Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
WY
ii '
.',
A thesis submitted
in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Environmental Science
Ir Dr. Law Puong Ling for his support and encouragement. His patience and generosity are
highly appreciated.
I would like to thank my former SLUSE coordinators, Dr. Lim Po Teen, Dr. Effendi
and current SLUSE coordinator, Dr. Tay Meng Guan for their encouragementand patienceto
provide guidance and support. Last but not least, I would like to thank my wife, Tang Jock
Kie, and my family for their continuous support and during the course of this research.
1
ABSTRACT
Soil Erosion is a process of a portion of the soil profile or soil surface detachment to
the ambient environment. There are four major factors that affect erosion potential: soil
characteristics, vegetative cover, topography and climate. Predictions of soil erosion rate and
sediment yield during different construction stages were carried out at the proposed Project
site with respect to site clearing, earthworks/ sand filling and infrastructure works at light
industrial area, Kapit Division. The RUSLE and MUSLE were used to estimate the potential
erosion rate and the sediment yield, respectively during (i) pre-construction stage; (ii)
construction stage; and (iii) post-construction stage of the study area. During construction
stage, the disturbed soil surface would result from the site clearing, earthwork activities, and
slope grading would produce highest erosion rates and sediment yields as compared to other
construction stages. Significant amount of soil sediments would be washed and eroded
directly to the nearby watercourse, i. e., Batang Rajang and could result in deposition of the
sediments at the river bed and lead to degradation of the aquatic ecosystem. Erosion control
measures are recommended to minimize the potential erosion rates and sedimentation. A
comparison between "with BMP" and "without BMP" were carried out, it
and was found that
a reduction of more than 65% for both erosion rate and sediment yield with the
implementation of BMPs. However, sediment control practices such as silt trap, silt fence and
check dam would minimize the adverse effects of erosion rates to a certain extent.
Keywords: Soil Erosion, Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE), Modified
ii
ABSTRAK
Hakisan Tanah adalah satu sebahagian proses daripada profil tanah atau permukaan tanah
detasmen untuk persekitaran ambien. Terdapat empat faktor utama mempengaruhi potensi
hakisan tanah: ciri-ciri tanah, perlindungan tumbuhan, topografi dan iklim. Ramalan untuk
kadar hakisan tanah dan hasil enapan dalam peringkat pembinaan yang berbeza telah
dijalankan di cadangan pembersihan tapak, kerja-kerja tanah / pengisian pasir dan kerja-kerja
infrastruktur di kawasan perindustrian ringan, Daerah Kapit. RUSLE dan MUSLE telah
digunakan untuk menganggar kadar hakisan yang berpotensi dan basil pengenapan masing-
masing di seluruh i) peringkat pra-pembinaan ii) peringkat pembinaan; dan iii) peringkat
operasi di kawasan kajian. Semasa pembinaan, tanah terganggu dan terdedah yang
disebabkan oleh kerja-kerja pembersihan tapak, kerja tanah, dan penggredan cerun telah
menghasilkan kadar hakisan yang tertinggi dan penghasilan sedimen jika dibandingkan
dengan peringkat pembinaan yang lain. Jumlah besar tanah yang didedahkan akan dibasuh
dan dihakiskan terus ke arah saluran air yang berdekatan, iaitu Batang Rajang, dan akan
mengakibatkan pemendapan sedimen di dalam air sungai, pencemaran dan degradasi alam
sekitar terutamanya ekosistem akuatik. Oleh itu, langkah-langkah kawalan hakisan telah
dicadangkan untuk mengurangkan kadar hakisan yang berpotensi dan deposisi pemendapan.
Satu perbandingan antara BMP dan tanpa BMP telah dijalankan dan menunjukkan dengan
jelasnya pengurangan melebihi 65 peratus untuk kedua-dua kadar hakisan dan hasil
kelodak, pagar kelodak dan empangan semakan akan mengurangkan kesan-kesan buruk
daripada hakisan tanah kepada persekitaran ambien. Untuk mencapai keberkesanan optimum
iii
Kata-kata kunci: Hakisan Tanah, Semakan Tanah Universal Kehilangan Persamaan (RUSLE),
Ubahsuai Tanah Universal Kehilangan Persamaan (RUSLE), Amalan Pengurusan Terbaik (BMP)
iv
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademie.
