RESEARCH PAPER TEMPLATE

North American University

Education Department
M.Ed. in EDLE & CUIN
EDUC 5312: CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

Name: Kelly Burnham Date: 3/13/2017

Instructional Project 3

Part 1. DISCOVERY LEARNING:

Download and read the following article:

Castronova, J. A. (2002). Discovery learning for the 21st century: What is it

and how does it compare to traditional learning in effectiveness in the 21st
century. Action Research Exchange, 1(1), 1-12. Retrived from
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?
doi=10.1.1.594.6363&rep=rep1&type=pdf
After reading this article and conducting additional research, answer to the
following questions.

What is discovery learning?

According to Moore (2015) Discovery learning is an instructional method that focuses
on intentional learning through supervised problem solving according to the scientific
method [wherein] students are encouraged to learn concepts and principles through
their own exploration (354). Learning must be planned, and it involves supervision by
the teacher. Discovery learning is distinct from inquiry learning in that it follows an
established pattern of investigation. Discovery learning can take place in any of the three
levels, depending on the level of problem solving:
Level I: Problem Identification identification of the problem and the process for
solving the problem are generated and directed, respectively, by the teacher.
Level II: Process for problem solving - the problem is identified by the teacher, but the
process for solving the problem as well as the establishment of a tentative solution to the
problem is determined by the students.
Level III: Establishment of a tentative solution - Students identify the problem, decide
the process for solving the problem, and determine a tentative solution to the problem.

How does this form of teaching compare to traditional, teacher-centered

instruction?
Discovery learning allows students to be active participants in their learning in varying
degrees depending upon the level of problem solving used. On the other hand,
Castranova (2002) describes traditional learning in a teacher centered classroom as
focusing on lower level skills and knowledge as with, didactic, drill and practice, and
expository learning. Whereas teacher-centered instruction involves teachers telling the
content, often in a rote manner, discovery learning requires students to develop skills in
problem solving and developing a conceptual framework for the content. Teacher
centered instruction usually involves methods such as lecture, note taking, and handouts.
Discovery learning involves inquiry, research, technology and other self-directed
instructional tasks by students.
What educational theories support the discovery learning model?
Discovery learning, compelled into educational discourse in the 1960s in America by
Jerome Bruner, most notably, draws on cognitive learning models, sociocultural and
constructivist theories developed by Piaget, Vygotsky, Dewey and others.

Cognitive Learning Theory

Piaget (development psychology) asserted that children are naturally curious about the
world and actively involved in their learning. He described learning as a constructive
process whereby children create, rather than absorb, knowledge. Children use existing
knowledge or schemes into cognitive structures called operations. Interaction with the
physical environment and people are necessary for learning and cognitive development.

Sociocultural Theory
Vygotskys (development psychology) theories focused on the role of the social and
cultural environment on learning, acknowledging, however, that brain and biological
maturation factor into cognitive development. He believed that through conversations,
adults mediate meanings about culture to children, including both physical objects and
symbols, from which children develop cognitive tools. One such cognitive tool was
language, which he felt was closely connected to thought. He further introduced the
Zone of Proximal Development which includes learning and problem solving abilities
that can, at first, only be accomplished with the help of an adult or experienced learner,
and then mastered independently as they master increasingly complex tasks. According
to Moore (2015), his theories laid the foundation for cooperative learning and the basic
tenets of constructivism.

John Dewey, during the Progressive era, was an influential American educational
reformer and paramount in the development of modern educational theory. His theories
emphasized student interest from whence came the child centered curriculum.

Jerome Bruner, according to Moore (2015) is An American psychologist who

emphasized the importance of understanding the essential concepts of a subject, the need
for active learning as the basis for true understanding. He identified sequential modes
of learning including enactive, or learning by doing, iconic or formulating mental images,
and symbolic or learning through a series of abstract symbols. He advocated for
independent learning by students, and laid the foundation for discovery learning.

Apart each of these theories have made significant contributions in education, and have
distinct considerations for learning. However, they are connected in that they involve a
student being an active participant in his/her own learning by constructing knowledge,
and each acknowledges an interaction by the student their environment or social context.
What is the most important thing you discovered about discovery learning?
Discovery learning, at least at the independently student driven Level III or with minimal
guidance, is a debatable teaching/learning approach according to 21st century research.
Kirschner, Sweller & Clark (2006) begin their discussion about modern research as it
delineates our current understandings of the architecture of the brain, and how it
processes information, the cognitive burden novel information creates in short term
memory, how information is lost if not connected to current knowledge, and how long
term memory is now seen as the dominant center of cognition. In reckoning back to our
understanding of the brain decades ago, Kirschner and his colleagues note,
Recommending minimal guidance was understandable when Bruner (1961) proposed
discovery learning as an instructional tool because the structures and relations that
constitute human cognitive architecture had not yet been mapped (p. 77). Emphasizing
our understandings about the relation between functioning of working and long term
memory and its implications for learning and problem solving, the authors point to
current research that supports instructional design with strong support for novice to
intermediate students.

In citing research by Lefrancois (1997) Mayer (2004) suggests that it is a constructivist

teaching fallacy to equate active teaching with active learning (p. 14-15). He
acknowledges that constructivist learning, as with discovery, is a worthwhile goal, but
premises this with caution in that constructivist teaching should not be limited to
discovery. He advocates for the development of teaching methods that support
constructivist learning all the while supporting appropriate processing in learners.

