07 Lecture 15

Fluids - B
Joel Voldman
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cite as: Joel Voldman, course materials for 6.777J / 2.372J Design and Fabrication of Microelectromechanical Devices, Spring 2007. MIT
OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
JV: 2.372J/6.777J Spring 2007, Lecture 15 - 1
Outline
> Review of last time
> Poiseuille flow
> Stokes drag on a sphere
> Squeezed-film damping
> Electrolytes & Electrokinetic separations
Last time
> Surface Tension U x

Force at a liquid-fluid interface =
y
> Viscosity
Constitutive property relation
shear stress to shear rate D
= + U
> Material Derivative Dt t
Time derivative taking into effect D m
convection + m U = 0
Dt
> Mass continuity
DU
> Navier-Stokes Equation m = P + U + ( U ) + m g
2
Fundamental relation for Dt 3

Newtonian fluids
> Reynolds Number
m LU
The MOST IMPORTANT Re =
dimensionless number
Outline
> Poiseuille flow
Poiseuille Flow
> Pressure-driven flow through a pipe
In our case, two parallel plates
> Velocity profile is parabolic
> This is the most common flow in microfluidics
Assumes that h<<W
y
h
W
high P low P
W
Ux
Umax
Image by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Adapted from Figure 13.5 in Senturia, Stephen D. Microsystem Design. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001, p. 329. ISBN: 9780792372462.
Solution for Poiseuille Flow
> Assume
U
Incompressible m + U U = P + U + ( U ) + m g
2
Steady t 3
Ux only depends on y
Ignore gravity
> Assume a uniform pressure dP

gradient along the pipe = K
dx
> Result is Poissons eqn 2U x K
=
> Boundary conditions: y 2

Relative velocity goes to zero
at the walls
no-slip boundary
condition
Solution for Poiseuille Flow
> Integrate twice to get solution
1
> Maximum velocity is at center Ux = y ( h y ) K
> Can get linear flowrate [m/s] and 2
volumetric flowrate [m3/s]
h2
> Can get lumped resistor using the fluidic U max = K
convention 8
Wh3
h
> Note STRONG dependence on h
Q = W U x dy = K
> This relation is more complicated when 0
12
the aspect ratio is not very high
y
P = effort = KL
h
12L
P = 3
Q
Wh
Ux
Umax 12L
RPois =
Wh 3
Adapted from Figure 13.5 in Senturia, Stephen D. Microsystem Design.
Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001, p. 329. ISBN: 9780792372462.
Development Length
> It takes a certain characteristic length, called the
development length, to establish the Poiseuille velocity
profile
> This development length corresponds to a development

time for viscous stresses to diffuse from wall
> Development length is proportional to the characteristic

length scale and to the Reynolds number, both of which
tend to be small in microfluidic devices
2 L
time * Re
L
U
LD (time)U Re L
A note on vorticity
> A common statement is to say
that laminar flow has no vorticity
= U
> What is meant is that laminar flow Vorticity
has no turbulence
> Vorticity and turbulence are

1
different Ux = [ y(h y )]K
2
> Can the pinwheel spin?
Then there is vorticity U x U x
= ny nz
> Demonstrate for Poiseuille flow z y
K
= n z (h 2 y )
2
Outline
Stokes Flow
> Steady-state flow in which
inertial effects can be neglected,
Re0
> The result is a vector Poisson DU

equation When m can be neglected
Dt
> Also called creeping flow
> Action is instantaneous
No mass in system 2 U = P *
Incompressible: no springs
> This is a typical approximation
made in microfluidics
Stokes drag on a sphere
> In creeping flow, one can solve for z
the flow field around a sphere
placed in an initially uniform flow
field
R
r
> This can be used to find the y
stresses on the sphere and sum

them to find the total drag
x
> This is called the Stokes drag

> This is often the predominant Vz = U
particle force in microfluidic
systems
Fd = 6RU
> See Deens text for derivation
Stokes drag on a sphere
> This is strictly valid ONLY in a uniform
flow
> These are hard to make

> Instead, we can use Ux(y) of the
parabolic flow profile to calculate a
height-dependent drag force
> This approach fails when the particle is

too big
> Instead, take advantage of published

solutions
Shear flow: Goldman et al., Chem. Eng. U ( y)
Sci. 22, 653 (1967).
Poiseuille flow: Ganatos et al. J. Fluid
Mech. 99, 755 (1980).
Outline
Squeezed-Film Damping
> This is how we will get our b (or R) for the parallel-plate actuator
> The result of motion against a fluid boundary
If the fluid is incompressible, there can be a large pressure rise, so
large back forces result
If the fluid is compressible, it takes finite motion to create a
pressure rise
> In either case, the dissipation due to viscous flow provides a
damping mechanism for the motion
> This is related to lubrication theory
Moveable
h(t)
Fixed

