Resistivity While Drilling

Images from the String

Steve Bonner
Mark Fredette
John Lovell Resistivity measurements made while drilling are maturing to match
Bernard Montaron
Richard Rosthal the quality and diversity of their wireline counterparts. Recent
Jacques Tabanou advances include the development of multiple depth-of-investigation
Peter Wu
Sugar Land, Texas, USA resistivity tools for examining invasion profiles, and button electrode

tools capable of producing borehole images as the drillstring turns.

Brian Clark
Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA

Rodger Mills
Exxon USA
Thousand Oaks, California, USA

Russ Williams
OXY USA Inc.
Houston, Texas

It is hard to believe that logging while

drilling (LWD) has come such a long way
over the last decade. In the early 1980s,
LWD measurements were restricted to sim-
ple resistivity curves and gamma ray logs,
used more for correlation than formation
evaluation. Gradually, sophisticated resistiv-
ity, density and neutron porosity tools have
been added to the LWD arsenal.1 With the
advent of high-deviation, horizontal and
now slim multilateral wells, LWD measure-
ments often provide the only means of eval-
uating reservoirs. The quality and diversity of
LWD tools have continued to develop
quickly to meet this demand. Today, applica-
tions include not only petrophysical analysis,
but also geosteering and geological interpre-
tation from LWD imaging (next page ).2 This
article focuses on the latest LWD resistivity
toolsthe RAB Resistivity-at-the-Bit tool and
the ARC5 Array Resistivity Compensated
tooland the images they produce (see A
Profile of Invasion, page 17 ).
(continued on page 6)

For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Samantha

Duggan, Anadrill, Sugar Land, Texas; Tom Fett, Geo-
Quest, Houston, Texas and Mary Ellen Banks and Martin
Lling, Schlumberger-Doll Research, Ridgefield, Con-
necticut.

4 Oilfield Review
 Ring res. RAB
0.2 ohm-m 20
Shallow res. RAB
0.2 ohm-m 20 Add. gas volume right after drilling nFormation evalua-
CDR tion made by com-
Medium res. RAB Perm to gas bining data from
Irreducible water
0.2 ohm-m 20 Perm to water several LWD mea-
Moved water surements. This log
Deep res. RAB Gamma ray
Water interpretation was
Net pay 0.2 ohm-m 20 0 API 200 made using ELAN
Gas volume 7 days after drilling
Net sand Phase shift res. Perm to water RAB
Elemental Log Anal-
CDR ysis software and
Gas effect 0.2 ohm-m 20 10000 md 0.1 Quartz data from the RAB
Density porosity Attenuation res. Perm to gas Bound water Resistivity-at-the-Bit
CDN CDR
10000 md 0.1 Illite
tool, CDR Compen-
60.0 p.u. 0 0.2 ohm-m 20
RAB image sated Dual Resistiv-
Neutron porosity Diff. caliper Combined model
CDN
ity and CDN Com-
1:2400 ft 60.0 p.u. 0 -10 in. 10 0 deg 360 0 p.u. 100 pensated Density
Neutron tools.
Volumetric analysis
(track 5) shows a
quartz-rich zone of
relatively high
porosity. The brown
XX450 shading indicates
the movable gas
volume calculated
from CDR and RAB
data run several
days later. The RAB
resistivity image
(track 4) shows that
the sand body is
split into three main
lobes with shale per-
meability barriers.

XX500

AIT (Array Induction Imager Tool), ARC5 (Array Resistiv-
ity Compensated tool), ARI (Azimuthal Resistivity
Imager), CDN (Compensated Density Neutron), CDR
(Compensated Dual Resistivity tool), DIL (Dual Induction
Resistivity Log), DLL (Dual Laterolog Resistivity), DPT
(Deep Propagation Tool), ELAN (Elemental Log Analysis),
EPT (Electromagnetic Propagation Tool), FMI (Fullbore
Formation MicroImager), FracView (fracture synergy log),
GeoFrame, INFORM (Integrated Forward Modeling),
MicroSFL, Phasor (Phasor-Induction SFL tool), Power-
Pulse (MWD telemetry tool), RAB (Resistivity-at-the-Bit
tool), SFL (Spherically Focused Resistivity), Slim 1 (slim
and retrievable MWD system), StrucView (GeoFrame
structural cross section software) and TLC (Tough Log-
ging Conditions system) are marks of Schlumberger. FCR
(Focused Current Resistivity tool) is a mark of Exploration
Logging. Dual Resistivity MWD tool is a mark of
Gearhart Geodata Services Ltd. (now Halliburton).
SCWR (Slim Compensated Wave Resistivity) is a mark
of Halliburton. EWR (Electromagnetic Wave Resistivity),
EWR-PHASE 4 and SLIM PHASE 4 are marks of
Sperry-Sun Drilling Services.
1. Bonner S, Clark B, Holenka J, Voisin B, Dusang J,
Hansen R, White J and Walsgrove T: Logging While
Drilling: A Three-Year Perspective, Oilfield Review 4,
no. 3 (July 1992): 4-21.
2. Bonner S, Clark B, Decker D, Orban J, Prevedel B,
Lling M and White J: Measurements at the Bit: A
New Generation of MWD Tools, Oilfield Review 5,
no. 2/3 (April/July 1993): 44-54.

Spring 1996 5
Vertical Well (1)
North
Fracture
Bedding
plane
0 90 180 270 360
Horizontal Well (2)
Top of hole
Bedding
plane
Fracture Bottom of hole
nInterpretation of images. Resistivity images show the surface of the boreholecut along the northerly direction for a vertical well (1) or
the top of the hole for a horizontal well (2)laid out flat. The image is artificially colored to show contrasts in resistivitydark brown is
low resistivity and light brown is high resistivitythat highlight bed boundaries, faults or fractures. Features crossing the borehole at an
angle show characteristic sinusoidal patterns (3). They also are wider at the bottom and top of the hole. Images of beds dipping away
from the kickoff point in horizontal boreholes produce an arrow-head pointing in the direction of drilling (4). Images of folded beds pro-
duce a characteristic eye shape (5).
Geology From the Bit
Simply stated, resistivity tools fall into two
categories: laterolog tools that are suitable
for logging in conductive muds, highly resis-
tive formations and resistive invasion; and
induction tools which work best in highly
conductive formations and can operate in
conductive or nonconductive muds.3 The
RAB tool falls into the first category
although, strictly speaking, it is an electrode
resistivity tool of which laterologs are one
type (see From Short Normal to Axial Cur-
rent, page 9).4
3. It should be remembered that laterolog and induction
tools both work well in many environments.
Laterolog tools need a complete electric circuit to
work. Current passes from an emitting electrode
through the borehole into the formation and back to
the tool via a surface electrode or a return electrode
on the tool. Resistivity is a function of voltage drop,
between return electrode and source, and source cur-
rent. Laterolog tools have to make electric contact
with the formation through either a conductive mud
system or by direct physical contact. They are capable
of logging highly resistive formations and are good at
spotting thin resistive beds.
6 Oilfield Review
Bormap in Horizontal Hole (3)
3D View
Horizontal Vertical
bedding plane fracture
Unrolling
the cylinder
Nearly vertical
Bormap natural fracture
Top of
hole
Vertical induced fracture
The RAB tool has four main features:
toroidal transmitters that generate axial
currenta technique highly suited to
LWD resistivity tools5
cylindrical focusing that compensates for
characteristic overshoots in resistivity
readings at bed boundaries, allowing
accurate true resistivity Rt determination
and excellent axial resolution
bit resistivity that provides the earliest
indication of reservoir penetration or
arrival at a casing or coring pointalso
known as geostopping
azimuthal electrodes that produce a
borehole image during rotary drilling.
Induction tools do not need to make contact with
the formation. Instead they transmit electromagnetic
waves that induce formation eddy currents. The eddy
currents are a function of resistivitythe higher the
conductivity, the greater the induced formation signal.
The induced signals are picked up by receiver coils
and transformed into resistivity measurements. Induc-
tion tools work best in high-conductivity formations
and can operate in nonconductive mud.
4. Bonner S, Bagersh A, Clark B, Dajee G, Dennison M,
Hall JS, Jundt J, Lovell J, Rosthal R and Allen D:
A New Generation of Electrode Resistivity Measure-
ments for Formation Evaluation While Drilling,
Transactions of the SPWLA 35th Annual Logging
Symposium, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA, June 19-22,
1994, paper OO.
5. Arps JJ: Inductive Resistivity Guard Logging Appara-
tus Including Toroidal Coils Mounted on a Conductive
Stem, US Patent No. 3,305,771, February 1967.
Bed Dipping Away from Kickoff Point (4)
Top of hole
Bottom of hole
Top of hole
Folded Bed (5)
Top of hole
Bottom of hole
Top of hole
This last feature allows the RAB tool to be
used for geological interpretation.
Three 1-in. [2.54-cm] diameter buttons
are mounted along the axis on one side of
the RAB tool. Each button monitors radial
current flow into the formation. As the drill-
string turns, these buttons scan the borehole
wall, producing 56 resistivity measurements
per rotation from each button. The data are
processed and stored downhole for later
retrieval when the RAB tool is returned to
the surface during a bit change. Once
downloaded to the wellsite workstation,
images can be produced and interpreted
using standard geological applications like
Gianzero S, Chemali R, Lin Y, Su S and Foster M:
A New Resistivity Tool for Measurement-While-
Drilling, Transactions of the SPWLA 26th Annual
Logging Symposium, Dallas, Texas, USA, June 17-20,
1985, paper A.
Grupping TIF, Harrell JW and Dickinson RT: Perfor-
mance Update of a Dual-Resistivity MWD Tool With
Some Promising Results in Oil-Based Mud Applica-
tions, paper SPE 18115, presented at the 63rd SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Hous-
ton, Texas, USA, October 2-5, 1988.
6. Coiled tubing, run into a borehole, forms a natural
helix. At some stage the frictional forces between
borehole and coiled tubing become greater than the
force pushing the tubing downhole causing the helix
to expand and lock tight against the borehole
wallhelical lockup.
StrucView GeoFrame structural cross sec- Austin Chalk Trend
tion software (previous page ).
Wellsite images allow geologists to 0 100 nLocation of Masters
Arkansas Creek field in rela-
quickly confirm the structural position of the miles
tion to other fields of
well during drilling, permitting any neces- the Austin Chalk
Texas Louisiana Mississippi
sary directional changes. Fracture identifica- trend.
tion helps optimize well direction for maxi-
mum production. Brookeland North Bayou Jack

Finding the Cracks in Masters Creek Masters

Giddings Houston Creek field
Murray A-1 is a dual-lateral well drilled by
OXY USA Inc. in the Cretaceous Austin Pearsall
Chalk formation, located in the Masters
Creek field, Rapides Parish, Louisiana, USA
(top right ). The Austin Chalk is a low-per-
Gulf of Mexico
meability formation that produces hydro-
carbons from fractures, when present. Indi-
cations of fractures were seen from cuttings Mexico
and gas shows obtained by mud loggers on
a previous well. The intention was to drill
this well perpendicular to the fracture
planes to intersect multiple fractures and Display: straight

maximize production. Top display:

Bottom depth:
xx885.39 Ft
xx897.59 Ft

OXY wanted to record borehole images in

the reservoir section for fracture evaluation. xx870.0

Fracture orientation would show if the well

trajectory was optimal for intersecting the
maximum number of fractures. Knowledge xx875.0
of fracture frequency, size and location
along the horizontal section could be useful
TD:11/26
for future completion design, reservoir engi-
neering and remedial work. xx880.0

Ideally, the wireline FMI Fullbore Forma-

tion MicroImager tool would have been run,
but practical considerations precluded this xx885.0

option. Wireline tools can be conveyed

downhole by drillpipe or by coiled tubing in
high-deviation or horizontal wells, but pres- xx890.0
sure-control requirements prevented the use
of drillpipe conveyance in this case and
coiled tubing was considered too costly.
Also, calculations showed that helical xx895.0
TD:87/359

coiled tubing lockup would occur before

reaching the end of the long horizontal sec-
tion.6 So OXY decided to try the RAB tool.
The first lateral well was drilled due north
to cut assumed fracture planes at right
angles. During drilling, images were
recorded over about 2000 ft [600 m] of the
81/2-in. horizontal hole. After each bit run
the data were dumped to a surface worksta-
tion and examined using FracView software.
Images clearly showed the characteristic
sinusoids of contrasting colors, indicating
changes in resistivity as the borehole crosses
bed boundaries (right ).
nCrossing bedding planes. As the borehole crosses an almost horizontal, low-resistivity
bed, the RAB image shows a characteristic high-amplitude sinusoidal image (dark
brown). Interpreters have picked the bed boundaries (green) for structural interpretation.
The notation TD:11/26True Dip: dip magnitude/dip azimuthindicates that this bed-
ding plane is dipping at 11 to the NNE, north 26 east to be exact.
Crossing the borehole almost vertically at XX896 ft is a fracture (yellow). TD:87/359
indicates that the fracture is dipping north at an azimuth of 359 and is nearly vertical,
87 from the horizontal. The strike, or trend, of the fracture is perpendicular to the dip
directioneast/west.
The cylindrical 3D image (inset) shows the borehole images as if viewed from the right
of the hole.

