CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 7376

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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

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Modeling of drilling assisted by cryogenic cooling for higher efciency

Martin Dix b,*, Rafael Wertheim (1)a, Gerhard Schmidt a, Carsten Hochmuth a
a
Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology (IWU), Reichenhainer Str. 88, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany
b
Institute for Machine Tools and Production Processes (IWP), Chemnitz University of Technology, Reichenhainer Str. 70, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The energy consumption of machining operations is signicantly inuenced by the cooling strategy. In cases
Drilling
of high-performance drilling, high thermal stress on the tool makes adequate cooling necessary. Only
Energy efciency
cryogenic machining provides the option of lubricant-free processing, resulting in low tool wear, even at
Cryogenic machining
high removal rates, due to signicant reductions in tool temperatures. Compared to actual tests, veried
nite-element process models showed that suitable tool geometry, especially in terms of the positions of the
cooling channels, is fundamental for efcient cryogenic drilling. The process model developed is based on a
new combination of different approaches for modeling a cryogenically cooled tool.
2014 CIRP.

1. Cryogenic machining Table 1

Cryogenic cooling methods.
The minimization and avoidance of cooling lubricants is a Pre-cooling Spray cooling Indirect cooling
general goal for improving the efciency of machining processes.
Cooling of the Cooling of the Internal cooling
However, the mechanical and thermal stability of the cutting workpiece cutting zone of the tool
materials are limited as to be able to machine without cooling in
problematic processes such as drilling. Here it is important to cool
the highly thermally stressed cutting edges efciently and as far as
possible without residues. Cryogenic cooling, which uses extreme-
ly cold liqueed gases, may well be a promising approach for this.

1.1. State of the art

Comparative studies of turning TiAlNB45-2-2 with liquid

nitrogen (LN2) showed a signicant reduction in tool wear
compared to conventional wet machining, minimum-quantity
lubrication and high-pressure cooling with emulsion [1].
In addition to a reduction in wear, signicantly better geometric
and material-specic surface properties were produced [2] and a
reduction in burr formation could be achieved [3].
There are different methods of using cryogenic cooling during
machining. Thus, in addition to the coolant type LN2 and carbon
dioxide there are differences with respect to the coolant supply
system, as shown in Table 1 [4].
1.2. Modeling of cryogenic cooling in machining processes
Various approaches to modeling cryogenic cooling can be found
in literature. Thus Kheireddine et al. [5] modeled cryogenic cooling
when drilling using universal boundary conditions to calculate the
convective heat ow q:
q hc T  T min
A uniform value of 2 kW/m2 K for the heat transfer coefcient hc,
and a minimum temperature value, Tmin of 170 8C were selected [5].
* Corresponding author.
Ding [6] and Hong [7] applied a similar procedure for modeling
cryogenically cooled turning. Ding [6] presented the measure-
ments of heat transfer coefcients for a cryogenically cooled hard-
metal insert at different temperatures. These values form the basis
for a thermal calculation of cooled turning, where the material-
removal process itself is represented merely as a heat source. The
heat ow during machining and the size of the contact zone were
determined experimentally. For the cryogenically cooled insert, a
surface-temperature-dependent heat transfer coefcient in the
range of hc = 23.3 kW/m2 K for T = 180 8C to hc = 46.8 kW/m2 K
for T = 650 8C at an ambient temperature of 196 8C (boiling
temperature of LN2) was assumed. These very high heat transfer
values are attributed to very intensive contact with the cooling
medium based on the kinetic energy of the impinging jet, which
destroys the insulating vapor layer as it forms [7].
2. New model for cryogenic cooling
(1)
2.1. Heat-ow model boundary conditions
When drilling using monolithic drills with cooling channels, the
cooling medium is introduced via the chuck and the cooling
channels in the drill. If the used cooling medium has a signicant

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2014.03.080
0007-8506/ 2014 CIRP.
74 M. Dix et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 7376

