularlywhenthesehighvalueproductsaresoldglobally.
The second argument is related to the critical role played by staples in risk
management. 75% and 30% of surveyed households in SSA and nonSSA regions
respectively are in the two poor groups, where the total income per adult
equivalent is below $2 PPP per day. These households face severe risks and food
insecurityispresentforasignificantshareofhouseholds.183Insuchsituations,self
consumptionandstorage(whenpossible)aretherule,andanytypeofriskrelated
to new crops, new production techniques, new marketing channels, or offfarm
diversificationiscarefullyavoided.Consequently,anyincreaseinstapleproduction
can serve as a catalyst: it contributes to risk alleviation and can therefore help
unlockthepotentialforinnovationanddiversification,bothonfarmandofffarm.
Thethirdprostapleargumentisofcoursethehugegrowthpotentialofthesector.
Asaconsequenceofdemographicgrowthnationally,regionally,worldwideand
183
In 11 out of 19 SSA surveyed regions and in two regions in Nicaragua more than 10% of
householdsarefoodinsecure(seeChapter3).
200
ofincreasingurbanization,demandforalltypesofstapleproductswillrisesteadily
overthenextdecades.Progressivechangesindietsrelatedtorisingincomeswillof
course result in the rapid development of meat, dairy, and horticulture products
(Collomb1999),butstaplesandnotablycerealswillstillaccountforthebulkof
fooddemandforyearstocome.
In the case of subSaharan Africa, staple production has by and large been quite
successfulingrowingtomeetrisingdemand(Bricasetal.2009);andthisincentive
willremaininplaceforsometimeduetothedemographicprospectsoftheregion.
The sector already represents threequarters of total agricultural output.184
Additionally,higherinternationalfoodpriceswillmeanthatcompetitionfromlow
priced imports will be less severe and will serve as a supplementary incentive for
increasing regional production. The $23 billion of food imports into subSaharan
Africa represent a lucrative business that domestic producers will be better
positionedtoattempttocapture.185
The final argument for a prostaples policy involves the huge potential for
downstream activities related to the processing of products. The initial
transformationofstapleproductsgenerallyoccurseitheratthefarmlevelforself
consumption,oratthevillagelevelforthelocalconsumption(typicallyshellingand
grinding).Butmostsalesofstaples,notablythosedirectedtourbanconsumersin
largecities,consistofrawproducts,andthevalueaddedisappropriatedbyurban
economicagents.
Given the survey results it is easy to say that policies should focus on staples, but
developing recommendations for specific policies to increase staple production
risksrecreatingthelongshoppinglistrelatedtoproductivitydiscussedabove.186
184SeeWorldBank(2008c).Theoverallvalueofstaplesalsoweightsheavilywhencomparedtototal
agricultural exports: according to Diao et al. (2007) its estimated market value in 2003 was $50
billionversus$16.6billionforexports.
185 Source: WITS/Comtrade (SITC Revison 3), year 2008, product groups 0 (food and live animals)
and4(animalandvegetaloilsandfats).Importsofcereals(productgroup04)represent39%oftotal
imports($9billion).
186 Irrigation, seeds, and fertilizer were the main ingredients of the Asian green revolution. They
werecomplementedbymassivegovernmentinvestmentsininfrastructure,research,andextension,
andalsobystrongpriceprotectionandsupport(onbothinputsandproducts).
201
However,inthecaseofsubSaharanAfrica,itappearsthattwomajorissuesmustbe
addressed up front. The first relates to postharvest losses. This is an old theme,
promotedafterthe1970sfoodcrises,thatremainsfullyrelevantduetothelackof
storage equipment in most of rural areas. Though estimates are difficult,
particularlyforrootsandtubers,therangeofpostharvestgrainlossesisgenerally
agreedtobebetween10to20%oftotaloutput.187Manyactionscanbepromoted
that relate to the whole postharvest process (sorting, drying, pestcontrol, early
processing),butgoodstorageappearstobeamajorcomponent,andonethatcanbe
supported by adapted institutional arrangements, such as warehouse receipt
systems, which can simultaneously ease the cash situation of producers and
contributetoreducingtheirlevelofeconomicrisks(WorldBank2010a).
Thesecondissuerelatestoregionaltrade.SubSaharanAfricaasawholerepresents
a huge and rapidly growing market, but it is however constrained by the heavy
political fragmentation of the continent and subsequent large number of
international borders, a situation highlighted by the WDR09. On average, in the
2000s, only 20% of SSAs agricultural exports were oriented towards other SSA
countries (Lipchitz et al. 2010). Important progresses occurred over the last two
decadesasaconsequenceofprogressiveregionalintegrationandachievementsof
the regional economic communities (RECs). Generally, tariffs on goods were
removed within regional groupings, but this did not really lead to an increase in
regional trade (Faivre Dupaigre 2007). Difficulties are related to the non
enforcement of RECs rules, to many persistent nontariffs barriers related to
standards(bothonproductsandinputs),andtoabnormalpractices,mainlyrelated
to border crossingbureaucratic hassle is often the rule.188 Political commitment
foreffectiveharmonizationandtradefacilitationmustbeakeypartofthesolution,
paralleltocontinuedsupporttoinvestmentintransportinfrastructure(Ndulu2006,
Foster&BriceoGarmendia2010)thetargetofoneofNEPADsmajorprogram.
187InEasternandSouthernAfricatheyareestimatedtovaluenearly$2billionperyear(WorldBank
2008b).Avaluetobecomparedtothe$9billionofSSAscerealsimports(seeabove).
188 A detailed analysis of prevailing trade policies and practices in West Africa (ECOWAS and
WAEMU)isprovidedinRolland&Alpha2010.
189In6outof19SSAregions,livestockproductsshareishigherthan20%ofthegrossfarmproduct.
AndallregionsinMoroccoandallbuttwoinNicaraguaregionsareabovethisthreshold.
202
2.2.3 StrengtheningRuralUrbanLinkagesforTerritorialDevelopment
The strengthening of local ruralurban linkages between small towns and their
surroundings is particularly critical for development. It has made important
contributionstoeconomictransitionallovertheworld.Thisstrengtheningcreates
better local market opportunities, facilitates access to services, builds community,
and more broadly contributes to the weaving together of a regions economic and
social fabric. These linkages progressively accelerate with increasing agricultural
outputandfarmincomes,butchangesoccurslowlyandarelikelytodevelopover
generations.
Therefore,thequestionishowtostrengthentheseconnectionsandtoreinforcethe
territorial (or regional) dimension of development, knowing that the growth of
strongandlocalizedruralurbanlinkageshasbeenchallengedoverthelastdecades
by the emergence in many developing countries of new urbanization patterns
characterized by rapid metropolization. Indeed, as discussed in Chapter 2, better
transportationnetworksinmuchoftheworldallowseasieraccesstomajorcities,
whichconcentratemoreservicesandoffersuperiorjobprospects.Thisoftenresults
instraightforwardmigrationfromruraltometropolitanareas(UNSRID2010).
This process often inhibits the development of smaller towns, where dense rural
urban and onfarmofffarm linkages could occur and offer multiplier effects for
development. Simultaneously, it complicates urban management in large cities,
whichareburdenedbyaninfluxofpoorandunskilledruralmigrantsthatfeedthe
spongelike informal urban sector. This growing population in metropolitan areas
confronts city planners with difficulties in terms of infrastructure, equipment and
services, because poor urban dwellers cannot contribute to their maintenance
(Paulais 2010 and forthcoming). It explains the growing importance of slums in
developingcountriesmetropolitanareas(UNHabitat2003).
203
economy) has powerful effects in terms of poverty reduction. This is not the case
withlargescaleurbanizationinmegacitiesaresultthatquestionsthebenefitsof
concentration stressed by the WDR09. Based on poverty data over a panel of 49
countries, Christiansen & Todo demonstrate that if agglomeration in megacities
translates into faster general growth, it also leads to higher inequality, while
diversificationintothemissingmiddlesmoothestheprocessandresultsinmore
inclusivedevelopment.
The question of how to support the linking of small cities with their immediate
surroundingsisofcourseamajorone,andithasdrawnsignificantattentionfrom
academia and development practionners over the last decades without the
emergence of any definitive recipe.190 As with general economic development and
economictransition,thereisnosilverbulletforterritorialdevelopment.However,
there are useful reminders which should guide policy makers and which relate
(again) to methodology, to local institutions, and to the strengthening of the
economic functions of small cities, for which inclusive family farm development,
staple markets and local transformation of local products (respectively the two
suggestedotherbuildingblocks)arekey.
Strengtheningtheeconomicfunctionsofsmallcitieshasofcoursetodowiththeir
connectiontomarketsandthetypeandlevelofservicestheyprovide.Animportant
caveathereisthatiftransportationinfrastructureiskeyconventionalwisdomin
the development debateit is not enough. An important result of the RuralStruc
surveysisthatwellconnectedruralareaswitheasyaccesstomajorurbancenters
190SeeamongothersDavisetal.(2002),Satterthwaite&Tacoli(2003),deFerrandietal.(2005).
191Aboutterritorialdevelopment,amajorinternationalexperiencetobecitedistheEuropeanUnion
rural development policy and its flagship programLeaderwhich provides regional structural
funding.Anumberofsuccessfulandpromisingterritorialdevelopmentexperienceshaveoccurredor
are underway in Latin America. See for instance the debates related to the nueva ruralidad (the
new rurality) and the Rural Territorial Dynamics Program managed by RIMISP (Latin American
Center for Rural Development). On nueva ruralidad see, among others, Prez et al. (2008). On a
comparison between nueva ruralidad and the European multifunctionality approach: Bonnal et al.
(2004).
204
are not necessarily betteroff than more remote areas, as exemplified by the
situationofruralhouseholdsinWesternKenyaorintheBassinarachidierinSenegal
(seeChapter3).Thisdiscussionstrengthensthedebateaboutthemissingmiddle
which is all about the quality of urbanization and not only about avoiding
excessivemetropolization.
Thus, what appears to be criticalat the regional level isthe adequate provision of
public goods (related to local administration, health, education, communication
infrastructurenot only roads), and of basic factors such as water and electricity,
which cannot easily be provided by the private sector in the first stages of
development.Thesepublicgoodsareindispensabletofacilitateprivateinvestment
and to improve living conditions of urban dwellersa condition necessary to
minimize rural depopulation towards metropolitan areas. They correspond to
spatiallytargetedpublicinterventionswhichneedtomoreoftenbetherulerather
than an individual response to a very specific situation.192 Public goods provision
can usefully be accompanied by fiscal incentives aimed at helping local service
providersandentrepreneurs.
These public investments and supports have shown their positive impact on
regionalgrowth,thedevelopmentofnonfarmemployment,andthestrengthening
of ruralurban linkages (Fan 2008). They can directly contribute to promoting a
territorial development that makes use of local assets and resources, eases value
additiontolocalproducts,andfacilitatestheprovisionofenvironmentalservices.193
192 The latter is a recommendation of the WDR09, which favors more spatially blind interventions
andlimitsspatiallytargetedinterventionstothemostdisadvantagedsituations(seeBox7).
193AsadvocatedbyGutman(2007),supplyofenvironmentalservicescouldboostruraldevelopment
and inaugurate a new type of ruralurban relationship (which he names a new ruralurban
compact). The way to promote payment for these services remains the major issue and will
necessitateanevolutionofthepolicydebate.
205
Assuch,agroclusterswhichtakeadvantageoflocalknowledge,localnetworks,and
specificgeographicaldenominationsoflocalproductscanbepowerfulengines.194
Thisperspectiveacknowledgesthemultifunctionalityofagricultureandthefactthat
it can be a driving force for rural and regional development. It can serve as the
foundation for a new ruralurban compact based on a new type of regional
governance, which would reconcile urbanists and ruralists and allow for an
effective process of structural transformation that reconnects cities with their
regionalsurroundings.
194The agrocluster approach has been quite successfully developed in several Latin American
countriesandhasfacilitatedthedevelopmentoflocalagrofoodsystemsbasedonthepromotionof
localassets.Geographicalindications,whichrefertotheuniquegeographicaloriginsofaproduct
(basedonspecificnaturalorhumanfactors),areincreasinglyreferredtointhedevelopmentdebate,
and are now strongly challenged by trade liberalization policies. They are a major topic of WTOs
TRIPSdiscussions(traderelatedaspectsofintellectualpropertyrights).Onlocalagrofoodsystems,
seeMuchniketal.(2007).Ongeographicalindications,seeGiovannuccietal.(2009).
206
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230
ANNEXES
231
232
ANNEX1
HOUSEHOLDSURVEYS
ANDDATAANALYSIS
233
1. TheSurveyInstrument
The survey instrument was designed through on a collaborative process that included
the country teams and the Program coordinators. The questionnaire was organized in
fivemodulespresentedinFigure45.
TheobjectiveofModule2AssetsandProductionFactorswastodescribeahouseholds
capital.Thiswasdonebyexaminingthestockof(andrecentchangesin)ahouseholds
endowment of assets and production factors, specifically land (owned or rented),
equipment (owned or rented), rentals, and other properties dedicated to economic
activities(andestimatesoftheresultingincomestream).
Attheendofthosefirsttwomodules,thedatacollectedallowedforafirstestimateof
thelevelofdiversificationofeconomicactivities,householdearnings,assetsevolution,
andeconomic,humanandsocialcapital.Thecollecteddataalsogaveinformationabout
someoftheindicatorsofeconomicandsocialvulnerability.
Module3OnFarmActivitiesaimedtoadetailedunderstandingofonfarmactivities
(crops,livestock,fishing,huntingandgatheringactivities,processingonfarmofvegetal
andanimalproducts).Aspecificmodule(Module3bis)wasdesignedtotakeintoaccount
market integration and contractualization issues. Since those issues applied neither to
allcropsandlivestockproductionsnortoallhouseholds,Module3biswasonlyusedon
anasneeded"basis.ThedatacollectedbyModule3allowedfortheestimationoftotal
onfarmincome(initsbroadsense)basedonfarmersstatementsabouttheirownlevels
ofsalesandselfconsumption.Farmoutputwasestimatedforthelastcropseasonprior
tothesurvey.