Spring 1996 7
 Although the resolution of the RAB tool is
not high enough to see microfractures, sev-
Display: straight
eral individual major fractures and clusters xx944.0 Top display: xx952.93 Ft
Bottom depth: xx959.03 Ft
of smaller fractures were clearly seen (top
right ), providing enough evidence that the
well trajectory was nearly perpendicular to xx946.0

the fracture trend.7

Based on this information the second lat-
xx948.0
eral was drilled south 10 east, again to inter-
sect as many fractures as possible at 90.
xx950.0

Images of California
Complex tectonic activity in southern Cali-
fornia, USA, has continued throughout the xx952.0

Tertiary period to the present time. This

activity influences offshore Miocene reser- xx954.0
voirs where folding and tilting affect reser-
voir structure. Production is from fractured, TD : 90/167
TD : 86/173
cherty, dolomitic and siliceous zones xx956.0
TD : 84/355

through wellbores that are often drilled at TD : 86/177

high angle.
xx958.0
Wireline logs are run for formation evalu-
ation and fracture and structural analysis
although in some cases they have to be con-
veyed downhole on the TLC Tough Logging nFracture clusters. Several fractures cut the borehole around XX956 ft. The largest
Conditions system. anomaly (black) is either a cluster of fractures or a very large fracture. The borehole is
The CDR Compensated Dual Resistivity passing parallel to the interface between two beds. The more resistive bed (white) is on
tool was used to record resistivity and the bottom side of the hole. The cylindrical image (inset) gives an alternative 3D view of
gamma ray logs for correlation while the borehole image.
drilling. The oil company wanted to evalu- RAB Image FMI Image
ate using the RAB tool primarily for correla- Top Bottom Top Top Bottom Top
tion, but also wanted to assess the quality of
images produced. In fact, it was the images
that, in the end, generated the most interest.
Good-quality FMI logs were available,
allowing direct comparison with RAB images
(right ).8 Both showed large-scale events, such
as folded beds, that were several feet long, as
well as regular bedding planes. However,
beds less than a few inches thick were not
seen clearly by RAB images.
Depth 10 ft

(continued on page 12)

7. The size of fractures seen by the RAB tool depends

on several factors. The physical diameter of the button
is 1 in. [2.54 cm], which produces an electric field
slightly larger1.5 in. [3.81 cm] in diameter. Conduc-
tive zones thinner than 1.5 in. can be detected, how-
ever, resistive zones need to be larger than this to be
detected. Typically fractures with apertures around
1-in. can be detected if the borehole fluid is conductive.
8. Lovell JR, Young RA, Rosthal RA, Buffington L and
Arceneaux CL: Structural Interpretation of Resistivity-
At-the-Bit Images, Transactions of the SPWLA 36th
Annual Logging Symposium, Paris, France, June 26-
29,1995, paper TT.

nRAB and FMI images of dipping beds. Both RAB and FMI images show large-scale
events that are several feet long. However, the resolution of the FMI image is much
better. Beds less than about 4 in. [10 cm] thick are not clearly seen on the RAB image.

8 Oilfield Review

Laterologs have their roots in a tool called the
short normal, one of the earliest wireline log-
ging tools. Its principles were adapted by many
measurements-while-drilling (MWD) companies
in the early 1980s to provide a simple resistivity
log for correlation (right). The idea is fairly
straightforward: force current from a source
electrode to a return electrode through the for-
mation; measure the current and voltage drop
between the electrodes and use Ohms law to
derive formation resistivity. However, for accu-
rate petrophysical analysis in complex forma-
tions, more sophisticated devices are needed to
measure true formation resistivity, R t.
An improvement on the short normal is the
laterolog technique commonly used in wireline
logging. Exploration Logging introduced a lat-
erolog LWD resistivity tool in 1987 based on the
laterolog 3 wireline tool of the early 1950s.1
This FCR Focused Current Resistivity tool had
two additional current electrodes on either side
of the measurement electrode. They provided
guard currents that forced the main current
deeper into the formation to measure R t.
At about this time, another approach was
developed by Gearhart Geodata Services Ltd.
from an idea by JJ Arps.2 The Gearhart Dual
Resistivity MWD tool used a toroidal-coil trans-
mitter to generate a voltage gap in a drill collar,
which causes an axial current to flow along the
collar. This method is ideally suited to LWD
because resistivity tools have to be built into
mechanically strong steel collars. Below the
transmitter, current leaves the tool radially from
the collar and axially from the drill bit. The
amount of current leaving the collar at any point
Spring 1996
From Short Normal to Axial Current
Return Return
Insulation
Insulation
Transmitter
Potential
electrode
Measurement
16 in.
Guard current
electrodes
Lateral
Current Receivers resistivity
electrode R Lat
Return
Bit
resistivity
R Bit
Short Normal Focused Current Dual Resistivity
Tool Resistivity Tool MWD Tool
nElectrode resistivity tools. The first LWD resistivity tools used the normal principle (left). Current is forced
into the formation, returning to the tool at a second electrode far away. Current and voltage drop are measured
between the two so that resistivity can be calculated.
An improvement on this is the laterolog technique (middle). Additional electrodes provide a bucking current
that forces the central measurement current deeper into the formation. This helps suppress distortion to the
current path if nearby conductive beds are present.
A method proposed by JJ Arps uses a toroidal-coil transmitter that generates an axial current in a conduc-
tor (right). This technique is ideally suited to LWD electrode resistivity tools. Axial current leaves the drill collar
radially and at the bottom of the collar. The amount of radial current at any point depends on the formation
resistivity at that location. Two different methods of measuring radial current are used: (1) by the difference
between axial current measured at two receiver toroids or (2) by direct electrode current meters.
depends on the induced drive-voltage and the Schlumberger also uses the Arps principle of
local formation resistivity. Two resistivity mea- generating and monitoring axial-current flow in
surements are made: a focused lateral resistiv- the RAB tool. However, radial-current flow is
ity measurement and a trend resistivity mea- measured directly, and multiple toroidal trans-
surement at the bit. Two receiver toroids, 6 in. mitters and receivers are used in a unique
apart, each measure axial current flowing past focusing technique described later.
them down the collar. The difference in axial
1. Evans HB, Brooks AG, Meisner JE and Squire RE: A
current equals the radial current leaving the
Focused Current Resistivity Logging System for MWD,
drill collar between the two receivers and is paper SPE 16757, presented at the 62nd SPE Annual
used to calculate lateral resistivity. Bit resistiv- Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA,
September 27-30, 1987.
ity is derived from the axial current measured 2. Arps, reference 5 main text.
by the lower receiver.
9
RAB ToolThe Works
The RAB tool measures five resistivity val-
uesbit, ring and three button resistivitiesas
well as gamma ray, plus axial and transverse
shock.3 Built on a 6.75-in. drill collar, the 10-ft
[3-m] long tool can be configured as a near-bit
or in-line stabilizer, or as a slick drill collar
(right). When real-time data are required, the
RAB tool communicates with a PowerPulse
MWD telemetry tool via wireless telemetry or a
standard downhole tool bus, allowing total BHA
design flexibility . However, it must be config-
ured as a stabilizer for imaging.
Bit ResistivityA 1500-Hz alternating current
is driven through a toroidal-coil transmitter, 1 ft
[30 cm] from the bottom of the tool, that
induces a voltage in the collar below. Current
flows through the collar, out through the bit and
into the formation, returning to the collar far up
the drillstring (below right). Knowing the volt-
age and measuring the axial current through the
bit determines resistivity at the bit. Corrections
are made for tool geometry, which varies
according to the BHA.
The resolution of the bit measurement
depends on the distance between the transmit-
ter and the bit facethe bit electrode length.
When the RAB tool is run on top of the bit, the
resolution is about 2 ft [60 cm]. As the bit-resis-
tivity measurement is not actively focused, the
current patterns and volume of investigation
are affected by nearby beds of contrasting
resistivity. As wellbore inclination increases,
the effective length of the bit electrode becomes
shorter and, in horizontal wells, equals hole
diameter.
Bit resistivity relies on a good bit-to-forma-
tion electrical path. The path is always excel-
lent in water-base mud and generally sufficient
in oil-base mud.
Applications for the bit-resistivity measure-
ment include geostopping to precisely stop at
casing or coring point picks. For example, in a
Gulf of Mexico well the objective was to drill
only a few inches into the reservoir before set-
ting casing. An induction gamma ray log from a
nearby well was available for correlation.
10
along its length. The return path is along the
collar above the transmitter. The amount of
current leaving the RAB tool at the ring and but-
ton electrodes is measured by a low-impedance
Upper
transmitter circuit. Axial current flowing down the collar is
measured at the ring electrode and at the lower
Azimuthal transmitter. These measurements are repeated
electrodes
for the lower transmitter.
Cylindrical FocusingIn a homogeneous for-
mation, the equipotential surfaces near the but-
Ring
electrode ton and ring electrodes on the RAB tool are
cylindrical. However, in layered formations,
this is no longer the case. Current will be
squeezed into conductive beds distorting the
electric field (next page, top). By contrast, resis-
tive beds will have the opposite effect: the cur-
Lower
transmitter rent avoids them and takes the more conductive
path. These artifacts are called squeeze and
antisqueeze, respectively, and lead to charac-
teristic measurement overshoots at bed bound-
aries called horns.
nRAB tool.
Drilling was stopped when bit resistivity
increased to 4 ohm-m, indicating reservoir
penetration (next page, bottom). Subsequent
modeling showed that the bit had cut only 9 in.
[23 cm] into the reservoir.
Focused Multidepth ResistivityThe RAB Upper transmitter
tool with button sleeve provides four multidepth
focused resistivity measurements. For an
81/2-in. bit, the ring electrode has a depth of
investigation of about 9 in., and the three 1-in.
buttons have depths of investigation of about Ring monitor toroid
1 in., 3 in. and 5 in. [2.5, 7.6 and 12.7 cm]
from the borehole wall into the formation. But-
ton resistivity measurements are azimuthal and
acquire resistivity profiles as the tool rotates in Axial current
the borehole. The sampling rate dictates that a Lower transmitter
full profile is acquired at rotational speeds
above 30 rpmgenerally not a limitation.
Data from the azimuthal scans are stored
downhole and dumped from the tool between bit
runs. In addition, the azimuthal data may be
averaged by quadrant and transmitted to sur-
face in real time along with the ring and bit nBit resistivity measurement. The lower toroidal
transmitter generates axial current that flows down
resistivity, and gamma ray measurements. the tool and out through the bit. The ring monitor
All four resistivities use the same measure- toroid measures the axial current. Formation resistiv-
ment principle: current from the upper transmit- ity is given by Ohms law once the upper transmitter
drive voltage and the current are known. Corrections
ter flows down the collar and out into the are made to compensate for tool geometry and
formation, leaving the collar surface at 90 transmitter frequency.
Oilfield Review
Nonfocused System Active Focusing

By reciprocity
M12 = M21
M12

T1 Upper transmitter
BS 1
Single transmitter
BS 2 BS
BM1
BM2 BM Upper transmitter current
BD 1 BD
BD 2

R1,R2 R Ring electrode

M0 Monitor toroid
Ring electrode
M01 M02

Lower transmitter current

Conductive bed
T2 Lower transmitter
M2 Lower monitor toroid

M21

nCylindrical focusing technique. A conductive bed below the ring electrode causes currents to distort in a nonfocused system (left). With
active focusing, the current paths penetrate the formation radially at the ring electrode and almost radially at the three button electrodes
(right). Radial currents are measured at the ring electrode, R, and at each button, BS, BM, BD, for each transmission. Also the axial current
is measured at the ring electrode by a monitor toroid, M0, and at the lower transmitter by a monitor toroid, M2. There is no monitor toroid
at the upper transmitter, the axial current there, M1, is assumed equal to M2 by symmetry. Software translates these measurements into
adjustments of transmitter strength so that the axial currents at M0 cancel.

The cylindrical focusing technique (CFT)

0.02 SFL Offset well nGeostopping. One
200 advantage of a correla-
measures and compensates for this distortion, ohm-m
ILM Offset well
tion tool that measures
restoring the cylindrical geometry of the equipo- 0.02 200 resistivity right at the bit
ohm-m
tential surfaces in front of the measurement is the ability to recog-
0.02 ILD Offset well 200
electrodes. Focusing is achieved by combining nize marker beds almost
ohm-m
as soon as the drill bit
the current patterns generated by the upper and 0. Wireline, GR 100. 0.2 RAB RING resistivity 2000 penetrates. This allows
lower transmitters in software to effectively API ohm-m
drilling to stop precisely
RAB GR RAB BIT resistivity
impose a zero-axial-flow condition at the ring 0. 150. 1:240 0.2 2000 at casing or coring
API ft ohm-m points. In this example,
monitor electrode. This ensures that the ring
the bit penetrated only 9
current is focused into the formation and that no in. into the reservoir.
current flows along the borehole.4
Wireless TelemetryData from the RAB tool
may be stored in nonvolatile memory or trans-
mitted uphole via the PowerPulse MWD teleme-
try tool. Data are transferred to the PowerPulse
tool by a downhole telemetry bus connection or
a wireless electromagnetic link. In the latter
case, the RAB tool transmits data to a receiver
module connected to the PowerPulse tool up to
150 ft [45 m] away

3. Bonner et al, reference 4 main text.

4. Bonner et al, reference 4 main text.

Spring 1996 11
 RAB Image FMI Image Analysis of cores indicated wide distribu-
Top Bottom Top Top Bottom Top tion of fractures throughout the reservoir with
apertures varying from less than 0.001 in.
[0.025 mm] to 0.1 in. [2.5 mm]. The button
electrodes that produce RAB images are
large in comparison1in. in diameter. How-
ever, even with low-resistivity contrast across
the fractures, the largest fractures or densest
groups of fractures that appear on the FMI
images were seen on the RAB images (left ).
The RAB tool could not replace FMI data.
What intrigued the oil company, however,
Depth 4 ft

was the possibility of calculating dips from

RAB images. If this were successful, then the
RAB tool could help resolve structural
changes, such as crossing a fault, during
drilling. The suggestion was taken up by
Anadrill. With commercial software, dips
were calculated from RAB images. Good
agreement was found between RAB and
FMI dips.
Dip correlation during drilling proved use-
ful on subsequent California wells. Many
have complex structures, and the absence of
clear lithologic markers during drilling
nFractures imaged by RAB and FMI tools. Fractures with large apertures or close spac- means that the structural position of wells
ing that appear on the FMI image (right) are seen on the RAB image (left). may become uncertain. Currently, RAB
image data are downloaded when drillpipe
is pulled out of the hole for a new bit and
dips are subsequently calculated. The data
are used to determine if the well is on course
for the highly fractured target area (left ).
The oil companys experience with the
RAB tool in these formations has shown that:
RAB resistivity data are better in these for-
mations than CDR data.
RAB images compare well with FMI
images, but cannot produce the fine detail
required for fracture analysis.
Dips can be calculated from RAB images,
leading to structural interpretation.
Depth 100 ft

Dips calculated during drilling aid direc-

nStructural interpretation. Workstation interpretation of RAB
dips shows that the well penetrates a synclinal fold.
tional well control in highly faulted, high-
angle, structurally complex wells.
Dips determine when fault blocks are
crossed and, hence, when to stop drilling.
The close cooperation between Anadrill,
GeoQuest, Wireline & Testing and oil com-
panies has led to the recent development of
software to process RAB dips downhole.
Dips may then be sent to surface during
drilling for real-time structural interpretation.

