Systematic Mineralogy

The best way to remember this material is to make a table such as

the one included at the end of these notes.

Mineral photographs included below are from:

http://core.ecu.edu/geology/harper/mineral/mineral_new.cfm
unless otherwise noted.

Most of the other photographs are used courtesy of Amethyst

Galleries (http://mineral.galleries.com/)and are copyrighted to them.

I. Introduction
A. Most commonly, and for our purposes, minerals are classified
into large groupings based on the nature of the principal anion.
1. The exception is the first group the Native Elements
which consist of only one element so do not have anions
and cations.

II. Native Elements

A. Metals = Au (gold), Ag (silver), Cu (copper)
1. Used in jewelry, electrical wiring and as a basis for some
currencies.
B. Non-metals = S (sulfur), C (diamond and graphite)
1. Sulfur is used to make sulfuric acid
2. Diamond is important for jewelry and as an abrasive
3. Graphite is used as a lubricant

gold
http://mineral.galleries.com/
minerals/elements/gold/gold.htm

copper
 graphite

diamond
http://mineral.galleries.com/
minerals/elements/diamond/diamond.htm

sulfur

http://core.ecu.edu/geology/
harper/mineral/mineral_new.cfm

III. Halides
A. The anion is a halide (F-, Cl-, Br-, or I-)
B. The halogens most often bond with elements from the far left
side of the Periodic Table.
C. A fluoride and a chloride are the common mineral examples.
1. NaCl (halite is the mineral name) is the most commonly
used industrial chemical and an important seasoning for food
(table salt). CaF2, or fluorite, is used as a flux in making
steel.

halite NaCl
 fluorite CaF2

http://core.ecu.edu/geology/harper/mineral/mineral_new.cfm

IV. Oxides

A. Oxide (O2-) is the dominant anion

B. Oxides are the chief ores (economically profitable minerals) of

the following metals:

Al Fe Sn Cr Mn

C. Ice (H2O) is an oxide mineral with a very low melting

temperature (32oF or 0oC).

Hematite Fe2O3
Magnetite Fe3O4

bauxite (a rock more Various

than a mineral) Al-oxides

http://core.ecu.edu/geology/harper/mineral/mineral_new.cfm

V. Sulfides
A. Sulfide (S- or S2-) is the dominant anion
B. Sulfides are the chief ores (economically profitable minerals)
of Cu, Pb, Zn, and Ag.

pyrite
http://mineral.galleries.com/ FeS2
minerals/sulfides/pyrite/pyrite.htm

chalcopyrite CuFeS2

sphalerite ZnS
galena PbS

http://core.ecu.edu/geology/harper/mineral/mineral_new.cfm

VI. Sulfates
A. Sulfate (SO4 2-) is the dominant anion
B. Gypsum, the most common sulfate, is used as a building material
to make sheet rock (AKA dry wall).

http://core.ecu.edu/geology/harper/mineral/mineral_new.cfm

VII. Carbonates
A Carbonate (CO32-) is the dominant anion.
B. Calcite CaCO3 LEARN THIS FORMULA
1. Extremely common component of sedimentary rocks ---
dominates limestones
2. Important building and road construction material
CEMENT MARBLE CRUSHED STONE
3. Many sea creatures construct their shells of calcite,
although some use a polymorph of calcite called aragonite.
 calcite CaCO3

dolomite CaMg(CO3)2

http://core.ecu.edu/geology/harper/mineral/mineral_new.cfm

VIII. Silicates silicon & oxygen

A. Silicates make up the bulk of the rock-forming minerals

1. The non-silicates that are abundant enough to be

considered rock-forming minerals are calcite, dolomite,
pyrite, hematite, magnetite, gypsum, and fluorite.

2. Rock-forming minerals are those found most abundantly

in the rocks of the Earths crust and are, therefore,
made of the most common elements in Earths crust.

