IPC2000-117
FLOATING-ROOF TANKS
DESIGN AND OPERATION IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Terry A. Gallagher
Chicago Bridge & Iron Compan N.V.
1501 North Division Street
Plainfield, Illinois, USA 60544-8984
Telephone: (815) 439-6000
Fax: (815) 439-6010
This Technical Paper is intended to provide general information with regard to the subject matter covered. It should be understood that it does not
purport to be comprehensive and that the information may not apply to specific factual situations. [For more information concerning the subject matter,
please contact Terry A. Gallagher.]
ABSTRACT
The floating-roof tank has been the most widely used method of
storage of volatile petroleum products since the first demonstration b
Chicago Bridge & Iron Company (CB&I) in 1923. There have been
many changes and design improvements to that first pan-style-floating
roof.
A floating roof is a complex structure. It must be designed to
remain buoyant even when exposed to combined loads from varying
process, weather and product conditions. There is a continued demand
for improved floating-roof tanks to store a wide range of petroleum
and petrochemical products in compliance with state and federal
environmental regulations. Floating roofs are used in open top tanks
(EFRT), inside tanks with fixed roofs (IFRT), or in tanks that are
totally closed where no product evaporative losses are permitted for
release to the atmosphere. This very special type of installation is
referred to as a zero emission storage tank (ZEST). Products that
might have been stored in basic fixed roof tanks must now utilize a
floating roof to limit evaporative emissions to the atmosphere. High
vapor pressure condensate service and blended heavy crude oils also
present new design challenges to the floating roof tank industry.
This paper will review the most prominent styles of floating roofs
from 1923 to the present. Design and operating limits for current da
floating-roof structures are presented. New trends in environmental
regulations and the potential impact on the design and operation of
floating-roof tanks w i l l be presented. Current maintenance practices
and the effect on Life Cycle Cost Management of the storage syste
are also reviewed.
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Christian R. Desjardins
Horton CBI, Limited
Bow Valley Square 4
#600, 250 6th Avenue S
Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2P 3H7
Telephone: (403) 264-1333
Fax: (403) 266-2453
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The floating-roof tank is the most widely used storage method to
safely control product evaporative emissions from volatile petroleu
products. Literally thousands of floating-roofs are in operation
throughout the world, some having been in continuous operation since
first constructed over 50 years ago. Many floating-roof tanks far
exceed the service life of the owners, operators and maintenance
personnel responsible for safe keeping of many refinery and terminal
operations. Herein lies a basic problem we will address in this paper -
the ability to maintain a working knowledge of the floating-roof tank,
associated equipment and operating systems common to the petroleu
industry.
This paper presents an introduction into the design of the most
prominent styles of floating roofs from 1923 to the present. What are
the important features of each type of floating roof and why is one
design better suited to a certain set of operating conditions? Practical
operating and maintenance practices are reviewed. Proper selection of
the floating-roof type can reduce the potential risk of a problem during
every day operations.
Development and improvement of the floating-roof has generall
been in response to changing owner requirements, recognized design
codes or federal and state environmental regulations. The floating
roof was originally developed for use in open top tanks (EFRT). As
product, weather and environmental concerns became more of an
issue, floating-roof designs were adapted for use in a tank with a fixed
cover (IFRT). The most advanced type of installation is used in
applications that require absolute control of all emissions from the
storage tank. A ZEST installation contains all product vapors while
maintaining the tank within safe operating limits.
Developments of new equipment details have reduced the overall
environmental impact fro a floating-roof tank. Recent equipment
Copyright 2000 by ASME
 developments and why they are important from a regulator
compliance standpoint are presented.
A basic life cycle cost analysis of typical floating roof tanks is
presented. Floating-roof tanks remain the safest, most cost effective
method of storing petroleum and many petrochemical products.
2.0 WHY USE A FLOATING ROOF?
The basic reasons to use a floating-roof have not changed in over
75 years. Safety, effectiveness and economy are the reasons floating
roof tanks remain the worldwide "standard" for storage of volatile
petroleum and chemical products. Although significant advancements
have been made since the first successful tests in 1923, the basic
principles remain unchanged. Floating roofs should be designed for
full liquid contact in order to minimize evaporation and reduce
product side corrosion. Another benefit from reduced evaporation is
improved fire safety. Each floating roof must include features
designed to accept the full range of roof movement, keep product
emissions to a minimum, and provide an extended service life with
minimal maintenance.
2.1 Product Evaporative Loss Control
Product evaporative loss is not only a significant environmental