Module 5 Trajectories and Projects related to the life cycle of the household, the
professional trajectory of its head, and its prospects for the future. It included open
ended and qualitative questions, which explored issues related to parents activities,
234
development of nonfarm activities, and the economic outlook for children in terms of
activitiesandfarmtransferability.Qualitativedynamicinformationwasalsocollectedin
module 5 in order to appreciate household heads perceptions in terms of assets
endowment (past and future evolution), food security, livelihoods, housing and living
conditions,etc.
Figure45:FrameworkoftheRuralStrucHouseholdSurveys
2
Assets&Capital
1 Land&Workforce
RuralHousehold Equipment
PropertiesandRentals
Demography,Education
Socialcapital,Housing
OffFarmActivities, 4
Migrations,Transfers
Expenditures
Savings,Credit
3 Foodsecurity
Onfarm Activities Livelihood
Crops,livestock
OnFarmprocessing
Hunting,Fishing,Gathering
3bis
Contracts
This common survey framework was complemented at the national level by specific
contextrelatedquestions,suchas inregardstopublic supportprogramsinMexico.In
Mali,thehouseholdsurveywasimplementedattheleveloftheheadofthefamilyfarm
and was also complemented by specific surveys targeting dependent households and
women.
Inordertodealwiththeconstraintsofaoneshotsurvey(onlyoneinterview,which
preventedanydoublecheckingofresults),theimpossibilityofanytypeofmeasurement
(only declarative data was obtained), and the absence of any benchmarking based on
previoussurveys,theProgramdesignedalargesurveyinstrumentthatallowedforthe
195http://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/670
235
crossanalysis of the information collected. The size of the instrument was justified by
the need to collect very extensive data in order to accurately estimate agricultural
incomes.Thisrequiredanextensivereviewofendowmentsofproductionfactorsandof
theeconomicresultsofthefarm.Asaconsequence,thetimeneededtoadministerthe
questionnaire was quite substantial: between 1 to 4 hours, depending on the size and
thecomplexityofthehouseholdsdemographic,activityandincomestructures.InMali,
thesurveyofalargefamilyfarmoftentookonefullday(seeRSIIMali).
2. ImplementationoftheRuralHouseholdSurveys
Withtheobjectiveof300to400surveyedhouseholdsperregion(i.e.,between900and
1,200 surveys per country), national teams engaged in the sampling process in two
steps. The first step was to select specific localities (villages or communities) to be
surveyedinwithineachtypeofregion(winning,losing,orintermediary),anditwas
done in consideration of regional characteristics and national team expertise. The
second step was the sampling itself, which was done based on existing census lists or
specificlocalityhouseholdlistspreparedespeciallyforthisprogram.Then,households
were selected at random, targeting a sufficient number of households per locality
allowingrepresentativenessatlocallevel.
The different tasks of surveyor selection, training, and instrument testing were
undertaken based on national teams own resources and survey capacity, or through
existing partnerships. In Senegal, Mali, Kenya, Morocco and Nicaragua, surveyors were
specificallyhiredandtrained.Surveyorswereoftenselectedfromwellknownsurveyor
pools.Inothercases,surveyorswereidentifiedlocallythroughaselectionprocessbased
ontheirskillsandtheirgoodknowledgeoflocalconditions.InMadagascar,thesurvey
was implemented under an agreement with the ROR (Rseaux des Observatoires
RurauxRural Observatories Network), whereby the ROR surveyors administered the
RuralStruc instrument during the annual ROR survey. In Mexico, the activity was
implementedbyaprivateconsultancyspecializedinsurveys.
InthesevenRuralStruccountries,8,061ruralhouseholdsurveyswereconductedin26
regions and 167 localities (the number of localities per region depended on the
settlementstructure)betweenNovember2007andMay2008(Table31,Table30).
In Mali, the 634 household surveys (at family farm level) were complemented by 643
interviewswithdependenthouseholdsand749interviewswithwomen.
Table30:ImplementationScheduleoftheRuralHouseholdSurveys
2007 2008
N D J F M A M J
Kenya
Madagascar
Mali
Maroc
Mexique
Nicaragua
Sngal
Source:RuralStrucSurveys
236
Table31:SurveyedHouseholdsperCountry,RegionandSubregion
Average
Interviewed NbofHH
Country RegionandSubregion SelectedHH Members
HH members
perHH
Tominian 172 155 1,962 12.7
Dima 150 148 3,147 21.3
Mali Koutiala 157 153 2,328 15.2
Macina 155 154 2,056 13.4
Total 634 610 9,493 15.6
Casamance(Kolda) 249 239 3,608 15.1
Mekh(GroundnutBasinNorth) 255
Mekh1 111 1,726 15.5
Mekh2 113 1,766 15.6
Senegal Nioro(GroundnutBasinSouth) 285 252 3,182 12.6
SenegalRiverDelta(Dagana) 250
HautDelta 61 770 12.6
BasDelta 121 1,347 11.1
Total 1,039 897 12,399 13.8
Antsirabe 509
Antsirabe2 303 1,889 6.2
Antsirabe1 206 1,288 6.3
Alaotra 500
Madagascar Alaotra1 385 2,259 5.9
Alaotra2 115 817 7.1
Morondava 526 506 3,140 6.2
Itasy 503 503 3,001 6.0
Total 2,038 2,018 12,394 6.1
Bungoma 300 299 2,138 7.2
Nyando 303 285 1,896 6.7
Kenya
NakuruNorth 299 289 2,118 7.3
Total 902 873 6,152 7.0
Chaouia 302 228 1,792 7.9
Saiss 300 261 1,939 7.4
Morocco
Souss 298 240 1,539 6.4
Total 900 729 5,270 7.2
MuyMuy 311 299 1,757 5.9
Terrabona 313 281 1,581 5.6
ElViejo 317 288 1,645 5.7
Nicaragua
LaLibertad 305 290 1,692 5.8
ElCu 312 300 1,801 6.0
Total 1,558 1,458 8,476 5.8
Sotavento(Veracruz) 320
SierraSantaMarta 175 823 4.7
TierrasBajas 145 654 4.5
Mexico
Ixmiquilpan(Hidalgo) 306
Tequisquiapan(Quretaro) 364 364 1,708 4.7
Total 990 684 3,185 4.7
TOTAL 8,061 7,269 57,369 7.9
Source:RuralStrucSurveys:nationalandmergeddatasets
237
3. DataandResultsManagement
3.1 PreparationoftheDatabases
Eachnationalteamwasinchargeoftheprocessofdesigningandproducingacomplete
national database (including data capture and cleaning) based on a list of variables
previouslydiscussedattheProgramlevel.Duringthecleaningprocess,teamsengaged
in additional checks when needed, specifically by following up with the survey
implementerorbycheckinghouseholddataagainstotherknowninformationsources.
Themetadatarelatedtothatmergeddatasetprovidesadetaileddocumentationofeach
variablewhichinmostcasereferstospecificquestionsofnationalquestionnairesorare
derived from existing variables.197 The consolidation of this merged database
necessitatedadditionalcleaningofthenationaldataset.Indeed,whenanalyzingthedata
for the crosscountry work, errors and/or outliers were identified and necessary
correctionsweremade.
In fine, 7,269 households (out of 8,061 surveys) were for kept for the crosscountry
statisticalanalysis(seeTable31).
3.2 ConversionsandFormulas
3.2.1 Diversificationindex
Thediversificationindex(1HHi)isdefinedastheoppositeoftheHerfindahlHirschman
Index(HHi).
Thedefinitionoftheindexisthefollowing:
n
1
P
i 1
i
2
n
1 IHH 1
1
1
n
where i represents the different income sources (onfarm, agricultural wages, non
agricultural wages, selfemployment, public transfers, private transfers, rents), n the
numberofincomesources,andPtheshareofeveryincomesourceinthetotalincome.
196Datamining,analysisandinterpretationwereconductedbyusingboththeSPSSandStataprograms.
197Themergeddatabasedocumentationisaccessibleon:
http://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/670
238
BecausetheHHisquarestheshares,itstrengthensthemainpatternofthehousehold.It
rangesfromzero(entirelyspecialized)toone(highlydiversified).
3.2.2 ConversionintoInternationalDollars($PPP)
In order to allow for comparison between countries, the monetary results were
convertedfromlocalcurrencyunits(LCU)intointernationaldollars($PPP)(seeTable
32).
Purchasing Power Parities (PPPs) are currency conversion rates that convert local
currenciesto a common currency named the international dollar or $PPP, inorderto
compare costs of living across countries. PPPs are needed because goods and services
havewidelyvaryingpricesacrosscountries(notablyforthenoncommercializeditems)
whenconvertedintoacommoncurrency,usingmarketexchangerates.
However,PPPsconversionratespresentlimitations.First,theyarebasedonaselection
ofconsumableitemspricesforallcountriesinthecomparison.Consequently,thePPP
estimates for developing countries are unduly influenced by the consumption baskets
and spending habits of their developed counterparts. Second, PPPs are derived using
nationalaverageexpenditureweights.Therefore,goodsthatareimportanttothepoor
andcomprisealargepartoftheirexpenditurecarryproportionallylessweight.198
Table32:AverageConversionRatesbetweenLocalCurrencyUnit(LCU)and$PPP
LCU $PPP
Mali CFAFranc 239.6
Senegal CFAFranc 258.6
Madagascar Ariary 758.7
Kenya KenyanShilling 34
Morocco Dirham 4.8
Nicaragua Cordoba 6.7
Mexico MexicanPeso 7.3
Source:DevelopmentDataPlatform,WorldBank2009
Note:theperiodofreferenceisJanuary2007April2008
3.2.3 ConversionintoAdultEquivalent(EqA)
Percapitameasuresdonotdealwithdifferentdemographichouseholdstructuresand,
consequently, present serious drawbacks because they ignore household members
differentiatedneedsdependingonageandgender.Thisiswhyhouseholddemographic
structureswereconvertedintoadultequivalentvalues(EqA).
198SeeWorldDevelopmentIndicators2008,pp.111.
239
Many sophisticated methods exist for EqA conversion, notably based on expenditure
structures and economies of scale (Deaton & Zaldi 2002); but the Program selected a
simple approach based on nutritional needs as defined by the World Health
Organization(see
Table 33). This choice is, of course, disputable: being based on nutrition criteria, the
scale overemphasizes the role of food consumption. However, because food
consumptionisthemainexpenditureofpoorhouseholds,thisoptionisagoodproxyto
estimate. Although it creates a bias for the richer quintiles and the richer countries of
the sample, like Mexico, such a conversion method is still more appropriate than the
OECDscale,whichfocusesoneconomiesofscaleinservicesand housing andstrongly
underweightschildren,youngadults,andanyadditionalhouseholdmember.199
Table33:ConversioninAdultEquivalents
3.2.4 ConversionintoKilocalories(KCal)
In order to estimate the capacity of every household to sustain its basic food
consumption needs, households incomes were converted from $ PPP to Kilocalories
(Kcal). The conversion was made with reference to cereals, knowing that they are the
maincomponentofdietsineverysurveyedregion.
Themaincerealofeachzone(orbasketofcerealsinthecaseofMali)wasused,andthe
conversion between Kilograms (Kg) of cereals and Kilocalories was made by applying
theKcalequivalentsofferedintheFAOsFoodBalanceSheets(FAO2001).Thepricesof
cereals are those that the RuralStruc surveys used to estimate the value of self
consumption(seebelow).
199ThesocalledOECDmodifiedequivalencescaleassignsavalueof1tothehouseholdhead,of0.5to
eachadditionaladultmemberandof0.3toeachchild.
240
Knowing both average cereal prices and kilocalorie ratios enabled the calculation of a
price for 1000 Kcal in $ PPP. Using this information, national teams converted the
estimatedmonetaryincomesofhouseholdsintoincomesinkilocaloriesequivalent(see
Table34).
Table34:EstimationoftheAverageCaloriePriceforCerealsintheSurveyedRegions
241
3.2.5 ConversionintoLivestockUnits(LU)
Table35:CoefficientofconversionintoLivestockUnits(LU)
Cattle(allanimals) 0,74
Adultcattle 1
Youngcattle(2to4years) 0,6
Veal(lessthan2years) 0,25
Horse 1
Donkey 0,5
Goat/Sheep 0,12
Pork 0,16
Poultry 0,004
Ostrich 0,14
Source:Zibetal.(2005)
3.3 AdditionalCommentsandLimitations
Estimatingonfarmincomesisalwaysachallengebecauseofthecomplexityoffarming
systemsandtheinterannualvariationsofcropandlivestockproductions,amongother
things.Duetoconstraintsrelatedtothesurveydesignandbudget,andinordertoavoid
overlylongandunmanageablequestionnaires,theProgramchosetodetermineonfarm
incomethroughtheestimationofproductionoutputsandofoverallproductioncosts.
Severalchoicesweremadecollectivelyduringmethodologicalworkshops(seeAnnex2).
Theyaddressedspecificallythefollowingissues.
Selfconsumptionvaluewasestimatedattheindividualproducerspricelevel,exceptin
Madagascarwheretheteamusedthemedianmarketpriceineachsurveyedvillage.As
opposed to a method based on the cost of factors used in the production process, this
methodincreasesthevalueofselfconsumption.Itishowevereasierandmorereliable
duetothelackofsystematicmarketpricesforproductionfactors;anditisequivalentto
the income the household would have spent had it bought on the market the same
basketoffoodthatitactuallyconsumed.
Livestockproductionincomeestimatesweremadeusingacashflowapproach,i.e.,one
thatconsideredonlythesaleofliveanimals(rearedonthefarm),thesaleoflivestock
products, and the related production costs (veterinary, feed, shepherding, etc.). It
explicitlyignoredstockvariations.Thispracticaloption,whichresultedfromconditions
inthesurvey,certainlyledtoanunderestimationofoveralllivestockincomebecauseit
did not value the natural growth of the herd and it did not take into account the
purchases of live animals (which can be related to capitalization). However, the
consequencesofthischoiceregardingonfarmcostsandonfarmincomearemitigated
bytheconditionsofthesurveyedregions:veryfewhouseholdsinvestedincattleover
242
the surveyed year, a fact confirmed when analyzing the evolution of livestock units at
the farm level. The only exceptions were in Mexico and Nicaragua where some farm
householdsengagedinintensivecommerciallivestockproduction.
Production costs were estimated at the overall farm level for crop and livestock
production, for processing of agricultural products, and for other activities related to
gathering, hunting and fishing. More detailed information would have required data
collection at the plot level which was not possible within the existing survey design.
