Comparison of male and female life expectancy at birth for countries and territo ries as defined in the 2011 CIA Factbook, with selected bubbles labelled. The gr een dotted line corresponds to equal female and male life expectancy. The appare nt 3D volumes of the bubbles are linearly proportional to their population.[1][2 ] (In the SVG file, hover over a bubble to highlight it and show its data.) The word "longevity" is sometimes used as a synonym for "life expectancy" in dem ography - however, the term "longevity" is sometimes meant to refer only to espe cially long-lived members of a population, whereas "life expectancy" is always d efined statistically as the average number of years remaining at a given age. Fo r example, a population's life expectancy at birth is the same as the average ag e at death for all people born in the same year (in the case of cohorts). Longev ity is best thought of as a term for general audiences meaning 'typical length o f life' and specific statistical definitions should be clarified when necessary. Reflections on longevity have usually gone beyond acknowledging the brevity of h uman life and have included thinking about methods to extend life. Longevity has been a topic not only for the scientific community but also for writers of trav el, science fiction, and utopian novels. There are many difficulties in authenticating the longest human life span ever b y modern verification standards, owing to inaccurate or incomplete birth statist ics. Fiction, legend, and folklore have proposed or claimed life spans in the pa st or future vastly longer than those verified by modern standards, and longevit y narratives and unverified longevity claims frequently speak of their existence in the present. A life annuity is a form of longevity insurance. Contents [hide] 1 Life expectancy, as of 2010 2 Long-lived individuals 3 Major factors 3.1 Genetics 3.2 Environmental factors 4 Change over time 5 Limited longevity 6 Longevity traditions 7 Future 8 Non-human biological longevity 9 Biological immortality 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links Life expectancy, as of 2010[edit] Main article: List of countries by life expectancy Various factors contribute to an individual's longevity. Significant factors in life expectancy include gender, genetics, access to health care, hygiene, diet a nd nutrition, exercise, lifestyle, and crime rates. Below is a list of life expe ctancies in different types of countries:[3] Developed countries: 77 90 years (e.g. Canada: 81.29 years, 2010 est.) Developing countries: 32 80 years (e.g. Mozambique: 41.37 years, 2010 est.) Population longevities are increasing as life expectancies around the world grow :[1][4] Spain: 79.06 years in 2002, 81.07 years in 2010 Australia: 80 years in 2002, 81.72 years in 2010 Italy: 79.25 years in 2002, 80.33 years in 2010 France: 79.05 years in 2002, 81.09 years in 2010 Germany: 77.78 years in 2002, 79.41 years in 2010 UK: 80 years in 2002, 81.73 years in 2010 USA: 77.4 years in 2002, 78.24 years in 2010 Monaco: 79.12 years in 2002, 79.73 years in 2011 Long-lived individuals[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by addi ng citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and remov ed. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Gerontology Research Group validates current longevity records by modern sta ndards, and maintains a list of supercentenarians; many other unvalidated longev ity claims exist. Record-holding individuals include:[citation needed] Eilif Philipsen (1682-1785, 102 years, 333 days): first person to reach the ages of 100, 101, and 102 (on July 21, 1782) and whose age could be validated. Geert Adriaans Boomgaard (1788 1899, 110 years, 135 days): first person to reach t he age of 110 (on September 21, 1898) and whose age could be validated Margaret Ann Neve, (18 May 1792 - 4 April 1903, 110 years, 346 days) the first v alidated female supercentenarian (on 18 May 1902) Jeanne Calment (1875 1997, 122 years, 164 days): the oldest person in history whos e age has been verified by modern documentation. This defines the modern human l ife span, which is set by the oldest documented individual who ever lived. Sarah Knauss (1880 1999, 119 years, 97 days): the second oldest documented person in modern times and the oldest American. Jiroemon Kimura (1897 2013, 116 years, 54 days): the oldest man in history whose a ge has been verified by modern documentation. Major factors[edit] Old man at a nursing home in Norway. Evidence-based studies indicate that longevity is based on two major factors, ge netics and lifestyle choices.