and economic concern to an owner but is a major consideration when
improving storage safety. Four conditions that affect product
evaporation from a storage tank are:
1. Liquid temperature
2. Vapor space above liquid
3. Ventilation of the vapor space
4. Available liquid surface area
In general, for any liquid stored in a container with an open vapor
space above the liquid surface, a portion of that liquid w i l l evaporate
and the vapor migrate past the liquid surface to the vapor space. The
process w i l l continue until the vapor space becomes saturated with
product vapor. Once equilibrium is established no further evaporation
will occur unless one of the above conditions are altered. Saturation
conditions are specific to the product stored (liquid composition) and
to its temperature. Since petroleum product is generally a mixture of
different hydrocarbons the evaporation process is slightly more
complicated. Lighter, more volatile hydrocarbons (those with the
highest vapor pressure) w i l l evaporate first. The process w i l l continue
until saturation conditions for the specific hydrocarbon mixture is
achieved. Saturation properties for any known hydrocarbon mixture
may be calculated and used to predict evaporation rates at different
storage conditions.
How will each condition affect the loss control performance of a
storage tank? Consider a conventional Fixed Roof Tank (FRT) shown
in Figure 1 and an EFRT shown in Figure 2.
When a volatile product is stored in a freely ventilated fixed-roof
tank (Figure 1), the concentration of volatile vapors in the vapor space
will vary depending on tank operating conditions.
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Air/ Vapor out
Air ui v-^- <r- External Floating Roof with
\ Emission Controls
Air/Vapor Mix j
>f ' ' '"
Figure I Figure 2
During holding periods, when no liquid is added or removed the
vapor space will come to equilibrium based on product temperature
and vapor pressure. Emissions during holding are generated by the
vapor space breathing process. As a result of daily ambient heating
and cooling processes, the air-vapor mixture in the vapor space
expands and contracts. During the daily heating process, some of the
air-vapor mixture is expelled from the tank, resulting in evaporative
emissions. During product cooling, air is drawn into the vapor space
that helps to dilute the concentration. This initiates further
evaporation that continues until the space again reaches equilibrium.
Emissions of volatile products due to breathing are anaturall
occurring process wherever there is a defined vapor space[l][2].
Normal tank filling and send out operations also effect the vapor
space of a fixed-roof tank. When product is removed from the tank air
is drawn into the vapor space. Unless the tank is completely emptied,
the air in the new, larger vapor space will become saturated with
product vapors. During the holding period before the next tank filling
operation, evaporative breathing losses w i l l increase due to the
increased volume of the vapor space. When product is added to the
tank, the increasing liquid volume displaces the air-vapor mixture
through the tank vent, resulting in significant evaporative emissions.
Tank filling operations produce more evaporative emissions than an
other tank operation in a fixed-roof tank.
I f the same volatile product is stored in an EFRT (Figure 2), an
analysis of evaporative emissions will produce significantly different
results. Addition of a welded-steel floating roof w i l l significant!
reduce evaporative emissions and, as a result, greatly improve
operating safety. Evaporative emissions are reduced by covering as
much of the liquid surface as possible without effecting the
mechanical operation of the floating roof. In general the floating roof
covers the entire liquid surface except for a small perimeter ri space.
Under normal floating conditions, there should be no vapor space
underneath a properly designed floating roof.
Evaporative emissions, although reduced in excess of 98%, can
not be entirely eliminated. Evaporation and associated product losses
will still occur from the rim space, from standard roof deck fittings,
from product which remains on the tank shell, and from tank
operations that require the tank to be emptied and the floating roof
landed on its supports for maintenance purposes.
 2.2 Safety floating-roof was tested the only application was as an external
Crude and refined petroleum products are volatile in nature and floating-roof. The roof deck was sloped to the center for water
will readily evaporate at normal storage and handling conditions drainage and to permit vapors to pass from underneath the deck to the
producing vapors that are combustible (explosive) over a range of perimeter rim space. The need for improved rim seals, roof drains,
concentrations with air. It has been shown that the addition of a manual and automatic bleeder vents, rolling ladders, and other tank
welded-steel floating roof to an open top tank can reduce the equipment has never stopped.
evaporative emissions by more than 98% [2], Properly designed, the
floating roof, floating-roof seals and floating roof deck fittings can
control the quantity and release of product emissions to the
environment. Operating experience and independent studies of the air
flow in and around an external floating-roof tank have shown that the
risk of a combustible mixture of product vapors and air existing above
a floating roof can be effectively controlled during normal tank
operations. General operating guidelines and suggested safe operating
limits of floating-roof tanks are covered in Section 5.