Costswereestimatedbasedonfarmersdeclarations,verifiedandconsolidatedbyusing
additionalinformationcollectedbeforethesurveyonyields,levelsofintensification,and
unitcostsofinputs.Nevertheless,costswerepossiblyunderestimated.
243
244
ANNEX2
COLLABORATIVEFRAMEWORK
ANDDISSEMINATIONPROCESS
245
1. AKnowledgeSharingProcess
AlthoughtheRuralStucProgramisadonorinitiative,itwasofcourseimplementedonly
after presentation to, discussion with, and acceptance by official counterparts in the
seven survey countries. The World Bank officially introduced the Programsobjectives
and expected outputs in each country between November 2005 and March 2006
(throughinformationmissionsandofficialcorrespondence).
ThedecisiontoimplementtheProgramthroughlocalteamswastakeninordertofoster
ownership of the Programs core themes, facilitate the knowledge process (data
collecting, mining, analysis, results sharing, and dissemination), and provide more
credibility when feeding the policy making process. Although this was not the easiest
waytoimplementtheProgram(transactioncostswerehigh)ithaspaidoff,especiallyin
referencetothepolicydebate.
1.1 CountryPartnershipFramework
In each country of the Program, two types of partnership were identified, one at the
institutionallevelandasecondattheoperationallevel(Table36).
Table36:ExistingPartnershipintheRuralStrucCountries
ProgrammedActionpourle
Madagascar APBConsulting
DveloppementRural(PADR)
InstitutAgronomiqueetVtrinaireHassanII(IAV)(PhaseI)
ConseilGnralduDveloppement
Morocco IngnieursConseilsenEconomieetEnvironnement(Icon2e)
Agricole(CGDA)
(PhaseII)
MinisterioAgropecuarioyForestal InstitutodeInvestigacinAplicadayPromocindelDesarrollo
Nicaragua
(MAGFOR) Local(NitlapnUniversidadCentroamericana)
SecretaradeAgricultura,Ganadera,
Mexico DesarolloRural,PescayAlimentacin FacultadLatinoamericanadeCienciasSociales(FLACSO)
(SAGARPA)
Theinstitutionalcounterpartswereeitherpublicbodiesorplatformsforpolicydebate
thatwereinterestedbytheobjectivesoftheRuralStrucProgram,inthedisseminationof
its results, and in feeding discussions about the future of agriculture and rural
development.
The operational partners in charge of the implementation of the research work were
locally based private consulting bodies, research institutions or universities, and
sometimes,adhocteamsspecificallysetupfortheProgram.Theywereselectedbysole
246
sourcingbasedontheidentificationofexistingandpossiblepartnerships200orthrough
acallfortender.
1.2 ThePartnershipatWork
Between the launching workshop of the RuralStruc Program in April 2006 and June
2009, the national teams and the coordination team engaged in continuous exchanges
that intensified with the launching and ending of each phase and with the several
workshopspresentedinTable37.
Three general workshops that assembled the seven national teams were held. In
addition, specific country or regional workshops or meetings were organized for the
preparation of the Second Phase.201 These meetings were the opportunity to finetune
the objectives, discuss difficulties and reach consensus on the methodology and the
expectedoutputs.
Table37:RuralStrucWorkshops(20062008)
Dates Location
GeneralWorkshops
Phase2LaunchingCountry&
RegionalWorkshops
200ToidentifythepossibleoperationalpartnerinNicaragua,supportwasprovidedtothecoordination
team by RUTA (Unidad regional de asistencia tcnica), platform for sustainable development in Central
America.
201InMorocco,duetooperationaldifficultiesforthelaunchingoftheSecondPhase,therewasnospecific
workshopbutinsteadseveralmeetingsinordertoprepareSecondPhaseimplementation.
247
theSecondPhaseisillustrativeofthisprocess.InNovemberandDecember2007,after
the country and regional workshops, high email traffic between and with the teams
allowed the Program to reach an agreement on the design of the household survey
instrument (the final version was the 15th iteration of the design). National teams
adaptedthestandardinstrumentinconsiderationoflocalspecificities,andthecountry
questionnaire(aswellasthegeneralcountrysurveydesign)wasthenvalidatedbythe
coordinationteam.
2. DisseminationofResults
2.1 AttheCountryLevel
BecauseoneoftheProgramsobjectiveswastocontributetothenationalpolicydebates,
theoriginaldesignrequiredthecountryteamstoorganizeaseriesofeventsthroughout
thecourseofthework,butspecificallyoneeachaftercompletionoftheFirstPhaseand
theSecondPhase.TheywereheldaccordingtotheschedulepresentedinBox25below.
These meetings or oneday workshops targeted different audiences depending on the
localsituationandonthedynamicsofthenationaldebate.202
The dissemination of final results started in 2010 in Mali and Senegal with two
workshops gathering institutional counterparts, government bodies and ministries,
farmersorganizations,donors,researchinstitutions,andmedia.Inthesetwocountries,
thedebatesweresupportedbysetsofpolicybriefspreparedbythecountryteamsthat
addressedthemainoutcomesoftheProgram.TeamsinMadagascarandNicaraguahave
also engaged in the preparation of such policy briefs. The continuation of the
disseminationprocessinthedifferentcountrieswilldependonlocalopportunitiesand
politicalagendas.
2.2 AttheInternationalLevel
SincethelaunchoftheProgramin2006,resultshavebeenprogressivelydisseminated
at the international level by the national teams and the coordination team through
participation in workshops, seminars and conferencesa process which will continue
overthemediumterm(Box26).Additionally,earlycontributionshavebeenpublished
bythenationalteamsandthecoordinationteaminjournalsorbookchapters.203
202 The Kenyan team did not formally present its results. This situation was initially related to political
events (the period before the 2008 presidential election prevented any presentation of the First Phase
results and complicated the launching of the Second phase). Then a change in the research team
managementandteammemberscomplicatedthenecessaryfollowupwiththeinstitutionalpartner.
203Seethefollowingreferencesinthebibliography:Anseeuwetal.(2008),Dabatetal.(2008),Frguin
Greshetal.(2010),Gabas&Losch(2008),Giordano&Losch(2007),Losch(2006,2007,2008,2010a,b,c)
andLosch&FrguinGresh(forthcoming).
248
TheworkshopstitlewasRuralrestructuringandthedifficultwaysofspecializationor
diversification: Lessons from a crosscountry approach. It was complemented by an
invited panel organized by the Program titled "A world without agriculture? Historical
trends,statisticalevidenceandharshreality:thechallengeofstructuraltransformationin
aglobalizedeconomy".
The Program also coorganized a parallel session of the ABCDE 2009 Conference in
Seoul, Korea, on the The GrowthEmployment Challenge: A Comparative Approach
betweenAsianEconomicTransitionsandAfricaToday.Thecontributioninthepanelwas
AfricasTrapsandChallenges:WhatCanWeLearnfromEastAsia?
Box25:DisseminationProcessoftheResultsintheRuralStrucCountries
Madagascar
September2006roundtableonthefirstresultswithministries,donors,universityandresearchers
May2007presentationoftheFirstPhasereporttoministries,donors,universityandresearchers
November2008Platformofthedonorsforruraldevelopment(SMBSecrtariatmultibailleurs)
Mali
November2006roundtableonthefirstresultswithministries,chamberofagriculture(APCAM),rural
producersorganizations(AOPP),andconsumersassociation
December2007Ministryinchargeofagriculture,GeneralSecretarypresentationoftheFirstPhase
reportandoftheobjectivesofthesecondphase
November2010Platformofthedonorsforruraldevelopement
April2010finalworkshopdiscussionoftheSecondPhaseresultsitspolicyimplicationsto
institutionalcounterparts,farmersorganizations,donors,andresearchers
Mexico
June2010presentationofthemainresultsoftheProgramCentroTepoztln(Tepoztln,Morelos)
Morocco
December2006ConseilGnraldudveloppementAgricole(CGDA)presentationofthePrograminthe
5thInsitutionalSeminaroftheCGDA
March2007ConseilGnraldudveloppementAgricole(CGDA)presentationoftheFirstPhasereport
November2008ConseilGnraldudveloppementAgricole(CGDA)presentationoftheSecondPhase
reportinthe7thInsitutionalSeminaroftheCGDA(Ifrane)
Nicaragua
September2007workshoporganizedbytheMinistryinchargeofagriculture(MAGFOR)withthe
FinnishCooperationandtheWorldBank
Senegal
March2007InitiativeProspectiveAgricoleetRurale(IPAR)presentationoftheFirstPhasereport
June2007presentationoftheFirstPhasereporttothesevenruralproducersorganizationsplatforms
ofSenegal
July2007presentationtotheMouvementsocialpourleDveloppement(MSD)Platform
July2007debateattheUniversityCheikhAntaDiopofDakar,coorganizedwithEditionsClairafrique
January2008Ministryinchargeagriculture,DAPSpresentationoftheFirstPhaseresults,ofthe
disseminationprocess,andoftheobjectivesofthesecondphase
November2009Platformofthedonorsforruraldevelopment
June2010finalworkshopdiscussionoftheSecondPhaseresultsanditspolicyimplicationsto
institutionalcounterparts,farmersorganizations,donors,andresearchers
November2010presentationofthemainresultsoftheProgramtotheInternationalConference
CommentlesexploitationsfamilialespeuventnourrirleSngalorganizedbyFONGSandCNCR.
249
Box26:InternationalDisseminationofResults
Brussels,September27,2006:MeetingoftheEUHeadsofRuralDevelopmentDepartments.
Geneva,June14,2007:Lecture,InstitutUniversitairedEtudesduDveloppement(IUED).
Berlin,June1821,2007:2ndEuropeanForumonSustainableRuralDevelopmentinAfrica.
Montpellier, September 4, 2007: Journe dchange Pour une recherche agronomique ouverte sur le
monde.CIRAD.
Johannesburg,September2628,2007:45thAnnualConferenceoftheAgriculturalEconomicsAssociation
ofSouthAfrica.
Paris, November 67, 2007: Forum international Equit et Dveloppement. HCCI OCDE Banque
mondialeRseauImpact.
NewYork,February28March1,2008:MigrationandDevelopment:FutureDirectionsforResearchand
Policy,Conference.SocialScienceResearchCouncil.
Beijing, March 56, 2008: Inclusive Business in Agrifood Markets: Evidence and Action, International
ConferenceoftheRegoverningMarketsProgram.
CransMontana,September1720,2008:1stConferenceoftheGenevaTradeDevelopmentForum(GTDF).
WashingtonDC,October14,2008:MigrationChallengesinanIntegratingWorld,SpecialEvent.Carnegie
EndowmentforInternationalPeace.
Poindimi, October 2730, 2008: Ruralit et Dveloppement durable Ateliers sur les enjeux et les
politiquesdedveloppementrural.Institutagronomiquecaldonien.
Windhoek,February910,2009:AfricanAgricultureinthe21thcentury:MeetingtheChallenges,Makinga
Sustainable Green Revolution. Highlevel CSD InterSessional Meeting, United Nations, Commission on
SustainableDevelopment.
Rome,May8,2009:IFADPolicySeminarontheFirstResultsoftheRuralStrucProgram.
Paris,May1920,2009:8thPartnershipmeetingonruraldevelopmentinWesternandCentralAfrica.AFD
WorldBank.
RiodeJaneiro,May1114,2009:LASAXXVIIIInternationalCongress(LatinAmericanStudiesAssociation).
Johannesburg, June 1519, 2009: Program of Support to Farmers Organizations in Africa StartUp
InternationalWorkshop.SouthernAfricanConfederationofAgriculturalUnions(SACAU).
Seoul, June 2224, 2009: Annual Bank Conference on Development Economics. ABCDE Korea 2009
Conference.
Beijing,August1622,2009:27thInternationalConferenceofAgriculturalEconomists(IAAE).
Wageningen,February2728,2010:ForwardThinkinginAgricultureandFoodWorkshop.FI4IARCTA.
AddisAbaba,April16,2010:WorkshopontheRuralStrucProgram.EconomicCommissionforAfrica.
Brussels, June 16, 2010: Youth and Rural Development in ACP Countries. 19th Brussels Development
Briefings,CTAACPEU
Cambridge(MA),August19,2010:LectureontheRuralStrucProgramResults.HarvardJ.F.KennedySchool
ofGovernement.
AddisAbaba,October13,2010:RuralFuturesProgramLaunch.NPCAandECA.
Lund, October 14, 2010: Rural Economies and Structural Transformation. Development Research Day,
LundUniversity.
Ouagadougou,December68,2010:Colloqueinternationalsurlagricultureafricaine,CEDRES.
250
ANNEX3
MAINCHARACTERISTICS
OFTHESURVEYEDREGIONS
251
Mali
Region TOMINIAN DIEMA KOUTIALA MACINA
Apriori Classification Losing Intermediary Winning Winning
32inhabitants/km.Highdependency 12inhabitants/km.Highemigrationto 41inhabitants/km.Limitedemigration. HighdensityintheOfficeduNigerarea
ratio(1.1).Seasonalemigrationstomain foreigncountries(Africancountries, Highpressureonlandduetointernal butregionalaverageof18
Populationcharacteristics citiesofthecountry(Bamako,Sgouet Europe,USA). migrationstothecottonzone. inhabitants/km.Highimmigrationtrend
Sikasso) relatedtotheirrigationschemeincluding
fromothercountries.
Mainlyruralarea(nocityexceeding5,000 Dima:10,900inh.Maincrossroadofthe Koutiala:97,800inh.(est.2010).Good Macina:lessthan5,000dwellers.Good
inhabitantsin1998).Atarmacroadserves roadsBamakoKayesDakarandBamako accessibilitywith4nationaltarmacroads accessibilitywithintheirrigationscheme
Accessibilityand
thetownofTominiananddirtroadsserve NioroMauritania.Kayes:87,000inh. (notablythemainroadBamakoBurkina (exceptduringtherainyseason)anda
proximitytomajorcities
theotherlocalitieswithverydifficult (est.2010). FasoCted'Ivoire)andanetworkofdirt tarmacroadtoSgoulocatedat80km
andmarkets
accessibilityduringtherainyseason. roads (116,000inh.est.2010)
252
IBRD 37682
MAY 2010
HOUSEHOLD SURVEY ZONES
PROVINCE CAPITALS
0 100 200 300 Kilometers
NATIONAL CAPITAL
REGION BOUNDARIES 0 50 100 150 300 Miles
INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES
10W 5W 0 This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank.