[5] Genetics[edit] Twin studies have estimated that approximately 20-30% the variation in human lif espan can be related to genetics, with the rest due to individual behaviors and environmental factors which can be modified.[6] Although over 200 gene variants have been associated with longevity according to a US-Belgian-UK research databa se of human genetic variants,[7] these explain only a small fraction of the heri tability.[8] A 2012 study found that even modest amounts of leisure time physica l exercise can extend life expectancy by as much as 4.5 years.[9] Lymphoblastoid cell lines established from blood samples of centenarians have si gnificantly higher activity of the DNA repair protein PARP (Poly ADP ribose poly merase) than cell lines from younger (20 to 70 year old) individuals.[10] The ly mphocytic cells of centenarians have characteristics typical of cells from young people, both in their capability of priming the mechanism of repair after H2O2 sublethal oxidative DNA damage and in their PARP gene expression.[11] These find ings suggest that elevated PARP gene expression contributes to the longevity of centenarians, consistent with the DNA damage theory of aging.[12] Environmental factors[edit] A study of the regions of the world known as blue zones, where people commonly l ive active lives past 100 years of age, speculated that longevity is related to a healthy social and family life, not smoking, eating a plant-based diet, freque nt consumption of legumes and nuts, and engaging in regular physical activity.[1 3] In a cohort study, the combination of a plant based diet, normal BMI, and not smoking accounted for differences up to 15 years in life expectancy.[14] Korean court records going back to 1392 indicate that the average lifespan of eunuchs was 70.0 1.76 years, which was 14.4 19.1 years longer than the lifespan of non-cas trated men of similar socio-economic status.[15] The Alameda County Study hypoth esized three additional lifestyle characteristics that promote longevity: limiti ng alcohol consumption, sleeping 7 to 8 hours per night, and not snacking (eatin g between meals), although the study found the association between these charact eristics and mortality is "weak at best".[16] There are however many other possi ble factors potentially affecting longevity, including the impact of high peer c ompetition, which is typically experienced in large cities.[17] Change over time[edit] In preindustrial times, deaths at young and middle age were more common than the y are today. This is not due to genetics, but because of environmental factors s uch as disease, accidents, and malnutrition, especially since the former were no t generally treatable with pre-20th century medicine. Deaths from childbirth wer e common for women, and many children did not live past infancy. In addition, mo st people who did attain old age were likely to die quickly from the above-menti oned untreatable health problems. Despite this, we do find many examples of pre- 20th century individuals attaining lifespans of 72 years or greater, including B enjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Cato the Elder, Thomas Hobbes, E ric of Pomerania, Christopher Polhem, and Michelangelo. This was also true for p oorer people like peasants or laborers. Genealogists will almost certainly find ancestors living to their 70s, 80s and even 90s several hundred years ago. For example, an 1871 census in the UK (the first of its kind, but personal data from other censuses dates back to 1841 and numerical data back to 1801) found th e average male life expectancy as being 44, but if infant mortality is subtracte d, males who lived to adulthood averaged 75 years. The present life expectancy i n the UK is 77 years for males and 81 for females, while the United States avera ges 74 for males and 80 for females. Studies have shown that black American males have the shortest lifespans of any group of people in the US, averaging only 69 years (Asian-American females avera ge the longest).[18] This reflects overall poorer health and greater prevalence of heart disease, obesity, diabetes, and cancer among black American men. Women normally outlive men, and this was as true in pre-industrial times as toda y. Theories for this include smaller bodies (and thus less stress on the heart), a stronger immune system (since testosterone acts as an immunosuppressant), and less tendency to engage in physically dangerous activities. There is debate as to whether the pursuit of longevity is a worthwhile health ca re goal. Bioethicist Ezekiel Emanuel, who is also one of the architects of Obama Care, has argued that the pursuit of longevity via the compression of morbidity explanation is a "fantasy" and that longevity past age 75 should not be consider ed an end in itself.