3.0 FLOATING ROOF APPLICATIONS

The use of a floating-roof tank is a preferred method of storage
for any petroleum liquid with a true vapor pressure (TVP) greater than
or equal to 1.5 psia (78 mm Hg) but not greater than 11.1 psia (570
As with any new concept, the evolution of the floating-roof has
mm Hg). This criteria is documented by the US Environmental
included many different designs. Some have worked very well while
Protection Agency (USEPA) in 40CFR60.110, Subparts K, K a , and
others have quickly failed when exposed to the rigors of normal
K b . Local regulatory agencies may follow these guidelines or ma
floating roof operations. Eventually minimum requirements for the
elect to follow more stringent criteria. As the vapor pressure increases
design and construction of EFRTs and IFRTs were developed and
the evaporative emissions w i l l increase proportionally. For more
documented in Appendices C and H of API Standard 650, Welded
information on evaporative emissions from floating-roof tanks refer to
Steel Tanks for Oil Storage[3]. Similar requirements are included in
the American Petroleum Institute (API) publication "Evaporative Loss
British Standard BS2654[4],
From Floating-Roof Tanks," Chapter 19.2 of the Manual of Petroleu
Measurement Standards [2]. Floating roofs are complex structures to design, analyze and
construct. Even with advanced finite element analysis techniques,
Floating-roof tank configurations most commonly used are the
design of a floating-roof structure may still require a rigorous analysis.
external floating-roof tank (EFRT) and the internal floating-roof tank
Many designs were developed before the computer. Final designs
(IFRT). Special applications that permit no emissions to the
were verified by full-scale tests that included strain gage and
atmosphere may use a modified internal floating-roof tank design - the
deflection measurements while the roof was subjected to the design
zero emission storage tank (ZEST). Factors that should be considered
loading conditions specified in API 650 Appendix C. Designs ma
when selecting the tank configuration are product characteristics, site
now be completed using computer analysis programs developed and
weather conditions, process operating requirements, storage capacit
verified with data obtained from the original field test programs.
and required throughput. The largest capacity floating-roof tanks are
generally EFR designs, are used primarily for storage of refiner
feedstock and may have capacities up to 1,5MMBbl or more in a
single tank. The IFR options may be used when product quality must 3.2 Internal / External Floating-Roof Design
be tightly controlled, where tighter control is warranted due to Design conditions for an external floating roof differ significant
personnel exposure limitations or in locations where weather from those used to design an internal floating roof. A major difference
conditions may warrant the added protection provided by a fixed roof. is the added requirement that the external floating roof design must
accommodate loads due to varying weather conditions. Other
differences include floating roof access and the design of product
emission control hardware. However, many of the basic design
3.1 Floating-Roof Design
principles remain unchanged.
A floating-roof design can range from a very simple pan roof to
the complicated structure of a double deck floating-roof. What design Floating roof must be designed to remain buoyant (floating)
is selected depends on many of the same factors used previously to on liquid with a specific gravity of 0.7 under specified design
select the tank configuration - product characteristics, site weather operating conditions.
conditions, system operating requirements, storage capacity and
required through-put. The first floating-roof designs were stiffened Floating roofs should maintain full liquid contact to
pans similar to that shown in Figure 3. In 1923 when the first minimize evaporation and reduce product side corrosion.

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Floating roof and its accessories must be designed to accept
the full range of roof movements during unattended operation
from low operating level to the maximum design liquid level.
Floating roof should include features that keep product
emissions to a minimum.
Floating roof should include features designed to provide an
extended service life with minimal maintenance.
API 650, Appendix C also requires that an external floating roof
must have sufficient buoyancy to remain floating on liquid with a
specific gravity of 0.7 when loaded as described below.
large sloped pontoon with an octagonal inner rim. With the pontoon
covering more than 50% of the available roof area, sufficient
buoyancy is provided so that the deck could be equipped with open
emergency overflow drains. The pontoon bottom was sloped up to the
membrane-like center deck. Product vapors produced during the heat
of the day would be contained under the deck by the pontoon ring
until the cooler temperatures of the evening would condense these
vapors. The Day Type roof was the first design to effectively control
product evaporative losses during all tank operations. The only down
side to this design was the added cost associated with the large
pontoon.

The single-deck roof drain is inoperative and roof exposed

to 10" (250mm) rainfall in 24 hours. Double-deck roofs may be
designed for a lesser amount provided the roof is equipped with
emergency roof drains to keep water accumulation to a lesser
volume than the roof w i l l support.