The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on
this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment
on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of
such boundaries.
25N
MALI
ALGERIA
20N 20N
TOMBOUCTOU KIDAL
M A U R I TA N I A
Kidal
Tombouctou GAO
(Timbuktu) Niger R.
Gao
DIMA
MACINA 15N
O
15N
MOPTI
OR
Kayes NIGER
Mopti
IK
UL
K AY E S Sgou
KO
SIERRA GHANA
LEONE NIGERIA
CTE DIVOIRE
10W 5W 0
253
Senegal
Region DELTA BassinArachidierNIORO BassinArachidierMEKHE CASAMANCE
254
IBRD 37684 16W 14W
MAY 2010
HOUSEHOLD SURVEY ZONES
BAS DELTA HAUT DELTA M A U R I TA N I A REGION CAPITALS
NATIONAL CAPITAL
16N
Saint- 16N 0 25 50 75 100 Kilometers
Louis
0 25 50 75 Miles
Matam
Louga
LOUGA
TIVAOUANE
MEKHE M ATA M
CAP-
VERT This DIOURBEL
Diourbel
DAKAR THIS
FATICK KAOLACK
Fatick
Kaolack
14N
NIORO 14N
Tambacounda MALI
TAMBACOUNDA
THE
GAMBIA
ATL ANTIC KOLDA
OCEAN
ZIGUINCHOR SEDHIOU Kolda CASAMANCE
Ziguinchor
This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank.
The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on GUINEA-BISSAU
this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment
on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of GUINEA
12N such boundaries. 12N
18W 16W 14W 12W
255
Madagascar
Region ANTSIRABE ITASY ALAOTRA MORONDAVA
2subregions.Oneisservedbyadirtroad
(mediumaccessibility),whichcanbeused
Regionservedbyamajorhihway(RN43)
Accessibilityand bycollectivetransport,whiletheotheris Dirtroadortarmacroad(RN44)=> Dirtroadsorpathswithoutbridges,which
manylocalaccessibilityissues.Nearnessof
proximitytomajorcities moredifficulttoaccess(stonydirtroad). mediumaccessibilityduetohigh implydifficultiesduringtherainyseason.
thethecapitalcity,Antananarivo(pop.1.7
andmarkets Nearthethirdmajorcityofthecountry: difficultiesduringtherainyseason NearthecityofMorondava(pop.40,000)
million).
Antsirabe(pop.183,000).Easyaccessto
thecapitalcity.
Locatedalongtheeasternescarpment
LocatedbetweentheHighlandsandthe Locatedonthewestcoast(altitude5075
LocatedintheCentralHighlands(altitude (altitude700m)characterizedbythe
LowlandsoftheMiddleWestofthe m)composedofsedimentaryformations
1,5001,900m)characterizedbyred presenceoftheLacAlaotra,thelargest
country(10501450m),characterizedby thatallowbroadalluvialplains,whichare
Agroecological lateriticsoilsandtropicalhighland bodyofwaterontheislandwhichisina
volcanicformations(LakeItasyitselfis believedtohavegreatagricultural
characteristics temperateclimate(meanof13to18C largefaultcontrolledbasinandisknown
foundinavolcaniccrater)tropical potential.Theclimateistropicaltowetdry
withmorningfrostinwinter,1,300to fortheisland'smostfertileandproductive
highlandclimate(meanof20C,1,350to tropical(25to27C,750to1,250mmof
1,950mmofrain) ricefields.Theclimateissemiwettropical
1,700mmofrain) rain)
(1,091mmofrain,17to24C)
Riceandothertemperatecereals(wheat,
barley),fruitandvegetables(potatoes, Rice,fruit(tropicalfruitssuchaspapaya,
Mainagricultural tomatoes,carrots,onions,temperatefruits avocadosetc.)andvegetables,tobacco, Rice,roots(cassava)cattle(draftoxen), Rice,beans(Phaseoluslunatus ),maize,
productions suchasapples,pears,peaches,etc.),cattle roots,cattle(draftoxen),porkandpoultry, porkandpoultry,fishery(LakeAlatotra) cattle(draftoxen)
(dairyproductsanddraftoxen),porkand fishery(LakeItasy)
poultry
KOBAMA(wheat),MALTO(barleyfor
Existingagribusinessesor breweryindustry),TIKOandSOCOLAIT LECOFRUIT(greenbeans),OFMATA Privatericebuyers(ROGER,SILAC,
Privateactors(maize,beans)
integrationprocesses (dairy),FIFAMANORandprivateactors (tobacco) FANAMBY,etc.)
(potatoes)
Tradeandhandicrafts(embroidery, Mostly,agriculturallaboropportunitiesin
Existingjobopportunities Tradeandhandicraft(embroidery) Charcoalproduction,trade
basketry) thericeindustry
256
45E 50E IBRD 37686
JUNE 2010
COMOROS
Antsiranana
Mayotte
(France)
ANTSIRANANA
MADAGASCAR l
e
n
n
a
h
15S C 15S
e
u
iq Mahajanga
b MAHAJANGA
m
a
z
INA
o
M
MAS
ALAOTRA
TOA
A N TA N A N A R I V O Toamasina
ITASY
ANTANANARIVO
INDIAN
OCEAN
20S 20S
ANTSIRABE
Fianarantsoa
MORONDAVA
50E
FIANARANTSOA
257
Kenya
Region NakuruNorth Bungoma Nyando
Bungoma:officially75,000inhab.(2000).
Thedistrictispartofthe"Western
conurbation",oneofthefastestgrowing Ahero:70,000inh.(est.2010),located30
Theregionhasmanyclassifiedroads,half
urbanareas,withanestimatedpopulation kmeastofKisumu,officiallythethird
ofthembeingtarmacroads.Goodaccessto
Accessibilityand of3.9million(2010).Theregionshares largestcityinKenya(332,000in2000),
Nakuru(219,366),thefourthlargesttown
proximitytoofmajor borderswithUganda.Poorroadnetwork butalsopartofthe"Westernconurbation".
inKenya,locatedonthemain
citiesandmarkets (165kmoftarmacroadsonly),mainly TarmachighwaywithKisumu,Kerichoand
transportationcorridor(Mombassa
impassableduringrainyseason,lackof Kisiibutmanylocaldifficultiesrelatedto
Kampala).
rivercrossingsandproperbridges.The flooding
railwaycrossesthedistrictwithmain
stationsinBungomaandWebuye
Locatedbetween9001800mwithannual
Goodsoils,generallyabundant,andwell Largeplains(AwachandNyandorivers)
rainfallbetween950and1500mm,the
distributedrainfall,makingitan butfacingperennialfloodinganderosion.
Agroecological regionhasahighpotentialforagriculture
agriculturallyproductivearea.Several SeriesofhillsandscarpstotheSouth,and
characteristics andlivestock.TheregionishometoLake
largerivers,whichareusedforsmallscale theKanoPlainsgoingdowntoLake
Nakuru,oneoftheRiftValleylakes,andits
irrigation VictoriaintheNorthwest(bettersoils)
nationalpark.
Maize,groundnuts,beans,sorghum,
Maize,beans,potatoes,andsorghumfor cassava,sweetpotatoes(mainlyfor
Largevarietyofcrops:wheat,maize,millet, subsistence.Sugarcane,tobaccoandcoffee subsistence).Themaincashcropissugar
Mainagricultural beans,pyrethrum,tea,coffee,potatoesand forthecashcrops.Productionof cane,producedbyindividualhouseholds
productions vegetables.Cattleranching,poultryand horticulturalcrops(passionfruits, andestates.Cottonandricearenow
beekeepingarealsolargelydeveloped. tomatoes,onions,citrusandcapsicum)in residual.Dairyfarmingandcoffee
somedistricts productioncanbesuitedinthehigher
altitudes
NzoiaSugarCompany,MalakisiGinnery,
KabaziCannersandSubukiaTeaand MillingsugarcanefactoriesinMuhoroni
Existingagribusinessor BritishAmericanTobaccoandMastermind
CoffeeLtdareleadingagrobusinesses (indifficulty)andMiwani(closed).Cotton
integrationprocesses TobaccofactoriesandKitindaDairiesfor
relyingonlocalsupply. ginneriesstopped
milkprocessing
Themanytownslocatedaroundthe
Theindustriesintheregionproviding Verylimitedduetotheextremelypoor
districtsuchasNakuru,Gilgiland
employmentopportunitiesinclude stateoftheexistingvaluechains,the
Nyahururuhavemanybusinessesand
Existingjobopportunities WebuyePaperMills,EastAfricaHeavy insufficientprovisionofpublicgoods,and
industrieswhichoffermanynonfarm
Commercials,andtheseveralagro thelowlevelofincomes.NearbyKisumu,
employmentopportunities.Tourismiswell
industries themajortown,facesrecession.
developedandhasalargepotential.
258
DA IBRD 37685
Kitale 0 20 40 60 80 KM MAY 2010
AN
PROVINCE CAPITALS
Lake NATIONAL CAPITAL
Baringo
Bungoma BUNGOMA REGION BOUNDARIES
INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES
WESTERN R I F T VA L L E Y
Kakamega Lake
Bogoria
36E 38E 40E 42E
NYANDO NAKURU
S U DA N Nyahururu
ETHIOPIA
Kisumu
NYANZA
CENTRAL
Lake Ahero
4N Nakuru 4N
Victoria Njoro
Lake Nakuru
Lake Elmenteita
34E
Lake
Tu r k a n a
UGANDA
2N 2N
R I F T VA L L E Y
Kitale SOM AL I A
NORTH
EASTERN
Bungoma WESTERN
Kakamega EASTERN
0 Nyahururu 0
Kisumu Ahero
Nakuru
La k e Njoro Nyeri Garissa
Vic tor ia NYANZA CENTRAL
NAIROBI
NAIROBI
AREA
2S 2S
COAST
TA N Z ANI A I NDI AN
KENYA
OC E AN
4S
Mombasa
0 40 80 120 160 200 Kilometers This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank.
The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on
this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment
on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of
0 40 80 120 Miles such boundaries.
38E 40E
259
Morocco
Region CHAOUIA SOUSS SAISS
Apriori Classification Losing Winning Intermediary
2
236inhabitants/km .Immigrationof 2
4050inhabitants/km (butverylarge 2
197inhabitants/km inplains,40
peoplecomingtoworkintheengineering
regionwithpeoplemainlyconcentratedin 2
Populationcharacteristics andcarpentryworkshopsofBerrechid.Old inhabitants/km inmountains,regional
urbanlocalities).Highlevelofemigration 2
emigrationtoCasablancaandtoEurope average25inhabitants/km
toEuropeinthemountain.
(fromthe1960s)
Importantroadnetwork.Dirtroadsserving
Accessibilityand smalllocalitiescanbeinbadcondition Mediumaccessibilitydependingon Mediumaccessibilitydependingon
proximitytomajorcities duringtherainyseason.Nearnessof localities(mountainareas).Easyaccessto localities(mountainareas).Easyaccessto
andmarkets Casablanca(pop.34.5m)foroneofthe Agadir(4thlargestMoroccancity) FesandMeknes.
surveyedlocalitiesJaqma(30Km)
Semiaridclimate(280380mmofvery
irregularrain,averagetemperatureof
Agroecological 24Cfrom2to45C)withhigh Aridclimate(120250mmofrain)with
Continentalclimate(255625mmofrain)
characteristics possibilityofdrought.Fertileclaysoilsin thepossibilityofseveredroughts
plains(Tirs ),rockyandsandypoorsoilsin
mountains(Hrach ,Rmel )
Horticulture,fruits(citrus,banana,almond, Cattle(dairy),tobacco,cereals,horticulture,
Mainagricultural
Cereals(wheat,),cattle,smallruminants olive),cereals,forage,saffron(inthe orchards(suchasapple,pearandolive
productions
mountainarea) trees)
Irrigationschemes.Integrationprocesses
Existingagribusinessesor
Fewagribusinesses(flour,oil,etc.) forearlyvegetablesandfruits(especially Integrationprocessesinthemilkindustry
integrationprocesses
citrus)
Manyagriculturallaboropportunities(for
Manyopportunitiesinurbanareasdueto Majoropportunitiesintradeandservices,
Existingjobopportunities industrialcrops,horticultureandfruit
theproximitytoCasablanca notablyturism
trees)
260
10W 5W IBRD 37688
MAY 2010
Settat CHAOUIRA-
CHAOUIA OUARDIGHA
R
Y
DA
HOUSEHOLD SURVEY ZONES
SOUSS-MASSA-DRA UN
BO PROVINCE CAPITALS
Agadir
NATIONAL CAPITAL
TE
30N
A
WESTERN SAHARA
261
Nicaragua
Region ELVIEJO ELCUA MUYMUY TERRABONA LALIBERTAD
Apriori Classification Winning Winning Intermediary Losing Losing
2 2 2
30inhabitants/km .Relativeproximityof 2 2 2030inhabitants/km .Highlevelof 49inhabitants/km .Relativelyrecent
Populationcharacteristics 1520inhabitants/km 3540inhabitants/km .
theSalvadoranborder emigration colonizationarea(1970s)
Atthejunctionbetweenthemunicipalities
Goodaccessibilityformostofthelocalities Mediumaccessibilitywithtarmacanddirt
Accessibilityand ofBoaco,MatiguasandMatagalpa.Good Mediumtopooraccessibilitywithdirt
withtarmacroadsordirtroads.Nearness roads.NearthecityofMatagalpa(pop. Dirtroadswithverydifficultaccessibility.
