1. List the elements in steel and state the influence of each.

The steel is the combination of carbon and iron. Where other elements are present in
quantities too small to affect the properties. The other alloying elements allowed in steel
are manganese, silicon, and copper.

Steel with low carbon content has the same properties as iron, soft but easily
formed. As carbon content rises the metal becomes harder and stronger but less ductile
and more difficult to weld. Higher carbon content lowers steel's melting point and its
temperature resistance in general.

Carbon content influences the yield strength of steel because they fit into the
interstitial crystal lattice sites of the body-centered cubic arrangement of the iron
molecules.

2. What is alloy steel? State the effects of important alloying elements in steel

Steel is said to be alloyed when its composition incorporates specially introduced

alloying elements. The main purpose of the alloying is to enhance the properties of the
steel.
The main frequently employed elements for alloying steel are: Cr, Ni, Mn, Si,
Mo, Va, W, Cu and Al.

Effects of alloying elements in steel.

Chromium: the addition of chromium results in the formation of carbides of chromium

which are very hard. Chromium also refines the grain structure so that these two
combined effects result in both increase toughness and hardness. The addition of
chromium increases, the critical range of temperature, resistance to wear and abrasion
and resistance to corrosion nd oxidation.

Nickel: It is also increases critical range of temperature. The addition of nickel increases
toughness and ductility.

Manganese: It is added to all steels as a deoxidizing and desulphurizing agent. It lowers

the critical range of temperatures and increases the time required for transformation.

Silicon: it is added to steels as deoxidizing agent. The principal use of silicon with other
alloying elements is to stabilize the carbides.

Vanadium: It is used to toughen and strengthen the steel, to reduce the grain size and to
act as a cleaner and degasifier. It has a very high tendency to form carbides, hence it used
in small amounts.
Tungsten: Tungsten produces a fine dense structure and adds both toughness and
hardness. Hence it is widely used in tool steels.

Cobalt: It is commonly used in high speed steel to increase the hot hardness so that the
cutting tools can be used at a higher cutting speeds and temperatures.

5. State the ranges of composition for low, medium and high carbon steels. Give two
applications for each range

Mild (low carbon) steel: approximately 0.050.29% carbon content (e.g. AISI
1018 steel). Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and
malleable; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.
Medium carbon steel: approximately 0.300.8% carbon content (e.g. AISI 1040
steel). Balances ductility and strength and has good wear resistance; used for large
parts, forging and automotive components.
High carbon steel: approximately 0.81.8% carbon content. Very strong, used
for springs and high-strength wires

6. What are the constituents of C.I and how do they vary in grey, white, malleable
and nodular C.Is

Constituents of CI
Fe up to 95%
Carbon 2.1 to 6.67%
Si 1 3%

Name %C %Si %Mn %Fe

Gray CI 3.4 1.8 0.5 Bal
White CI 3.4 0.7 0.6 Bal
Malleable 2.5 1.0 0.55 Bal
Spheroidal CI 3.4 0.1 0.4 Bal

7. State the properties and uses of Grey, White, Malleable and Spheroidal cast iron

Properties and uses

Gray CI:
Properties: good damping capacity, high compressive strength, easy to machining,
Uses: mainly grey iron is used as machine beds, engine blocks, foundation applications,
pump housings, flywheels and gears.

White CI:
Uses: these are used where the resistance to wear is important such as ball mills, liners
for cement mixers, drawing dies, bearing surfaces.
Properties: it is very hard and wear resistant but extremely brittle difficult to machine.
Malleable CI:
Uses: Axle bearings, track wheels, automotive crankshafts.
Properties:

Nodular CI:
Properties: the carbon particle in this CI is in speheroidal shape hence tensile strength and
ductility is very high.
Uses: cams, crankshafts and gears.

8. List and discuss some of the important properties of non-ferrous metals and
alloys.

The important non ferrous metals and alloys are aluminium and its alloys, copper and
its alloys, zinc and its alloys and magnesium and its alloys.

Their important properties are:

High thermal conductivity.

high electrical conductivity.
High strength to weight ratio.
Resistance to corrosion.
Good formability.
Low density.

Aluminium and its alloys:

These are having excellent thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, low mass
density, low melting point, excellent corrosion resistance, non toxic and high ductility.
These properties make the aluminium suitable for applications such as heavy duty piston,
engine block, vehicle disk brake frame and different aerospace applications.