temperature difference to the drill temperatures during machin-
ing, there must be a description of these cooling processes in order
to exactly describe the thermal behavior of the drill in the actual
process. As mentioned above, the existing models focus on
cryogenic cooling in machining free surfaces mainly in turning.
These approaches cannot be applied to the cooling behavior in a
tube because the gases produced cannot readily escape. A search
for fundamental phenomena and applications of internal cryogenic
cooling of tubes with LN2 led to models from physics. An approach
specically for cooling in a tube, which is based on a differentiation
between nucleate boiling and lm boiling, is presented, for
example, by Fastowski [8]. With temperature differences between
the tube wall and the boiling point of the liquid medium
(LN2 ! 196 8C) up to approximately DT  15 K nucleate boiling
occurs, whereby individual gas bubbles are formed on the tube
wall and carried along in the ow. At higher temperature
differences, a continuous lm of gas is formed on the tube wall,
which is referred to as lm boiling. A typical property of the gas
lm is its high insulation, which causes a sharp drop in the heat
transfer coefcient. In addition to the gas properties and the
temperature differences there is also a direct inuence from the
tube diameter. Thus the heat transfer coefcient for lm boiling
due to the formation of the gas lm is described as follows [8]:
2.2. Model setup and verication of the heat-ow model
The software DEFORM 3D V10.1 was used for the simulation of
the cooling behavior at the drill and for the material-removal
process simulation. For the calculation of the temperature
distribution the drill was covered with a network of 100,000 FEs
and the chuck with 150,000 FEs. Both components were assumed
to be mechanically rigid. Thermal expansions due to temperature
changes were assumed negligible, as these deformations were
extremely slight in comparison to the degrees of deformation in
the material-removal process. The heat transfer coefcient at the
contact surfaces between the drill and the chuck was assumed to
be 2.2 kW/m2 K. In the rst stage, the temperature distribution
during cooling the tool and chuck was calculated and measured by
thermo couples. Fig. 2 shows the test setup and the FE model, as
well as the measuring points for verication of the model.

 2 !
lm d3k Q m Q fl  Q m gld c p;m DT
hc 0:62 1 0:4 0:25 (2)
dk lm hm ld

where dk is the tube diameter; Qm, lm ; hm , Q, cp,m, ld are material

Fig. 2. Test setup and thermal simulation of the cryogenic cooling in drilling.
properties of the N2 gas layer; g the gravitation.
Table 2 shows both approaches describing heat transfer in The measurement of the temperature proles as shown in Fig. 3
cryogenic cooling. starts with the opening of the valve on the coolant reservoir. This has
Table 2 an overpressure of 1.3 bar, which drives the coolant through the
Thermal models for cryogenic cooling. pipes to the connection on the chuck. The pipes, valves, chuck and
drill are in a warm state (20 8C) at the start of measurement. The
Model Spray cooling [6,7] Tube cooling [8]
boiling cryogenic liquid cools these components while evaporating
Application during the pre-cooling stage. This phase change is associated with a
645-fold increase in volume. Since the only option for venting
this gas was through the two cooling holes in the drill, with only
1.2 mm diameter, the pre-cooling stage lasted for about 540 s before
the cooling effect could be reached (Fig. 3). This rst cooling phase
Heat-ow was represented in the simulation by a continuously gas ow
density q
(hc = 30 W/m2 K for a strong gas ow). When the cooling effect of the
LN2 reaches the drill tip (t = 0), the parameters for the cryogenic
cooling (Sections 1.2 and 2.1) of the respective surfaces are taken to
apply. As the experimental results and simulation show, there is
signicant cooling, especially at the drill tip.

The two approaches differ widely in their application and in the

heat transfer coefcient. An accurate assignment of the models,
especially in the drilling tool, is crucial for a realistic calculation of
the heat distribution. Thus, the tube sections in the drill were
modeled using the temperature-dependent heat-transfer coef-
cient of the tube-cooling model. In the simulation model, a reading
of the local surface temperature was taken at each computational
step followed by the calculation of the heat transfer value and
ultimately the heat ow. At the outlet of the cooling medium, the
formed gas lm is discharged and there is a more intensive contact,
which can be described by the spray-cooling model. Fig. 1
illustrates the combined thermal model for cryogenic cooling in
the drill and shrink-t chuck.

Fig. 3. Comparison of the calculated and measured temperature proles during

cryogenic cooling.

Temperatures as low as 189 8C were calculated. In the

Fig. 1. The combined thermal model for cryogenic cooling in the drilling tool and the
shrink-t chuck.
experiment, the temperatures at measurement point MP1 were
about 15 K higher, since heat conduction by the stainless-steel
protective sheath of the thermocouple caused erroneously high
temperature values. This error was conrmed by measurements
 M. Dix et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 7376 75