The single-deck and any two adjacent pontoon

compartments punctured in single-deck pontoon roofs and an
two adjacent compartments punctured in a double-deck roof. It
is assumed that no live load or water load exists for either case.
The physical size and number of pontoons are adjusted depending
on the overall diameter of the floating roof. During the early design
years, field tests were completed on various sizes of external floating
roofs to demonstrate that the final design configuration would meet all
API loading conditions. Experience has shown that full scale testing
is the best method available to learn how one roof design will perfor
versus another.
Two different types of external floating roof w i l l be presented -
the single (or center) deck floating roof and the double-deck floating
roof. Variations of these designs used as internal floating roofs and
several alternative internal floating roof designs are also presented.
Figure 4 - Day Type floating roof during repairs

3.2.1 Single-Deck Roofs

Single-deck floating roofs include any welded steel floating roof
comprised of a single center deck surrounded by a series of liquid-
tight pontoons. Many different versions of a single-deck roof were
developed and used since the first external pan roof was introduced in
1923. A brief review of some of the more prominent designs will help
demonstrate what design features are most important.
Steel Pan External Floater (1923 - 1927) - As with any ne
concept, the pan external floating roof did have its problems. A major
issue that encouraged a new design was excessive product evaporation
due to product heating under the deck plates. Also since there was no
positive buoyancy provided with the pan roof, excessive rainfall or an
product leaks resulting from poor riveting or welding could sink the
roof. This was the first full contact floating roof and first use of ri
vents.
Day Type Floating Roof (1929-1950) - This design answered
many of the previous problems and proved to be a very successful
design. Day Type roofs may still be found in service today, some
having survived for over 55 years. This design is characterized b
High Deck Floating Roof (1940-1950) - This design was
developed as a cost-effective alternative to the Day Type roof,
review of the design shows that it included design concepts from each
of the three previous designs. The center deck was sloped towards a
large center pontoon with additional support provided by an outer ring
of pontoons. Consequently there were areas under the center deck that
were always exposed to product vapors which caused an increase in
product side corrosion of the center deck. The size of the center
pontoon also interfered with deck drainage increasing the risk for
stability problems. Similar to the Day Type roof, examples of the high
deck design can still be found in service today. However many o f
these roofs have been replaced due to repeated corrosion and drainage
problems.
Horton Clear Peck Floating Roof (1946-1950) - The Clear
Deck roof was developed as an alternative to the high deck roof
design. This design did provide improved drainage however the
vapor-mounted design significantly increased corrosion problems.
Not many of this roof design were ever built.

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 LODEK, Center-Weighted, and Everflote Floating Roofs - 3.2.2 Double-Deck Roofs
Some other single-deck floating roof designs were the LODEK, the The Horton Double-Deck Floating Roof was first introduced in
Center-Weighted Pontoon, and the Everflote roof. The LODEK roof 1946. The double-deck roof offered all of the good design features but
is similar to the high deck roof in that it includes a relatively large at an added cost. The design provides excellent primary drainage
center pontoon except that the pontoon configuration is to keep the while inexpensive emergency drains limit the total water load to the
center deck in full contact with the product. Although product side roof. The double-deck roof introduced the automatic bleeder vent to
corrosion was reduced there were typically drainage problems around the industry, eliminating the need for an operator to physically open or
the center pontoon. close a manual vent when the roof is floated off its supports or landed
The Center-Weighted roof is effectively a pan roof with small and the tank emptied. A typical double - deck configuration is shown
annular pontoons and a center deck-mounted container filled with in Figure 6 below.
sand. Sufficient weight is added to establish a slope to the drain sump
located on one side of the center weight. Original designs experienced
the same previous drainage problems. Later versions of this design
relocated the weights to underneath the deck in an attempt to reduce
drainage problems.
The last type of single-deck roof to discuss is the Everflote
design. This roof included annular pontoons plus multiple rows of
half-round buoyancy chambers welded to the center deck plates. This
design also experienced drainage problems and surface corrosion due
to water ponding around many of the buoyancy chambers.
Horton Type 5 Pontoon Floating Roof (1954-) - The Type 5
roof represented the first design that was optimized based on specific
API design criteria[3]. The design provides a full contact, single-deck
roof with the pontoon size and configuration proportioned to support a
Figure 6 - Horton Double - Deck Floating Roof
25 Lb/Ft 2 snow load and a rain load equivalent to 10" of rainfall over
the area of the deck. Differences between the new Type 5 roof and the
older Day Type design is the smaller pontoon size and corresponding
Although the structure appears very stiff the center bays provide
increase in center deck diameter. The increase in center deck
sufficient flexibility to contain some quantity of product vapors similar
improved the water storage capacity but eliminated the use of open
to the Type 5 roof. The amount of vapor produced is less than with a
emergency drains and magnified problems of intermittent water
single-deck roof since the trapped volume of air between the upper
puddles on the single deck after a rain. Consistent product loss control
and lower decks acts as an insulating layer to the product. A properl
performance, excellent mechanical stability and a cost effective design
designed double - deck roof can provide improved stability with high
made the Type 5 roof the most widely used external floating roofb
vapor pressure products. Deck distortion is minimized with the
the petroleum industry .
double deck design even i f vapor is captured beneath the bottom deck.
Drainage characteristics are effectively unchanged.
Design and construction details used in double-deck floating
roofs are very important. As with the variations in designs presented
for single-deck roofs, there are different manufacturer details that can
make a difference in the mechanical stability and overall performance
of a double-deck floating roof. Details can make a difference.