Adapted from Figure 13.6 in Senturia, Stephen D. Microsystem Design. Boston,
MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001, p. 333. ISBN: 9780792372462.
The Reynolds Equation
> Assumptions for compressible
isothermal squeezed-film
damping
One-dimensional pressure
gradient: P(r,t) = P(y,t) only
No pressure gradient in z or
along plate (x) ( Ph) h3 1 2 2
= P
Stokes flow t 12 2
Poiseuille flow profile in the plane
Ideal gas law
Isothermal (temperature rise due
to compression is small, and heat z
flow to the walls is rapid)
L
No-slip BCs y h
Rigid plate: h(r,t) = h(t) only x
W
> The result is a version of the Adapted from Figure 13.7 in Senturia, Stephen D. Microsystem Design. Boston,
MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001, p. 334. ISBN: 9780792372462.
Reynolds equation
Example: Rigid Plate Damping
> Now, assume small motions
Linearize
> The result is (guess what!) the

( Ph) h3 1 2 2
heat-flow equation = P
t 12 2
If we linearize:
h = h0 + h P = Po + P
z y P
Normalize: = p =
y
L W Po
h
x
W
p h02 Po 2 p h
=
t 12W 2 2
Adapted from Figure 13.7 in Senturia, Stephen D. Microsystem Design. Boston,
MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001, p. 334. ISBN: 9780792372462. ho
Suddenly Applied Motion

> We already solved a very 96 LW 3 1 1
similar problem F ( s) =
ho
4 3 4
sz ( s )
1+
n odd n
s
Impulse of heat into 1-D
resistor n
2
n ho Po
2 2
> Now we have a velocity n = = n

12W 2
impulse: sudden change of
height n=1
> We get a series of 1st-order 96 LW 3 2 ho2 Po

b= c =
terms, as before 4 ho3 12W 2
> Only need 1st term, which
is an RC circuit
> R for viscous damping 1
R=b C=
bc
> C for gas compressibility
> Details are in the book
Outline
Electrokinetic Phenomena
> It is a coupled-domain problem in which electrostatic forces
result in fluid flow (and vice versa)
> Start with electrolytes, move into double layer, and finally show
how to manipulate the double layer
> It is the driver behind ALOT of early micro-TAS work
Electrolytes
> Electrolytes: liquids with
mobile ions Ion mobility (cm2/V-s)
Examples: water, PBS zi
Ni = ui Ci E Di Ci
zi
> Ions can move via Flux (cm-2-s-1)
concentration gradients
Valence Diffusivity (cm2/s)
(diffusion) or electric fields
(drift) Concentration (cm-3)
> Macroscopically, the liquid is

e = zi qeCi 0 in the bulk
approximately charge-neutral i
(called quasineutrality) e
In neutral regions: 2 = =0

N + = u+ C+ E D+ C+
For a binary electrolyte N = uC E DC
(e.g., NaCl in water)
e = qe (C+ C ) 0
Electrolytes
Glass Glass
> Surfaces with fixed + -+ -+ + +
O- O- + + - -
- + - - -
charge can lead to net O- + - + - O- + - + -
space charge in the O- + - + + -
+ - O-
+ +
-
O- + -+ -+ + - -
-
liquid - O-
+ - + -
O- + - + - O- + + - + -
> Diffusion competes O- + - - O- + - -
+ + + +
with drift, and at C+ C- C+
equilibrium, Boltzmann C-
distribution follows zi
Ni = ui Ci E Di Ci = 0 at equilibrium
> This leads to the zi
zi qe ( ( x ) o )
Poisson-Boltzmann
equation Ci ( x ) = Ci ,o e k BT
zi qe ( o )
1
Near the wall: 2 = e

2 =

zqC
i
i e i ,o e k BT
Diffuse Double Layer
zi qe
1
Express in terms of = 0 : 2 = zqC i ,o e k BT
i
i e
Expand for small potential variations
2
1 q
zi qeCi ,o +
2 e
z 2
Ci ,o
w i k BT i i

Assuming the reference region is charge neutral
1
2 = 2 For binary
LD
monovalent
= e D
z / L
w
electrolyte
LD (e.g., NaCl)
Debye 1 qe2 2qe2Ci ,o