UNIVERSM MALAYSIASARAWAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement i
Abstract 11
Table of Contents V
List of Appendices VI
Chapter 1- Introduction
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Objectives of Study 6
1.4 Scope of Study 7
1.4.1 The Study Area 7
1.4.2 Topography 9
1.4.3 Geology and Soil 9
1.4.4 General Climate 9
Chapter 2- Literature Review
2.1 Soil Erosion 12
2.1.1 Types of Soil Erosion 13
Chapter 3- Methodology
V
3.3.2 Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation 39
3.3.2.1 MUSLE 39
3.3.2.2. Peak Flow 40
3.3.2.3 Volume of Runoff 42
3.4 Best ManagementPractices(BMP) for Erosion Control 46
3.4.1 Silt Trap / Sediment Trap 47
3.4.2 Silt Fence 48
3.4.3 Check Dam 48
Chapter 4- Results and Discussion
4.1 Introduction 50
4.2 Prediction of Erosion Rate 50
4.2.1 Mean of Rainfall Intensity and Rainfall Factor, R 51
4.2.2 Soil Erodibility, K 51
4.2.3 Slope Length and Slope SteepnessFactor, LS 54
4.2.4 Cover Management Factor, C 56
4.2.5 Erosion Control Practice Factor, P 57
4.2.6 Estimation of Peak Discharge, Qp 58
4.2.7 Volume of Runoff, V 65
4.2.8 Prediction of Erosion Rates and Sediment Yields 67
4.3 Summary 70
Chapter 5- Conclusion 71
References 73
List of Appendices
Appendix A Meteorological Data A-I
vi
List of Tables
3.1 Cover Management Factors, C (Construction Site) 37
3.2 Erosion Control Practice Factor, P 39
3.3 Runoff Coefficients (Rational Equation) 41
3.4 Runoff Curve Numbers (Undeveloped Land) 43
3.5 Hydrology Soil Groups 45
3.6
Estimated Relative Erosion SedimentControl Effectiveness for Different
46
Best Management Practices (BMP)
4.1 Particles Size Analyses for Samples Collected from 6 Boreholes (BH) 53
vii
List of Figures
viii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION'
1.1 Introduction
detachedto the ambient environment. It can be occurred by the natural physical forces
of water and wind or disturbances of human activities on the land. Rapid growth in
the demand of rapid-growth of population and world economic has led to the
acquirement of more land especially the forest area. Deforestation and land clearing
conservation, production of ecosystem goods, carbon storage, and soil protection has
been rapidly destroyed that leading to significant soil erosion. The removal of soil-
trapping trees during the process of deforestation near waterways causes the upper
layer of soil more vulnerable to the water and wind erosion. Sediments and soil
carried by the runoff after rainfall from cleared lands can damage the river, lake and
marine and destroy the ecosystems.Several effects may caused by excessive erosion
have diverse nature and land dimensions, and production of sedimentsthat may result
damagesof downstream.
1
Soil erosion has become the major environmental problems in Malaysia. The
coastal zone between Sungai Sementa and Sungai Puloh in Malaysia has been
severely eroded up to 120-200 meters since 1963 at a rate of 5 to7 meters per year
(Port Klang ICM Project Management Office, 2004). The eroded soil flows to the
waterways causes the sedimentation and siltation to the waterways and makes it
shallow and reduces the flood carrying capacity of the river. When the trees are
removed, the land no longer absorbs the water when it rains, the water flows more
quickly to the waterways, causing erosion and flashfloods. The floods that break the
river banks worsen the soil erosion problems by changing the path of the river.
In order to control the erosion effectively and protect the natural environments,
the factors of influencing soil erosion should be defined. The mitigation measures,
control plans and Best Management Practices (BMP) should be planned and
(DID) has introduced a design guidelines and manual named Urban Stormwater
Management Manual for Malaysia (MSMA) in year 2001 purposed for project
implementing the BMP that to be adopted on construction site. In 2011, DID has
further published a new specific design guideline and manual entitled Guideline for
Control Plan (ESCP) to all the projects which involve soil disturbing activities and
in
site preparation year 2011 as part of the EIA approval under the Environmental
2
Thus, the mathematical model, such as Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)
and design for sediment control. Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) is one of the
presently used models to predict the potential soil erosion hazard resulted from human
activity such as construction practices and materials, waste, vehicles, and equipment
especially those construction projects located in sensitive areas such as the highland,
near rivers and streams. Water is the most significant agent of soil erosion, and the
removal of vegetative cover which breakdown and loosen the soil structure and
organic matte often reduce infiltration and accelerate runoff and the entrainment of
soil particles. Malaysia, which influences by the tropical climate with high rainfall
intensity has led to several erosion problems. The soil-trapping forest which protects
the soil to be washed away by the runoff is removed during the construction which in
turn leading to the erosion. Surface runoff generated from high climatic conditions
and steep terrains are highly erosive to the exposed soil surface within the
construction area, eg. New Light Industrial Estate located at Kapit Division. The
water ecosystems.