3.2.3 Internal Floating - Roof Options

Figure 5 - Large Diameter Type 5 Floating Roof
The design and operation of an internal floating-roof tank can be
considerably different from a similar application using an external
floating-roof tank. In general the design guidelines for external
floating-roofs also apply to the internal floating-roof. Specific
differences in design criteria are presented in API 650 Appendix H -
Internal Floating-Roofs[3],
Because many of the design conditions are more controlled inside
a fixed roof tank, more design options are available with the internal
floating-roof. Ambient conditions, wind, rain, snow, blowing sand
and the associated loading conditions no longer apply. For this reason

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 internal floating roofs are not only available in conventional welded
steel construction but may be constructed from light weight aluminu
or even composite fiberglass construction. Specific operating
recommendations for lightweight floating roofs will be presented in
Section 3.2.4.
External floating-roofs can (and have) been used as internal
floating-roofs. In general this occurs when a decision has been made
to add a fixed roof to an existing external floating-roof tank. For ne
construction the internal floating roof is designed as such and w i l l
have slight differences in construction details in response to reduced
loading conditions. The most common internal floating-roof designs
are presented in the following sections.
Open Pan Design - Generally considered the lowest cost and
most widely used welded-steel roof for internal applications. This
type of roof is well suited for products with low vapor pressures or at
least for products where the vapor pressure does not vary much with
ambient conditions. A pan roof should not be selected if excessivel
high fill rates are predicted, i f extensive blending operations are
expected or i f there is a possibility of product vapors collecting
underneath the deck. Any of the above conditions may lead to an
unbalanced floating condition where product liquid can overflow on to
the deck, ultimately sinking the roof.
Bulk-headed Pan Design - This design provides additional
stability over a basic open pan design. The outer bay is divided into
open top compartments by bulkheads located between the inner and
outer rims. This roof w i l l still respond in a similar manner to the
conditions described for the basic pan roof but w i l l provide improved
floatation characteristics i f product should overflow onto the roof.
Pontoon Roof Design - Several pontoon floating-roof
configurations are commonly used. The designs use either a flat
bottom pontoon or a modified Type 5 pontoon roof. The pontoon roof
can provide improved floatation characteristics over a standard pan or
bulk-headed pan since the outer ring of pontoons are fully covered and
can be made liquid tight. Should product overflow on to the roof
deck, it will collect on the center deck resulting in a more unifor
displacement of the roof. Although more stable than the basic pan
roof design, a flat pontoon may still become unstable i f product vapors
are produced underneath the deck.
Double-Deck Roof Design - Double-deck designs are rarely used
for internal floating-roof applications. Double-deck designs, however,
are in operation as internal floating roofs. Generally these are cases in
which a fixed roof has been added to an existing external floating-roof
tank.
3.2.4 Light-Weight Internal Floating-Roofs
Lightweight internal floating roofs were developed as an
alternative to welded-steel construction, especially for situations where
an owner wanted to add an internal floating roof to an existing fixed
roof tank. In the United States, the most common lightweight internal
floating roof is constructed from aluminum. There are also
lightweight roof designs that use fiberglass materials. A fiberglass
roof is generally a full contact design and has been used in some
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overseas locations for chemical storage applications where metal
materials are not compatible with the stored products.
Lightweight aluminum roofs are available in two basic
configurations. They are either designed for full liquid contact or as a
non-contact (vapor mounted) roof. Non- contact designs generall
include a lightweight aluminum deck supported by a structural
framework with a series of tubular pontoons. A typical pontoon
configuration will form a vapor space approximately 6" deep belo
the entire floating roof. The framework includes an outer rim that
must extend into the product to seal off the large vapor space
underneath the bolted aluminum decking. See Figure 7.
Figure 7 - Vapor Mounted Aluminum Internal Floater
Full contact aluminum internal floating roofs are generall
constructed from a series of panels that secured by an aluminu
framework and surrounded by an outer structural rim. The panels can
be either expanded aluminum honeycomb or may be a foam core that
is sandwiched between two layers of aluminum sheet.
As with welded steel floating-roofs there are numerous versions
of both contact and non-contact designs available. Joint and sea
details are an important feature of any lightweight bolted floating roof.
Tests sponsored by the API have shown that all bolted seams provide a
leak path for vapors to escape to the tank vapor space above the