proximitytomajorcities networkconnectionsbetweenthePacific roads,butrelativeproximitytoamajor
oftownssuchasChinandega(pop. 100,000.),animportantcenterwith Secludedregion
andmarkets andcentralarea.Veryunequalqualityof tarmacroad(PanAmericanroad)
134,000)andElViejo(pop.70,000) agribusinessesrelatedtocoffeeproduction
dirtroads.EasyaccesstoMatagalpa
LocatedinthePacificplains.Mainly Locatedinthelowerhighlands(altitude
Semiaridtodryclimate(800to1,000mm Tropicalclimate(1,2001,400mmofrain)
volcanicsoilswithgoodleveloffertilityand Locatedinthehighlands(altitude600 400600m).Tropicalclimate(1,100to
Agroecological ofrain,butbadlydispersedduringthe whichallows2to3croppingseasonsfor
goodpotentialforagriculture.Tropical 1000m)withasemihumidclimate(1,500 1,500mmofrain,2426allowingfor2
characteristics winterwithpossibilityofdrought)and maizeandbeans,andfragile,easily
climate(1,1001,650mmofrainduring7 2,500mmofrain) croppingseasonsformaizeand3for
poor,erodiblesoils erodiblesoils(lowmineralfertility)
monthsinwinter) beans.Fertile(rendzine )toacidsoils
Maize,beans,roots,fruits,cattle(dairyand
Mainagricultural Sesame,sugarcane,maize,beans, meat).Manybigcattleproducersfromthe
Coffee,maize,beans,cattle(meat) Maize,beans,cattle(dairyandmeat) Maize,beans,vegetables,cattle(meat)
productions industrialsorghum,cattle dryareasareincreasinglyaccessingthe
pastures
Strongintegrationinthedairyvaluechain:
collectionoffreshmilkprocessedin
Mainindustriesandagribusinessesare Integrationprocessesforhorticulture Lowlevelofintegrationbutincreasing
Existingagribusinessesor Agribusinessrelatedtocoffeeprocessing pasteurizedcheeseforexporttoEl
locatedinthePacificPlains(cotton,sugar (withsupermarketssuchasHortiFruiti, implementationofcollectorsworkingfor
integrationprocesses andexport SalvadorandUSA(CalbriyAnael.SA)and
cane,sorghum,sesame,etc.) WalMart,etc.)fordomesticmarket thedairyindustry
localdairychains(Parmalat,Eskimoand
Prolacsa)
Agriculturallabor(e.g.sugarcaneharvest)
Agriculturallabor(coffeeharvest)andjob
oragribusinesses(oil,flour,groundnutand Mostly,agriculturallabor(coffee,cattle) Maquila industry,servicesandtrade
Existingjobopportunities opportunitiesinmaquiladoras (textile Mainlyagriculturallabor
shrimpindustry,sugarcaneandliquor andprocessingofagriculturalproducts activities
factoryinMatagalpa)
factories)inElViejoandChinandega
262
87W 86W 85W 84W 83W IBRD 37683
MAY 2010
15N 15N
Wani
Lagoon
HONDURAS
NICARAGUA
Puerto Cabezas
14N
AT L N T I C O
NUEVA NORTE
Ocotal SEGOVIA JINOTEGA
EL SALVADOR Wounta
Lagoon
Somoto
MADRIZ
EL CU
ESTEL
Estel Jinotega
13N
MATAGALPA 13N
CHINANDEGA Matagalpa
EL VIEJO MUYMUY
TERRABONA Caribbean
LON
Chinandega AT L N T I C O Sea
Lon Boaco BOACO Perlas
MANAGUA SUR Lagoon
Lake
PACIFIC OCEAN
Managua
LA LIBERTAD
MANAGUA
MASAYA Juigalpa
12N Bluefields 12N
Masaya Granada CHONTALES Bluefields
Jinotepe GRANADA Bay
0 20 40 60 Kilometers This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank.
The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on
C O S TA R I C A this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment
on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of
0 10 20 30 40 50 Miles such boundaries.
86W 85W 84W 83W
255
Mexico
Region SotaventoTierrasBajas SotaventoSierraSantaMarta Tequisquiapan
Densityofpopulation=50inh./km.Sotaventowas Densityofpopulation=55inh./km.Oldrefugearea
animmigrationareathroughoutthe20thcentury throughoutthecolonialperiodandmostofthe19th
Populationcharacteristics (duetostrongpublicpoliciesfosteringland centuryduetobigestatesexpansioninthelowlands Densityofpopulation=350km
settlementandindustrialdevelopmentinthe andremoteness.Highpercentageofindigenous
CoatzacoalcosMinatitlanarea). populationandhighpovertylevels.
LocatednorthoftheQuertaroSanJuandelRio
Accessibilityand Presenceofsmallruraltowns(Isla,Acayucan). corridorlinkingMexicoCitywiththenorthandwest
proximitytomajorcities Relativeproximityoftwomajorharbors(Veracruz Badaccessibility ofthecountry.However55%ofthetrafficislocaland
andmarkets andCoatzacoalcos).Relativelygoodinfrastructure boostedbyastrongnetworkofsecondaryhighways.
Highaccessibility.
Temperateclimate(averageof17C).Accessto
Thislowlandareaoffershighagriculturalpotential Montainarea,withconsistenterosionrisks.Low irrigationfromtheSanJuanRivertheregion.High
Agroecological relatedtoannualfloodsoftheriversandhigh potentialformechanization.TheSierradeSanta levelofpollution(aguasnegras)causedbythe
characteristics temperatures(twocroppingcycles)andthe Martahostsanaturalreserve(ReservadelaBiosfera industrialresiduesoftheneighboringdistrictofSan
possibilityofmechanization. LosTuxtlas). JuandelRio.Theregionbenefitsfromhighquality
soils
Maizedominates,grownaloneorintercroppedwith
Specializationinmaize(mainlyhybrids).Industrial Strongdevelopmentofhybridcorn.Associatedcrops beans.Animalproductionisimportant,particularly
Mainagricultural
pineappleproductionandcattlebreadinginthe likebeansandtuberculeshavegraduallybeen poultry,meatandmilk.Sorghum,alfalfaandoatsare
productions
suroundinguplands eliminatedbytheuseofherbicides. cultivatedforfeed.Mechanizationhasdeveloped.
Horticultureisagrowingsectorwithmajorinvestors.
Manyagrobusinessesrelatedtomaize,cempaschitl,
frozenandprocessedvegetables,barleyandbeer,
Existingagribusinessesor IndustrialmaizeflourprocessorsinChinameca
poultryandmilk.Vegetableagroindustryforexports
integrationprocesses (MASECA)andinJltipan(MINSA)
hasdevelopedwithcontractfarming(egLaCascada)
andalsolargefarms(ExpoHort).
Followingtherestructuringofpublicpetrochemistry ManyfactoriesinQuertaroandSanJuan
Jobopportunitiesinpineappleindustryandcattle industriesinCoatazacoalcosandMinatitlan(1990s), (automobile,aeronautics,equipmentandmachinery)
Existingjobopportunities ranches.Sameimpactoftherestructuringofthe opportunitieshavedriedandlabormigrationshave aswellasagroindustries(food,beveragesand
petrochemistryindustry(seeSierra) reorientedtowardsthefruitsandvegetables tobacco).Maquiladorasrelatedtothetextileindustry
productionbasinsofnorthernpacificcoast havedevelopedinruralareas.
264
115W 110W 105W 100W 95W 90W 0 Kilometers 100
GUANAJUATO
0 Miles 50
QUERTARO
Mexicali U NI T ED S TAT E S O F AM E R I C A
Quertaro
BAJA
Ri o
TEQUISQUIAPAN HIDALGO Pachuca
30N
Br
CALIFORNIA o
av
30N
Gu
SONORA
CHIHUAHUA
IXMIQUILPAN
Yaqui
lf
Hermosillo
PA C IFIC CHIHUAHUA TOLUCA
of
MORELIA
OC E A N Chihuahua Sal
a
C
do
if
Con Bay of
chos
or
Fue
CALIFORNIA r te
a
Sotavento
NI N
TAMAULIPAS Region
Durango
AA
La Paz
TIERRAS BAJAS
LO
ZACATECAS
LO
Ciudad
AA
a
Guanajuato
m
TLAXCALA
GUERRERO BELIZE Gulf of
HOUSEHOLD SURVEY ZONES Chilpancingo Us
MORELOS Oaxaca CHIAPAS
um
ac Honduras
Oaxaca int
OAXACA Tuxtla
a
STATE CAPITALS
OAXACA Gutierrez
NATIONAL CAPITAL Gulf of 15N
0 100 200 300 Kilometers Tehuantepec GUATEMALA
This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. HONDURAS
STATE BOUNDARIES 15N The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on
this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment
on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of 0 50 100 150 200 Miles EL
INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES such boundaries.
105W 100W 95W SALVADOR
261
266
ANNEX4:
TABLES
267
Table38:DomesticPovertyLines(in$PPP)
Mali Senegal Madagascar Kenya Morocco Nicaragua Mexico
PovertyThreshold 688 763 490 1,201
AbsolutePovertythreshold 626
FoodPovertyLine 472 327 1,095
CapacityPovertyLine 1,295
CapitalPovertyLine 1,987
PovertyThresholdinurbanareas 935 813
PovertyThresholdinruralareas 437 730
Consumptionexpenses 1,630
Source:RuralStrucnationalreportsreferringtonationalsources
Note:variousyearswereadjustedto2007whenneededWDIdatabase
Table39:IncomeperCapitaofthe5thQuintile
Q5TotalAnnualIncomepercapitain$PPP
Percentile Percentile
Mean Median Minimum Maximum 05 95
Mali Tominian 428 350 248 2,229 267 646
Dima 802 497 374 5,568 375 2,186
Koutiala 575 544 442 995 444 937
Macina 888 785 658 1,595 660 1,446
Senegal Casamance 897 821 555 3,059 557 1,547
Mekh1 1,050 998 699 2,442 719 1,438
Nioro 874 733 503 2,828 511 2,268
HautDelta 1,144 1,057 672 2,238 672 2,238
Mekh2 1,433 1,253 973 2,996 984 2,260
BasDelta 2,467 1,962 1,511 6,696 1,516 4,148
Madagascar Antsirabe2 808 633 449 2,640 456 1,860
Alaotra1 977 826 580 2,679 589 2,136
Morondava 1,113 936 667 2,440 684 2,022
Itasy 1,147 923 676 3,678 692 2,684
Antsirabe1 1,518 1,159 912 6,272 916 3,185
Alaotra2 3,101 2,391 1,871 7,521 1,920 6,262
Kenya Bungoma 1,421 1,224 761 4,484 779 2,872
Nyando 1,826 1,412 827 11,224 867 4,767
NakuruN. 5,946 4,613 2,649 22,222 2,746 18,430
Morocco Chaouia 6,577 3,769 2,346 25,833 2,402 18,550
Sass 10,461 5,596 3,158 73,849 3,253 33,460
Souss 12,551 9,245 4,229 54,054 4,250 36,126
Nicaragua MuyMuy 3,833 2,175 1,159 38,466 1,210 9,002
Terrabona 3,621 2,325 1,393 20,616 1,459 12,502
LaLibertad 7,269 2,397 1,679 106,712 1,757 61,433
ElViejo 6,133 3,146 2,114 50,864 2,125 15,142
ElCu 9,895 7,922 3,325 32,946 3,638 25,109
Mexico SierraS.M. 3,703 2,790 2,159 15,922 2,188 8,130
T.Bajas 6,404 5,886 3,868 16,907 4,083 8,759
Tequis. 5,602 4,217 3,288 21,808 3,288 13,745
268
Table40:SurveyedhouseholdsInvolvementinOfffarmActivities
Households'involmentinofffarmactivities
Agriculturalwage Nonagricultural
Alltypes Selfemployment Migrations
labor wagelabor
#HH
$PPP/ $PPP/ $PPP/ $PPP/
% % % % %
EAP EAP EAP migrant
Tominian 155 83.2 3.9 38 3.2 194 40.6 111 64.5 258
Dima 148 92.6 19.6 44 0.7 100 23.0 144 73.6 1,233
Mali
Koutiala 153 84.3 25.5 19 3.9 138 47.7 103 58.8 181
Macina 154 82.5 45.5 46 5.2 177 27.3 176 32.5 557
Casamance 239 76.6 0.4 162 2.1 824 54.8 273 41.8 948
Mekh1 111 95.5 0.9 221 19.8 317 89.2 448 52.3 1,499
Nioro 252 94.8 2.0 307 10.7 396 83.3 438 61.1 600
Senegal
HautDelta 61 78.7 0.0 0 8.2 590 52.5 497 41.0 481
Mekh2 113 93.8 1.8 271 27.4 417 87.6 500 42.5 878
BasDelta 121 94.2 8.3 389 28.1 789 82.6 708 29.8 1,324
Antsirabe2 303 98.0 54.5 98 8.3 157 66.0 250 31.4 58
Alaotra1 385 84.7 44.7 144 7.0 329 54.3 283 9.4 93
Morondava 506 81.0 32.4 157 6.5 523 34.6 335 19.0 87
Madagascar
Itasy 503 98.0 55.3 152 8.3 396 65.8 271 23.5 87
Antsirabe1 206 86.4 46.6 130 6.8 217 42.7 392 28.2 144
Alaotra2 115 74.8 47.0 154 5.2 200 46.1 391 3.5 9
Bungoma 299 74.2 8.0 325 33.8 894 41.5 556 19.7 44
Kenya Nyando 285 95.1 17.2 303 56.8 643 30.2 646 25.3 36
NakuruN. 289 96.2 9.7 363 33.9 1,319 77.5 1,897 29.4 60
Chaouia 228 72.4 21.1 495 14.0 1,135 21.9 1,224 33.3 1,846
Morocco Saiss 261 51.7 8.8 511 4.6 1,349 5.0 2,023 34.5 1,298
Souss 240 80.8 21.7 1,297 15.4 1,270 20.4 3,018 35.0 1,346
MuyMuy 299 63.2 25.8 907 8.0 1,338 10.0 1,126 33.4 1,420
Terrabona 281 49.8 8.5 1,117 15.7 1,624 15.3 1,190 27.8 2,322
Nicaragua ElViejo 288 66.3 39.6 1,582 13.5 1,433 4.2 1,399 19.4 2,791
LaLibertad 290 49.3 38.3 1,222 2.8 1,537 6.9 1,797 6.2 3,502
ElCu 300 24.3 8.7 920 4.7 1,425 6.7 1,043 6.0 4,033
SierraSM. 175 100.0 52.0 485 18.3 1,264 85.7 562 5.1 1,795
Mexico T.Bajas 145 100.0 42.1 720 25.5 1,468 83.4 609 18.6 1,407
Tequis. 364 98.1 27.7 2,374 57.1 2,589 33.5 2,748 9.6 1,856
7269
269
Table41:LandUsedperFarmHousehold(inHa)
LandusedperFarmHousehold(*)
Standard
Mean Median Minimum Maximum
Deviation
Mali Tominian 7.32 6.00 1.00 30.00 5.49
Dima 18.72 12.75 .75 142.00 19.86
Koutiala 11.60 10.70 1.00 39.25 6.24
Macina 6.12 5.07 .40 30.28 5.17
Senegal Casamance 9.34 6.50 1.00 46.00 7.92
Mekhe1 14.18 12.00 1.00 41.00 7.96
Nioro 8.35 7.20 .00 35.98 5.25
HautDelta 3.10 2.50 .50 15.00 2.62
Mekhe2 9.72 9.00 2.40 27.36 4.96
BasDelta 7.96 3.52 .00 100.00 13.63
Madagascar Antsirabe2 .52 .41 .01 3.28 .42
Alaotra1 .98 .54 .00 13.00 1.42
Morondava 1.41 1.08 .00 7.93 1.17
Itasy .56 .39 .00 4.29 .56
Antsirabe1 .82 .66 .05 7.07 .74
Alaotra2 3.34 1.65 .00 25.01 4.64
Kenya Bungoma 1.33 1.01 .03 9.72 1.28
Nyando 1.32 .81 .00 12.55 1.38
NakuruN 1.45 1.01 .10 8.91 1.52
Morocco Chaouia 8.16 4.40 .00 92.00 12.29
Saiss 6.44 4.00 .00 80.00 9.24
Souss 2.85 1.00 .00 40.00 4.75
Nicaragua MuyMuy 25.88 5.68 .36 875.09 81.36
Terrabona 13.89 3.55 .36 608.17 46.73
ElViejo 14.72 5.68 1.07 480.28 36.47
LaLibertad 76.60 8.84 .09 2668.68 208.09
ElCu 24.17 10.60 1.07 737.58 52.73
Mexico SierraSM 6.06 4.00 .00 27.00 5.15
T.Bajas 9.50 5.00 .00 169.00 17.86
Tequis. 1.86 .00 .00 14.00 2.85
(*)Farmareausedbyhouseholdforcropsandbreeding,includingfallowland,