How can you apply this method to your future classroom?

If I were to implement discovery learning in my classroom, I would opt for Levels I or II
so as to allow for teacher guidance and support. Even in my last English I Pre-AP
classroom, where we did Project Based Learning, support in the form of modeling,
guidance, scaffolded questioning were required. The diversity of literacy and language
proficiency levels required this instructional support. Further, I would consider this as a
second semester endeavor culminating in summative assessment through a final product
in the last quarter, when all standards have been taught to students.

Part 2. ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS

Select one of the following chapters to conduct research: Chapter 2, 3, 5 or
12. Review the chapter and respond to related questions for that chapter by
conducting your own research.
Chapter 12- Teaching Effective Thinking Strategies

1. Teaching methods. What teaching methods and procedures can be used to

improve students critical thinking abilities? Creative thinking abilities?

Critical thinking involves higher level thinking skills, it is complex, objective, and it
involves referencing ones own value system. Moore suggests numerous teaching
methods and procedures which can be used to improve students critical thinking
abilities:

The following are some methods and procedures that can be used to improve students
creative thinking abilities:

Allow for questioning and learning beyond the gathering of rote information

Open ended activities, with no single correct answer can be used to develop
thinking skills

Provide activities that enhance opportunities for thinking

Additionally, thinking skills can be explicitly taught to students. Teachers can model
taking their thinking public as they read critically aloud from a short text, stopping to
model questioning techniques, inferencing, making text connections and other
metacognitive strategies. Reflecting on ones reading should be taught and encouraged as
well. Reminding students to use self-monitoring strategies like re-reading a passage to
clarify understanding, using context clues to figure out the meaning of a word or to see
where comprehension failed, and asking clarifying questions can all ways students can
assume responsibility for their own understanding.

2. Thinking. What type of thinking is emphasized in most schools? Is critical

thinking rewarded? Creative thinking? Is school success based on students ability
to think critically? Creatively?

I cant speak to what kind of thinking is emphasized in most schools authoritatively, but I
can summarily describe skills required by the TEKS in our state as well as through the
curriculum I have used and written over the years. The state of Texas has Figure 19
TEKS incorporated into the learning standards for ELA, and I have seen them
implemented across contents as well. Fig. 19 TEKS are the metacognitive skills that
teach students to reflect on understanding, monitor comprehension, make text
connections and inferences, ask critical questions and other strategies to promote
comprehension and understanding. With 21st century learning, generally speaking
schools I am familiar with emphasize problem solving, critically evaluating both print
and online information, research, thinking involved in the scientific process, and other
college preparatory thinking skills. Critical thinking is rewarded through academic
achievement in progress reporting, high stakes testing, SAT testing through college
admissions, so in that regard it is awarded systematically through high marks and
distinctions, whereby schools also stand to benefit through distinctions and competition
trophies. Teachers, in my observation, award critical thinking through praise and
encouragement. School success based on students ability to think creatively can be
gained in ELA high stakes testing distinctions, as student writing samples are evaluated.

3. The environment. What type of classroom environment would be conducive to

developing critical thinking? Creative thinking? What problems can you foresee in
establishing this environment?

Moore (2015) states, Thinking in the classroom is often facilitated by a physical and
intellectual environment that encourages a spirit of discovery (p. 384). He goes on to
offer a couple of suggestions for the physical layout of the room, which are:

Arrange the seating so that students can see and interact with each other

Create visual instructional aides with thinking stems and post them around the
room

One problem that may occur as a result of this type of seating arrangement is that
students will quite literally turn their focus to the attention of their classmates.
Consequently, a loss of engagement may occur as students are positioned for social
interaction. The sentence stems on visual aids may help to scaffold thinking in discussion
at first, but then may serve as a crutch wherein students lean on these exclusively instead
of developing questions of their own.

Creative thinking can be frustrating for students when dealing with a difficult concept for
which they struggle to find language to describe or when ideas are at first too complex to
express. To encourage creative thinking, teachers can create a nonjudgmental classroom
atmosphere, where risk taking and creative multi-disciplinary thinking is encouraged and
supported.

One problem that may occur with an atmosphere that promotes creativity is the potential
for thinking to digress when focus is needed on content. Additionally, unless students are
aware of and experienced at discerning between non-judgmental and non-critical, they
may forfeit the latter which is a higher level thinking skill.

Part 3. REFERENCES:
Cite at least 5 References in APA.
You need to use at least 3 different resources besides Castronova (2002), and
Moore (2015).
You may use http://www.citationmachine.net/apa/cite-a-journal for citing
your sources in APA style.

References:
Castronova, J. A. (2002). Discovery learning for the 21st century: What is it and how
does it compare to traditional learning effectiveness in the 21st centry. Action
Research Exchange, 1(1), 1-12. Retrieved from
http://citeseerx.ist.psn.edu/viewdoc/download?
doi=10.1.1.594.6363&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should There Be a Three-Strikes Rule Against Pure Discovery

Learning? American Psychologist, 59(1), 14-19. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.59.1.14

Moore, K. D. (2015). Effective instructional strategies: From theory to practice. Los
Angeles: SAGE.
Ormrod, J. E. (2016). Human Learning (Seventh Edition ed.). Pearson.

Svinicki, J. D. (19988). A Theoretical Foundation for Discovery Learning. American

Journal of Physiology, 275(6), S5.

Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why Minimal guidance during
Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist
Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry Based Teaching.
Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86.