12 Oilfield Review
Real-Time Dip Computation
Most conventional dip processing relies on Traces from dipmeter tool
crosscorrelation of resistivity traces gener-
ated as the dipmeter tool moves along the Correlation
between traces
borehole (right ).9 This type of processing
works best when apparent dip is less than
70typical of most formations logged in
Traces from RAB tool
vertical wells. However, in horizontal or
high-angle wells, apparent dip will most Correlation
likely be greater than 70. This is the terri- between traces
tory of LWD tools. Automatic dip
computation in such situations is useful for Direction
geosteering applications in horizontal wells, of logging
especially if this can be done while drilling. Direction
The new method uses the azimuthal resis- of logging
tivity traces generated by the three buttons
of the RAB tool. Bedding planes crossing the
borehole will normally appear twice on
each trace as the buttons scan past the beds,
first on one side of the hole and then the
Correlation left to right
other. Dip computation is a two-part pro-
cess that looks at where the beds appear on
each trace and then where they appear nDip processing comparison. Conventional dipmeter tools pro-
between traces. duce resistivity curves as the tool is moved along the borehole
Where the bed appears depends on its (top). Processing relies on crosscorrelation of similar events logged
azimuth with respect to the top of the RAB at different depths and works well for apparent dip below about
70. RAB dip computation uses the resistivity curves generated as
tool. The same bed will appear twice on
the three azimuthal buttons scan the borehole (right). Processing is
the second and third traces, but will be dis- more robust as the three traces are recorded with the tool at one
placed according to the dip magnitude. depth. There is a fixed interval between the buttons.
Finding the azimuth is simply a matter of
correlating one half of each trace against
the other half. Dip magnitude depends on
the amount of event displacement between
pairs of traces. Confidence in the computa-
tion is increased because three separate
azimuths can be calculatedone for each
buttonand the three pairs of curves can
be used independently for the dip magni-
tude computation.
The direction of dipthe azimuthis cal-
culated from the borehole orientation with
(continued on page 17)

9. Rosthal RA, Young RA, Lovell JR, Buffington L and

Arceneaux CL: Formation Evaluation and Geological
Interpretation from the Resistivity-at-the-Bit Tool,
paper SPE 30550, presented at the 76th SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas,
USA, October 22-25, 1995.

Spring 1996 13
 Evolution of the 2-MHz LWD Tool:
From EWR to ARC5

2-MHz Borehole-compensated Multiarray Multiarray BHC Multiarray MBHC

propagation tool propagation tool propagation tool propagation tool propagation tool

Directional
sensor and
pulser
Drillstring
dynamics
sensor
34-in. transmitter
Transmitter 1 35-in. spacing
Gamma ray
upper transmitter
22-in. transmitter

15-in. spacing
Receiver 1 Receiver 1 Wear bands upper transmitter 10-in. transmitter
Receiver
Receiver 2 Receiver 2 Receivers Receiver
Resistivity
measurement point 0 Measurement point
Receiver Receiver

Transmitters 15-in. spacing

lower transmitter
Transmitter Transmitter 2 16-in. transmitter
Wear band
35-in. spacing
lower transmitter 28-in. transmitter

Wear bands 1.5-ft

crossover sub

EWR tool CDR tool EWR-PHASE 4 tool SCWR tool ARC5 tool

nPropagation tools. The first 2-MHz propagation tool, the EWR tool, was designed by NL Industries. The tool had one transmitter and two receivers. Measurements
were made by comparing the formation signal phase shift between the two receivers. Later, borehole-compensated (BHC) tools, such as the Anadrill CDR tool, were
developed. Borehole-compensated tools have two transmitters equally spaced on either side of the receiver pair. In the case of the CDR tool amplitude and phase-shift
resistivities are measured. Development of multiarray tools, like the EWR-PHASE 4 tool, allowed multiple depths of investigation and the possibility of invasion profil-
ing. Later tools, such as the SCWR tool, were also borehole compensated. The Anadrill ARC5 tool has three transmitters above and two below the receiver array and
measures five attenuation and five phase-shift resistivities. Borehole compensation is achieved by using a linear mix of three transmitter measurements for each read-
ing. This not only eliminates five transmitters required for standard borehole compensation (BHC), but also makes the tool shorter and stronger.
In 1983, NL Industries introduced the first LWD eddy currents. Propagation tools, however, mea- tivity measurement and the attenuation into a
tool to tackle induction-type environments.1 The sure amplitude and phase differences between deep resistivity measurement.
EWR Electromagnetic Wave Resistivity tool has a the receivers. All measurements can be trans- The EWR tool described earlier was developed
2-MHz transmitter and two receivers (above). The formed into resistivity readings. However, the further by Sperry-Sun Drilling Services into a
high frequency makes it an electromagnetic wave EWR tool uses only the phase shift. multispacing tool.3 This EWR-PHASE 4 tool con-
propagation tool rather than an induction tool (see In 1988, Schlumberger introduced a borehole- sisted of four transmitters and two receivers pro-
Why 2 MHz?, page 16). Induction tools measure compensated 2-MHz tool.2 This CDR Compen- viding four phase-shift resistivity measurements
the difference in magnetic field between the two sated Dual Resistivity tool has two transmitters which, however, were not borehole compensated.
receivers that is caused by induced formation symmetrically arranged around two receivers A slimhole versionSLIM PHASE 4was intro-
built into a drill collar. Each transmitter alter- duced in 1994.4 Halliburton also offers a slim
nately broadcasts the electromagnetic waves: 4.75-in. toolthe SCWR Slim Compensated
the phase shifts and attenuations are measured Wave Resistivity tool.5
between the two receivers and averaged. The
phase shift is transformed into a shallow resis-

14 Oilfield Review
 nCompensating for
To GR, transverse 0.5T1+0.5T2 borehole effects. Stan-
shocks, electronics and dard borehole compen-
Slim 1 connection sation uses a symmetri-
T1 R1 R2 T2
cal arrangement of
+x in. -x in. transmitters around the
receiver pair (top).
Wear band 0
Measurement point Resistivity measure-
ments from each are
34-in. transmitter
averaged to compensate
for effects such as hole
22-in. transmitter X(TR) = phase shift or attenuation measured rugosity or drifts in
Total tool length 21 ft

from transmitter at spacing TR receiver electronics. The

Wear band TR = 10, -16, 22, -28, 34 ARC5 tool uses mixed
10-in. transmitter borehole compensation
6 in.

f(T5, T4, T3) (MBHC) to achieve the

Receiver f(T3, T4, T5) same effect, but without
the need to duplicate
Receiver f(T2, T3, T4)
transmitters (bottom).
f2(T1, T2, T3) By placing transmitters
Wear band asymmetrically around
f1(T1, T2, T3)
16-in. transmitter the receiver pair, various
combinations of mea-
surements may be used.
T5 T3 T1 R1 R2 T2 T4
28-in. transmitter For example, to achieve
34 in. 22 in. 10 in. 3 in. -3 in. -16 in. -28 in. MBHC for the 22-in.
Wear band spacing, a combination
0
Measurement point of 22-in., 16-in. and 28-
43/4 in. in. resistivity measure-
Total tool length = 21 ft
ments is used.

nARC5 tool.
Propagating the ARC5 Tool
The latest generation LWD propagation tool is the
4.75-in. ARC5 Array Resistivity Compensated
tool, a self-contained 2-MHz multiarray borehole-
compensated resistivity tool developed to log the
increasing number of slim holes being drilled
(above left). 6 The array of five transmitters
three above and two below the receivers
broadcast in sequence providing five raw phase-
shift and five raw attenuation measurements. In
addition, there are gamma ray and transverse
shock measurements.
Borehole compensation (BHC) is achieved by a
method unique to the ARC5 tool. Standard BHC
combines data from two transmitters placed sym-
metrically around the receiver array for one com-
pensated measurement (above). The ARC5 tool
dispenses with the second transmitter, relying
instead on linear combinations of three sequen-
tially spaced transmitters to provide what is
called mixed borehole compensation (MBHC),
The advantage of this system is that tool costs
1. Rodney PF, Wisler MM, Thompson LW and Meador RA:
The Electromagnetic Wave Resistivity MWD Tool, paper
SPE 12167, presented at the 58th SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, San Francisco, California,
USA, October 5-8, 1983.
Various acquisitions and disposals by NL Industries has
lead to this technology being transferred to Sperry-Sun
Drilling Services, a Dresser Industries, Inc. company.
2. Clark B, Allen DF, Best D, Bonner SD, Jundt J, Lling MG
and Ross MO: Electromagnetic Propagation Logging
While Drilling: Theory and Experiment, paper SPE
18117, presented at the 63rd SPE Annual Technical Con-
ference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, USA, October 2-
5, 1988.
and length are reduced by eliminating five trans-
mitters. Five MBHC phase shifts and attenuations
are then transformed into five calibrated phase-
shift and five calibrated attenuation resistivities
(next page, top).
3. Bittar MS, Rodney PF, Mack SG and Bartel RP: A True
Multiple Depth of Investigation Electromagnetic Wave
Resistivity Sensor: Theory, Experiment and Prototype
Field Test Results, paper SPE 22705, presented at the
66th SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Dallas, Texas, USA, October 6-8, 1991.
4. Maranuk CA: Development of the Industrys First MWD
Slimhole Resistivity Tool, paper SPE 28427, presented at
the 69th SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, September 25-28, 1988.
5. Heysse DR, Jackson CE, Merchant GA, Jerabek A, Beste R
and Mumby E: Field Tests of a New 2 MHz Resistivity
Tool for Slimhole Formation-Evaluation While Drilling,
paper SPE 30548, presented at the 76th SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA,
October 22-25, 1995.
6. Bonner et al, reference 10 main text.

Spring 1996 15
Without MBHC Since the depth of investigation increases as
10
3 nARC5 logs before and the transmitter spacing increases, the five phase-
after MBHC. The spiky shift resistivities represent five different depths
appearance of the log
Rps, ohm-m

2
10 of investigation with nearly identical axial resolu-
without MBHC (top) is
1
caused by overshoots tion. Similarly, the five attenuation resistivities
10 hornsin resistivity represent five deeper reading measurements.
measurements at
10
0 At present, the ARC5 tool communicates to the
washouts. These arti-
facts are canceled out surface using the Slim 1 slim and retrievable
by MBHC (bottom). MWD system. This is essentially a tool that
With MBHC
latches onto the ARC5 tool. After connection to
3
10
the ARC5 tool, data are transferred by an induc-
2 tive coupling to the Slim 1 system and then con-
Rps, ohm-m

10
tinuously transmitted to the surface acquisition
1
10 system by a mud-pulse link.

0
10 Why 2 MHz?
PH34
PH22 A wireline induction tool generates an oscillating
PH10 magnetic fieldtypically 10 to 40 kHzthat
induces eddy currents in a conductive formation.
nOperating frequencies These, in turn, generate a much weaker, sec-
2 GHz of Schlumberger resis- ondary magnetic field that can be measured by a
tivity tools.
Propagation dielectric receiver coil set. Measuring the secondary mag-
EPT Electromagnetic Propagation Tool 1.1 GHz
netic field gives a direct measurement of conduc-
200 MHz tivitythe higher the conductivity, the stronger
the eddy currents, and the larger the secondary
Propagation dielectric resistivity magnetic field.
20 MHz DPT Deep Propagation Tool 25 MHz
Induction tools use a trick to cancel the pri-
mary magnetic fields flux through the receiving
coil set and allow measurement of the secondary
2 MHz Propagation resistivity magnetic field only. This is accomplished by
CDR Compensated Dual Resistivity tool 2 MHz
arranging the exact number of turns and precise
ARC5 Array Resistivity Compensated tool 2 MHz
positions of the coils such that the total flux
200 kHz
through them is zero in an insulating medium
such as air. In a conductive formation, the flux
from the secondary magnetic field doesnt exactly
20 kHz Induction resistivity cancel, so the induction tool becomes sensitive
AIT Array Induction Imager Tool 25,50,100 kHz
Phasor Phasor-induction SFL tool 20 and 40 kHz
to the eddy currents only. If the same trick were
DIL Dual Induction Resistivity Log 20 kHz tried on a drill collar, then similar precision for
2 kHz
coil placement and dimensional stability would
Conduction resistivity be required. In the harsh conditions of drilling, a
RAB Resistivity-at-the-Bit tool 1.5 kHz drill collar striking the borehole wall can easily
200 Hz SFL Spherically Focused Resistivity tool 1 kHz
DLL Dual Laterolog Resistivity tool
produce 100 g shocksmore than enough to ruin
ARI Azimuthal Resistivity Imager any precise coil positioning.
LLS Laterolog shallow 280 Hz At 2 MHz, precise coil placement doesnt mat-
LLD Laterolog deep 35 Hz
ter, because the phase shift and attenuation are
measurable with a simple pair of coilsboth
quantities increase rapidly with frequency. While
the two receivers may be slightly affected by
pressure, temperature and shock, borehole com-
pensation completely cancels any such effects.
Increasing the frequency further reduces the
depth of investigation and leads to dielectric
interpretation issues (left).