directly in the LN2. The peak in the experimental measurements at

MP1 (drill tip) at t = 20 s can be explained by a cyclical escape of
gas. Despite the best possible insulation there was heat conduction
in the supply lines and also formation of gas. There was a reduced
cooling effect resulting in a temporary increase in temperature of
the drill bit while these slugs of gas escaped through the drill.
When calculating only the cooling process of the drill tip,
temperatures as low as 190 8C could be found at the critical point
of the main cutting edges. The cooling is particularly effective at
the cooling channel outlet where, unlike in the tube sections, there
is no insulating gas lm. As the verication shows, the reproduc-
tion of cryogenic cooling by the new simulation approach can be Fig. 4. The chip formation and temperature distribution at the cutting zone.
described as very good. Based on the results, however, it also
became clear that there is a greater heat ow through the drill
body, the shrink-t chuck and the spindle chuck. This heat ow can
cause a decrease in cooling performance or may even be a risk As can be seen in Fig. 4, very high temperatures occur in the
factor with regard to thermal distortion or damage to the spindle. material being removed, despite cryogenic cooling. Thus localized
Therefore it is desirable to insulate the chuck and check the workpiece temperatures up to 820 8C were reached in the contact
clamping safety. area between chip and rake face. This resulted in very high local
temperature gradients relative to the tool, as illustrated in the
3. Temperature distribution during the drilling process isoline illustration.
In order to describe the effect of cooling and drill geometry,
A direct measurement of the temperatures at the cutting edge is calculations were carried out with different tool geometries for
not possible, especially for high-performance drilling, due to drilling with cryogenic cooling and for dry drilling. The calculations
process kinematics and drill shape. Therefore the simulation and were performed using a conventional drill geometry with straight
calculation of the material-removal process is very useful as an primary cutting edges and pronounced tip angle as well as on a
analytical tool. Thus, the veried model for cryogenic cooling, drill with rounded cutting edge prole, i.e. without a measurable
described in Section 2, was applied at t = 50 s to the simulation of tip angle. This drill is normally used for dry-, or MQL drilling
material-removal and chip formation. operations. The simulated and the calculated temperatures are
presented in Table 3.
3.1. Simulation of the material-removal process