[19] This has been challenged by neurosurgeon Miguel Faria, who states that life can be worthwhile in healthy old age, that the compression of morbidity is a real phenomenon, and that longevity should be pursued in assoc iation with quality of life.[20] Faria has discussed how longevity in associatio n with leading healthy lifestyles can lead to the postponement of senescence as well as happiness and wisdom in old age.[21] Limited longevity[edit] All of the biological organisms have a limited longevity, and different species of animals and plants have different potentials of longevity. Misrepair-accumula tion aging theory [22][23] suggests that the potential of longevity of an organi sm is related to its structural complexity.[24] Limited longevity is due to the limited structural complexity of the organism. If a species of organisms has too high structural complexity, most of its individuals would die before the reprod uction age, and the species could not survive. This theory suggests that limited structural complexity and limited longevity are essential for the survival of a species. Longevity traditions[edit] Main articles: Longevity traditions and Longevity claims Longevity traditions are traditions about long-lived people (generally supercent enarians), and practices that have been believed to confer longevity.[25][26] A comparison and contrast of "longevity in antiquity" (such as the Sumerian King L ist, the genealogies of Genesis, and the Persian Shahnameh) with "longevity in h istorical times" (common-era cases through twentieth-century news reports) is el aborated in detail in Lucian Boia's 2004 book Forever Young: A Cultural History of Longevity from Antiquity to the Present and other sources.[27] The Fountain of Youth reputedly restores the youth of anyone who drinks of its w aters. The New Testament, following older Jewish tradition, attributes healing t o the Pool of Bethesda when the waters are "stirred" by an angel.[28] After the death of Juan Ponce de Len, Gonzalo Fernndez de Oviedo y Valds wrote in Historia Ge neral y Natural de las Indias (1535) that Ponce de Len was looking for the waters of Bimini to cure his aging.[29] Traditions that have been believed to confer g reater human longevity also include alchemy,[30] such as that attributed to Nico las Flamel. In the modern era, the Okinawa diet has some reputation of linkage t o exceptionally high ages.[31] More recent longevity claims are subcategorized by many editions of Guinness Wor ld Records into four groups: "In late life, very old people often tend to advanc e their ages at the rate of about 17 years per decade .... Several celebrated su per-centenarians (over 110 years) are believed to have been double lives (father and son, relations with the same names or successive bearers of a title) .... A number of instances have been commercially sponsored, while a fourth category o f recent claims are those made for political ends ...."[32] The estimate of 17 y ears per decade was corroborated by the 1901 and 1911 British censuses.[32] Maze ss and Forman also discovered in 1978 that inhabitants of Vilcabamba, Ecuador, c laimed excessive longevity by using their fathers' and grandfathers' baptismal e ntries.[32][33] Time magazine considered that, by the Soviet Union, longevity ha d been elevated to a state-supported "Methuselah cult".[34] Robert Ripley regula rly reported supercentenarian claims in Ripley's Believe It or Not!, usually cit ing his own reputation as a fact-checker to claim reliability.[35] Future[edit] The U.S. Census Bureau view on the future of longevity is that life expectancy i n the United States will be in the mid-80s by 2050 (up from 77.85 in 2006) and w ill top out eventually in the low 90s, barring major scientific advances that ca n change the rate of human aging itself, as opposed to merely treating the effec ts of aging as is done today. The Census Bureau also predicted that the United S tates would have 5.3 million people aged over 100 in 2100. The United Nations ha s also made projections far out into the future, up to 2300, at which point it p rojects that life expectancies in most developed countries will be between 100 a nd 106 years and still rising, though more and more slowly than before. These pr ojections also suggest that life expectancies in poor countries will still be le ss than those in rich countries in 2300, in some cases by as much as 20 years. T he UN