16 Oilfield Review

300
320
340
Depth, ft
360
380
400
420
0 360
Azimuth, degrees
respect to north plus the orientation of the
bedding plane with respect to the borehole.
For example, if on a trace, a bed appears to
cut the borehole at 10 and 70, then the
orientation of the bed is 40 with respect to
the top of the borehole. The second trace
may see the same bed at 0 and 80 and the
third trace, at 350 and 90. Both give the
orientation as 40 providing additional con-
fidence in the calculation.
To determine the apparent dip, correlation
is made between the three traces. In the
above example, the bed appears on one
side of the hole at 10, 0 and 350 on each
trace, respectively. As the distance between
RAB buttons is fixed, simple geometry can
be used to calculate apparent dip between
any pair of traces. Knowing the borehole
trajectory leads to true dip.
This method does not rely on data col-
lected at different depths and is effective in
horizontal wells. Also, the two-step approach
of first calculating the dip azimuth and then
dip magnitude provides a robust and fast
Spring 1996
nReal-time dip com-
putation. Dip can be
computed from the
resistivity image (left)
using a real-time
algorithm (right).
Results indicate high
apparent dips, near
90. Shown on the
resistivity image is
the computed dip
azimuth, which runs
along the direction of
the borehole.
70 80 90 100 110
Dip, degrees
algorithm that can be implemented in the
tool microprocessor, allowing real-time trans-
mission of structural dips (above ).
A Profile of Invasion
The ARC5 tool is a 4.75-in. slimhole, multi-
spacing, 2-MHz, propagation LWD tool
designed, in record time, to operate in
5.75- to 6.75-in. holes (see Evolution of
the 2-MHz LWD Tool: From EWR to
ARC5, page 14 ). 10 Propagation LWD
devices are similar in principle to wireline
induction logging tools. They transmit elec-
tromagnetic waves that induce circular
eddy currents in the formation and pair of
receivers monitors the formation signal. At
this stage, however, the physics of measure-
ment similarities stops.
LWD propagation tools operate at 2
MHz, much higher than the 10- to 100-kHz
frequencies of induction tools (see Why 2
MHz?, previous page ). They are built on
sturdy drill collars and are capable of taking
the violent shocks imposed by drilling.
Wireline induction tools are essentially
built on well-insulated fiberglass mandrels
that cannot tolerate such heavy handling.
However, they both perform best in similar
environments, such as conductive and non-
conductive muds and low-to-medium resis-
tivity formations.
The ARC5 tool was designed to exploit
interpretation methods developed for the
wireline AIT Array Induction Imager Tool. To
this end, both tools provide resistivity mea-
surements at five different depths of investi-
gation allowing radial resistivity imaging.
The ARC5 has other advantages over pre-
vious LWD propagation technologies
including:
improved estimation of Rt
improved estimation of permeability
index
better evaluation of thin beds through
improved resolution
inversion of complex radial invasion
profiles
better interpretation of complex
problems, such as invasion, resistivity
anisotropy and dip occurring
simultaneously
reservoir characterization based on time-
lapse logging.
Unique to the ARC5 tool is mixed-borehole
compensation (MBHC). This method pro-
vides five MBHC attenuation and five
MBHC phase resistivity measurements pro-
cessed from only five transmitters. Standard
borehole-compensation (BHC) requires 10
transmitters (see Propagating the ARC5
Tool, page 15).
10. Bonner SD, Tabanou JR, Wu PT, Seydoux JP, Mori-
arty KA, Seal BK, Kwok EY and Kuchenbecker MW:
New 2-MHz Multiarray Borehole-Compensated
Resistivity Tool Developed for MWD in Slim Holes,
paper SPE 30547, presented at the 76th SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas,
USA, October 22-25, 1995.
17
 ARC5 Phase Resistivities Raiders of the ARC5
A slim horizontal sidetrack in an offshore
2
10 Middle East well provided a good field test
for the ARC5 tool.11 Oil company objectives
were to gain experience with horizontal
Rps, ohm-m

1 drilling and to understand why more water

10
than expected was being produced. The
PH34 carbonate reservoir has major faults and
10
0 PH28 several fractured zones, and is being pro-
PH10 duced under seawater injection.
XX50 X1500 X2500
The 6-in. sidetrack was drilled with the
X1000 X2000
ARI Resistivities ARC5 tool run in record mode above the
downhole motor in a steerable bottomhole
assembly (BHA) and an interval of more
LLD, LLS, MicroSFL, ohm-m

2
10 than 2000 ft was logged from the kickoff
point. Later, drillpipe-conveyed wireline
logs were recorded over the same interval.
1
10 Comparisons were made between ARC5
phase resistivity readings and deep laterolog
(LLD), shallow laterolog (LLS) and MicroSFL
0
10 measurements recorded by the ARI
Azimuthal Resistivity Imager and MicroSFL
XX500 X1000 X1500 X2000 X2500 tools (left ). Deep ARC5 phase resistivity
curves, PH34 and PH28, agree well with
nARC5 phase-shift resistivity comparison. Deep ARC5 phase-shift resistivity curves from LLD readings implying that applications for
the 34-in. and 28-in. spacing, PH34 and PH28 (orange and black curves, top log), correlate
LWD propagation tools and laterolog tools
with deep laterolog readings, LLD, recorded by the ARI tool (orange curve, bottom log)
several days after drilling. The shallowest reading ARC5 curve, PH10 (green curve, top overlap. The shallowest ARC5 curve, PH10,
log), correlates with the shallow laterolog, LLS (purple curve, bottom log), but reads higher correlates with the LLS curve and reads
than the MicroSFL curve (green curve, bottom log). This implies that there was little inva- much higher than the MicroSFL curve. Later
sion at the time of drilling. processing suggests that there was little
invasion at the time of drilling.
Wireline log interpretation indicates
-15 hydrocarbons throughout most of the inter-
val. Water saturation is at a minimum from
-10
X1150 ft to X1250 ft, where ARC5 resistivi-
Radial resistivity, in.

-5 ties read higher than 100 ohm-m.

An invasion profile image produced from
0
ARC5 data clearly shows the effects of
5 drilling history, as well as formation perme-
ability (left ).12 For example, the interval
10 from X2000 to X2050 ft shows increased
invasion, because it was logged 24 hours
XX500 X1000 X1500 X2000 X2500
Depth, ft

nInvasion profile. The radial resistivity image generated from the ARC5 resistivity curves
shows little invasion. Light brown is high resistivity and dark brown, low resistivity. At
XX500 ft, XX550 ft and X2080 ft are possible sources of seawater influx from nearby
injection wells.

18 Oilfield Review
Drilling Summary Imagine the Future
100 10
The ARC5 and RAB tools are part of a new
generation of LWD resistivity tools capable
ROP, min/ft, GR, gapi

80
ROP of producing quality resistivity data for a
60 wide variety of applications. Both introduce

TAB, hr
time at measurement techniques unique to LWD
bottom
40 and wireline logging. For example, MBHC
is a cost-effective alternative to doubling up
20 on transmitters for borehole compensation
gamma ray and cylindrical focusing is a more stable
0 0
X1950 X2000 X2050 X2100 X2150 X2200 alternative to traditional laterolog focusing
(see Cylindrical Focusing, page 10 ).
ARC5 Phase-Shift Resistivity
With the development of INFORM Inte-
grated Forward Modeling software, interpre-
2 A B C
tation in horizontal wells will be greatly
Phase resistivity, ohm-m

10
improved.13 Couple this with downhole dip
processing and real-time imaging, and the
1
10 arguments for resistivity-while-drilling mea-
surements become powerful.
The value of LWD data will be further
0
10 increased by close collaboration with Wire-
line & Testing and GeoQuest. For example,
X1950 X2000 X2050 X2100 X2150 X2200 the concept of invasion-profile measure-
ments leads to exciting possibilities. It offers
ARC5 Radial Resistivity Image and Diameter of Invasion a chance to look at the invasion process in
-15 detail. Resistive invasion infers water-filled
porosity, whereas conductive invasion infers
Radial Resistivity, in.

-10
oil-filled porosity. In the near future, it
-5 should be possible to predict water cut and
draw some conclusions about permeability
0
directly from LWD fluid invasion-profile log-
5 ging and resistivity anisotropy processing.
10
What is the next step in development?
Although future possibilities are exciting for
resistivity while drilling, the next step will
X1950 X2000 X2050 X2100 X2150 X2200
be more evolutionary than revolutionary.
Depth,ft
With the development of a family of differ-
nDrilling summary (top), ARC5 phase resistivities (middle) and resistivity image (bottom) ent sized ARC5 and RAB tools, measure-
shown in detail for the interval X1950 ft to X2200 ft. ARC5 data (middle) recorded 24 hr
ments described in this article can be
after a bit change show increased invasion (interval A) compared to the previous interval,
which was logged only a few hours after being drilled. Little invasion occurs across a low- applied to more borehole sizes. AM
permeability streak (interval B). All resistivity curves converge (interval C) indicating
water breakthrough.

after a bit change (above ). Other intervals
were logged within a few hours of drilling
and show less invasion. Invasion is deeper
where drilling is slow and also in high-per-
meability streaks. The latter coincide with
the position of fractures and faults that are
shown on FMI data.
Two intervals were of special interest to
the oil companyaround XX550 ft and
X2080 ft. Formation resistivity approaching
1 ohm-m in both intervals indicated that
seawater injection had broken through these
zones. Increased pore pressure in these
intervals resulted in dramatic increases in
the rate of drilling. Several days later, the
ARI tool showed that invasion had pro-
gressed to about 35 in. [89 cm].
The well was completed with a slotted
liner and produced 4000 BOPD and 600
BWPD compared to 1000 BOPD in the
original well. The interval at X2080 ft is the
most likely contributor to water production.
11. Bonner et al, reference 10.
12. Howard AQ: A New Invasion Model for Resitivity
Log Interpretation, The Log Analyst 33, no. 2
(MarchApril 1992): 96-110.
13. INFORM software allows an analyst to construct a
detailed model of the geometry and petrophysical
properties of the formation layers along a well path.
Simulated tool responses along the well are then
compared to acquired log data allowing the model
to be adjusted until they match. For a more detailed
description:
Allen D, Dennis B, Edwards J, Franklin S, Kirkwood
A, Lehtonen L, Livingston J, Lyon B, Prilliman J,
Simms G and White J: Modeling Logs for Horizon-
tal Well Planning and Evaluation, Oilfield Review
7, no. 4 (Winter 1995): 47-63.

Spring 1996 19
 Quality in Drilling Operations

In modern industry, quality is often discussed, but frequently misunderstood. The perception of qualitywhat

it is and isntvaries widely from individual to individual and company to company. Oilfield service quality has

received increased attention during the past decade as oil and gas operators strive to maximize hydrocarbon

production and recovery at the lowest possible cost. This article illustrates how one drilling contractor,

Sedco Forex, is infusing a quality culture and mindset in its organization to provide the best possible service.

Ellis Duncan We must define quality as conformance to
Ira Gervais requirements if we are to manage it. 1
Channelview, Texas, USA
What is your definition of quality? To
Yves Le Moign some, it means fine craftsmanship, precision
Sunil Pangarkar and attention to the smallest detail. For oth-
Bill Stibbs ers, its consistency and reliabilitysome-
Montrouge, France thing produced the same way time after
time, something you can count on. For still
Paul McMorran others, its getting the best value for the
Pau, France money spent. Whatever your definition, you
perceive a product or service to be of high
Ed Nordquist qualitywhether its a new automobile or
Dubai Petroleum Company how the waiter handles the orders and food
Dubai, UAE delivery in the local restaurantif it meets
or exceeds your expectations. These expec-
Ted Pittman tations are often highly subjective. In the
Perth, Australia final analysis, quality is really obtaining
what was promised by mutual agreement
Hal Schindler between provider and end user. For quality
Dubai, UAE to be more than mere perception, however,
requires established specificationsquan-
Phil Scott tifiable standards or benchmarks against
Woodside Offshore Petroleum Pty. Ltd. which the product or service can be mea-
Perth, Australia sured objectively.
In the oil field, quality has taken on a new
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Jean meaning and importance over the past
Cahuzac and Charles Nielsen, Sedco Forex, Montrouge,
France; Mike Mannering, Sedco Forex, Singapore; Alan
Whitmore, Sedco Forex, Aberdeen, Scotland; and Steve
Prensky, journalist, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.
decade. During the boom of the late 1970s,
speed was all important. Wells were being
drilled at a phenomenal pace; rigs were in
short supply. How rapidly a contractor could
move onto location, rig up, get the well
drilled, rig down and move to the next site
was, more often than not, the principal
benchmark of a quality operation. However,
the industry paid a premium price for this
speedy delivery service, and the quality of the
end product, the well, frequently suffered.
With the bust of the mid-1980s, the men-
tality of the industry changed drastically. Oil
and gas operators were forced to look at
ways to cut costs and squeeze the most out
of every dollar spent. This was a prerequisite
for survival and protection of the bottom
line. Speed was no longer the prime deter-
minant. It was replaced by a growing aware-
ness that quality would be the single make
or break factor in the future. Slowly at first,
and then with increasing momentum, oper-
ators and service companies alike began to
adopt the principles of quality that had, until
then, been relegated to industries outside
the oil patch. How the application of these
principles by one particular drilling contrac-
tor provides dividends to its clients, its per-
sonnel and its operations is the focus of this
article.
Have demonstrable results been
achieved? Most assuredly they have been,
as pointed out by the benefits gained in
three diverse operating areas:

20 Oilfield Review

Over a two-year period, working with
Dubai Petroleum Company, Sedco Forex
decreased operational time by 36% in 60
controllable rig activities (see Middle East
Offshore: Quality in Action, page 23).
In West Africa, Elf and Sedco Forex were
able to improve field development eco-
nomics significantly by reducing the time
and costs of platform installation and well
construction (see Quality and Teamwork
Pay Dividends in West Africa, page 26 ).
In Australia, using an innovative techni-
cal limit approach, which specifically
Spring 1996
targets reductions in operational lost and
down time, Woodside Offshore Petroleum
Pty. Ltd. and Sedco Forex recently com-
pleted a development program 20% under
budget (see A New Approach to Quality
and Efficiency in Australia, page 29 ).
To fully understand the route to these
improvements, we begin with the funda-
mentals of a quality culturewhat they are
and how they are implementedand then
investigate how such a culture has been
established within Sedco Forex.
Why the Emphasis on Quality?
The customer deserves to receive exactly
what we have promised to deliver. 2
The drilling industry has evolved signifi-
cantly in terms of work scope and the divi-
sion of responsibilities between oil compa-
nies and service suppliers. Much of the
change has been driven by the proactive
initiatives in drilling contracting that
emerged early in the 1990s.3 Instead of the
drilling contractor simply executing the task
of drilling a well according to the specifica-
tions of the operator, a new way of doing
business emerged. Closer communication
links were established, and a coordinated,
joint decision-making process was adopted
for well planning. This has led to a better
understanding of client needs and expecta-
tions than ever before, creation of bench-
marks, and an improved image and credibil-
ity for the contractor who has become a true
partner in an operational team.
Today, the focus is on reorganizing the
way tasks are performed and toward reengi-
neering the management structure and
1. Crosby PB: Quality is Free. New York, New York,
USA: Mentor (1980): 15.
2. Crosby, reference 1: 69.
3. DeWardt JP: Drilling Contracting in the Nineties,
paper IADC/SPE 19902, presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference, Houston, Texas, USA, February
27-March 2, 1990.
21
 interfaces. Safety and operational proce-
dures are merging to bring suppliers
together under a common system. New
technology and communications methods
are being applied universally, building
greater rigsite efficiency. In short, much has
changed and adapting to these changes has
Generation 4:
Quality management become a major challenge.
This evolution emphasizes client-oriented
service and a commitment to do things right
the first time and every timethe heart of a
quality culture. It means eliminating unnec-
essary costs and losses that are the legacies
of poor quality. Over time, a quality
approach gains market share, increases
profits and ensures competitiveness.