whetherownedbythehouseholdornot(i.e.includingpropertyinusethatisrented
orlentbythishouseholdfromotherhouseholds
270
Table42:NumberofEAPperHousehold
TotalNumberofEconomicallyActivePopulation(EAP)
Standard
Mean Median Minimum Maximum Deviation
Tominian 5.7 5.0 1.0 19.0 3.2
Dima 9.1 7.0 2.0 34.0 6.8
Mali
Koutiala 7.0 6.0 1.0 25.0 3.7
Macina 6.4 6.0 1.0 20.0 3.8
Casamance 7.1 7.0 2.0 26.0 3.6
Mekhe1 8.1 7.0 1.0 27.0 5.1
Nioro 5.9 5.0 1.0 17.0 2.9
Senegal
HautDelta 6.9 5.0 2.0 25.0 4.4
Mekhe2 7.9 7.0 2.0 30.0 4.5
BasDelta 5.8 5.0 2.0 15.0 2.7
Antsirabe2 2.9 2.0 .0 8.0 1.4
Alaotra1 2.8 2.0 .0 9.0 1.5
Morondava 2.7 2.0 .0 14.0 1.6
Madagascar
Itasy 2.7 2.0 .0 8.0 1.4
Antsirabe1 2.8 2.0 .0 7.0 1.3
Alaotra2 3.3 3.0 1.0 8.0 1.5
Bungoma 3.3 3.0 .0 11.0 1.8
Kenya Nyando 3.1 3.0 .0 10.0 1.8
NakuruN. 4.7 4.0 .0 12.0 2.5
Chaouia 4.7 4.0 .0 13.0 2.4
Morocco Saiss 4.6 4.0 .0 11.0 2.3
Souss 4.1 4.0 .0 12.0 2.0
MuyMuy 3.1 3.0 .0 8.0 1.6
Terrabona 3.3 3.0 .0 11.0 1.9
Nicaragua ElViejo 3.2 3.0 .0 9.0 1.7
LaLibertad 3.3 3.0 .0 9.0 1.7
ElCu 3.3 3.0 .0 11.0 1.7
SierraSM 2.7 2.0 .0 8.0 1.3
Mexico T.Bajas 2.8 3.0 .0 9.0 1.6
Tequis. 3.0 3.0 .0 8.0 1.6
271
272
ANNEX5
RESULTS
OFREGRESSIONANALYSIS
273
The RuralStruc team engaged in a quantitative analysis of the survey data using
regression techniques to better identify effects of different assets and environmental
conditionsontheincomesoffarmhouseholds.Thisannexexplainsingreaterdetailhow
thisregressionworkwasconceivedanddetailsimportanttechnicalnotesabouthowthe
analysiswasconducted.
1. SelectionandExplanationofRegressionVariables
ALogLinearspecificationofastandardOrdinaryLeastSquares(OLS)regressionmodel
using heteroskedastic standard errors was used. Results are presented by surveyed
region, and also at the aggregated level to show variation both within and between
regions.204
1.1 TheDependentVariable
LogofIncomeperAdultEquivalent(linc_EqA).Sincethegoaloftheregressionwork
wastoidentifyhowahouseholdsassetsandtheenvironmentitfacescontributetoits
earnings, income was an obvious choice for the dependent variable. Note here that
income refers to revenues minus costs (Net Income). The team elected to put the
income variable into log terms in order to decrease the distortions caused by high
income outliers, which were present in nearly every country and region. The decision
wasmadetouseincomeperadultequivalent,ratherthantotalincomeperhousehold,to
reduce certain reverse causality problems. Specifically, since a goal was to use
demographic variables as regressors, the team was concerned that using income per
household(HH)wouldnecessarilyshowapositiveassociationbetweenincomeandHH
population. It would not be possible to disentangle the productive effect of more
workersonincomefromtheeffectofricherfamilieshavingmorechildren.Further,the
results would say nothing about whether an additional person costs more to sustain
thanheorsheaddstoHHproductivity.Anotherreasonfornotusingincomeperhead
was the vast differences in family size (and therefore in number of children) between
regions and countries in the sample. A specific reduction in income per head in a HH
withahighershareofchildrenwouldhavedifferentconsequencesthatitwouldforaHH
withfewchildren.TheteamthereforesettledonusingincomeperAdultEquivalent,asit
both avoids the reverse causality problem with demography and allows for greater
consistencyacrossregions.
204 To create the aggregated level regressions (also sometimes named nationwide in the regression
work),allhouseholdsinagivencountryweregroupedtogetherratherthanseparatedbyregions.
274
1.2 TheExplanatoryVariables
1.2.1 DemographyandHumanCapital
NumberofPersonsPresentintheHH(Nb_PersonPres_hh):Thisvariablerepresents
the total number of people that regularly sleep at the residence. This includes short
term migrants, but does not include longterm migrants. The variable was included
because it illustrates something about the productivity of labor in the HH. A positive
relationship between Nb_PersonPres_hh and income per EqA would imply that the
marginalproductoflaborishigherthanitsmarginalcost.Inthiscasetherecouldeven
beashortageoflabor.Iftherelationshipwerenegativewewouldseethatthemarginal
productoflaborislessthanitsmarginalcost.
TheDependencyRatiox100(Ratio_DepPresx100):TheDependencyRatioisdefined
as the number of dependents to standard working age people (1564) within the HH.
The variable is included simply because one must control for it in order to get an
accurate interpretation of the Number of Persons Present variable. If this is not done,
thenaddinganotherpersontotheHH(aoneunitincreaseinNb_PersonPres_hh)would,
statistically speaking, likely mean adding another child, as larger HHs have more
children. Since children are often not used as labor they are more likely to consume
morethantheyproduce.Ifhowevertheregressionholdsthedependencyratioconstant,
theoneunitincreaseinNb_PersonPres_hhwillreflecttheadditionofafictionalperson
that is part dependent and part working age, in the proportion of the current
dependency ratio. This fictional person would therefore represent the
consumption/production ratio of the HH as a whole, and tell something worthwhile
abouttheeconomicreturnstoadditionalHHmembers.Beforeincludingthevariablein
theregressionitwasmultipliedby100fortheeaseofinterpretationoftheregression
result.ThecoefficientontheDependencyRatiocannowbeinterpretedasfollows:ifit
were.023forexample,theinterpretationwouldbeaonepercentagepointincreasein
thedependencyratioisassociatedwitha2.3%decreaseinincomeperEqA,holdingall
elseconstant.Theeffectofmultiplyingthedependencyratioby100istomakeaone
unitincreaseequivalenttoaonepercentagepointincrease.Ifhadnotbeendonethen
the interpretation would have been a one hundred percentage point increase, which
wouldhavebeenlessuseful.
275
TheHHsurveysincludedaqualitativevariable,c_Educ_Head_hh,thatreturnsavalue,0
4, if the household heads education level is, respectively, no education, some primary
education, complete primary education, some secondary education, or complete
secondary education. The RuralStruc team created binary variables for each possible
outcome, and included all except no education in the regression. Since education is
cumulative the interpretation of each variable is made in terms of the previous
education level. As an example, the interpretation of educ_3_prim is the average
difference in the log of income per equivalent adult between a household headed by
someonethathascompletedprimaryeducationandoneheadedbysomeonethathas
completedsomeprimaryeducation.
1.2.2 VariablesRelatedtoFarmAssets
Land Used (Ha/EqA) (Ha_LandUsed_EqA): is the total land, in hectares per adult
equivalent, used by the HH for crops and livestock raising, including fallow land. The
regressionsuseareaperEquivalentAdulttoavoidmulticolinearityissuescausedbythe
correlation between Number of Persons in the HH and total Land Used by the HH. It is
important to keep in mind that when interpreting the coefficient on this variable, the
regressioncontrolsforthetotallandareaunderirrigation.Soanadditionalhectareof
landusedwouldinfactbeanadditionalhectareofunirrigatedlandused.
Manure(c_Manure_hh):isabinaryvariablethatgivesaoneiftheHHusesmanureto
improvelandfertilityanda0iftheydonot.
Draft Force Variables (Animal Draft, Tiller Draft, and Tractor Draft)
(c_DraftForce_hh):Thethreedraftforcevariablesarebinaryvariablescreatedfromthe
qualitative variable c_DraftForce_hh in the HH surveys. The c_DraftForce_hh variable
tellsusthehighestleveltypeofdraftlaborused:manual,animal,tiller,ortractor.To
includethisvariableintheregressionabinarywascreatedforeachpossibleoutcomeof
c_DraftForce_hh. For example: Animal Draft takes a value of 1 if the HHs highestlevel
draftisAnimal,and0ifitisanythingelse(Manual,TillerorTractor).Theregression
includesAnimalDraft,TillerDraft,andTractorDraft,excludingthevariableforManual
Draft. The interpretation of each binary variable is therefore the average percentage
differenceinincomeassociatedwithhavingAnimal/Tiller/TractorDraftasopposedto
ManualDraft.
276
1.2.3 VariablesRelatedtoMarketAccess
Distance to nearest city (in minutes of travel time) (c_50000 and c_ports): The
RuralStrucsurveyswereconductedinselectedvillagesineachregion,andineverycase
some villages were more physically remote than others. The team used different
indicatorstotrytocapturetheeffectofthisphysicalremotenessindifferentcountries.
Themostcommonlyusedvariablewasreferredtoasc_50000(usedinMali,Senegal
andMadagascar).Thisvariablegivesthetime,inminutes,requiredtotravelfromaHHs
village to the nearest city of at least 50,000 people. It takes account of transport
infrastructure, topography, and physical distance when calculating these times.205 In
Kenya,theRuralStructeamdecidedtouseadifferentbutrelatedvariable,c_ports.This
variable gives thetime in minutes to travel from the HHs villagetothe nearest major
port,ratherthanthenearestcityofatleast50,000people.Itiscalculatedinthesame
way as the c_50000 variable. The Kenya regression was first tried with the c_50000
variableandnosignificancorrelationswithinorbetweenregionswerefound.Theteam
hypothesized that since households in both the winning and losing regions in Kenya
(NakuruNorthandNyando)areclosetolargecities(NakuruandKisumurespectively)
that distance to a city is not really an income differentiater in Kenya. It was thought,
however,thattheremaybeadifferenceinincomesresultingfromdifferentialaccessto
Kenyas main transport corridor, which runs from Mombassa to Nairobi and then
through Nakuru and Eldoret all the way to Kampala in Uganda. The c_ports variable
gives the time to Mombassa, through this main transport cooridor. Since the winning
region(NakuruNorth)hasshortertraveltimestoMombassathantheothertworegions
itwasthoughtthatthisregressionspecificationwasworthtesting.TheProgramdidnot
have access to the data from the Global Map of Accessibility outside of subSaharan
Africa. In Nicaragua and Mexico the variable for physical remoteness was excluded. In
Morocco, however, the team believed that a variable for remoteness was needed, so it
was decided to include binary variables for subregions. Each region in the Morocco
205ThedatawereprovidedbyresearchsupportedbytheWorldBanksDevelopmentEconomicsResearch
Group and the Knowledge for Change Program, under the project title, An African Green Revolution:
FindingWaystoBoostProductivity.TheauthorswouldliketothankSiobhanMurray,ChrisMarques,Sean
SylviaandDonaldF.Larsonfortheirassistance.Themethodologyforcalculatingthevariablecomesfrom
theGlobalMapofAccessibility,amodeldevelopedbyDr.AndrewNelsonfortheEuropeanCommissions
GlobalEnvironmentMonitoringprogramandusedinthedensitycalculationsoftheWorldBanks2009
WorldDevelopmentReport.Themapcanbeaccessedat:
http://bioval.jrc.ec.europa.eu/products/gam/index.htm.
277
survey includes three subregions, and each regional regression included binary
variablesfor thetwomore remotesubregions.Thecoefficientsonthesevariablesare
interpretedinreferencetothelessremotesubregion,whichwasdropped.
The two RuralStruc variables discussed so far that relate to Market Access
(transportationqualityanddistanceinminutestonearestcity)interactwitheachother
in a complex way and create results that could seem counterintuitive. Specifically, the
regressions occasionally show the transportation quality variables to be srongly
significant,butpositive(poorertransportqualityappearstobeassociatedwithhigher
incomes).Theexplanationisasfollows:thecoefficientobservedonthetransportation
quality variable implicitly holds constant the time it takes to travel to a large city
becausethistraveltimevariableisanotherdependantvariableintheregression.Since
the time it takes to travel to a city is a function of two things, physical distance and
transportation quality, the result actually makes a statement about the importance of
minimizing the physical distance to a city. If travel time is held constant, and
transportationqualitydecreases,thenphysicaldistancemustalsohavedecreased.Being
located closer to a city is likely associated with higher incomes. Therefore, it makes
sense that in certain cases the transportation quality variable is significant with a
positivesign.Thisdoesnotmeanthathouseholdswithpoorertransportationqualityare
betteroff,itmeanshouseholdsphysicallycloserarebetteroff.