Length LD
= z C = k T
2
k BT i i i ,o B
LD ~ 1 LD=1 nm for
Ci ,o 0.1 M NaCl
Double-layer charge
> We can calculate the total charge in the double layer

> It must balance the charge at the wall
z

Near the wall: = w e LD
w
T he charge density is
e
=
2
e = 2
LD
Total charge per unit area
LD in diffuse layer

w LD L
z
w
d = e dz = = w = e D
0
LD
DL charge/area wall charge/area
[C/cm2] [C/cm2]
Actual Double Layers
> The actual situation is MUCH more complicated
> Some ions are tightly or specifically adsorbed, forming the Stern layer
and screening the wall charge
> The rest distribute in a diffuse double-layer: the Gouy-Chapman layer
> This is an active area of research
Stern layer Gouy-Chapman layer
(up to ~0.2 nm) (~1-20 nm)
Shear boundary
Phase
Potential
boundary
(Nernst)
Gouy- potential
Zeta potential Chapman (up to several
potential hundred mV)
0
Distance from interface
Electroosmotic Flow
> An axial electric field exerts a
force on the charge in the
diffuse double layer, which
drags the fluid down the pipe
Insulating solid
Electrolyte Net charge in diffuse layer

Electric field
Insulating solid

Adapted from Figure 13.11 in Senturia, Stephen D. Microsystem Design. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001, p. 343. ISBN: 9780792372462.
Analysis of Electroosmotic Flow
> Assume
Creeping flow
One dimensional flow Ux(z)
No pressure drop
Electrical body force
> Express charge density in 2U x = e Ex

terms of wall surface charge
density
e = 2

LD
> Set up differential equation
w
z

= e LD
LD
2
d Ux w LD
z

= e Ex

LD
2
dz
> This leads to a PLUG-FLOW d 2U x w LzD
= e Ex
profile
LD
2
dz
~3LD
Integrate twice, and use boundary conditions:
dU x
Ux ( z = ) = 0 ( ) = =0
Ux(z) dz h/2

w LD L
z

Ux = e e
L
Ex

D D
z

z
w LD L
z
( z ) = e D

Plug flow

~3LD Ux
Ux =

(
Ex )
U0
> This leads to a PLUG-FLOW
profile
> Flow depends on zeta

potential
The potential at the slip
Ux =

(
Ex )
plane
Which is in a different place w LD L

than the wall, the Stern layer, U0 = e Ex = E D
or LD x
It is what is measured for z > 3LD
experimentally
For h>>LD, one typically
assumes
=0
w =
Electrophoresis
> This is just electroosmosis
around a solid surface

> Each ionic species has its own U ep = E x = epE x
mobility
> Therefore, in an electrolyte in
which there is a net electric field,
ions will drift at various rates More
For a generally
> This is the basis of a separation large
technology called electrophoretic particle
separation
Electrokinetic separation
> This was THE original driver for micro-TAS
TAS = total analysis systems
> Create fully integrated microsystems that would
go from sample to answer
> The KEY enabler was the integration of non-

mechanical valves with the separation column
This creates extremely narrow sample plugs
> Also important is the ability to multiplex Image removed due to copyright restrictions.
> The actual sample prep was (and is) usually

ignored
> This is/was the raison dtre of Caliper & Aclara

> Aclara died, unclear if Caliper will succeed
> We use a channel-crossing
structure to select a sample
plug
> Then we switch voltages to

drag the plug down a Ls
separation column
EO
> In one approach, EO and EP co-
exist, but EO dominates EP,1
> Different species travel at EP,2
different rates separation
Ls = t sep EP ,1 EP , 2 E x
Separation time
Schematic Illustration
> The key discovery was that
V1 (+)
liquid samples could be VJ Injection
controlled with voltages V3 > VJ V4 > VJ
> This allows one to valve V2 = 0
and pump liquids V1 < VJ

Injected sample plug
Create small sample plugs
V3 (+) V4 = 0
U0
V2 < VJ
V1 < VJ
Slower component
V3 (+) V4 = 0
U0 U0
Faster component
ORNL movie V2 < VJ
> The macro technology is
conventional capillary
electrophoresis
Most notably used in the
human genome project
> Sample loading is the problem Ls