itself mentioned that gaps in life expectancy so far in the future may wel l not exist, especially since the exchange of technology between rich and poor c ountries and the industrialization and development of poor countries may cause t heir life expectancies to converge fully with those of rich countries long befor e that point, similarly to the way life expectancies between rich and poor count ries have already been converging over the last 60 years as better medicine, tec hnology, and living conditions became accessible to many people in poor countrie s. The UN has warned that these projections are uncertain, and cautions that any change or advancement in medical technology could invalidate such projections.[ 36] Recent increases in the rates of lifestyle diseases, such as obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease, may eventually slow or reverse this trend towar d increasing life expectancy in the developed world, but have not yet done so. T he average age of the US population is getting higher[37] and these diseases sho w up in older people.[38] Jennifer Couzin-Frankel examined how much mortality from various causes would ha ve to drop in order to boost life expectancy and concluded that most of the past increases in life expectancy occurred because of improved survival rates for yo ung people. She states that it seems unlikely that life expectancy at birth will ever exceed 85 years.[39] Michio Kaku argues that genetic engineering, nanotech nology and future breakthroughs will accelerate the rate of life expectancy incr ease indefinitely.[40] Already genetic engineering has allowed the life expectan cy of certain primates to be doubled, and for human skin cells in labs to divide and live indefinitely without becoming cancerous.[41] However, since 1840, record life expectancy has risen linearly for men and women , albeit more slowly for men. For women the increase has been almost three month s per year, for men almost 2.7 months per year. In light of steady increase, wit hout any sign of limitation, the suggestion that life expectancy will top out mu st be treated with caution. Scientists Oeppen and Vaupel observe that experts wh o assert that "life expectancy is approaching a ceiling ... have repeatedly been proven wrong." It is thought that life expectancy for women has increased more dramatically owing to the considerable advances in medicine related to childbirt h.[42] Non-human biological longevity[edit] Main article: List of long-living organisms Currently living: Methuselah: 4,800-year-old bristlecone pine in the White Mountains of California , the oldest currently living organism known. Non-living: Possibly 250-million year-old bacteria, Bacillus permians, were revived from sta sis after being found in sodium chloride crystals in a cavern in New Mexico. Rus sell Vreeland, and colleagues from West Chester University in Pennsylvania, repo rted on October 18, 2000 that they had revived the halobacteria after bathing th em with a nutrient solution. If they had survived for 250 million years, they wo uld be the oldest living organisms ever recorded.[43] However, their findings da te the crystal surrounding the bacteria, and DNA analysis suggests the bacteria themselves are likely to be less ancient.[44] A bristlecone pine nicknamed "Prometheus", felled by a climate dynamics research er in the Great Basin National Park in Nevada in 1964, found to be about 4,900 y ears old, is the longest-lived single organism known.[45] The quahog clam (Arctica islandica) is exceptionally long-lived, with a maximum recorded age of 507 years, the longest of any animal.[46] Other clams of the spe cies have been recorded as living up to 374 years.[47] Lamellibrachia luymesi, a deep-sea cold-seep tubeworm, is estimated to reach age s of over 250 years based on a model of its growth rates.[48] Hanako was the longest-lived vertebrate ever recorded at 226 years. A bowhead whale killed in a hunt was found to be approximately 211 years old (po ssibly up to 245 years old), the longest-lived mammal known.