Copper and its alloys: having good malleability and ductility, heavy metal, it can be
readily to be joined by brazing, it has got a pleasant colour, it is a good conductor of heat
and electricity, non corrosive under ordinary conditions. Copper finds application in the
following area such as electrical contacts.

Zinc and its alloys: Zinc is having low melting point and high corrosion resistance. Zinc
is fairly heavy bluish-white metal used principally because of its low cost. The protection
of iron and steel from corrosion is done more often with zinc than with any other metal
coating. It has got good machinability.

Magnesium and its alloys: Magnesium is light in weight, having good mechanical
strength. It is used in aerospace industries and in applications involving very high speed.
They are used in making automobile wheels, crank cases etc.
9. Give the composition of any two aluminim alloys with applications

The various alloying elements of aluminium alloy are copper, zinc, manganese,
silicon, or magnesium. They are much lighter and more corrosion resistant than plain
carbon steel.
The two aluminium alloys are duralumin and silumin.
Duralumin: is the name of one of the earliest types of age-hardenable aluminium alloys.
The main alloying constituents are copper, manganese and magnesium. A commonly
used modern equivalent of this alloy type is AA2024, which contains (in wt.%) 4.4%
copper, 1.5% magnesium and 0.6% manganese. Typical yield strength is 450 MPa, with
variations depending on the composition and temper.
Silumin: is a series of lightweight, high-strength aluminium alloys with silicon content
between 4% and 22%. Among the advantages of silumin is its high resistance to
corrosion, making it useful in humid environments. The addition of silicon to aluminium
also makes it more fluid when liquid, which together with its low cost (both component
elements are relatively cheap to extract), makes it a very good casting alloy.

10. Give the composition of any two copper based alloys with applications.

The main copper alloys are brass and bronze

Brass: It is an alloy of copper and Zinc. Zinc varies up to 40%. Variations in composition
will result in desired strength, ductility, machinability and corrosion resistance.
Uses: hose pipes in refrigerators.

Bronze: It is an alloy of copper with tin / aluminium / silicon.

Uses: bearings, coins, turbine blades erc.

11. What is the effect of copper as an alloying element in aluminium alloys? Explain

The effects of copper as an alloying element are to raise the ultimate strength and
endurance limit and to improve the casting characteristics , machinability. But resistance
to corrosion is reduced. Aluminium and copper alloys are used in such applications as
crank cases, transmission housings and fittings.

14. What are shape memory alloys? How do they work?

Shape memory alloys or SMA's are metals that exhibit shape memory properties. It
allows materials possessing shape memory properties to return to their original shape
after having suffered some form of deformation after they are heated to temperatures
above their transformation temperature. It is possible to have a transformation
temperature below ambient, in which case the alloy will behave like a spring. At the
phase transformation temperature, the alloy undergoes a crystalline reversible solid state
phase change from marten site to austenite. It should be noted that both phases have
different properties.
 Over a range of temperatures, starting at the transformation temperature, the
alloy undergoes a reversible solid state transformation. The transformation temperature is
influenced by composition and other factors.

15. How much deformation can a shape memory alloy take and still recover?

Shape memory alloys can recover from large amounts of bending and torsional
deformations as well as small amounts of strain. Provided the deformations are within
recoverable ranges, the process of deformation and shape recovery can be repeated
millions of times.

16. Name the metals which exhibit shape memory characteristics?

Commercially available shape memory alloys include:

Nickel/Titanium alloys such as Nitinol and Tinel

Copper/Zinc/Aluminium Alloys.
Copper/Aluminium/Nickel Alloys

Other alloys that are known to display shape memory properties are:

Silver/Cadmium Alloys.
Gold / Cadmium alloys
Copper / Tin alloys.
Copper / Zinc alloys
Indium / Titanium alloys.
Nickel / Aluminium alloys
Iron / Platinum alloys.
Manganese / copper alloys
Iron / Manganese / Silicon alloys

17. Give any three applications of shape memory alloys?

The medical and aerospace and marine industries are the largest consumers of shape
memory components. Some of their applications are outlined below, together with some
less well know application areas:

a. Medical Industry -

Dental and Orthodontic Archwires - These work similar to a spring. They apply a
continuous and gentle force correcting misaligned teeth, as opposed to the periodic and
uncomfortable tightening required by stainless steels.
b.Aerospace and Marine -

Fluid Fittings - SMA couplings are available that seal metal to metal with large
radial clamping forces. Supplied in cold couplings are simply placed over the pipe to be
connected and they shrink as they warm up.

c.Other areas of Application -

Other areas where shape memory alloys are use include:

Spectacle frames
Underwired brassieres
Pipe jointing systems
Temperature control systems

18. What are Piezo-electric materials? State the two unique properties of the PE
materials.

The ability of the materials to generate an electric potential in response to applied

mechanical stress. This may take the form of a separation of electric charge across the
crystal lattice. If the material is not short circuited the applied charge induces a voltage
across the material.