The Quality Evolution

Generation 1:
Generation 3:
Overengineering
Quality assurance It is always cheaper to do the job right the
first time. 4

Quality has evolved over four distinct

stages ( above left ). When materials and
manpower were cheap, engineers designed
products not to fail by overengineering them
with large safety margins. As materials
became increasingly expensive, but man-
Generation 2:
Quality control
power remained comparatively cheap, engi-
neers designed products that met specifica-
tions without these extra margins of safety.
While the probability of failure increased,
intense inspection became the safeguard
nThe evolution of quality. The approach to quality has changed dramatically over four against delivering inferior products.
generations. Initially, products were overengineered to prevent failure. Then, intense
inspection and quality control replaced large safety margins. Process control brought the Then, when both materials and man-
era of quality assurance. Today, the emphasis is on quality management, eliminating power became expensive, there was a reori-
potential deficiencies at the design stage. entation toward understanding the pro-
cesses to determine the causes of defects.
nThe quality hier- Process control became the basis for mini-
archy. Quality
Quality management mizing the probability of failures. Finally,
management links
all aspects of plan- process control evolved into a more proac-
Quality assurance ning, control and tive approach in which planning for confor-
improvement into a
continuous system mance from the start was the fundamental
for ensuring confor- principle; analyzing contingencies and
Quality planning Quality control Quality improvement mance to estab- avoiding pitfalls at the design stage elimi-
lished standards. nated the need for corrective action later.
Policy Supervision Identification of (Adapted from Juran).
Reviews chronic waste The last three stages of this evolution in
Objectives/goals
Inspections Measurement of quality are analogous to Quality Control, in
Quality manual nonconformance
Measurement which inspection was the order of the day;
Regulations Individual
Performance commitment and Quality Assurance, in which in-depth pro-
Standards monitoring involvement cess analysis ruled; and finally, Quality
Controls Change control Quality improvement
Reporting
Management, the current industry focus
Procedures project-by-project
Auditing (left ).5 Putting a quality-oriented manage-
ment structure and culture in place is a
major, long-term task, but one that reaps
tremendous rewards.
(continued on page 24)

4. Crosby, reference 1: 232.

5. For background on quality control and quality
assurance:
Burnett N et al: Quality, Oilfield Review 5, no. 4
(October 1993): 46-59.

22 Oilfield Review
 Middle East Offshore: Quality in Action
nThe Trident III. This cantilever jackup is currently equipped to operate in water
up to 250 ft [76 m] deep.
The Sedco Forex Trident III (above left) jackup rig
has been working for Dubai Petroleum Company
(DPC), a subsidiary of Conoco, since the early
1980s. But, operations today are far different
than they were over a decade ago.
In 1995, the Trident 18 (above right) joined the
Trident III as the only other jackup rig working for
DPC. The quality program implemented on the
Trident III was one of the primary reasons the
contract was awarded to the Trident 18, even
though another drilling contractor had submitted
a competitive bid. Also, instead of rebidding the
Trident III contract in 1994, DPC and Sedco Forex
worked together to renegotiate and extend the
contract for two more years.
The Trident III and Trident 18 each typically drill
eight to ten wells per year for DPC offshore Dubai
in water depths ranging up to 200 ft [61 m] with
well depths of 9000 to 18,000 ft [2750 to 5500
m]. Today, these wells are almost exclusively
extended-reach and horizontal.
Recent experience on the Trident III and Trident
18 demonstrates how an oil company, working
Spring 1996
nThe Trident 18 at sunset. This cantilever jackup is equipped to operate in water
depths to 300 ft [91 m].
closely with the drilling contractor and other ser-
vice suppliers on the rig, can bring an effective
team approach to well planning and construction.
It also points out the benefits to clients of having
a comprehensive quality program as part of the
drilling contractors culture.
Early on, Sedco Forex implemented a number
of quality practices in the interest of continuous
improvement, such as improved methods for han-
dling towing lines during rig moves and for secur-
ing rigs, as well as installing test stumps for
blowout preventers (BOPs). By pretesting BOPs
on the stumps, there is a 4-hour savings in the
time needed to install BOPs.
Starting in 1992, Sedco Forex began to track 60
distinct rig procedures under its control, such as
the amount of time for tripping drillpipe and for
running casing, to establish a series of bench-
marks. After a quality improvement program
based on this assessment was established, the
time spent on these operations was reduced by
22% in 1993 compared to 1992, with a further
14% decrease in 1994 from 1993. In total, this
adds up to a savings of over 120 hours per well,
which is equivalent to drilling eleven wells in the
same time previously needed for ten wells.
When problems arise on the rig, they are
solved jointly through participation by all mem-
bers of the teamfrom initial discussion to fol-
low-up action. For example, new handling meth-
ods were put in place to avert the potential of dis-
charging oily cuttings while drilling the pay zone.
Also, the jackups were having difficulties with
close alignments to the platforms. Analysis
showed that revised operational procedures
would increase their proximity and permit better
access. This has allowed DPC to add more
drilling slots to the platforms.
When problems arise, there is teamwork in
solving them, says Hal Schlindler, District Man-
ager for Sedco Forex. No one is pointing the fin-
ger or trying to determine whos at fault. Instead,
the philosophy is what does the team need to do
to fix it.
Close communication and analysis between
DPC, Sedco Forex and other service companies
overcame difficult problems while drilling a trou-
blesome shale section. During drilling of the
shale, the well angle is typically built from 30
degrees to nearly horizontal. Problems were
23
encountered while running the 7-in. [17.8-cm]
liner through this drilled section. Often, the liner
could not be run to bottom and had to be pulled,
and the section was then redrilled or sidetracked.
Recommendations to overcome this problem
included higher mud weights and drilling speed,
and increased frequency of wiper trips. Since
these modifications were implemented, all liners
have been successfully run and landed without
remedial operations.
According to Schindler, Every manager from
every company on the rig meets with DPC man-
agement each morning to review the morning
report and the three-day forecast. We define and
analyze problems on the spot, and by the end of
the meeting, everyone leaves knowing exactly
what their responsibilities are.
Service Quality Appraisals are conducted on a
quarterly basis, and the Trident III and Trident 18
averaged a remarkable 98% rating from DPC for
1995 (see Service Quality at the Wellsite, page 33).
Performance tracking is invaluable, says
Schindler. Looking at every aspect of the opera-
tion, in every possible way, pays dividends.
In addition, the combined drilling team, made
up of Sedco Forex and the other service providers
on the rig, received Conoco Drilling Safety Excel-
lence Awards for outstanding safety performance
for the periods 1993-1994 and 1994-1995.
DPC Drilling Manager Ed Nordquist says,
One of the keys to the successful operation is
the cooperation between DPC and Sedco Forex.
However, this is becoming the norm today
between operator and contractor. More important
is the fact that Sedco Forex has been involved
with DPC operations for a long time, and rig per-
sonnel know what we expect from them and are
ready to deliver it.
24
Continuous improvement
Teamwork
Proactive
Consistent
All-pervasive
Awareness
Quality Doesnt Just Happen
If quality isnt ingrained in the organiza-
tion, it will never happen. 6
How does one go about changing a cul-
ture and infusing a new way of thinking and
doing business in an industry that histori-
cally accepts change slowly, and often
reluctantly? Change can be a daunting chal-
lenge and requires a concerted approach,
nurtured by the top echelons of the organi-
zation and effectively transmitted through
the rank and file. Specific, measurable
objectives are prerequisites, and the task
takes much time, patience and persistence.
Quality gurus, like W. Edwards Deming,
Philip Crosby and Joseph Juran, have pro-
posed a number of procedures for bringing
a quality outlook to an organization. No sin-
gle approach is necessarily superior, for they
all have many fundamentals in common.
Whatever route is chosen, the basic princi-
ples of quality will apply, adapted, of neces-
sity, to fit the particular industry and com-
pany structure. To be successful though, a
cultural change must evolve through three
distinct phases (below ).7
Convictiondeciding something needs
changing
Commitmentdemonstrating a serious
desire to change
Conversionembracing the change.
Conviction Commitment
nThe three phases of cultural change. A basic change in corporate
culture requires passage through the phases of conviction, commit-
ment and conversion. The result is a mindset geared toward creating
a climate of zero defects.
nElements of the
Quality Manage-
ment System (QMS).
Implementation of a
successful QMS
Well-defined requires that certain
key elements be pre-
sent, tied together by
Systematic an ongoing commit-
ment to continuous
improvement in all
Employee activities.
and client
oriented
All three elements are critical. Without
conviction, the effort will never get off the
ground. Without commitment, once the
process has started, it will dwindle and fall
short of its aims. But once conversion has
been achieved, the converted stay con-
verted, and there is no return to the short-
cuts or deficiencies of the past. Achieving
the ultimate goal requires the implementa-
tion of a Quality Management System
(QMS), one that is grounded in a number of
key principles (above ).
For a QMS to be successful, it must be
simple and well-defined so that it can be
understood and effectively communicated
to all participants through a comprehensive
awareness program and, as a result, become
all-pervasive within the organization. The
QMS must focus both inwardly and out-
wardly and be simultaneously employee-
and client-oriented . Internal procedures
need to be systematic, and application must
be consistent. Actions should be proactive,
not reactive, constantly seizing the initiative
rather than waiting for events to happen. It
must foster an environment of cooperation,
mutual goal-setting and teamwork where all
employees are empowered not only to par-
ticipate in the system but also to contribute
in demonstrable ways to achieve estab-
lished goals. Above all, there must be a
Conversion
Oilfield Review
commitment to continuous improvement in
all areas.
The basis for continuous improvement is
the belief that within any situation or any
activity there is room to improve. The goal
is perfection or zero defects, nothing less.
The road to achieving this passes through
three specific stages (right ). In the first stage,
the Present Situation, the status quo is inves-
tigated to fully understand where an oppor-
tunity exists for improvement, defining the
driving forces for change and whether
change is really worthwhile.
In the second stage, the Preferred Situa-
tion, potential solutions to the improvement
opportunity are analyzed and the optimal
one chosen. This stage focuses on defining
factors that could inhibit successful imple-
mentation of the change and, therefore,
require selection of an alternate strategy.
In the third stage, Action, proof of the
validity of the investigation and the plan-
ning of the two previous stages are con-
firmed. The solution is implemented, and
its success is monitored to ensure that what
is achieved is what was expected. The
cycle then repeats, focusing on additional
opportunities for further improvement. The
overall process increases efficiency and
competitiveness, reveals opportunities that
might otherwise be overlooked and pro-
motes teamwork and proactive problem
solving. This leads to the ultimate goal of
Total Quality Management (TQM) in which
every person and every activity in an orga-
nization contribute to the achievement of
overall quality objectives. This open and
honest culture includes standard systems
for recording, investigating, implementing
and monitoring improvement opportunities.
The goal, again, is to get things right the
first time, every time.
6. Crosby, reference 1: 119.
7. Crosby PB: Lets Talk Quality. New York, New
York, USA: McGraw-Hill, 1989.
8. Crosby, reference 1: 19.
9. Burnett et al, reference 5.
10. Voehl F, Jackson P and Ashton D: ISO 9000: An
Implementation Guide for Small to Mid-Sized
Businesses. Delray Beach, Florida, USA: St. Lucie
Press, 1994.
Spring 1996
nContinuous
Present improvement.
situation Analyzing the sta-
tus quo highlights
opportunities for
improvement.
Optimal solutions
for achieving
Implementation Present situation
revealed improvement are
defined and then
Formulating implemented and
and planning Focusing monitored to
ensure that results
meet expectations.
Identifying Data
strategies gathering
Action Preferred
Choice and
Analysis
New situation
commitment situation
The Case for Quality Certification
Quality management is needed because monality, and some recognized method of
nothing is simple anymore, if indeed it assessment. Achieving ISO certification
ever was. 8 involves (1) design and implementation of a
quality system that meets the requirements
Todays complex world has led many to of the standard, and (2) a successful assess-
seek ways to safeguard quality through set ment completed by a suitable assessor body.
procedures and controls. The main body The benefits of having a quality system in
that assists industry in doing so is the Inter- place, which include improved efficiency
national Organization for Standardization, and assuring a constant level of quality, can
based in Geneva, Switzerland, with its ISO result in reduced production and inspection
9000 family of programsthe recognized costs. Furthermore, by providing assurance
standard for a quality system.9 that a business will correctly meet customer
ISO 9000 is concerned with process requirements in a timely manner, compli-
(what is supposed to happen, how it is sup- ance with an internationally recognized
posed to be done, who is supposed to do it, quality standard can increase confidence in
where it is to occur and when) rather than a supplier, particularly when it may be
the product itself. ISO certification assures located in another country.10
that a business does what it claims to, that As will be seen in the next section, ISO
this can be documented, and that problems certification has become an integral part of
will be resolved, not ignored. It has nothing the Sedco Forex drive to develop a corpo-
to do with approving a product or service. rate quality culture.
Implementation of an ISO 9000 system is (continued on page 28)
based on identifying and understanding cus-
tomers requirements and systematizing the
methods and procedures necessary for
meeting their needs, even as these needs
change. These procedures are then docu-
mented in a reference quality manual.
Standards, in general, imply specification
(against which a product can be measured
to establish if it meets the standard), com-
25
 Quality and Teamwork
Pay Dividends in West Africa

Offshore field development economics are influ- nNKossa derrick sets.