[49] Tu'i Malila, a radiated tortoise presented to the Tongan royal family by Captain Cook, lived for over 185 years. It is the oldest documented reptile. Adwaitya, an Aldabra Giant Tortoise, may have lived for up to 250 years. Biological immortality[edit] Main article: Biological immortality Certain exotic organisms do not seem to be subject to aging and can live indefin itely. Examples include Tardigrades and Hydras. That is not to say that these or ganisms cannot die, merely that they only die as a result of disease or injury r ather than age-related deterioration (and that they are not subject to the Hayfl ick limit). See also[edit] Actuarial science Aging Aging brain Alliance for Aging Research Anti-aging movement Biodemography Biodemography of human longevity Calico (company) Centenarian DNA damage theory of aging Genetics of aging Gerontology Research Group Hayflick limit Indefinite lifespan Life extension List of aging processes List of last survivors of historical events Longevity claims Maximum life span Mitohormesis Oldest viable seed Reliability theory of aging and longevity Research into centenarians Senescence Notes[edit] ^ Jump up to: a b "Life expectancy at birth, Country Comparison to the World". C IA World Factbook. US Central Intelligence Agency. n.d. Retrieved 12 Jan 2011. Jump up ^ "Field Listing: Population, Country Comparison to the World". CIA Worl d Factbook. US Central Intelligence Agency. n.d. Retrieved 12 Jan 2011. Jump up ^ The US Central Intelligence Agency, 2010, CIA World Factbook, retrieve d 12 Jan. 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/inde x.html Jump up ^ The US Central Intelligence Agency, 2002, CIA World Factbook, retrieve d 12 Jan. 2011, http://www.theodora.com/wfb/2002/index.html Jump up ^ Marziali, Carl (7 December 2010). "Reaching Toward the Fountain of You th". USC Trojan Family Magazine. Retrieved 7 December 2010. Jump up ^ Hjelmborg, J.; Iachine, Ivan; Skytthe, Axel; Vaupel, James W.; McGue, Matt; Koskenvuo, Markku; Kaprio, Jaakko; Pedersen, Nancy L.; Christensen, Kaare; et al. (2006). "Genetic influence on human lifespan and longevity". Human Genet ics. 119 (3): 312 321. doi:10.1007/s00439-006-0144-y. Jump up ^ "LongevityMap". Human Ageing Genomic Resources. senescence.info by Joo Pedro de Magalhes. n.d. Retrieved 2013-09-23. Jump up ^ Budovsky, A.; Craig, Thomas; Wang, Jingwei; Tacutu, Robi; Csordas, Att ila; Loureno, Joana; Fraifeld, Vadim E.; De Magalhes, Joo Pedro; et al. (2013). "Lo ngevityMap: A database of human genetic variants associated with longevity". Tre nds in Genetics. 29 (10): 559 560. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2013.08.003. PMID 23998809. Jump up ^ Moore, S.C.; et al. (2012). "Leisure time physical activity of moderat e to vigorous intensity and mortality: A large pooled cohort analysis". PLoS Med icine. 9 (11): e1001335. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001335. PMC 3491006?Freely ac cessible. PMID 23139642. Jump up ^ Muiras ML, Mller M, Schchter F, Brkle A (1998). "Increased poly(ADP-ribos e) polymerase activity in lymphoblastoid cell lines from centenarians". J. Mol. Med. 76 (5): 346 54. doi:10.1007/s001090050226. PMID 9587069. Jump up ^ Chevanne M, Calia C, Zampieri M, Cecchinelli B, Caldini R, Monti D, Bu cci L, Franceschi C, Caiafa P (2007). "Oxidative DNA damage repair and parp 1 an d parp 2 expression in Epstein-Barr virus-immortalized B lymphocyte cells from y oung subjects, old subjects, and centenarians". Rejuvenation Res. 10 (2): 191 204. doi:10.1089/rej.2006.0514. PMID 17518695. Jump up ^ Bernstein H, Payne CM, Bernstein C, Garewal H, Dvorak K (2008). Cancer and aging as consequences of un-repaired DNA damage. In: New Research on DNA Da mages (Editors: Honoka Kimura and Aoi Suzuki) Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York, Chapter 1, pp. 1-47. open access, but read only https://www.novapublisher s.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=43247 ISBN 1604565810 ISBN 978-160456 5812 Jump up ^ Buettner, D. (2008). The Blue Zones. Washington, DC: National Geograph ic Society. Jump up ^ Fraser, Gary E.; Shavlik, David J. (2001). "Ten Years of Life: Is It a Matter of Choice?". Archives of Internal Medicine. 161 (13): 1645 1652. doi:10.10 01/archinte.161.13.1645. PMID 11434797. Jump up ^ Joe Palca (September 25, 2012). "Korean Eunuchs Lived Long and Prosper ed". Jump up ^ Kaplan, George A.; Seeman, Teresa E.; Cohen, Richard D.; Guralnik, J; et al. (1987). "Mortality Among the Elderly in the Alameda County Study: Behavio ral and Demographic Risk Factors". American Journal of Public Health. 