> To separate two species Ls W
(ignoring diffusion), we need
W
> Smaller starting W means we
can use a shorter channel
> And get a faster separation
> Conventional capillaries Richard Mathies (UCB)
have larger W because

injection is not integrated
Though this is always
getting better
> This thus requires a

longer channel
> Microfab also allows for

integration
Courtesy of Richard A. Mathies. Used with permission.
An aside on electrodes
> Current in the electrolyte is carried by ions
> Current in the wire is carried by electrons
> At the surface, something must happen to transfer
this current
> This is electrochemistry and the typical byproduct are

gases bubbles
Electrokinetics
> That is just the beginning
> Dielectrophoresis
Force on dipoles in non-uniform electric fields
Can use AC fields
Can hold things in place
> Other phenomena
Electrohydrodynamics
Electrowetting
Induced-charge electrophoresis/electroosmosis
Comparing EOF & pressure-driven flow
> If you are designing a chip that needs to move liquids
around, which method is best?
> Issues to consider

Flowrate scaling
Liquid composition
System partitioning
Materials
Species Transport
> Flowrate
Water in rectangular SiO2 channel
h varies, W=1000 m, L=2 cm, =800, =50 mV
Drive with Ex=100 V/cm, P=5 psi
Wh3
U0 =
Ex Q= P
12 L
hW Q h2
Q = U 0 hW = Ex U0 = = P
A 12 L
> Scaling
Pressure-driven flow
2
larger in large channels 10
Due to cubic 0
10
dependence of flow
resistance
-2
10
EO flow larger in small EO
Q (l/s)
channels -4
10
> Both scale equivalently -6 Poiseuille

10
with channel length
Larger L requires more -8
10 -6
10 10
-5
10
-4 -3
10
voltage and higher h (m)
pressure to get same flow
> Other issues typically matter more
> Valving
EOF has built-in valving using E-fields
Poiseuille needs mechanical valves
> Liquid limitations
Poiseuille flow can pump any liquid
EOF ionic strength limits
Debye length depends on 1/C0
Increasing ionic strength decreases LD and thus
EOF
Typically use ~10-100 mM salt buffer
EOF pH limits
pH affects wall charge affects EOF
Typically use pH ~7 buffers
> Materials issues
Poiseuille flow can use any material
EOF requires defined (and stable) surface charge
Best is silica (or at least glass)
Polymers are more difficult
Surface charge can change as molecules
adsorb, etc.
> System partitioning

Both approaches involve off-chip components
Electrodes for EOF
Pumps for Poiseuille flow
Integrating complete lab-on-a-chip usually BAD idea
EOF: Easier to use external electronics
Poiseuille: Pumps hard to make on-chip
> Transport limitations
EOF
Will separate molecules as they are convected
downstream
Species in flow must tolerate E-fields (DNA/proteins
OK, cells not so good)
Plugs remain plugs
Poiseuille flow
Will not separate molecules
Objects in flow must tolerate shear/pressure
(DNA/proteins OK, cells OK depending on
shear/pressure)
Will distort plugs
Whats next
> We will discuss the behavior of the stuff in the liquids
> How to manipulate that stuff at the microscale
> And then we head into system-level issues
Feedback, Noise, etc.

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Fluids - B

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

> Surface Tension U x

Fundamental relation for Dt 3

Image by MIT OpenCourseWare.

> Assume a uniform pressure dP

> This development length corresponds to a development

> Development length is proportional to the characteristic

> Vorticity and turbulence are

> The result is a vector Poisson DU

stresses on the sphere and sum

> This is called the Stokes drag

> These are hard to make

> This approach fails when the particle is

> Instead, take advantage of published

Image by MIT OpenCourseWare.

> The result is (guess what!) the

> Now we have a velocity n = = n

> We get a series of 1st-order 96 LW 3 2 ho2 Po

> It is the driver behind ALOT of early micro-TAS work

> Macroscopically, the liquid is

Expand for small potential variations

Debye 1 qe2 2qe2Ci ,o

> We can calculate the total charge in the double layer

Electrolyte Net charge in diffuse layer

Image by MIT OpenCourseWare.

> Express charge density in 2U x = e Ex

> Flow depends on zeta

than the wall, the Stern layer, U0 = e Ex = E D

> The KEY enabler was the integration of non-

> The actual sample prep was (and is) usually

> This is/was the raison dtre of Caliper & Aclara

> Then we switch voltages to

controlled with voltages V3 > VJ V4 > VJ

> This allows one to valve V2 = 0

and pump liquids V1 < VJ

Image by MIT OpenCourseWare.

> Sample loading is the problem Ls

> And get a faster separation

have larger W because

> This thus requires a

> Microfab also allows for

Courtesy of Richard A. Mathies. Used with permission.

> This is electrochemistry and the typical byproduct are

> Issues to consider

> Both scale equivalently -6 Poiseuille

pressure to get same flow

> System partitioning

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