1.2.4 VariablesRelatedtoIncomeDiversification
DiversificationIndex(1HHI):ThisisacompositeindexconstructedbytheRuralStruc
teamandbasedontheHerfindahlHirshmannIndex,thatputsaquantitativemeasureon
thedegreeofdiversificationofthehouseholdsincomesources(SeeAnnex1).Theindex
does not address onfarm diversification but rather treats onfarmas one type of
income and measures diversification into other types of incomes (such as self
employment,remittances,wages).
278
2. CountryResults
The regression results for each of the seven RuralStruc countries will be presented in
the same format. First, econometric issues specific to the country are presented, and
explanations as to why any variables are missing or were added are offered. This is
followedbyapresentationofconclusionsandadiscussionofresults.Finally,theactual
regressionoutputforeachcountryispresented.
2.1 Mali
2.1.1 Specificeconometricissues:
Duetotheirlownumber,HHswithavalueof1forTillerorTractorweredropped
fromtheregression.Thisisonly4HHs.
Twooftheeducationvariablesaredropped,eitherinwholeorinpart,becauseofalow
numberofobservations:educ3_primandeduc5_sec.Theformerwasdroppedonlyin
TominianandMacina,whilethelaterwasdroppedinallregions.Becausetheeducation
variable is cumulative these households were still included in the regressions, but for
example those households whose head has completed primary school will be listed
underatleastsomeprimaryeducationcompleted.Therefore,nodistinctionwasmade
betweencompletingprimaryschoolandonlyhavingsomeprimaryeducation.Thedata
arenotcompleteenoughtoallowthis.
The one HH with a contract in Tominian as well as the one HH with irrigation were
droppedfromtheTominianlevelregression,butnotfromthenationallevelregression.
Thetechnicalpackagevariableherewascalculatedasfollows.IfaHHreportedspending
moneyonfertilizer,theyreceivedacodeof1(hastechnicalpackage).Iftheyreportno
spendingonfertilizertheyreceiveacodeof0(doesnothavetechnicalpackage).
2.1.2 ConclusionsandDiscussions
TominianisthepoorestregionsurveyedinMali,butduetoitshistoryofChristianJesuit
academies it has the highest rate of household heads with at least some secondary
education. These HHs are better off than those in Tominian that do not have an
education,butremainpoorrelativetohouseholdsinotherregions.Thisisthecauseof
the negative sign in front of the national level coefficient for educ3_some_sec. The fact
thatwelleducatedHHheadsinTominianarestillpoorerthanHHheadsinotherregions
withlittleornoeducationpointstotheconclusionthateducationisunlikelytobethe
biddingconstraintintheregion.
DiversificationisasignificantdeterminantofincomeineveryregionexceptDima.This
issurprising,becausebothKoutialaandMacinaareknownforspecializingincottonand
ricefarming,respectively.Itseemshoweverthatevenintheseregionsofspecialization,
richerHHsdiversify(seethisdiscussioninChapter6).
279
MaliRegressionResults
Nationwide Tominain Diema Koutiala Macina
VARIABLES LogofRevperEqA LogofRevperEqA LogofRevperEqA LogofRevperEqA LogofRevperEqA
***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1
280
2.2 Senegal
2.2.1 Specificeconometricissues:
There were data issues associated with the draft force variable in the Senegal
regression.Theteamchosenottoincludeitatall.ThereforetheoneHHwithatractorin
Niorowasdroppedfromtheregression.
The Secondary School finished variable was dropped from the regression because
there were not enough observations. However, since the education variable is
cumulativetheseHHswerestillincludedunderAtleastsomesecondaryeducation.In
Mekh1,becauseofthedearthofeducation,theseHHswereincludedinatleastsome
primaryschoolcompleteandallothereducationvariablesweredropped.InHautDelta
they were included under At least Primary School Finished. In Mekh 2, because of
lackofvariance,theonlyeducationvariableusedwasAtleastPrimarySchoolStarted.
Because every surveyed HH in Haut Delta had the technical package that variable was
notincludedintheregressionforthatregion.
Duetolackofvariance,thecontractvariablewasnotincludedforNioroandHautDelta.
TheoneHHwithacontractinNiorowasdroppedfromtheregression,aswasthefour
withoutacontractinHautDelta.
BecauseonlytwoHHsinMekh2respondedDontKnowtothetransportationsurvey
question,theyweredeletedfromtheregressionandthevariablewasnotused.
InMekh2,only2HHshadirrigation.Thiswasnotenoughvariancetodetectaresult,
sotheHa_IrrigLand_EqAvariablewasdropped.InHautDelta,eventhougheveryHHhad
irrigation,thevariablewaskept.ThougheveryHHhasirrigation,theamountwillvary
fromHHtoHHandmaybesignificant.
Thevariablec_50000hadnovarianceinHautDeltaandwasnotused.
In Casamance, the two HHs with Short Term Migrants were dropped and the variable
notincluded.
2.2.2 ConclusionsandDiscussions
Except in Casamance and in the two Delta regions, Senegal displays the lowest R
squared results in the regression work. Casamance and Haut Delta have significantly
highersharesofonfarmincomethanotherregionsinSenegal,andthisiswhatexplains
their higher Rsquareds. Because many independent variables used in the regression
havetodowithfarmassets,thelowonfarmincomesharesexplainthisspecificresultin
in the Bassin arachidier regions. The Bas Delta case is more difficult. It displays a
significant Rsquare and also has low onfarm income shares. Clearly, in Bas Delta,
somethingismissingfromtheregression.
Casamance seems to be different than the other regions in Senegal, and in fact its
patternslookmorelikethoseofregionsinMali.ItistheonlyregioninSenegalwhere
281
landisasignificantdeterminantofincome,andisaffectedsignificantlybyvariationin
accesstoproductivefarminputs.
Thesignificanceofdiversificationinallregionsalignswiththeearlierconclusionsthat
HHsinSenegaldiversifyintoselfemployment.
282
SenegalRegressionResults
Nationwide Casamance Mkh1 Nioro HautDelta Mkh2 BasDelta
VARIABLES linc_EqA linc_EqA linc_EqA linc_EqA linc_EqA linc_EqA linc_EqA
***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1
283
2.3 Madagascar
2.3.1 Specificeconometricissues:
Theirrigationvariablewasnotincludedbecauseofveryseveremulticollinearityissues
withLandUse,asaveryhighshareoffarmlandusedinMadagascarisirrigated.
The variable for Secondary School Finished or University was only included for the
national regression and for Morondava and Itasy. In other regions these HHs were
included in the At least some secondary education category. In Alaotra 2 the 3 HHs
whose highest level of education was completing primary school were included in the
Atleastsomeprimaryschoolgroup.
The technical package variable was not included for the Alaotra 2 regression. There
were only 2 HHs that had the technical package. They were dropped from the
regression.
InAlaotra1therewereonlytwoHHswithacontract.Consequently,thisvariable(and
thetwoHHs)werenotincludedintheregression.
TheTransportationAccessvariablegaveasuspectresultinAlaotra2,andthereforeit
wasnotincluded.EasyonlysomemonthsisnotincludedinMorondavaandDifficult
isnotincludedinAntsirabe1,forlackofobservations.
Migration variables were not included in Alaotra 2 because so few HHs had them.
LikewiseShortTermmigrantswerenotincludedinAntsirabe1,becauseonly4HHshad
them.TheHHswiththerelevanttypeofmigrantintheseinstancesweredroppedfrom
theregression.
Manure was excluded from the Antsirabe 2 regression because almost everyone had
accesstoit.TheoneHHthatdidnotwasdropped.
Thevariablec_50000wasincludedonlyforthenationallevelregression.Thereason
forthiswasthatineachregionthecorrelationwiththetransportationqualityvariable
was very high. In two regions (Antsirabe 1 and 2) there was perfect colinearity. In
Alaotra 1, Morondava and Itasy the correlations were also very high, sometimes over
0.9. This often masked the transportation quality effect. In Alaotra 2, there was no
varianceinthec_50000variable.
2.3.2 ConclusionsandDiscussions
LandAccessisanimportantdeterminantoffarmincomeeverywhereinMadagascar.
ThefactthatdiversificationisnotsignificantinanyregioninMadagascarisconsistent
withthepreviousobservationthathouseholddiversificationinMadagascaroccursquite
284
frequently at low levels of income, indicating a high prevalence of coping strategies
(seeChapter6Box22onChallengingtheInvertedUPattern).
MadagascarRegressionResults
AggregatedRegions Anstirabe2 Alaotra1 Morondava Itasy Antsirabe1 Alaotra2
VARIABLES LogofIncperEqA LogofIncperEqA LogofIncperEqA LogofIncperEqA LogofIncperEqA LogofIncperEqA LogofIncperEqA
***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1
285
2.4 Kenya
2.4.1 Specificeconometricissues:
InKenyaalmosteveryhouseholdheadhadatleastsomeprimaryeducation.Becauseof
the low amount of variance the variable was not included in the regression.
Consequently, the four households in Nakuru North with no education were dropped,
andthevariableeduc2_some_primwasleftoutinordertobeusedasareference.
Because of the low number of households in Nakuru North that use Tiller Draft this
variable was dropped from the regional regression, as were the households that use
tillerdraft.
Thevariablec_portswasusedinsteadofc_50000,asexplainedinsectionIofthisannex.
2.4.2 ConclusionsandDiscussions
MarketaccessandlandproductivityareimportanteverywhereinKenya.Itseemsthat
atpoorerincomelevelslandproductivityisperhapsdominant,then,atcertainlevelsof
productivity, market access becomes more important than further productivity
improvements. This is first evident in looking at Nyando, then at Bungoma. Nyandos
mostimportantfactorisLand,perhapssignifyingthatwhenproductivityisconstrained,
the only way to increase output is to have more land. Furthering this view, the
regression shows large effects from the technical package (though it is used only in
limited households). On the contrary, in terms of market access, there seems to be no
response from contracts or transportation access. Moving to Bungoma, these
productivity regressors are still significant, but there are strong effects from contracts
and transport, suggesting that market access becomes important as the productivity
constraintisgraduallyrelaxed.
TheresultformanureinNyandoissurprising:farmerswithoutaccesstomanureareon
averagemuchricherthanthosewithaccesstomanure.Thisresultisunexplained.
InKenya,betweenregionvarianceinincomeisgreaterthanwithinregionvariance.Itis
worthnotingthatcertainconstraints,suchasaccesstotransportationandc_ports,vary
muchmoresignificantlybetweenregionsinthesurveythanwithinthem.Itseemsthat
whileremotenessdoeshaveanegativeeffectonincomesinKenya,theregionssurveyed
byRuralStrucweretoophysicallysmalltodetectanyeffectatthatlevel.
286
KenyaRegressionResults
Nationwide Bungoma Nyando NakuruNorth
VARIABLES LogofIncomeperEqA LogofIncomeperEqA LogofIncomeperEqA LogofIncomeperEqA
***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1
287
2.5 Morocco
2.5.1 Specificeconometricissues
TheonehouseholdwithacontractinChaouiaandtheoneinSoussweredeleted,butnot
fromthenationallevelregression.
TheShortTermMigrantsvariablewasdroppedbecausenohouseholdsreportedshort
termmigrants.
ThemanurevariablewasnotavailableforuseintheMoroccoregressions.
2.5.2 ConclusionsandDiscussion
Thereareverylargeregionaleffectsonincome.InfactinMoroccotheregionalbinary
variablesarethemostsignificantdeterminantofincome.
ItissurprisingthateducationisasignificantdeterminantofincomeonlyinChaouia,and
betweenregions.Atfirst,thisobservationsuggeststhatsincehouseholdheadsinSaiss
and Souss are better educated than those in Chaouia, returns to schooling in those
regionsarediminished.However,educationlevelsinbothSaissandSoussremainlowin
an absolute sense. Consequently, there is a surprising lack of returns to education in
thesetworegions.
The fact that difficult transportation enters the nationallevel regression positively
likelyreflectsthefactthatthelosingregionselectedinMorocco(Chaouia)includesa
localityclosetoCasablanca.
The fact that irrigation enters negatively in Chaouia is unexplained. Looking simply at
correlations, irrigation is positively associated with incomes. There may well be a
multicolinearityproblemhere.
288
MoroccoRegressionResults
Nationwide Chaouia Saiss Souss
VARIABLES LogofIncomeperEqA LogofIncomeperEqA LogofIncomeperEqA LogofIncomeperEqA
***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1
289
2.6 Nicaragua
2.6.1 SpecificEconometricIssues
TheTillervariablewasonlyincludedinthenationallevelandtheElCuregression.
The4HHswithTillerDraftinElViejoweredropped.
Thesecondaryeducationcompletevariablewasincludedonlyinthenationallevel
regression. In Terrabona and El Cu, the primary complete variable was not
includedandallHHswithatleastsomeprimaryandnosecondaryeducationwere
groupedtogether.
InTerrabona,HHswithcontractsweredroppedfromtheregression,astherewas
notenoughvariance.
There are only three HHs with Long Term Migrants in El Cua. Those HHs were
dropped, and the variable was not included (though it was kept in the national
regression).
Themanurevariablewasnotavailableforuseintheregressions.
LandUsedhasbeenreplacedbyLandOwnedbecauselandaccessisanissuein
Nicaraguawherelargelandownerscoexistwithsmallholders.Nicaraguaistheonly
countryintheRuralStrucProgramwherelandtenureissoasymmetricandunequal.
Assuch,thereareimportantdifferencesbetweenlandusedandlandowned.
2.6.2 ConclusionsandDiscussion
290
LandOwnedisasignificantdeterminantofincomeeverywhereexceptinLa
Libertad where farmers are mainly landlords specialized in extensive
ranchingonlargefarms.
291
NicaraguaRegressionresults
National Muymuy Terrabona ElViejo LaLibertade ElCua
VARIABLES linc_EqA linc_EqA linc_EqA linc_EqA linc_EqA linc_EqA
***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1
292
2.7 Mexico
2.7.1 SpecificEconometricIssues
There was no observed variance in Draft. So all draft variables for Mexico were
dropped.