These modular, pur-
enced significantly by the size and weight of the
pose-built units provide
platforms deployed and their installation times. In the capabilities and flexi-
the NKossa field, West Africa, where water depths bility required by Elf in
range to 590 ft [180 m], Elf and Sedco Forex have West Africa and were
designed for rapid, effi-
worked jointly to improve economics by reducing cient installation on the
the time and costs involved in, and by increasing platforms.
the efficiency of, platform installation and well
construction.
The NKossa field was to be developed with two
platforms. Elf wanted several wells drilled in
advance, so that as soon as platform jackets, deck
equipment and production facilitiesin this case,
a barge as the main gathering center, offloading to
a tankerwere in place, production could com-
mence from both platforms at near maximum
rates. The field would, thereby, generate signifi-
cant revenue while the remaining wells were
drilled and placed on stream. To achieve this
objective, Elf and Sedco Forex tackled the project
with a coordinated team approach.
From start to finish, the emphasis was on qual-
ity and communication. Beginning in the spring of
1994, both companies appointed special project
teams to work together on all phases of develop-
ment. Communication channels were established,
and formal and informal group meetings were held
at regular intervals.
The development plan for the NKossa field con-
sisted of four phases: Third, the aft sections of the two semis were stacks to a surface stack arrangement; and reposi-
First, prior to mobilizing the rigs to West Africa, modified to accommodate heavy-lift cranes for tioning the lifeboats so that the aft sections of the
the modifications and upgrades that were use in installing derrick sets on the platforms. semisubmersibles could face the platforms
required for both drilling campaigns were car- Fourth, two specially designed, modular derrick directly during derrick set placement and during
ried out while the rigs underwent shipyard refur- sets were constructed and transported to loca- operation in the tender-assisted mode.1
bishments in Rotterdam. tion for placement on the platforms using the The Elf and Sedco Forex teams devoted much of
Second, two subsea templates were preset and reconfigured semis. their time and effort to the design and logistics
several wells predrilled through them using the In addition to the crane installations, modifica- associated with the derrick sets, covering the
semisubmersibles Sedco 700 and Sedneth 701, tions to the semis included changing power and entire spectrum from conceptual design to detailed
after which the platform jackets were installed. fluid lines to permit tender-assisted operations engineering, construction, movement to location
during the subsequent drilling phase of the pro-
ject, when umbilicals would connect the semis to
the derrick sets; reconfiguring the subsea BOP

26 Oilfield Review
and, finally, installation on the platforms. During
the construction phase, procedures were defined
to ensure compliance with specifications of all
components received from vendors and for quality
control and inspection. Detailed acceptance test
procedures were issued in conformance with ISO
9001 guidelines. Elf had a representative present
at all times overseeing construction and witness-
ing inspections and component testing.
Problems or discrepancies were resolved via
direct communications between Elf, Sedco Forex,
other service companies and parts vendors. A final
debriefing and quality check was held with all ser-
vice companies involved prior to shipment of the
derrick sets to West Africa.
The 700-ton, self-erecting, modular derrick sets
were designed to be as integrated and compact as
possible to 1) minimize the number of crane lifts
during installation, thereby eliminating as many
peripheral small lifts as possible, 2) limit the
number of connections and tie-ins to reduce lost
time and potential problems due to dynamic
motion of the semis, and 3) minimize dead time
during the loading from the semis to the platforms.
Placement would include a total of 14 lifts each,
with the heaviest being 93 tons.
Several special features were included. The
derrick sets were designed to adapt to the jacket
configuration used in West Africawith jacket
rails perpendicular to the tender-support ves-
selor to jackets with rails parallel to the tender
and to be drip-proof, with all runoff collected at a
central point and then pumped to the tender-sup-
port vessel for separation and disposal. On the
tender-support vessel, the shale-shaker cuttings
1. For background on tender-assisted drilling: Spiers RL,
Tranter PH, Burr GR and Unsworth MI: Conversion of a
Semisubmersible Drilling Unit for Tender-Assisted and
Conventional Drilling Operations, paper SPE 26755,
presented at the Offshore Europe Conference, Aberdeen,
Scotland, September 7-10, 1995.
Spring 1996
are deoiled using a cuttings dryer installation aspects of the project by both operator and drilling
based on centrifugation of a mixture of base oil contractor, the following economic benefits were
and cuttings. realized:
Stainless steel was used for low-pressure piping The decision to contract two rigs at the same
and the drilling shelter to minimize corrosion. time with almost identical features allowed Elf
Drilling controls were ergonomically designed for to optimize the field development plan for both
comfort and efficiency, with a 180-degree view of predrilling (stand-alone mode) and tender-
the rig floor and derrick provided for the driller. assisted drilling mode.
BOPs could be repositioned without breaking out The decision to modify the semis saved signifi-
well-control lines, and handling facilities for the cant rig-up and installation time, and cost com-
BOPs allowed the wellhead to be lifted and pared to the option of securing an expensive
installed preassembled. Fast-connect couplings crane barge.
were used throughout to minimize downtime in the Use of a tender-assisted configuration, with key
nippling up of the BOP stack to the wellhead, and support and accommodation facilities on the
quick-disconnect couplings were used on hydraulic semis, enabled Elf to minimize the size, weight
control circuits to minimize both oil spillage and and cost of the platforms.
downtime. The modular and flexible design features of the
Construction began in France in October 1994, derrick sets provide enhanced capabilities, as
with both derrick sets fabricated simultaneously well as lower maintenance and operating costs.
(previous page). Construction was completed in
May 1995, and the units were shipped by river
barges to the French coast and offloaded onto an
ocean-going barge for the trip to West Africa. Tran-
sit time was 24 days. The barges were anchored
alongside the semisubmersibles, and the derrick
sets were offloaded onto the decks of the semis
with the heavy-lift cranes. The two semis were
then towed to the NKossa field, anchored on loca-
tion, and the derrick sets were offloaded and
rigged up. The process, from derrick set arrival to
final installation, took 25 days. At present, the
predrilled wells are being tied-back to surface
wellheads on the platforms and completed, while
awaiting the arrival of the production barge and
final preparations for drilling additional wells.
As a result of the coordinated team approach
and an overriding commitment to quality in all
27
How Have Things Evolved in nThe HSE manage-
ment system in
Sedco Forex? Corporate statement of policy Sedco Forex. This
system combines
Improvement comes with each step of the HSE objectives the basic policies,
overall program. 11 procedures, track-
Results Inspections
ing mechanisms
versus HSE plan and
and compliance
Sedco Forex is one of the largest drilling assessment methods
objectives assessment
contractors in the world, employing 5100 peo- to form a compre-
Communication of HSE plan hensive system
ple of 50 nationalities and operating 42 off-
shore and 34 land rigs in 26 countries. With which has been a
Worksite/base risk useful foundation for
such a far-flung organization and cultural a quality culture.
Minimization mechanisms
diversity, implementing a universal quality Emergency response
program represented a formidable task. Accident HSE meetings
risk
As with any company committed to Permit to work
data base Checklists Company
installing a quality program, Sedco Forex
Rig up 3rd party policies and
began with the tools at hand. The starting procedures
Accident equipment
point was the companys health, safety and report 2nd Authorization for
environment (HSE) system, which was rec- analysis exemption
ognized as a model within the drilling con- Modification
tractor industry.12 proposal note
STOP program
Over the years, Sedco Forex had developed
a comprehensive HSE Management System
that included policies, procedures, tracking Reporting HSE results
mechanisms and compliance assessment Adequacy of plan? Indicators/statistics Compliance?
methods (above right ). This system had its ori-
gins in a Safety Management System (SMS)
which had received considerable attention
from industry peers in the late 1980s.
18 nSafety performance
Safety first District HSE STOP program, Compliance Field Q-HSE and program imple-
In 1986, Schlumberger management com- 16 culture plans SMS concept Q-HSE audits instructors mentation. The evo-
mitted to a 50% reduction, over a five-year 14.5 lution of the safety
period, in the drilling lost-time injury (LTI) 14 SL commitment program, with
to halve rate in greater emphasis on
frequency rateas defined and reported by
LTI frequency rate

12 5 years preventive programs

the International Association of Drilling Con-
tractors (IADC)as a show of the corpora-
tions dedication to safer drilling operations
in the industry.13 This commitment moti-
vated the staff and paved the way for a revi-
talized safety awareness program in which
safety activities grew more focused, profes-
sional and proactive. Results improved and
the target was achieved (right ).
The safety system proved to be a good
starting point, first for HSE and then for
quality efforts. Much of what was needed
was already in place. Over time, managers
recognized that every aspect of operations
could profit from the quality drive. Analysis
of accidents and operating failures pointed
out the need for better tracking and for clos-
ing the loop with specific solutions. Still
lacking, however, was a mechanism for
11. Crosby, reference 1: 116.
12. Bobillier AAY and Keary T: Audits Emphasize
Need for Long-Term Relationship to Improve Pre-
vention, paper SPE 27073, presented at the Sec-
ond International Conference on Health, Safety
and the Environment in Oil & Gas Exploration,
Jakarta, Indonesia, January 25-27, 1994.
13. A lost-time injury is any work-related injury result-
ing from an accident that prevents the person from
continuing, in the next following shift, the same
job that he or she was performing before the injury.
The frequency rate is expressed as the number of
incidents per million person-hours worked.
28
10.2
10
9.7
7.8
8 7
6.1
6 5.2 4.9
4 3.5
2
0
1986 1988
identifying the cost of quality nonconfor-
mance and quantitative measurements of
real losses.
In general, other than IADC statistics,
there are few internationally recognized
benchmarks for the drilling industry. This
meant that Sedco Forex had to define and
implement its own set of benchmarks. This
has been done. Each year, targets are set for
key indicators, and these targets become
integral to the companys objectives, on a
par with financial goals.
The system is simple and focused. Fatali-
ties, LTIs and major losses, as well as com-
pliance with HSE training, identification of
risks and service quality appraisals are
tracked and analyzed at headquarters.
Results are regularly summarized and com-
municated to the field. Deeper into the field
and compliance
audits, has resulted
in a marked
improvement in the
lost-time injury (LTI)
frequency rate.
4.5
1990 1992 1994
organization, the number of benchmarks
increases accordingly, finally reaching rig-
specific needs. For the first time, a system-
atic and coordinated effort is being used to
quantify and understand losses in real finan-
cial terms.
ISO certification of selected locations has
helped further emphasize the drive toward a
quality culture. Operations in Aberdeen,
Scotland and Brazil, the Engineering
Department in Montrouge, France, and the
logistics and supply center in Channelview,
Texas, USA, have been awarded ISO certifi-
cation (see The Road to ISO Certification,
page 32 ).
Oilfield Review
 A New Approach to Quality and Efficiency in Australia
In 1993, Woodside Offshore Petroleum Pty. Ltd.
committed to improve its offshore well construc-
tion performance on the Northwest Shelf of Aus-
tralia. The companys analysis of operations con-
ducted from 1968 to 1992 showed erratic results,
with high average drilling times compared to pub-
lished benchmarks.
For the upcoming Wanaea and Cossack develop-
ments in 270 ft [82 m] of water, which would
include directional wells and the first-ever subsea
completions for the company, Woodside instituted
an aggressive target-setting and planning method-
ology, based on asking the question What is pos-
sible? instead of How can we improve? The
approach had a central philosophy: targeting the
technical limit, a level of performance judged as
the best possible for a given set of parameters
(right).1 Implementation of such a radical change
in thinking required an extraordinary effort and
commitment, and the building of new relationships
with the drilling contractor and other service sup-
pliers, founded on teamwork and effective commu-
nications.
Studies by Woodside had pointed out the critical
importance of the drilling rigs specifications. The
cost of higher level rig specifications could easily
be justified if the added capabilities translated into
significant efficiency gains toward the goal of
achieving the theoretical minimum well time, the
technical limit. This permitted fit-for-purpose rig
selection and sole source negotiation of the
selected rig, eliminating the need for a low-bid
tendering process. Working with Woodside, Sedco
Forex assessed rig options that would deliver the
desired specifications, and the Sedco 702
semisubmersible was selected for the project.
Sedco Forex was involved from the outset in the
extensive planning phase that spanned a period of
nine months. The company placed a former rig
superintendent in the Woodside office to liaise
directly with Woodsides engineers and design
team. The emphasis was on developing bench-
Spring 1996
Planning Operations
nTechnical limit model.
This innovative approach
Planning feedback loop to improvement in well
Reporting construction efficiency
Remove or targets the best possible
refine process Track
against plan level of performance as
(what if)
the goal, seeking to elimi-
Analysis nate all nonproductive
Finalize plan,
Develop develop Identify time and efficiency block-
Assign time
theoretical technical deviation ers involved in drilling
estimates
well limit from plan and completion opera-
tions. (Courtesy of Wood-
TQM side Offshore Petroleum
Develop feedback loop Pty. Ltd.)
Expertise ways to
remove
Identify
Review Team
magnitude Expertise
offset data building
of blockers
marksthe technical limitsoptimizing the oper- assembly (BHA) components were made up
ational process and communicating the plan and off-line, allowing pickup and mounting of the
process to everyone involved, including BHA in one piece using a specially designed
roustabouts on the rig, to enlist their commitment roller system.
and ownership. Start-up seminars and regular, Applying this methodology, Woodside drilled
joint management visits and presentations helped three new wells and installed six subsea comple-
facilitate and underscore the communication pro- tions 20% under budget. By successfully reducing
cess. Throughout, a no-blame culture was lost and down time and increasing the percentage
adopted by Woodside in all its dealings with ser- of effective time, they were able to drill the third
vice suppliers, a culture that encouraged problem well in the project in 20 fewer days than the first.
solving rather than finger pointing. Everything we did targeted process optimiza-
Critical path thinking was adopted during the tion and control. It has been enormously satisfying
assessment phase. All activities that could affect to see our team of people from different compa-
the critical path, either positively or negatively, nies pull togetherand in the same directionto
were identified and analyzed. Much of the effort achieve top-class results, says Phil Scott, Well
focused on areas normally defined as conventional Construction Manager for Woodside. According to
down time and lost time. But, studies went further Ted Pittman, Sedco Forex District Manager,
to concentrate on what became known as invisi- The way the team worked together can best be
ble lost time, inefficiencies targeted for the first summed up in the project motto: Pride in Perfor-
time using the technical limit approach. mance. From the start, it motivated all members
The process resulted in improved procedures of the team and kept us continually focused on
and techniques that speeded operations. For quality and efficiency.
example, subsea trees were normally assembled
1. Bond DF, Scott PW, Page PE and Windham TM: Step
and pressure tested in the moonpool of the Change Improvement and High Rate Learning Curve are
semisubmersible, inhibiting other activities. Tree Delivered by Targeting Technical Limits on Sub-Sea Wells,
paper IADC/SPE 35077, presented at the 1996 IADC/SPE
and tree-handling operations were removed from Drilling Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, March
12-15, 1996.
the moonpool area for improved efficiency. During
drilling, running of the drilling riser and BOPs was
streamlined with better make up of lifting subs and
pickup procedures. Where possible, bottomhole
29