3. 90% of the rock-forming minerals are silicates, which

are composed of varying combinations of silicon and oxygen
along with metallic cations from the left side of the
Periodic Table.
B. Basis of silicate structure
1. The basic structural unit of the silicates is the silicon-
oxygen tetrahedron (Tetra=4, hedra = sides)

Diagram courtesy of the Mineralogical Society of America

http://www.minsocam.org/MSA/K12/groups/silicates.html

a. Because of the relative sizes of the Si and O atoms

the most stable configuration is the tetrahedron.
b. Silicates are composed of these tetrahedra arranged
and linked in different ways with cations such as Na, K,
Ca, Mg, Fe, etc. in the interstices (gaps between
tetrahedra).
c. Lets calculate the excess electrical charge
associated with a silica tetrahedron:
ONE atom of Si4+ combined with FOUR atoms of O2-

1 X (4+) == + 4

4 X (2-) == - 8

TOTAL == - 4
d. Obviously, the silica tetrahedron is not ELECTRICALLY
NEUTRAL by itself so positively-charged, metallic
cations are necessary to neutralize the excess negative
charge in a structure.
e. How many Mg2+ or Fe2+ are necessary to neutralize this
negative charge? (Two, because a total of 4 positive
charges is required.)

C. Basic Subdivisions of the silicates

Again, I suggest you make a table to organize and study this
information, you will find examples of such tables in your
textbook and at the end of these notes.
1. Isolated tetrahedra individual tetrahedra of silica are
bonded to metallic cations to eliminate the excess negative
charge. The tetrahedra are not bonded directly to each other,
that is neither the Si nor the O atoms of any given
tetrahedron are bonded directly to those of another
tetrahedron.
a. The Mg-rich and Fe-rich olivine minerals are an
example of a complete solid solution. A solid solution
is a group of minerals which all have the same structure
(i.e., arrangement of atoms), but have different
chemical compositions. The two end-member compositions
are shown below and all mixtures of different
proportions of the Mg and Fe cations are found in nature
in the olivine group.
Mg2SiO4 Fe2SiO4

b. Olivine is an example of a ferromagnesian mineral

(mineral rich in Fe and Mg), which are typically dark-
colored (green or black) and have high densities.
c. Olivine is believed to be the predominant silicate at
depth in Earths mantle.
http://wrgis.wr.usgs.gov/docs/parks/rxmin/mineral.html

2. Pairs of tetrahedra - individual tetrahedra are linked to

one another by sharing one of their oxygens to form pairs.
a. No very common minerals with this structure exist.
3. Rings of tetrahedra individual tetrahedra are linked to
one another by sharing two of their oxygens to form six-
membered rings.
a. Only one mineral you are likely to have heard of
crystallizes with this structure == BERYL = EMERALD
(BeAl2Si6O18)

4. Chains of tetrahedra - individual tetrahedra are linked

to one another by sharing 2 or 2.5 of their oxygens to form
single or double chains
a. Includes two very important groups of silicates
b. Single chains = Pyroxenes = Augite
Tetrahedra share 2 of their oxygens
c. Double chains = Amphiboles = Hornblende
Tetrahedra share 2.5 of their oxygens

http://wrgis.wr.usgs.gov/docs/parks/rxmin/mineral.html

d. Common cations in the chain silicates are Ca, Mg, and

Fe and both groups are dominated by ferromagnesian
minerals.
e. The differing cleavages of the two groups are a
function of the different chain structures.
 5. Sheets of tetrahedra - individual tetrahedra linked
to one another by sharing 3 oxygens to form sheets.
a. The fourth oxygen stands above the sheet and is
called the apical oxygen.
b. Two very important groups of sheet silicates
1) Micas and clays

Biotite is the dark-colored and muscovite

the light-colored mica
http://wrgis.wr.usgs.gov/docs/parks/rxmin
/mineral.html

Kaolinite is one of the most common clay minerals

http://core.ecu.edu/geology/harper/mineral/mineral_new.cfm

c. Sheets of internally linked silica tetrahedra are

bonded to layers containing cations and oxygens.
Aluminum substitutes for some of the silicon atoms in
the tetrahedra.
d. Within sheets bonding is covalent and much stronger
than between sheets, which are attached to one another
 by weak bonds. This accounts for the excellent cleavage
as the mineral breaks easily between sheets.
6. Frameworks of tetrahedra
a. All the oxygens of every tetrahedron are shared with
other tetrahedra to make a three-dimensional framework.
b. Non-ferromagnesian minerals dominate.
c. Quartz SiO2 - know formula
1) No cations besides Si in tetrahedra
2) Most abundant rock-forming mineral
3) Very hard mineral due to strong bonds
4) Fractures -- NO CLEAVAGE

Quartz crystals Massive quartz

http://mineral.galleries.com/ Photo by TL Woods
minerals/silicate/quartz/quartz.htm

d. Finally we come to the most abundant GROUP of rock-

forming silicates -- FELDSPARS
1) Tetrahedra are linked with Na Ca and K
2) Not very dense because contain light elements
such as Na instead of Fe
3) Very hard minerals because of strong bonds
4) Differ from quartz because in the center of at
least of the tetrahedra, Al substitutes for Si.