With Education, HH heads that had completed some secondary school and those
thathadcompletedSecondarySchoolorsomeUniversityweregroupedtogether
duetolackofvariationinthedata.Consequently,educ4_secwasdropped.
BecausenoHHsinSierraSantaMartahadacontract,thevariablewasnotincluded
inthatregression.
The two HHs that had irrigation in Sierra Santa Marta were dropped and the
variablewasnotincluded.
AllthreeHHswithShortTermMigrantsweredroppedfromtheregressionandthe
variablewasnotincludedinanyoftheMexicoregressions.
Themanurevariablewasnotavailableforuseintheregressions.
The Livestock Equivalent variable was not calculated in Mexico because only
informationoncattlewasavailable.Numberofcattlewasusedfortheregression.
2.7.2 ConclusionsandDiscussion
NotethatdiversificationisonlysignificantinapositivewayinSierraSantaMarta,
the poorest region. Between regions, diversification is significant negatively. This
tells us that rich farm households in Mexico specialize. It is consistent with the
invertedUpatterndiscussedinChapter6.
293
MexicoRegressionAnalysis
Nationwide Tequis SSM TierrasBajas
VARIABLES LogofIncomeperEqA LogofIncomeperEqA LogofIncomeperEqA LogofIncomeperEqA
Robuststandarderrorsinparentheses
***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1
294
ListofFigures
Figure1:ATooltoNavigatetheReport........................................................................................28
Figure 2: Evolution of GDP per Capita between Selected Countries and Regions
(19602009)..............................................................................................................................................31
Figure3:ShareofAgricultureinGDPandinEAPOvertime(19652005in%)......32
Figure4:StructuralGapandGDPperCapita(19652005,5yearaverages)............32
Figure5:EvolutionofGDPStructure:SSAvs.Asia(19652005)......................................34
Figure6:ActivityRatiobySelectedRegions,19502050......................................................39
Figure7:YearlyCohortsEnteringtheLaborMarketbySelectedRegions,19552050
.........................................................................................................................................................................40
Figure 8: Yearly Cohorts Entering Rural and Urban Labor Markets and Rural
PopulationShareinsubSaharanAfrica,19552050..............................................................51
Figure9:ShareofSurveyedRuralHouseholdswithFarms.................................................56
Figure10:Averageshareofonfarmandofffarmincomesperregion..........................59
Figure11:AverageAnnualIncomeperCapitaintheSurveyedRegions($PPP).......65
Figure12:MedianAnnualIncomeperCapitaintheSurveyedRegions($PPP)........65
Figure13:DistributionofHouseholdsbyIncomeClassesinSSASurveyedCountries
.........................................................................................................................................................................71
Figure 15: Incomes per Household Quintiles by SSA Surveyed Regions ($ PPP, per
capita)..........................................................................................................................................................72
Figure16:IncomesperHouseholdQuintilesbynonSSASurveyed Regions($PPP,
percapita)..................................................................................................................................................73
Figure17:SizeofHouseholds(NumberofPersonPresent)................................................75
Figure18:HouseholdsPerceptionofEvolutionoftheirFoodSecurity.........................83
Figure19:LivelihoodStrategiesintheSurveyedRegions(WDR08sTypology).......87
295
Figure20:ClassificationofActivitiesandIncomesofRuralHouseholds......................93
Figure 22: Average Regional Value and Share of Offfarm Income in the Surveyed
Regions........................................................................................................................................................95
Figure23:DistributionofFarmSizeperFamilyWorker(EAP).....................................100
Figure 24: Potential and Actual Returns from Agricultural Employment in the
SurveyedRegions.................................................................................................................................102
Figure25:ParticipationinandReturnsfromNonagriculturalWageEmploymentin
theSurveyedRegions.........................................................................................................................105
Figure27:SelfemploymentActivitiesinSenegal.................................................................111
Figure28:SelfEmploymentReturnsintheSurveyedRegions.......................................112
Figure29:ImportanceofMigrationsperSurveyedRegions............................................117
Figure30:MigrantsDestinationbySurveyedRegion........................................................119
Figure 31: New Patterns and Trends in the Agrifood System Resulting from
LiberalizationandGlobalization...................................................................................................133
Figure32:OverallStructureoftheOnFarmIncome(in%persurveyedregion).141
Figure 33: Main Farm Productions per Surveyed Region (in % of Gross Farm
Product)...................................................................................................................................................145
Figure35:FarmOutputBreakDownbySelfconsumptionandMainSales..............150
Figure36:MethodsofCommercializationintheSurveyedZones(%ofthevalueof
sales)..........................................................................................................................................................155
Figure37:IncomeStructurebyQuintilesintheSurveyedRegions(in%of$PPP/
EqA)............................................................................................................................................................173
Figure38:DiversificationIndex(1HHi)perRegionandQuintile.................................177
296
Figure39:StylizedRepresentationoftheInvertedUPattern......................................179
Figure40:WithinandBetweenHouseholdDiversificationalongwiththeInvertedU
Pattern......................................................................................................................................................181
Figure41:TheRelationshipbetweenIncomeandtheDiversificationGap...............185
Figure 42: The Income Diversification Gap Relationship in SSA and nonSSA
SurveyedRegions.................................................................................................................................186
Figure43:MethodofTargetingHouseholdsGroups..........................................................192
Figure44:DistributionofHouseholdsperTargetGroupandRegion..........................193
Figure45:FrameworkoftheRuralStrucHouseholdSurveys..........................................235
297
298
ListofBoxes
Box1:RuralStrucWhatsinaName?.........................................................................................2
Box2:TheWDR08anditsThreeWorlds....................................................................................7
Box3:LiberalizationorGlobalization?.........................................................................................10
Box4:ThethreeProgramsHypotheses.......................................................................................12
Box5:RuralversusUrban:WhatDefinitionforEachCountry?.........................................20
Box6:TheRuralIncomeGeneratingActivitiesProject(RIGA)..........................................21
Box 7: Density, Distance, and Division: the Three Major Geographic Features of
EconomicDevelopmentAccordingtotheWDR09...................................................................58
Box8:Urbanization,TransportationNetworks,andRuralLivelihoods.........................60
Box9:TheParadoxofSikassoandKoutiala............................................................................69
Box10:TheDevelopmentofFreeTradeZonesandNonagriculturalWageLaborin
Nicaragua.................................................................................................................................................107
Box11:ThemaquilasofthetextilesectorinLaFuente(Tequisquiapan,Mexico).108
Box12:DifferentPatternsofInternationalMigrationintheRuralStrucCountries116
Box13:MigratingtoDakartoSellPhoneCards:AnIllusoryPathwayoutofPoverty
......................................................................................................................................................................122
Box14:InequalityofAccesstoPublicTransfersinMexicosSotaventoRegion......123
Box15:TheWorldSpreadoftheSupermarketRevolution..............................................135
Box16:TheRestructuringoftheMexicanMaizeIndustry................................................136
Box17:RegoverningMarkets.........................................................................................................138
Box18:TheKenyanSuccessStoryinHorticulturalExports:HowManyandWhom?
......................................................................................................................................................................139
Box 19: The Sotavento Exception: Onfarm Specialization and the Collapse of Self
consumption...........................................................................................................................................152
299
Box 20: The Contrasted Development of Modern Food Retailing in the RuralStruc
Countries..................................................................................................................................................154
Box21:Lecofruit:MalagasySmallholdersSellingonEuropeanMarkets....................161
Box22:ChallengingtheInvertedUPattern.............................................................................178
Box23:FromIncomeDiversificationMeanstotheDiversificationGap.....................183
Box24:ThePovertyTrapPattern................................................................................................187
Box25:DisseminationProcessoftheResultsintheRuralStrucCountries249
Box26:InternationalDisseminationofResults250
300
ListofTables
Table1:SelectedIndicatorsfortheRuralStrucCountries....................................................17
Table2:MainValueChainsAnalyzedintheRuralStrucCountryStudies......................22
Table3:SelectedSurveyedRegionsintheRuralStrucCountries......................................24
Table 4: Compared Dynamics of GDP per capita Growth between Regions (1960
2007)............................................................................................................................................................35
Table5:WorldPopulationbyRegion,AbsoluteandShare(19602050,inmillions)
.........................................................................................................................................................................37
Table6:PopulationoftheRuralStrucCountries(19602050,inmillions)...................38
Table7:LaborMarketEntrantsintheRuralSrucCountries(inThousands)...............41
Table8:UrbanizationRatiobyWorldRegions(19602050,in%)..................................49
Table9:RuralPopulationbyWorldRegions(19602050,inmillions)..........................50
Table10:OverallAnnualIncomeintheSurveyedRegions..................................................63
Table11:HouseholdStructureandIncomeperAdultEquivalent....................................76
Table12:HouseholdGlobalIncomeswithandwithoutaFarm.........................................77
Table13:Share,SizeandAnnualIncomeofFemaleHeadedHouseholds.....................79
Table14:FirstQuintileTotalIncomein$PPPandKcal........................................................81
Table15:HouseholdIncomeDistributionExpressedinKilocalories(%)....................82
Table16:LivelihoodStrategiesintheSurveyedRegions(WDR08sTypologyin%)
.........................................................................................................................................................................86
Table 17: Main Offfarm Activities and Incomes in terms of Contribution to the
OverallOfffarmIncome(%ofaverageofffarmincome)....................................................97
Table18:EducationleveloftheSurveyedHouseholds(countryaveragein%).....106
Table19:MainMigrationPatternsamongtheSurveyedRegions.................................120
Table20:ScopeofMarketReformsinnonSubSaharanRuralStrucCountries.......130
301
Table21:ScopeofMarketReformsinSubSaharanRuralStrucCountries................131
Table22:CategoriesofProductsUsedforDataAnalysis...................................................142
Table23:MalianHouseholdsParticipationinFoodMarkets..........................................146
Table25:RegionLevelRegressionResults..............................................................................167
Table26:NationallyAggregatedRegressionResults...........................................................167
Table27:VariablesMostStronglyAssociatedwithIncomebyRegion.......................172
Table28:DiversificationGapintheSurveyedRegions.......................................................184
Table 29: Distribution of Households per Target Group in the RuralStrucs Sample
......................................................................................................................................................................193
Table30:ImplementationScheduleoftheRuralHouseholdSurveys..........................236
Table31:SurveyedHouseholdsperCountry,RegionandSubregion.........................237
Table32:AverageConversionRatesbetweenLocalCurrencyUnit(LCU)and$PPP
......................................................................................................................................................................239
Table33:ConversioninAdultEquivalents...............................................................................240
Table 34: Estimation of the Average Calorie Price for Cereals in the Surveyed
Regions.....................................................................................................................................................241
Table35:CoefficientofconversionintoLivestockUnits(LU).........................................242
Table36:ExistingPartnershipintheRuralStrucCountries.............................................246
Table37:RuralStrucWorkshops(20062008)......................................................................247
Table38:DomesticPovertyLines(in$PPP)..........................................................................268
Table39:IncomeperCapitaofthe5thQuintile......................................................................268
Table40:SurveyedhouseholdsInvolvementinOfffarmActivities............................269
Table41:LandUsedperFarmHousehold(inHa)................................................................270
Table42:NumberofEAPperHousehold..................................................................................271
302
GENERALTABLEOFCONTENT
303
304
BIBLIOGRAPHY .....................................................................................................................................207
ANNEXES ..................................................................................................................................................231
ANNEX 1 HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS AND DATA ANALYSIS ...........................................................233
1. THE SURVEY INSTRUMENT ............................................................................................................234
2. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE RURAL HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS .............................................................236
3. DATA AND RESULTS MANAGEMENT ..............................................................................................238
3.1 Preparation of the Databases ...................................................................................................238
3.2 Conversions and Formulas.......................................................................................................238
3.2.1 Diversification index ..................................................................................................................... 238
3.2.2 Conversion into International Dollars ($ PPP) .............................................................................. 239
3.2.3 Conversion into Adult Equivalent (EqA) ...................................................................................... 239
3.2.4 Conversion into Kilocalories (KCal) ............................................................................................. 240
3.2.5 Conversion into Livestock Units (LU) .......................................................................................... 242
3.3 Additional Comments and Limitations .....................................................................................242
305
MALI ..........................................................................................................................................................252
SENEGAL ..................................................................................................................................................254
MADAGASCAR ........................................................................................................................................256
KENYA ......................................................................................................................................................258
MOROCCO ...............................................................................................................................................260
NICARAGUA ............................................................................................................................................262
MEXICO ....................................................................................................................................................264
ANNEX 4: TABLES ..................................................................................................................................267
ANNEX 5 RESULTS OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS ..........................................................................273
1. SELECTION AND EXPLANATION OF REGRESSION VARIABLES.........................................................274
1.1 The Dependent Variable ...........................................................................................................274
1.2 The Explanatory Variables .......................................................................................................275
1.2.1 Demography and Human Capital .................................................................................................. 275
1.2.2 Variables Related to Farm Assets.................................................................................................. 276
1.2.3 Variables Related to Market Access .............................................................................................. 277
1.2.4 Variables Related to Income Diversification ................................................................................. 278
2. COUNTRY RESULTS........................................................................................................................279
2.1 Mali ..........................................................................................................................................279
2.1.1 Specific econometric issues:.......................................................................................................... 279
2.1.2 Conclusions and Discussions ........................................................................................................ 279
2.2 Senegal .....................................................................................................................................281
2.2.1 Specific econometric issues:.......................................................................................................... 281
2.2.2 Conclusions and Discussions ........................................................................................................ 281
2.3 Madagascar ..............................................................................................................................284
2.3.1 Specific econometric issues:.......................................................................................................... 284
2.3.2 Conclusions and Discussions ........................................................................................................ 284
2.4 Kenya........................................................................................................................................286
2.4.1 Specific econometric issues:.......................................................................................................... 286
2.4.2 Conclusions and Discussions ........................................................................................................ 286
2.5 Morocco ...................................................................................................................................288
2.5.1 Specific econometric issues........................................................................................................... 288
2.5.2 Conclusions and Discussion .......................................................................................................... 288
306
LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................................................................295
LIST OF BOXES .......................................................................................................................................299
LIST OF TABLES.....................................................................................................................................301
GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENT........................................................................................................303
307
308