floating roof, leading to increased product losses when compared to a
welded structure^].
4.0 F L O A T I N G - R O O F S E L E C T I O N
Petroleum storage tanks serve many purposes in a refinery,
marine terminal or pipeline terminal environment. Tank operations,
the type and quality of product being stored, and site specific
conditions must be considered when you are selecting a floating-roof
design. The way a tank is operated can effect future maintenance
required for the tank, the floating-roof and its associated equipment.
Proper selection of the floating-roof design and associated equipment
 can ensure an excellent return on the investment or it can provide a
costly maintenance headache for many years.
Mechanical stability of the floating roof is probably the most
important parameter of any floating roof. Any load acting on the
floating roof that is not balanced w i l l force the roof to float over to one
side of the tank or in the most severe cases; the roof will tilt due to
unbalanced loads. When a roof is operated under unbalanced loads
there is increased risk that conditions could develop that would sink
the roof.
4.1 Product Considerations
Floating-roof storage tanks are used to store everything fro
the heaviest crude oil imaginable to light, extremely volatile refined
liquids produced in the refinery. The main product factors that must
be reviewed are product composition and chemical stability, product
specific gravity, product true vapor pressure at storage conditions, and
with crude oils the product viscosity and wax content must also be
considered. Most recently there are new crude oils that are modified
at the well or mine site to ensure the end product canbesafel
transported to the refinery for processing. There are increased risks
associated with the storage and handling of these modified or blended
crude products.
A l l product characteristics can be effected by site ambient
conditions. It is important that variations in ambient temperature be
considered when reviewing the potential design impact on product true
vapor pressure and product viscosity. How does each factor impact
the selection of the floating roof?
4.1.1 Product Composition
Product composition is important because of the potential effects
certain chemicals will have on the service life of some of the
equipment associated with the floating roof. The greatest potential for
a problem is with non-metallic materials used with the floating-roof
perimeter seals. Some instrumentation may be effected depending on
installation details. There are chemicals that can destroy commonl
used seal materials after only a few weeks exposure. Optional
materials are available that can be used with all known products.
4.1.2 Product Specific Gravity and True vapor Pressure
In most cases floating-roofs are designed for a specific gravity of
0.7. It is unusual to encounter a product with a lighter specific gravit
but it can happen. It is important that the roof designer know what the
minimum specific gravity is since this will determine how far into the
product a given roof w i l l float. The distance from the product surface
to the top of the floating roof deck is one measure of overall roof
stability. This information also is used to check the relative position
of the rim seal with respect to the liquid surface. For example i f a
mechanical shoe seal is used it is suggested that the shoe extend into
the product approximately 4 " to ensure the shoe maintains a liquid seal
over all expected roof movements.
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Product true vapor pressure (TVP) is the single most critical
design parameter when selecting the type of floating roof. Most
current environmental regulations limit the product T V P to less than
11.1 Psia. As the TVP increases above 1 1 - 1 2 Psia, daily heating of
the product underneath a center deck w i l l produce sufficient vapors to
balloon the deck. It is common for these vapors to condense during
the cooler evening hours, allowing the roof to resume a normal flat
shape. It must be emphasized, however, that i f the tank is in an area of
significant rainfall, ballooning of a single deck roof may not permit
normal water drainage to the primary roof drain. An unbalanced load
can quickly be developed that can sink the floating roof.
A secondary consideration with high vapor pressure products is
that with increasing T V P the overall effectiveness of any floating roof
design is reduced. More evaporation w i l l occur and this vapor w i l l
escape to the atmosphere above the floating roof. A i r pollution and
the risk for a fire is increased under these conditions.
I f the TVP is going to be high, approaching 11.1 Psia or greater,
consideration should be given to using a double-deck floating roof,
double deck w i l l maintain its ability to drain water while containing
some amount of product vapor. As noted previously, the double-deck
roof can help reduce vapors from product heating due to the insulating
effect the design provides to the product surface. Properly designed,
the double-deck floating-roof can be the most stable design available.
4.13 Heavy. Waxy Crude Products
Heavy crude oil is characterized by higher pour point
temperature, potentially high viscosity and tendency for a higher wax
content. Unless these products are maintained at storage conditions
that limit these conditions, excessive amounts of product ( clingage)