77 (3): 30 7 312. doi:10.2105/AJPH.77.3.307. |first4= missing |last4= in Authors list (help) Jump up ^ Borowiecki, Karol J. and Georgios Kavetsos (2015). In fatal pursuit of immortal fame: Peer competition and early mortality of music composers Social S cience & Medicine 134:30-42 Jump up ^ Keaten, John (17 October 2012). "Health in America Today" (PDF). Measu re of America. Retrieved 17 October 2012. Jump up ^ Emanuel EJ. "Why I hope to die at 75: An argument that society and fam ilies - and you - will be better off if nature takes its course swiftly and prom ptly". The Atlantic. Retrieved 7 April 2015. Jump up ^ Faria MA. "Bioethics and why I hope to live beyond age 75 attaining wi sdom!: A rebuttal to Dr. Ezekiel Emanuel's 75 age limit.". Surg Neurol Int 2015; 6:35. Retrieved 7 April 2015. Jump up ^ Faria MA. "Longevity and compression of morbidity from a neuroscience perspective: Do we have a duty to die by a certain age?". Surg Neurol Int 2015;6 :49. Retrieved 7 April 2015. Jump up ^ Wang, Jicun; Michelitsch, Thomas; Wunderlin, Arne; Mahadeva, Ravi (200 9). "Aging as a consequence of Misrepair a novel theory of aging". arXiv:0904.057 5?Freely accessible. Jump up ^ Wang-Michelitsch, Jicun; Michelitsch, Thomas (2015). "Aging as a proce ss of accumulation of Misrepairs". arXiv:1503.07163?Freely accessible. Jump up ^ Wang-Michelitsch, Jicun; Michelitsch, Thomas (2015). "Potential of lon gevity: hidden in structural complexity". arXiv:1505.03902?Freely accessible. Jump up ^ Ni, Maoshing (2006). Secrets of Longevity. Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0 -8118-4949-4. Chuan xiong ... has long been a key herb in the longevity traditio n of China, prized for its powers to boost the immune system, activate blood cir culation, and relieve pain. Jump up ^ Fulder, Stephen (1983). An End to Ageing: Remedies for Life. Destiny B ooks. ISBN 978-0-89281-044-4. Taoist devotion to immortality is important to us for two reasons. The techniques may be of considerable value to our goal of a he althy old age, if we can understand and adapt them. Secondly, the Taoist longevi ty tradition has brought us many interesting remedies. Jump up ^ Vallin, Jacques; Mesl, France (February 2001). "Living Beyond the Age o f 100" (PDF). Bulletin Mensuel d'Information de l'Institut National d'Etudes Dem ographiques: Population & Socits. Institut National d'Etudes Demographiques (365). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 September 2012. Jump up ^ John 5:4. Jump up ^ Fernndez de Oviedo, Gonzalo. Historia General y Natural de las Indias, book 16, chapter XI. Jump up ^ Kohn, Livia (2001). Daoism and Chinese Culture. Three Pines Press. pp. 4, 84. ISBN 978-1-931483-00-1. Jump up ^ Willcox, Willcox, and Suzuki. The Okinawa program: Learn the secrets t o healthy longevity. p. 3. ^ Jump up to: a b c Guinness Book of World Records. 1983. pp. 16 19. Jump up ^ Leaf, Alexander (January 1973). "Search for the Oldest People". Nation al Geographic. pp. 93 118. Jump up ^ "No Methuselahs". Time Magazine. 1974-08-12. Retrieved 2009-05-13. Jump up ^ Ripley Enterprises, Inc. (September 1969). Ripley's Believe It or Not! 15th Series. New York City: Pocket Books. pp. 112, 84, 56. The Old Man of the S ea / Yaupa / a native of Futuna, one of the New Hebrides Islands / regularly wor ked his own farm at the age of 130 / He died in 1899 of measles a children's dis ease ... Horoz Ali, the last Turkish gatekeeper of Nicosia, Cyprus, lived to the age of 120 ... Francisco Huppazoli (1587 1702) of Casale, Italy, lived 114 years without a day's illness and had 4 children by his 5th wife whom he married at th e age of 98 Jump up ^ World Population to 2300, United Nations Jump up ^ http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/2010_census/cb11-cn19 2.html Jump up ^ http://www.aihw.gov.au/chronic-diseases/key-indicators/determinants/ Jump up ^ Jennifer Couzin-Frankel (29 July 2011). "A Pitched Battle Over Life Sp an". Science. 333 (6042): 549 50. doi:10.1126/science.333.6042.549. PMID 21798928. Jump up ^ Physics of the Future, Michio Kaku Jump up ^ Michio Kaku interview Jump up ^ Oeppen, Jim; James W. Vaupel (2002-05-10). "Broken Limits to Life Expe ctancy". Science. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science. 296 (5570): 1029 1031. doi:10.1126/science.1069675. PMID 12004104. Retrie ved 2009-05-17. Jump up ^ 250-Million-Year-Old Bacillus permians Halobacteria Revived. October 2 2, 2000. Bioinformatics Organization. J.W. Bizzaro. [1] Jump up ^ "The Permian Bacterium that Isn't". Oxford Journals. 2001-02-15. Retri eved 2010-11-16. Jump up ^ Hall, Carl. "Staying Alive". San Francisco Chronicle, 23 August 1998. Jump up ^ Munro D.; Blier P.U. (2012). "The extreme longevity of Arctica islandi ca is associated with increased peroxidation resistance in mitochondrial membran es.". Aging Cell. 11 (5): 845 55. doi:10.1111/j.1474-9726.2012.00847.x. Jump up ^ Bangor University: 400 year old Clam Found(retrieved 29 October 2007) BBC News: Ming the clam is 'oldest animal' (retrieved 29 October 2007) Jump up ^ Bergquist DC, Williams FM, Fisher CR (2000). "Longevity record for dee p-sea invertebrate". Nature. 