Modeling of the material removal process was also performed Table 3

using DEFORM 3D V10.1. Workpiece material was modeled by Temperature distributions for different drills and cooling strategies.
plastic character with tetrahedral mesh. The tool was dened as a
Cool. Cryogenic Dry Cryogenic Dry
rigid body with thermal properties of solid carbide WC. Further-
more the contact between the tool and workpiece was modeled Drill design Universal Round edge
straight edge for MQL
with a friction value of 0.3 and a heat ow of 4 kW/m2 K.
The simulation was carried out for drilling of normalized
42CrMo4 steel with a 7 mm diameter drill. A cutting speed (vc)
of 105 m/min and a feed rate per revolution (f) of 0.21 mm were
Tmax, tool 6268C 12488C 2768C 5848C
chosen, which correspond to high-performance drilling of this
Tmin, tool 1918C 248C 1918C 248C
material. In addition to the cooling inuence on the drill Tmax, WP 8608C 8968C 8448C 8688C
and chuck, the cryogenic cooling also acts on the workpiece. Tmin, WP 208C 248C 18C 248C
Thus, the surface sections of the workpiece facing the outlet Temperature
openings of the cooling holes in the drill are subjected to spray prole along
cooling. the cutting
edge
The simulation and calculation of the drilling processes into
solid materials has to be done in three dimensions due to the
process kinematics and different cutting conditions along
the drill radius. Furthermore, at least two revolutions of the
drill in its full diameter must be calculated in order to obtain a
quasi-static temperature distribution. These require workpiece
models with a high number of nite elements. In this
application, 100,000 FEs were necessary to achieve sufcient
mesh neness. The extreme degree of deformation and high
deformation speeds during machining require frequent remesh- The maximum temperature values in the drilling tool show a
ing, so computation times of more than a week were needed for clear inuence from the cryogenic cooling. Thus, the maximum
the calculation of 2.5 drill revolutions, despite modern PC-based temperature was reduced by 50% (with reference to 8C) in the
technology. universal drill and by 53% in the rounded edge drill when
compared to dry drilling. Besides the inuence of cooling, the drill
3.2. Simulation results geometry has a strong inuence on the temperature and the
temperature distribution. Thus, signicantly lower temperatures
Fig. 4 shows the chip formation during cryogenically cooled could be achieved with the round edge drill optimized for MQL
drilling using a drill with universal cutting-edge geometry. The machining (56% for cryogenic cooling, 53% for dry processing). This
model represents a section parallel to the longitudinal axis of is mainly attributable to the substitution of the thermally highly
the drill at drill radius r = 3.45 mm to allow an insight into the stressed cutting edge as well as a more favorable positioning of
thermally highly stressed cutting edge. An enlargement of the the cooling channel outlets. Furthermore, the critical cooling
contact area between tool and workpiece is inserted (top right channel outlet is spatially much closer to the point with the highest
gure section) including the temperature distribution. thermal stress. The round cutting edge prole leads not only to
76 M. Dix et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 7376
longer cutting edges, but also to a signicantly more homogeneous
temperature distribution along the radius, as shown in the lower
part of Table 3.
The improved chip shape and chip formation could be proved
by comparing test results with the various drills and cooling
strategies. Table 4 presents the drilling torque and feed force as
verication parameters for machining with the universal drill and
the two cooling strategies.
Table 4
Verication of the drilling simulation by comparing the mechanical parameters
torque and feed force.
Cooling-method Experiment Simulation
M (Nm) Fz (N) M (Nm)
Cryogenic 4.43 1377 4.53
Dry 4.23 1479 4.4
There are only minor differences in terms of the mechanical
parameters between the simulation and the experimental results.
This conrms that the simulations are realistic. Furthermore, the
presented results show that only slightly higher drilling torques
occur when machining with cryogenic cooling. This slight increase
can be attributed to lower temperatures in the cutting zone, and
thus require higher deformation forces.
Additional to the verication tests with LN2, tool life tests in
drilling of gray cast iron with frozen carbon dioxide cooling and MQL
were carried out with the same drilling tools and adapted cutting
parameters. Thereby the tool life of the universal drill with straight
edge was 3.6 m (103 holes) for dry machining. In case of the
cryogenic cooling the tool life can enlarge to 18.9 m. Drilling with the
rounded edge tool for MQL in dry machining allows a tool life of
15.8 m. Using cryogenic cooling, the tool life was not reached even
after 31.5 m (900 holes). So the calculated maximum tool
temperatures (Table 3) and the known inuence on the tool life
could be conrmed.
3.3. Temperature prole of a drilling series
The described material-removal simulations have shown only a
short time segment of the drilling process, since the large
computational complexity involved means that currently only a
few drill revolutions can be calculated with accurate details of
material removal. A purely thermal simulation was created in
order to determine the thermal stress in a drill over a longer
machining time. For this purpose, the heat ows into the tool that
occur during drilling of 10 holes were taken from the material-
removal simulation and put into the purely thermal simulation
using the calculated contact area. The thermal model was also
applied for cryogenic cooling. Further boundary parameters that
were adopted during the simulation include the distance of
100 mm between holes and a rapid-traverse process with
vf = 60 m/min. The cutting speed and feed are presented in
Section 3.1.
Fig. 5 shows the minimum and maximum temperature proles
in the tool for dry drilling and drilling with cryogenic cooling.
The curves clearly show that dry drilling leads to much higher
temperatures and thermal loads on the drill. The drill barely cools
down in the very short period of moving to a new hole. In contrast,
when drilling with cryogenic cooling, there is rapid cooling to
nearly the starting level even during the very short breaks between
two holes. With regard to the temperature level, dry drilling
approaches a maximum value of approximately 730 8C, whereas
cryogenic cooling allows a reduction of the maximum values to
around 450 8C. This reduction of the wear-determining
temperature at the cutting edge can result in signicantly longer
tool life as described in the literature.
Tmin Cryo. Tmax Cryo.
Tmin Dry Tmax Dry
800
Tmax,dry
Tool temperature
280 K
Tmax,cryo
[C]
Tmin,dry
Tmin,cryo
-200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Tim e [s]
Fig. 5. Temperature proles for continues drilling of ten holes with dry conditions
and with cryogenic cooling.
Fz (N)
4. Summary
1294
1390
Cryogenic cooling permits a signicant increase in tool life
compared to conventional cooling lubrication strategies for various
machining operations. This increased tool life is mainly due to the
very good cooling performance, which is based on high temperature
differences and heat transfer coefcients. It was possible to develop
a highly realistic model for drilling assisted by cryogenic cooling
using a combination of various existing approaches. The application
of the veried cooling model in a material-removal simulation made
it possible to reproduce the temperatures at the cutting edge during
drilling with good correlation with real experiments. Signicant
temperature reductions could be identied when using cryogenic
cooling as compared with dry drilling. Furthermore, it was found
that the tool geometry and particularly the position of the cooling
channel outlets are crucial for the temperature distribution during
the process.
By using a transfer of heat ows into the drill during machining,
it was possible to produce a purely thermal simulation of a drilling
sequence. This showed that cryogenic cooling is particularly
suitable for high-performance drilling, since even very short
interruptions allow the temperature to decrease signicantly
while moving to the next hole. Insulation of the cooled tools at the
chuck and a regulated cooling are desirable to reduce the pre-
cooling time and increase efciency.
Acknowledgements
The Cluster of Excellence Energy-Efcient Product and Process
Innovations in Production Engineering (eniPROD1) is funded by
the European Union (European Regional Development Fund) and
the Free State of Saxony.
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