can remain on the inside surface of the tank shell. Unfortunately there
is no 100% fault-free answer to this problem. Heavy, waxy crude
products are messy to handle, store and transport. There are methods
that when followed can help to reduce or control the problem.
The best option is to heat the product and to use wax or product
scrapers that are mounted to the lower portion of the primary rim seal.
Reducing the amount of clingage is critical i f the problem is to be
controlled. Older mechanical shoe seals included a trough designed to
reduce the amount of product flowing down the shell and onto the top
of the floating roof. The increased use of a secondary seal renders the
trough useless since product will flow down the secondary seal and on
to the roof deck. Improvements have been made to wax scraper
designs and to secondary seal tip designs that can help reduce the
problem.
4.2 Process Considerations
Process conditions upstream of the tank farm should be
considered when selecting the type of floating roof. Process flow rates
and knowing whether there are any process upset conditions that might
result in large quantities of vapor to be mixed with the product fill
stream must be identified. Each of these conditions can be addressed
in the roof selection process and during detailed design of the storage
tank. I f the application is an internal floating roof and there is a
 possibility that significant quantities of vapor may be included with
the fill stream, a pan or lightweight floating roof should not be
considered. The minimum suggested roof design would be a pontoon
single deck roof or in extreme cases a double-deck roof equipped with
surface discretionary vents might be required.
If a process upset will result in unusually hot product being sent
to the tank, adequate checks must be made to determine if product
mixing could produce significant quantities of flash vapor during
filling operations. If the conditions can be identified, the designer ma
be able to reduce the risk of a problem by adding extra deck vents.
Some terminal operations will offload products from ships or
barges and then clear the fill lines from the dock to the storage tanks.
One location had repeatedly sunk three internal floating roofs over
several years time. Further investigation determined that after ever
ship/barge load of product had been transferred the fill lines had been
purge to storage by forcing the product through the pipeline with
nitrogen. This is not good practice and should be avoided whenever
possible. If a line must be cleared it should be done in a controlled
manner, monitoring pipeline conditions and tank conditions during the
process.
5.0 TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENTS - WHY ARE THEY
IMPORTANT
Floating roof tanks have been in use for over 75 years. Refiner
operations change, processes and products change and most
importantly people responsible for tank operations change. Floating-
roof storage tanks and associated equipment must be kept up to date
and a working knowledge of the equipment maintained by refinery and
terminal operators.
There is always a need for more efficient product storage.
Conventional floating-roof tanks operate with a low landing position
of approximately 3Ft (<1M) and require 5 Ft (1.5M) or more vertical
clearance for the floating roof. Roof/tank designs and new equipment
options are available that would permit a floating roof to land almost
on the tank bottom, increasing the storage and operating efficiency of
the system [5]. Some of these new options will not be accepted
without further development and testing.
Environmental regulations continue to be a driving force for
change in the petroleum industry. For example, the US EPA in the
January 14, 2000 copy of the Federal Register announced a regulation
that will require industry action. The announcement reaffirms that
slotted guide poles for petroleum and volatile organic liquid storage
tanks are subject to the "no visible gap" clause of NSPS requirements
40 CFR 60 Subparts Ka and Kb. The opening in the storage tank roof
through which the guide pole passes as well as the slots in the guide
pole constitute "visible gaps" that must "be maintained in a closed
position at all times except when the device is in actual use" [5],
It is expected that there will be a need to modify many of the
external floating roof tanks currently in operation in US refinery and
terminal facilities over the next few years. New equipment details
such as the low loss slotted guide pole are available. They have been
in operation for several years and have proven performance records.
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In many cases these details can be implemented economically and
without removing the tank from product service.
Floating-roof tanks utilize a significant amount of mechanical
equipment to ensure safe and efficient tank operation. Floating-roof
primary and secondary seals, adjustable roof supports, mixers, drains,
swing-lines, special fitting details and rolling ladders all must be
designed to operate with the floating-roof without compromising the
integrity of the storage tank. Rolling ladders, roof drains, fire foam
systems all must be designed and installed so that the floating-roof
remains in a balanced operating condition.
6.0 MAINTENANCE AND LIFE CYCLE COST CONTROL
By now it is clear that there are many options available to an