403 (6769): 499 500. doi:10.1038/35000647. PMID 10676 948. Jump up ^ Rozell (2001) "Bowhead Whales May Be the World's Oldest Mammals", Alas ka Science Forum, Article 1529 (retrieved 29 October 2007) References[edit] Lucian Boia (2005) Forever Young: A Cultural History of Longevity from Antiquity to the Present Door Reaktion Books. ISBN 1-86189-154-7 James R. Carey & Debra S. Judge (2000) Longevity records: Life Spans of Mammals, Birds, Amphibians, reptiles, and Fish. Odense Monographs on Population Aging 8, ISBN 87-7838-539-3 James R. Carey (2003) Longevity. The biology and Demography of Life Span. Prince ton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08848-9 Gavrilova N.S., Gavrilov L.A. (2010) Search for Mechanisms of Exceptional Human Longevity. Rejuvenation Research, 13(2-3): 262-264. Gavrilova N.S., Gavrilov L.A. (2008), Can exceptional longevity be predicted? Co ntingencies [Journal of the American Academy of Actuaries], July/August issue, p p. 82 88. Gavrilova N.S., Gavrilov L.A. (2007) Search for Predictors of Exceptional Human Longevity: Using Computerized Genealogies and Internet Resources for Human Longe vity Studies. North American Actuarial Journal, 11(1): 49-67 Gavrilov LA, Gavrilova NS. (2006) Reliability Theory of Aging and Longevity. In: Masoro E.J. & Austad S.N.. (eds.): Handbook of the Biology of Aging, Sixth Edit ion. Academic Press. San Diego, CA, p 3-42. Gavrilova, N.S., Gavrilov, L.A. (2005) Human longevity and reproduction: An evol utionary perspective. In: Voland, E., Chasiotis, A. & Schiefenhoevel, W. (eds.): Grandmotherhood - The Evolutionary Significance of the Second Half of Female Li fe. Rutgers University Press. New Brunswick, NJ, p 59-80. Leonid A. Gavrilov, Natalia S. Gavrilova (1991), The Biology of Life Span: A Qua ntitative Approach. New York: Harwood Academic Publisher John Robbins (2007) Healthy at 100 Ballantine Books, ISBN 0345490118 garners evi dence from many scientific sources to account for the extraordinary longevity of Abkhasians in the Caucasus, Vilcambansns in the Andes, Burusho people in Hunza, Pakistan, and Okinawans. Roy Walford (2000), Beyond The 120-Year Diet. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows . ISBN 1-56858-157-2 External links[edit] American Federation for Aging Research The Okinawa Centenarian Study List of Longevity Genes Global Agewatch's country report cards have the most up-to-date, internationally comparable statistics on population ageing and life expectancy from 195 countri es. Buettner, Dan (May 2015). Want Great Longevity and Health? It Takes a Village. " The secrets of the world s longest-lived people include community, family, exercis e and plenty of beans." The Wall Street Journal [hide] v t e Longevity Terminology Ageless Centenarian Super Cognitive epidemiology Maximum life span Life extensio n Life expectancy Immortality Biological immortality Digital immortality Eternal youth Issues Anti-aging movement Longevity claims Longevity myths Notable centenarians (over age 100) Living Activists, non-profit leaders, and philanthropists Actors, filmmakers, an d entertainers Artists Authors, poets, and journalists Businesspeople Educators, school administrators, social scientists, and linguists Explorers Jurists and p ractitioners of law Medical professionals Military commanders Musicians, compose rs, and music patrons Philosophers and theologians Politicians and civil servant s Religious figures Royalty and nobility Scientists and mathematicians Sportspeo ple Miscellaneous Supercentenarians (over age 110) By continent Africa Asia Europe North America Oceania South America By country Australia Belgium Canada Denmark Finland France Germany Ireland Italy Japan Neth erlands Norway Poland Portugal Spain Sweden United Kingdom United States Oldest people List of oldest living people List of the verified oldest people me n women Miscellaneous Last surviving veterans of military insurgencies and wars European American Cana dian Last surviving World War I veterans by country Surviving veterans of the Sp anish Civil War List of surviving veterans of World War II Last survivors of his toric events Oldest twins Longest marriages List of longest-reigning monarchs See also Ageing Biodemography of human longevity Earliest known life forms FOXO3 longevity gene Gerontology Immortality in fiction Life extension-related topics Senescence Categories: AgeingGerontologyPopulationSenescenceLongevity Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView histor ySearch Search Wikipedia Go Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages ??????? 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