Piezoelectric elements are also used in the detection and generation of sonar waves.
Power monitoring in high power applications (e.g. medical treatment and industrial
processing).

19. What are functionally graded materials (FGMs)? In what way FGMs differs
from composite materials?

FGMs are the composites consisting of two different materials with a gradient
composition. These materials can provide new combined functions that surpass the
characteristics specific to each element.

20. What are ceramic materials? Write the product applications of ceramics.

The word ceramic is derived from the greek word keramikos. The term covers in organic
non-metallic materials which are formed by the action of heat.

Clay based ceramics are described in the article on pottery. Composite material
of ceramic and Ceramics are used in the manufacture of knives.
Ceramics such as alumina and boron carbide have been used in ballistic
armoured to repel large-caliber rifle fire.
 Ceramic balls can be used to replace steel in ball bearings. Their higher hardness
means that they are much less susceptible to wear and can often more than triple
lifetimes

21. What are the attractive features of ceramics in comparison with metals?

a) Superconductivity: Under some conditions, such as extremely low temperature,

some ceramics exhibit superconductivity. The exact reason for this is not known,
but there are two major families of superconducting ceramics.
b) High melting point and relative resistance to corrosion
c) Relatively cheap and abundant
d) Hard and brittle
e) Good chemical and thermal stability
f) Desirable electrical, thermal and optical properties
g) Good creep resistance
h) High compressive strength and excellent resistance to wear
i) Low density

22. What is glass? What are the various glass forming constituents?

Any of a large class of materials with highly variable mechanical and optical
properties that solidify from the molten state without crystallization, is typically made
by silicates fusing with boric oxide, aluminum oxide, or phosphorus pentoxide, is
generally hard, brittle, and transparent or translucent, and are considered to be
supercooled liquids rather than true solids.

Glass forming constituents

Silica: obtained from high pure silica sand

Boron, vanadium Germanium, Phosphorous, Tellurium, Selenium and BeF2

23. What are composite materials? Explain the various types of composite
materials?

Composite material can be defined as, the structure made up of two or more distinct
starting material. The starting material can be organic, metals or ceramics.

Types of composite material:

 Agglomerated materials: Agglomerated materials or particulate composite
consists of distinct particles of one material, surrounded by a matrix of
another material
o Eg Concrete, Grinding wheel
Reinforced material: Is made with fiber reinforced in a matrix material
Metals, polymers and ceramic materials are used as fibers.
Laminates: Laminates or laminar composites are those structures which have
alternative layers of materials bonded together in some manner.
o Eg Ply wood, safety glass, sandwich material
Surface coated material

24. What are thermo plastics and thermosetting materials? Discuss the
properties and give their limitations

Thermoplastic Plastics: These plastics soften under heat, harden on cooling and can
be resoftened on under heat.

Eg Acrylics, Poly tetra fluoro ethylene (PTTF), poly vinyl Chloride (PVC) nylons etc

Thermosetting Plastics: These plastics undergo a number of chemical changes on

heating and cure to infusible and practically insoluble article

Eg Alkydes, Epoxides, Polyester, Phenolics and ureas.

Properties:

They have low density, substantial mechanical strength and high anti friction
properties.
They have relatively low melting point.
Simple processing to obtain machine parts.
Good damping capacity and good surface finish of the product.
They have high heat and electrical resistance.

Limitations:

Comparatively higher costs of materials.

Inability of most plastics to withstand even moderately high temperatures.