Al Si
Ionic radius
0.5 0.4
(angstroms)
Charge +3 +4

5) An interesting situation arises because of the

differing charges of Al3+ and Si4+. When an Al
 substitutes for an Si excess negative charge
results. This excess negative charge must be
neutralized by the incorporation of K, Na, or Ca in
the interstices of the silica framework.
a) Notice also that the charge on Ca is 2+ and
that of K and Na is 1+, so one Ca does the
work of two Nas or Ks, which is good because
the structure wont accommodate two of the
singly charged cations.

e. Two different groups of feldspars

1) Alkalai or potassium feldspars where one Si out
of every 4 is replaced by an Al. The charge deficit
is made-up by the addition of a K+ and Na+.
a) This is not a SOLID SOLUTION because an Al
must replace every fourth Si. This ratio is
not variable in the alkalai feldspars.
b) Various polymorphs of K-fspr exist and
structures reflect conditions of formation.

Formula Total Charge

Si4 4+ O2-8 0

Al 3+ Si3 4+ O8 -1

K+ Al 3+ Si3 4+ O8 0
Potassium feldspar = K-spr
2) Plagioclase feldspar
a) These do represent a SOLID SOLUTION with
the Al for Si substitution ranging from 1 to
2 out of every 4 Si being replaced by Al.
b) The result is variation in the amount of
Na versus Ca in the mineral. Increasing
amounts of Al substituting for Si require
increasing amounts of Ca instead of Na.
 Anorthite Albite
CaAl2Si2O8 NaAlSi3O8

Formula Total Charge

4+ 2-
Si4 O 8 0
3+ 4+
Al2 Si2 O8 -2
2+ 3+ 4+
Ca Al2 Si2 O8 0

Plagioclase feldspar = anorthite

Potassium Feldspar Na - plagioclase Ca - plagioclase

http://core.ecu.edu/geology/harper/mineral/mineral_new.cfm

D. Certain groups of minerals are associated with specific

geologic settings and specific pressure and temperature conditions
because they only form under a restricted range of conditions. For
this reason some minerals are useful indicators of the physical
conditions that existed when the rocks containing them formed.

E. The minerals we see today have not, for the most part, existed
since the Earth was formed. Because the Earth is such a dynamic
system, from one year to the next over the course of millions of
years the elements making up the Earth undergo rearrangements in
terms of their combinations, their relative proportions and their
associations.

1. New minerals are formed from old.

2. New concentrations of elements and minerals develop where

they did not exist before and old minerals are broken down
into their constituent elements.

Defining Economic
Group Mineral
Atom or Anion Importance

Jewelry,
Au, Ag, Cu, graphite,sulfur, abrasive,
Native Elements
S, C diamond, silver chemicals,
lead
industrial
chemical
Halides Cl-, F- halite, fluorite
flux in steel
product.
magnetite, Fe and Al
Oxides O2-
bauxite, hematite ores
galena,
2- - sphalerite, Cu, Pb, Zn
Sulfides S & S
chalcopyrite, ores
pyrite

Sulfates SO42- gypsum dry wall

construction,
Carbonates CO32- calcite fill,
concrete
 Shared
Structure Si:O Group Mineral Other Cations
0xygens

Isolated 0 1:4 Olivine Olivine Mg, Fe

Pairs 1 2:7 Epidote Epidote Ca, Al, Fe

Be, Al
Beryl
Rings 2 6:18 Na, Al, Mg, Li,
Tourmaline
B, F
Single
2 1:3 Pyroxene Augite Ca, Mg, Fe
chain

Double Na,K,Ca,Fe,Mg,
2 or 3 4:11 Amphibole Hornblende
Chain etc.

Biotite K, Mg, Fe, Al

Sheets 3 2:5 Micas
Muscovite K, Al
K, Mg, Al, Na,
Sheets 3 2:5 Clays Kaolinite
etc.
Frameworks 4 1:2 Quartz Quartz None
Potassium feldspar
Plagioclase K, Al
Feldspar
feldspar: Albite, Ca, Na, Al
Anorthite