Quality
management system
Quality manual Measurement
nQuality management system. The quality manual collects the key aspects of the sys-
tem that include measurement, communication and continuous improvement.
Uniting all aspects of the QMS is the
recently issued Quality Manual, which
defines a consistent methodology for the
pursuit, tracking and structure of the quality
effort and emphasizes measurement, com-
munication and continuous improvement
( above ). The HSE and quality functions
have been merged into a universal Q-HSE
function for coordinating and managing the
quality system. The focus is constantly on
the three prime elements, or dimensions,
that must be considered in every quality
activityproduct, process and people
(below ). These elements provide the foun-
dation for the new quality culture.
A corporate definition of quality has
emerged: Giving the client what he wants,
when he wants it, at a mutually agreed
cost. This entails defining and meeting the
clients specifications and expectations;
keeping to schedules, programs and project
plans; and satisfying the financial require-
ments of both parties. Specifications must
be agreed to in advance, must be backed up
by an effective delivery system and must
never be less stringent than the internal
Product
Fit-for-purpose
design
Conformance
Follow-up
Process People
Consistency Satisfaction
Optimization Ownership
Controllable
nQuality dimensions. The QMS is con-
stantly focused on three interconnected
aspects of quality: the product, the process
and the people involved.
30
Continuous
Communication improvement
Q-HSE guidelines established within Sedco
Forex. The remainder of this article focuses
on the implementation of specific Sedco
Forex quality programs in training, engi-
neering and field operations.
Changing the Training Focus
Think of change as skill-building and con-
centrate on training as part of the change
process. 14
Thanks to new technology and greater rig
automation, drilling today is less demanding
physically than a decade ago. But, it still
remains a dangerous business. This is why
comprehensive training has always received
top priority.15
Within Sedco Forex, four training centers
(see The French (Training) Connection, necessary, as well as a comprehensive presen-
page 34 ) provide formal courses for new
and experienced personnel. A follow-up
system ensures proper application of new
skills. Roving instructors visit rigs and check
for safe work practices. Each rig has safety
committees that set standards, hold regular
information and problem-solving meetings,
and track compliance. Data bases have
been developed and are constantly updated
to communicate risk information and profile
critical risk areas. Health and safety cam-
paigns are mounted to target areas where
improvement is needed. Initiatives, like the
Dupont STOP program, a systematic
approach to recognizing potential problems
and addressing them before they turn into
incidents, provide quality focal points for rig
personnel.
Within the training effort, benchmarking
has been critical. Monthly measurements of
compliance in areas such as HSE and well-
control training, providing feedback, and
developing action plans to rectify deficien-
cies have been at the heart of the program.
Without a focused training effort in quality
from the top to the bottom of the organiza-
tion, there can be no change toward a qual-
ity culture. To this end, two initiatives have
helped instill the quality mentality. Within
Sedco Forex, training had historically been
technical and geared to career development
needs for engineers, rig supervisors and rig
workers. This formed the basis for loss con-
trol and service quality instruction. As the
quality thrust gained momentum, however,
it became apparent that training had to be
broadened and, at the same time, more
sharply focused.
The first initiative was a shift to a compe-
tency-based approachwhere assessment
and measurement of proficiency levels and
a step-by-step methodology to correct noted
deficiencies was implemented and tracked
for compliance. In essence, this transformed
the training function directly into a total
quality support function.
The second initiative focused on commu-
nicating the quality goals of the company
through the development and application
of a training matrix for line management
(next page ). In all facets of this initiative,
the ultimate clients of the programboth
employees and customerswere consulted
on scope and content. In some instances,
training tools and courses were identified
and added to fill gaps.
To deliver the message, a train-the-trainer
methodology was employed. Supporting
materials were prepared and presented to
management via a Quality Awareness course.
Supervisors, in turn, were given the training
tation package, to transmit the quality mes-
sage throughout their organizations.
In training and follow-up, the emphasis
has evolved from strictly technical training
to a broader view: how to better manage,
how to better recognize problems and
issues, how to empower and facilitate, and
how to communicate. At the same time,
training became more focusedfocused on
quality as the end goal.
Reengineering Engineering
There is absolutely no reason for having
errors or defects in any product or service. 16
While some aspects of drilling operations
have changed little over the past 50 years,
technological advances, such as top drives,
improved downhole motors, and logging-
and measurements-while-drilling tech-
niques, have had a pronounced influence on
efficiency and cost. Ensuring rapid and effec-
tive development of new technology and its
transfer to the rigsite requires a quality
approach within the engineering organiza-
tion of the drilling contractor.
Oilfield Review
 District not be the right one to contact; descriptions
Staff managers
Rig Rig super- Rig
engineers of the problem might be incorrect or incom-
supervisors intendents engineers Project
Rig managers managers plete; similarly, the recommended solution
might be incorrect or incomplete; or, finally,
BEST 1 2 no action might be takenthe request sim-
ply being ignored.
Management 1 1 2 1
To correct these deficiencies, new proce-
Communication skills 2 1 1 1
dures were established, including a com-
Train the trainer 1 2
plete set of specifications and communica-
IT module 1 1 1 1 2
tion channels known as the Request for
TQM awareness 1 2 1 1 Engineering Action (REA) system. When
Management 2 2 1 help is needed, rig personnel describe the
Sales training 1 as needed 1 1 nature of the problem to the regional organi-
Sales training 2 2 1 zation. The region then relays the request to
BEST 3 - Finance 1 an engineering point contact who deter-
Financial analysis as needed 1 mines the expert or group of experts best
BEST 3 - Project mgt as needed 2 2 2 equipped to answer the question. If the
problem can be solved faster and more effi-
Bidding workshop 2
ciently outside the engineering organization,
Advanced mkt seminar as needed
for example by using a consultant, the point
Advanced mgt seminar 2
contact will funnel the project accordingly.
Presentation skills as needed as needed as needed as needed as needed Since at any one time there might be 60
Recruiting skills as needed as needed as needed as needed as needed to 80 such requests in process, priority set-
Courses run by Sedco Forex Courses shared with sister Schlumberger companies Outside courses
ting is important, particularly with costly
drilling times at stake. The REA system
1 Priority 1: High priority training and highly recommended
2 Priority 2: Lower priority training but also recommended
allows much tighter control over priorities
as needed Where either the job or the development plan indicates the need and assignment of the proper sense of
BEST Better Exempt Schlumberger Training urgencyall features lacking in the previ-
ous system. The region and rig are both kept
nManagement training matrix. The matrix outlines priority courses and essential supple- informed of progress toward, and the dead-
mental programs for training rig personnel and regional management in quality, provid-
ing instruction on improving supervision, problem identification and communications.
line for, a solution.
With the checks and balances involved,
For Sedco Forex, the engineering depart- The first corporate documentation CD- how rapidly are results delivered? The for-
ment is one of the sites that has achieved ROM was sent to all rigs in December 1995 malized procedures bypass many of the pre-
ISO recognition. But here the approach was after pilot testing in four field locations in vious pinch points, and deliverability is as
initially directed at analyzing existing prac- the Middle East and Far East. Each rig has good or better. The key benefit is enhanced
tices and developing innovative approaches been equipped with CD-ROM readers. A quality management of the solutions.
to improve the quality and deliverability of single CD contains 11 operations, Q-HSE The quality system is also reaping benefits
new products and techniques. The goal was and training manuals; 20 marine operations in shipyard construction and repair. Typi-
to have a practical, workable system in manuals; maintenance policies and proce- cally, shipyard activities were treated as
place, rather than to achieve ISO certifica- dures; and other location- and discipline- one-off projects. Each time a new project
tion. However, in the drive to set up a qual- specific documents, for a total of 1664 files. came along, there was a tendency to rein-
ity system, ISO became viewed as the most Documents are linked; searches by key vent the wheel. Today, a retrievable data
effective means to this end. Certification word and topic can be conducted; and a base captures project information, allowing
was a natural outcome of the process. variety of navigation tools make finding key prior experience to be drawn on. Also, there
Examples, ranging from electronic docu- information straightforward and efficient. is a formalized approach to project manage-
mentation to improved field support and The contents of the CD will be updated and ment and coordination, as well as docu-
shipyard construction and repair, highlight expanded regularly. ment control.
how recently introduced products and proce- This approach to documentation ensures Task force managers are appointed, and
dures are helping achieve more for the client. access to the most current information and the scope of work is defined up-front. New
If youve ever been on a drilling rig, improves the productivity and efficiency of communication channels facilitate early
youve seen the overwhelming number of rig workers by providing the data they exchange of ideas. Staff and facilities benefit
printed technical and procedural manuals require to perform their jobs, thus reducing from better organization, which specifies
needed to support day-to-day operations. errors, downtime and losses. (continued on page 33)
One engineering project focused on replac- A second area of quality improvement has
14. Deal T and Kennedy A: Corporate Cultures. Read-
ing these bulky, hard-copy manuals with been in field support. Historically, when a ing, Massachusetts, USA: Addison-Wesley, 1982.
electronic documentation on CD-ROM problem arose on a rig, an engineer would 15. Burt GL and Stibbs W: Personnel Development
saving storage space and streamlining the ask for help from a contact in the engineer- in the 1990s: Preparing the Next Generation Rig
massive effort to keep them updated. ing department. There were many potential Professionals, paper SPE 23156, presented at the
Offshore Europe Conference, Aberdeen, Scotland,
pitfalls with this approach: the person might September 3-6, 1991.
16. Crosby, reference 1: 58.

Spring 1996 31
 The Road to ISO Certification

In todays marketplace, identifying and under-

standing a customers requirements and meeting
those needs are critical for maintaining a com-
petitive advantage and serve as underlying fac-
tors in the movement toward total quality man-
agement and implementation of quality systems.
An effective system is one that has commitment
to quality and continuous improvement at all lev-
els of the company. Learning from mistakes and
ensuring that problems do not recur are accom-
plished through problem identification (auditing),
investigation (corrective action) and long-term
rectification (controlled procedural change).
Sedco Forex prides itself on being close to its
clients and providing innovative approaches to
better meet their needs and reduce costs in
drilling operations. Following the general move-
ment of many businesses to comply with ISO
9000 standards and the specific desires of sev-
eral customers to deal with ISO 9000-certified
vendors and service providers, certain Sedco
Forex facilities have sought and achieved ISO nThe Jacintoport distribution center. The facility was the first within Sedco Forex, and the first of its type any-
9000 certification. where in the USA, to receive ISO 9002 certification.
In particular, in 1993, the Materials Logistics
Center (International Chandlers, Jacintoport could create a good quality system for our opera-
Facility) in Channelview, Texas, USA, outside of tion, says Ellis Duncan, Materials Manager at
Houston, was the first within Sedco Forex, and the Jacintoport facility, that it would be advanta-
the first distribution center of any kind in the geous to our clients,and that it would alsosat-
USA, to achieve ISO 9000 certification (above isfy the needs of our North Sea operation (right).
right). Specifically, the center has been certified On the first point, Ira Gervais, Jacintoport Quality
by Det Norske Veritas (DNV), the foremost certify- Manager, points out that ISO certification is the
ing body, to conform to ISO 9002 quality system facilitys first effort in developing a quality sys-
standards for procurement and logistic services tem. We thought we were doing great, he com-
for oilfield equipment, spare parts, and consum- ments, but he also notes that there was no mech- nJacintoport management staff. Materials manager
ables. As the procurement center for the pur- anism to identify what they were doing wrong Ellis Duncan (left) and quality manager Ira Gervais
assure that the ISO policies are properly imple-
chase and resupply of critical parts and materials when problems did arise. Discussing the advan-
mented and tracked.
for Sedco Forex rigs operating worldwide, this tages to their clients, Duncan says, We wanted
group plays a central role in minimizing drilling to be sure that if there was any question concern- tude, the experience and positive results paved
rig downtime. Rig time lost by errors in procuring ing the quality of our fleet in the North Sea, we the way for subsequent ISO certification of other
or shipping replacement parts can significantly could say that we are buying from suppliers Sedco Forex locations.
impact operational efficiency, profits, customer through an ISO quality system. Regarding the Its difficult to compute exact dollars saved due
relations and company image. last factor, Duncan says that the need to stay to improvements resulting from the ISO-related
The motivating factors behind the effort to seek competitive played a major role in the decision to changes. How do you put a figure on acciden-
ISO certification were threefold. We felt that we seek ISO certification. Major clients started tally purchasing the wrong part or an inferior
pushing this in the North Sea. product, or sending a part to the wrong place or
Although the Channelview facility went into ISO
certification as a trial, taking a wait-and-see atti-
32 Oilfield Review

the wrong rig, and ending up having to repur-
chase or reship a product, Gervais points out.
ISO 9002 uses the combination of internal
audits and periodic audits by an external organi-
zation to review procedures, documentation and
corrective actions in purchasing, contracts, pur-
chaser-supplier product control and process con-
trol.1 DNV, the auditing body for the Jacintoport
facility, focuses on one of these areas during its
semi-annual audits. The DNV auditors review
paperwork to verify that the documented proce-
dures are being followed and make spot checks
of portions of the operation. For example, Ger-
vais says, to avoid mistakes in shipping, we
must specify how we handle noncompliant prod-
ucts when they come in. If they cant be identi-
fied, we place them in a special location, prop-
erly tagged. DNV checks that on a regular basis.
If something does goes wrong, we must specify
how we will correct the problem and isolate the
nonconforming material in the future. A full
recertification is performed every three
yearswith the next due in 1996 for the Jacinto-
port facility.
The quality manual, containing the documenta-
tion of procedures required for ISO certification,
must describe whats actually done in the busi-
ness process, while at the same time not be
overly burdensome to employees. The liberal use
of flow charts and organizational charts has kept
the Channelview quality manual to a concise and
readable 35 pages, in comparison to other com-
panies where such manuals may be several vol-
umes in length. According to Gervais, A side
benefit of having all procedures documented in a
manual is that new employees now have a refer-
ence and learn the proper procedures from the
onset. The quality manual must be updated, and
all employees must have access to the most cur-
rent version. Depending on the size of a facility,
maintaining and updating documentation can be
complicated and cumbersome. In this area, the
Channelview group has taken an innovative
approach: their manual is accessible to employ-
ees through the Sedco Forex home page on the
Spring 1996
World Wide Web. What we've done is put the
current copy on our network, says Gervais. It's
the official copy for downloading and printing.
Duncan indicates that the primary benefits of
ISO certification for the Jacintoport facility are
awareness, discipline and accountability. These
are derived from the ISO 9000 requirements for
establishing formal procedures for recognizing
and handling problems, both internally and in the
field, for accurate documentation and control of
that documentation, and for taking corrective
action. He says that prior to ISO certification,
There were no established procedures for mak-
ing sure things were actually handled correctly.
Now, when the field has any type of problem with
something we handled, they fill out a procure-
ment incident report and send it to us, and we
have to correct it. One example involved
changes in receiving and packing procedures to
address complaints that supplies were arriving in
the field wet or damaged. To ensure accountabil-
ity and corrective action, the Jacintoport facility
now sends out a semi-annual service quality
analysis questionnaire to the field to learn how
customers feel about their service. Documenta-
tion produced by this communication must be
addressed and acted on; problems cannot be
ignored. Without a doubt, a key area is speed
says Duncan. They want us to react quicker. We
werent as accountable before. But you are with
this system. Its all documented. Its all there. Its
all auditable.
Since ISO certification, Jacintoport has
received additional business from sister compa-
nies like Dowell for procuring, packing and ship-
ping goods to the field. These companies could
use anyone, but, Gervais says, ISO certification
has allowed the Jacintoport facility to improve its
systems and to demonstrate that were very pro-
fessional in what we do and that mechanisms
for redressing complaints are in place. SP
1. Patterson JG: ISO 9000 Worldwide Quality Standard:
Criteria for Documentation and Performance. Menlo Park,
California, USA: Crisp Publications, 1995.
quality criteria for the shipyard, including
testing and reporting procedures and
detailed financial controls. ISO guidelines
help to plug the holes and impose a sched-
ule for fixing problems. In this example, as
in others, its often a few simple improve-
ments that together produce a significant
increase in quality.
Service Quality at the Wellsite
Think where your company could be if
you completely eliminated failure costs. 17
Closing the feedback loop with the oil
and gas operator is one key to ensuring a
climate of continuous improvement. To aid
in this goal, Sedco Forex implemented a
Service Quality Appraisal (SQA) system
three years ago. The system is based on a
comprehensive set of guidelines. The first
level, the SQA form, is filled out by the
client (below ). It provides a quantitative
assessment of how the rig and its personnel
stack up in several categories, including
HSE, overall drilling performance, organiza-
tion and skills of the personnel, condition
and utility of the equipment, and quality of
rigsite communications. The bottom line is
an overall performance rating, or index,
with a maximum score of 100%.
The SQA covers a particular time period
and is used by the rig manager to assess the
operation and for discussion with clients in
quarterly meetings. These sessions review
the strengths and deficiencies of the service
17. Crosby, reference 1: 48.
nService quality appraisal form. The SQA
gives quantitative measures of the perfor-
mance of rig and personnel in several cate-
gories, summarized by an overall rating.
The SQA provides the basis for regular meet-
ings with clients on quality improvement.
33