owner when they must decide to modify an existing tank with a ne
floating roof or start from the ground up and select, specify and build a
new floating-roof storage tank. Floating-roof tanks are not
maintenance free. However with proper selection of the floating-roof
design and use of well designed rim seals, fittings and related
equipment the new floating-roof can provide many years of trouble
free operation. A floating-roof tank is truly a long-term investment
when you consider that many of the tanks built over 45 years ago are
still in operation today. As an owner you should consider that some of
the capital spent on a new installation is used as insurance against
future maintenance costs. Extra attention to roof construction details,
rim seal construction, roof drains, rolling ladders and deck fittings will
pay dividends for many years.
Periodic visual inspections of the floating roof will help eliminate
surprise maintenance. It is suggested that any time an operator is on
the gagers platform they should make the following general
observations of the floating roof.
Roof Position
Is it floating in a generally flat configuration?
Is the roof centrally located within the confines of the tank
shell? Is rim space equal around roof?
General Roof Conditions
Is there any visible indication of product on the deck?
Are there any indications of unusual water ponding on the
deck?
Is the center deck ballooned due to non-condensable vapors
or high vapor pressure product?
Are all pontoon manhole covers in place?
Are shunts contacting the tank shell above the secondar
seal?
Is the drain free of trash?
Are roof supports / bleeder vents locked in the correct
location?
Are foam chambers free of bird's nests?
 Whenever access to the deck is permitted a closer visual
Design and installation details of equipment used with a
inspection can be made as deemed necessary from the previous
floating-roof can effect its operation, service life, and
inspection.
maintenance requirements.
Is the secondary seal tip in contact with the shell?
The first cost of a floating-roof storage tank is important but
Is the guide pole sliding cover and wiper seal in good does not represent the true cost of storage. A life cycle cost
condition? analysis represents the true cost of operation and should be a
primary consideration when selecting the type o f storage syste
Is there any indication that the rolling ladder wheels are not
best suited to meet your needs.
freely turning? Look for unusual scrape marks on the ladder
wheels or runway.
When properly designed and constructed a floating-roof tank
should provide 15, 20 or even 30 years of service w i t h a m i n i m u
Planned maintenance is generally completed at a lower cost than
level of preventative maintenance. The floating-roof tank remains the
i f there is an emergency situation that requires taking a tank o f f line
cost-effective storage method for volatile petroleum liquids.
for a number of hours or even days. Simple, periodic visual
inspections w i l l not catch all problems but they should reduce the
surprises. Visual inspections of an external floating-roof tank are
REFERENCES
considerably easier than if you are dealing with an internal floating
American Petroleum Institute, October 1991, "Evaporative Loss Fro
roof. However it is very important to be able to check an internal
Fixed-Roof Tanks," A P I Manual of Petroleum Measurement
floating roof to verify that the deck is operating in a stable condition.
Standards, Chapter 19.1, (API Publication 2518), First Edition,
Washington, D.C.
1. American Petroleum Institute, April 1997, "Evaporative Loss
7.0 CONCLUSIONS
From Floating-Roof Tanks," A P Manual of Petroleum Measurement
The floating-roof tank remains the most widely used method of
Standards, Chapter 19.2, (Combined A P I Publications 2517 and
storage of volatile petroleum products. Evolution of the floating-roof
2519), First Edition, Washington, D.C.
tank has involved the combined efforts of engineers, contractors, and
2. American Petroleum Institute, May 1993, "Welded Steel
numerous operators and maintenance personnel who have had to live
Tanks for Oil Storage," A P I Standard 650, Tenth Edition,
with the end product the last 77 years. Development of new floating-
Washington, D.C.
roof designs and equipment have improved the operating efficienc
3. British Standards Institute, September 29,1989, "Manufacture
and reduced the risk of operation to a practical minimum level.
o f Vertical Steel Welded Non-Refrigerated Storage Tanks With Butt-
Complex structures such as the floating-roof tank do have design
Welded Shells for the Petroleum Industry," BS2654, London,
and operating limitations. When selecting a floating-roof design for a
England.
new storage application remember the following:
4. Gallagher,T.A., Laverman, R J . and Desjardins, C.R.,
Know the product or range o f product conditions including "Floating-Roof Tank Heel Reduction Options and Heel Turnover
temperature, true vapor pressure, and viscosity (crude oils). Emissions," Paper presented at the International Pipeline
Conference(IPC'98), Calgary, Alberta, Canada ( C B & I Technical
Know where the product is produced and i f process upsets Publication Number CBT-5648).
can be a factor in the operation of the floating-roof tank.

Know the site weather conditions and understand how these

may effect operation of the floating-roof.

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