3
Ngoi and Choo (2012) mentioned some of the erosion and sediment hazards
sedimentation;
3) Damages to the aquatic life habitat and hydrology which affect the
(MSMA, 2001), gullies are the major source of erosion at the exposed construction
site. Downcutting of any slope is the dominant gully enlargement process as gullies
increase in size more rapidly on fill materials instead of cut slopes. In 1996, DOE
categorized the impacts on soil erosion, sedimentation, siltation, and deposition into
1) On-Site
safety issues,
events,
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik
UMVERSTTIMALAYSIASARAWAK
2) Off-site
loads: channel change and bank erosion may affect adjacent buildings
5
1.3 Objectives of Study
The objectives of this study are to estimate and compute soil erosion rates
control and the best managementpractices are recommendedto reduce the effects of
soil erosion from the construction site. In this study, the percentageof reduction by
(BMP), etc.;
(RUSLE);
6
7) Estimate soil erosion rates by using RUSLE and tabulate percentage of
This study estimates the erosion rates and sediment yield on the disturbed soil
surfaces during; i) pre-construction stage; ii) construction stage; and iii) post-
Proposed Site Clearing, Earthworks, Sand Filling and Infrastructural Works of Light
The study area is located on the south bank of Batang Rajang, approximately
approximately 9.34ha (23.07 acres). The study area is accessible by car and other
motor vehicles via Jalan Bleteh, Kapit. The study area is a classified as Mixed Zone
Land and is in the category of Country Land. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 show the locality
7
Batang Rajang
Project Site f- V---
,I*-_
'.'"k
: .-_.
8
1.4.2 Topography
The study areahas undulating terrain and the elevation rangesfrom 4m to 76m
1.3). The undulating terrain easestowards the riverbank and continues towards the
The geological deposits of the study area are mainly of rocks from tertiary
period with Paleoceneand Eocene sedimentary deposits. The rock formation is of the
Kapit Member of Belaga Formation, consisting primarily of shale, slate, phyllite and
with weak regional metamorphism. The study area is covered mainly by skeletal soils
(Kapit Series) and red-yellow podzolic soils (Kapit Series) consisting of very shallow
to moderately deep loamy sands to clays. The soils are formed on sedimentary, acid
igneous and metamorphic rocks and are distributed in areasof steep and mountainous
Characteristic features of the climate in the regional and the study area are
uniform temperature, high humidity and high rainfall, typical of equatorial regions.
Winds are generally light. There are two monsoon regimes, i. e. the Southwest
9
Monsoon (May to September)and the Northeast Monsoon (November to March). The
Northeast Monsoon brings heavy rainfall and the Southwest Monsoon normally
signifies relatively drier weather. Due to the proximity of the Equator, East Malaysia
10
Figure 1.3: Topography of Study
11
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Soil erosion is a natural process that is essential for soil formation which
on sloping land. Soil erosion is mainly causedby water that does not infiltrate into the
soil and direct runs over the soil surface resulting erosion damages over the sloping
The human activities such as deforestation and resulting soils depleted may
boost the natural progress of soil erosion. Natural soil erosion rate could not haved
occurred constantly with consistent rates: for example, and soils and semi-arid soils
which have less protective vegetative covers may erode at average rates of 10-50
times greaterthan those humid climate soils (Miller and Donahue, 1990).
Soil erosion has caused more than 80% of land degradation, of which 56% are
annually due to the soil induced degradation or soil erosion (UNEP, 1991). Without
proper soil erosion and sediment control measures, soil erosion from construction
sites may loss of 8-80 tones/ha/year, which is 20 times greater than the loss from the
agricultural land (NRCS, 1999). Soil erosion has become the major environmental
problems in China. Approximately 400 million tons of sediment settles in the Lower
12
Yellow River annually (Ministry of Water Resources,the People's Republic of China,
2011).
It is the first stage of erosion that resulted from the raindrop impacts on
bare soil surface and destructs surface soil aggregatesis termed as splash
erosion. The splashedsoil particles will fill up the void of soil aggregates,
so the soil will be sealed and infiltration process will be reduced. Thus,
surfacerunoff is introduced.
(ii) SheetErosion:
Removal of thin layers of soil by the impacts of the raindrop and shallow
surface water flow is termed as sheet erosion (Figure 2.1). The soil
particles that are removed by sheet erosion contain most of the organic
matters and nutrients of the soils. It occurs where there is little vegetative
13
Figure 2.1: Sheet Erosion
300mm depth and straight channels are produced. Rill erosion (Figure 2.2)
14