25Write short notes on the following

a. Stainless steels.
b. High speed steels.
c. Smart materials.
d. Elastomers
a. Stainless steels.
Stainless steel is an iron-containing alloy, a substance made up of two or more
chemical elements used in a wide range of applications. It has excellent resistance to stain
or rust due to its chromium content, usually from 12 to 20 percent of the alloy. There are
more than 57 stainless steels recognized as standard alloys, in addition to many
proprietary alloys produced by different stainless steel producers. These many types of
steels are used in an almost endless number of applications and industries: bulk materials
handling equipment, building exteriors and roofing, automobile components (exhaust,
trim/decorative, engine, chassis, fasteners, tubing for fuel lines), chemical processing
plants (scrubbers and heat exchangers), pulp and paper manufacturing, petroleum
refining, water supply piping, consumer products, marine and shipbuilding, pollution
control, sporting goods (snow skis), and transportation (rail cars), to name just a few.

Stainless steels come in several types depending on their microstructure.

Austenitic stainless steels contain at least 6 percent nickel and austenite carbon-
containing iron with a face-centered cubic structure and have good corrosion resistance
and high ductility (the ability of the material to bend without breaking). Ferritic stainless
steels (ferrite has a body-centered cubic structure) have better resistance to stress
corrosion than austenitic, but they are difficult to weld. Martensitic stainless steels
contain iron having a needle-like structure.

b. High speed steels.

High speed steels belong to the Fe-C-X multicomponent alloy system where X
represents chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, and/or cobalt. Generally, the X
component is present in excess of 7%, along with more than 0.60% carbon. (However,
their alloying element percentages do not alone bestow the hardness-retaining properties;
they also require appropriate high-temperature heat treatment in order to become true
HSS.

The grade type T-1 with 18% tungsten has not changed its composition since 1910 and
was the main type used up to 1940, when substitution by molybdenum took place.
Nowadays, only 5-10% of the HSS in Europe and only 2% in the United States is of this
type.

The addition of about 10% of tungsten and molybdenum in total maximises efficiently
the hardness and toughness of high speed steels and maintains these properties at the high
temperatures generated when cutting metals.
Alloying Compositions of High Speed Steel Grades
Grade C Cr Mo W V Co
T-1 0.75 - - 18.0 1.1 -
M-2 0.95 4.2 5.0 6.0 2.0 -
M-7 1.00 3.8 8.7 1.6 2.0 -
M-42 1.10 3.8 9.5 1.5 1.2 8.0

c. Smart materials.

Smart materials are materials that have one or more properties that can be significantly
altered in a controlled fashion by external stimuli, such as stress, temperature, moisture,
pH, electric or magnetic fields.

There are a number of types of smart material, some of which are already common. Some
examples are as following:

Piezoelectric materials are materials that produce a voltage when stress is applied.
Since this effect also applies in the reverse manner, a voltage across the sample
will produce stress within the sample. Suitably designed structures made from
these materials can therefore be made that bend, expand or contract when a
voltage is applied.
Shape memory alloys and shape memory polymers are Thermoresponsive
materials where deformation can be induced and recovered through temperature
changes.
Magnetic shape memory alloys are materials that change their shape in response
to a significant change in the magnetic field.
PH-sensitive polymers are materials which swell/collapse when the pH of the
surrounding media changes.
Halochromic materials are commonly materials that change their colour as a
result of changing acidity. One suggested application is for paints that can change
colour to indicate corrosion in the metal underneath them.
Chromogenic systems change colour in response to electrical, optical or thermal
changes. These include electrochromic materials, which change their colour or
opacity on the application of a voltage (e.g. liquid crystal displays),
thermochromic materials change in color depending on their temperature, and
photochromic materials, which change colour in response to light - for example,
light sensitive sunglasses that darken when exposed to bright sunlight.

d. Elastomers

An elastomer is a polymer with the property of elasticity. The term, which is derived
from elastic polymer, is often used interchangeably with the term rubber, and is preferred
when referring to vulcanisates. Each of the monomers which link to form the polymer is
usually made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and/or silicon. Elastomers are amorphous
polymers existing above their glass transition temperature, so that considerable segmental
motion is possible. At ambient temperatures rubbers are thus relatively soft (E~3MPa)
and deformable. Their primary uses are for seals, adhesives and molded flexible parts.

Examples of elastomers

Unsaturated rubbers that can be cured by sulfur vulcanization:

Natural Rubber (NR)

Synthetic Polyisoprene (IR)
Butyl rubber (copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene, IIR)
Polybutadiene (BR)
Styrene-butadiene Rubber (copolymer of polystyrene and polybutadiene, SBR)
Nitrile Rubber (copolymer of polybutadiene and acrylonitrile, NBR), also called
Buna N rubbers
Chloroprene Rubber (CR), polychloroprene, Neoprene, Baypren etc.