The Pyrenees mountains form a spectacular
backdrop to the Sedco Forex training center in a
picturesque suburb of Pau, France. It is the
largest, best-equipped and busiest of the four
training centers the company operates world-
wide. Sister facilities are located in Aberdeen,
Scotland; Warri, Nigeria; and Singapore.
Today, with even greater emphasis on the
health and safety of employees, protection of the
environment, and quality, the center is fulfilling
an expanded role that reflects the Sedco Forex
commitment to training as a core element of the
companys culture.
The Pau site was originally established in 1949
as a base for North African and European drilling
operations. Training courses were first conducted
in 1972 and, during the nearly two and a half
decades since, the training mandate has evolved
and the course list has grown considerably, in
line with the changing needs of the drilling indus-
try and the profile of the companys workforce.
Today, the extensive complex includes 10,800
ft 2 [1000 m 2] of classrooms, workshops and office
buildings, supported by 80,700 ft2 [7500 m2] of
34
The French (Training) Connection
yard space. Eight instructors and support staff
provided 4400 man-days of training in the latest
drilling technology during 1995. For 1996, that
figure is expected to increase to 7000 man-days.
There are four principal classrooms, one
equipped with a state-of-the-art drilling simula-
tor. This simulator, used primarily for instruction
on well-control procedures, also models stuck
pipe situations and various techniques for drilling
optimization, and interfaces with an advanced
computer system that allows trainees to access,
and interact with, actual well data. Extensive
computer and video facilities in the classrooms
permit maximum use of new information technol-
ogy tools and multimedia training aids.
The sites most striking feature is also its prin-
cipal piece of equipmentan ultraheavy, diesel-
electric land rig with a rated drilling depth of
18,000 ft [5500 m] and a 600-ton capacity mast
and substructure (above left). The size and capa-
bilities provide a training tool unique in Europe.
nThe training rig. At the Pau training center, this The rig is fully equipped with hoisting, rotating,
diesel-electric land rig provides hands-on instruction
for new engineers and technicians during an inten-
circulating and well-control systems. It is posi-
sive initiation course. tioned over a 4400 ft [1350 m] cased well, with
casings ranging from conductor and surface
nWell-control training strings to 9 5/8 in. [25 cm] at total depth. The rig
class. At least every two
years, each Sedco Forex and well combination permits realistic simulation
drilling crew must suc- of a wide range of drilling conditions encountered
cessfully complete a five- daily in field operations.
day course in well con-
trol to be recertified to The rig is fitted with a high-pressure air com-
international standards. pression, storage and injection system. Air can
be introduced into the well through tubing run
outside the casing to simulate a gas influx (kick)
on a live well. Each Sedco Forex drilling crew
receives mandatory well-control training every
two years, carried out to the certification stan-
dards of the International Well Control Forum, an
organization representing operators, contractors
and drilling schools around the world. Sedco
Forex is a founding member of the group. The
crews must be able to resolve a variety of well-
control problems and successfully shut in and cir-
culate out gas kicks to pass the course and be
recertified (left).
Oilfield Review
 Overall performance, %
Overall average
100 nService Quality
90 Index (SQI). The SQI
performance 82%
shows the overall
Highest 80 rating achieved for a
scoring rig 93% particular rig. In this
70
Lowest example, the indices
scoring rig 76% 60 are for seven rigs for
50
the second quarter
of 1995.
Today, induction training for newly recruited 40
drilling engineers and technicians, initiated in 30
1980, is the principal business of the training 20
center. In a 19-day course for engineers and a 10
10-day course for technicians, which combine 0
theory, classroom lectures, homework and practi- Rig 1 Rig 2 Rig 3 Rig 4 Rig 5 Rig 6 Rig 7
cal exercises, the rig and well provide a con- Total possible score 180 180 180 168 180 176 180
Actual score 152 137 136 154 167 135 138
trolled environment for hands-on training in the
Overall performance, % 84 76 76 92 93 77 77
latest technology and operational techniques.
Knowledge and skills developed during the
nClosing the loop
course form the foundation necessary to ensure with the client. The
that new recruits perform safely and effectively in SQA and specific
follow-up actions
their first actual rig assignments. assure the degree
A complete mechanical workshop maintains all and frequency of
feedback neces-
critical pieces of drilling gear and gives trainees sary to keep the
Client perception SQA
the opportunity to witness and participate in dis- client informed and
foster an environ-
assembly and major overhauls of both surface
ment of joint prob-
equipment and downhole tools during hands-on lem solving.
training sessions. Closing the
In addition to new trainee induction and well- loop with
clients
control schools, the center schedules a variety of
other courses. These include drilling technology Performance review Quality teams
courses, covering both the fundamentals of cas-
ing and cementing, directional drilling, drill bits,
drillstring design, hydraulics and solids control,
as well as advanced work on formation evalua-
tion and well design. In addition, there are
marine courses on the stability of offshore rigs
and procedures for moving and operating off- Client forum

shore rigs.
For many years, Sedco Forex has been a rec-
ognized industry leader in training field person-
nel. Never has this been more evident than today,
as reflected in the dedication shown by the train-
ing staff at Pau.
Spring 1996
being provided and define necessary correc-
tive actions (top ).
Recently, with input from clients, the form
has been updated to make it even more
meaningful in addressing client needs. A
newly introduced criterion that goes beyond
just performance ratings is client perception
of service quality. For the future, both per-
formance and perception will be given
equal attention in client reviews. Applica-
tion of SQA procedures and adherence to
prescribed follow-up actions have achieved
the objective of effectively closing the loop
with the client (above).
As specific examples pointed out at the
beginning of this article, the implementa-
tion of a quality culture, programs on qual-
ity in training and engineering, and the
SQA system have translated into improved
performance on the rig and better results for
the client.
The Journey is Only Beginning
To develop and thrive, a corporate quality
culture requires a never-ending journey
along a route marked with road signs read-
ing conviction, commitment and conver-
sion. At times, the route is rough and wind-
ing, but every step forward brings
substantive benefits for both clients and
employees.
The words of Philip Crosby sum it up
best. Quality is an achievable, measur-
able, profitable entity that can be installed
once you have commitment and under-
standing and are prepared for hard work.18
DEO
18. Crosby, reference 1: 6.
35
 Getting to the Root of Gas Migration

Of the two principal objectives facing primary cementing operationscasing support and zonal isolation

the latter usually raises the most concern, and is perhaps the hardest to achieve when there is potential for

formation gas to migrate into the cement sheath. The challenge for industry is to achieve a long-term annular

cement seal and prevent formation gas entry. Successful handling of gas migration is an evolving science.

This article looks at causes, consequences, predictive methods, new solutions and the latest state of play.

Art Bonett
Cambridge, England

Demos Pafitis
Sugar Land, Texas, USA

Five years ago, an article in Oilfield Review

stated, Understanding gas intrusion is an
evolutionary process that has not yet run its
full course.1 Since then, the evolution has
continued, providing a more detailed pic-
ture of the downhole phenomena active
during gas migration. Although many possi-
ble solutions are similar to those available in
1991, increased knowledge of gas entry
mechanisms means that these solutions can
now be deployed in a more logical and
cost-effective way.
Gas invasion occurs when pressure is
lower in the annulus than at the formation
face. Gas then migrates either to a lower
pressure formation or to the surface. The
severity of the problem may range from
residual gas pressure of a few psi at the
wellhead to a blowout. Whatever the sever-
ity, the major factors contributing to gas
migration are common. Successfully achiev-
ing a long-term annular cement seal begins
by understanding these contributing factors

For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Art

Milne, Dowell, Clamart, France and Tom Griffin,
Dowell, Sugar Land, Texas.
CemCADE, GASBLOK, GASRULE , VIP Mixer and
WELLCLEAN are marks of Schlumberger. MicroVAX is a
trademark of Digital Equipment Corp.

36 Oilfield Review
Wrong density Poor mud/filter-cake removal Premature gelation Excessive fluid loss

Highly permeable slurry High shrinkage Cement failure under stress Poor interfacial bonding

n Major contributing parameters during the cementing process, in the order that they typically occur. Incorrect

cement densities can result in hydrostatic imbalance. Poor mud and filter-cake removal leaves a route for gas
to flow up the annulus. Premature gelation leads to loss of hydrostatic pressure control. Excessive fluid loss con-
tributes to available space in the cement slurry column for gas to enter. Highly permeable slurries result in
poor zonal isolation and offer little resistance to gas flow. High cement shrinkage leads to increased porosity
and stresses in the cement sheath that may cause a microannulus to form. Cement failure under stress helps
gas fracture cement sheaths. Poor bonding can cause failure at cement-casing or cement-formation interfaces.

and knowing what can be done to minimize
or counteract their effects.
In the past, various techniques have been
developed to tackle individual factors that
contribute to gas migration. However, gas
migration is caused by numerous related
factors. Only by addressing each factor sys-
tematically can a reasonable degree of suc-
cess be expected. There is no single magic
bullet for gas migration.
This article summarizes the current state
of knowledge about gas migration, drawing
on field expertise from Dowell, and on
experimental work carried out predomi-
nantly at Schlumberger Cambridge Research
(SCR) in England. Much of this experimental
work is unpublished.
Setting the Scene
Successfully cementing a well that has
potential for gas migration involves a wide
range of parameters: fluid density, mud
removal strategy, cement slurry design
(including fluid-loss control and slurry free
water), cement hydration processes,
cement-casing-formation bonding and set
cement mechanical properties (above ).
Although gas may enter the annulus by a
number of distinct mechanisms, the prereq-
uisites for gas entry are similar. There must
be a driving force to initiate the flow of gas,
and space within the cemented annulus for
the gas to occupy. The driving force comes
when pressure in the annulus adjacent to a
gas zone falls below the formation gas pres-
sure. Space for the gas to occupy may be
within the cement medium or adjacent to it.
To understand how, and under what cir-
cumstances, gas entry occurs, a review of
the main mechanisms, including cement
hydration and resultant pressure decline,
follows. First, however, no cementing article
is complete without emphasizing that good
cementing practices are vital.2 To effectively
cement gas-bearing formations the central
pillars of good practicedensity control,
mud removal and slurry designare criti-
cal, and here is why.
Density: Controlling the driving force
Gas can invade and migrate within the
cement sheath only if formation pressure is
higher than hydrostatic pressure at the bore-
hole wall. Therefore, as a primary require-
ment, slurry density must be correctly
designed to prevent gas flow during cement
placement. However, there is a danger of
losing circulation or fracturing an interval if
fluid densities are too high. Also, considera-
tion must be given to the free-fall or U-tub-
ing phenomenon that occurs during cement
jobs.3 Therefore, cement jobs should be
designed using a placement computer simu-
lator program to assure that the pressure at
critical zones remains between the pore and
fracture pressures during and immediately
after the cement job.
Any density errors made while mixing a
slurry on surface may induce large changes
in critical slurry properties, such as rheology
and setting time. Inconsistent mixing also
results in placement of a nonuniform col-
umn of cement in the annulus that may lead
to solids settling, free-water development or
premature bridging in some parts of the
annulus. This is why modern, process-con-
trolled mixing systems that offer accurate
1. Bol G, Grant H, Keller S, Marcassa F and de Rozieres
J: Putting a Stop to Gas Channeling, Oilfield Review
3, no. 2 (April 1991): 35-43.
2. Bittleston S and Guillot D: Mud Removal: Research
Improves Traditional Cementing Guidelines, Oilfield
Review 3, no. 2 (April 1991): 44-54.
3. Cement free-fall or U-tubing occurs when the weight
of the slurry causes it to fall faster than it is being
pumped. This must be considered when designing
displacement rates and pumping schedules.

Spring 1996 37
 n Process-controlled
density control are proving popular for criti-
mixing. The VIP
Mixer delivers cal cement operations (left ).
highly consistent A cement slurry will not transmit hydro-
cement slurries static pressure forever. The transition from a
(top). The comput- liquid that controls formation pressure to an
erized log shows
consistent slurry impermeable solid is not instantaneous. Con-
density throughout sequently, there is a period during which
the job (bottom). cement loses the ability to transmit pressure.
No matter how carefully a slurry has been
designed to counterbalance formation pres-
sure, it will not necessarily resist gas invasion
throughout the hydration process.
Mud removal: No easy paths for gasIf
channels of mud remain in the annulus, the
lower yield stresses of drilling fluids may
offer a preferential route for gas migration.
Furthermore, water may be drawn from the
mud channels when they come into contact
with cement. This can lead to shrinkage-
induced cracking of the mud, which also
provides a route for gas to flow. If the mud
filter cake dehydrates after the cement sets,
an annulus may form at the formation-
cement interface, thus providing another
path for gas to migrate. For example, a 2 mm
[0.08 in.] thick mud filter cake contracting
by 5% will leave a void 0.1 mm [0.004 in.]
wide that has a permeability on the order
of several darcies.
Time Pressure Fluid Density Tot. Flowrate Messages Cement slurry design: Mixing the right
CumVolume
stuffFluid-loss control is essential. Under
static conditions following placement,
Start pumping spacer uncontrolled fluid loss from the cement
04:30:00 Pressure test lines slurry into the formation contributes to vol-
ume reduction. This reduces pressure
End spacer within the cement column and allows
Start cement slurry space for gas to enter.
Before the cement slurry sets, interstitial
water is mobile. Therefore, some degree of
05:24:00
fluid loss always occurs when the annular
hydrostatic pressure exceeds the formation
End cement slurry pressure. The process slows when a low-per-
Start displacement
meability filter cake forms against the forma-
tion wall, or can stop altogether when annu-
06:18:00 lar and formation pressures equilibrate.
Once equilibrium is reached, any volume
change within the cement will cause a sharp
pore-pressure decline in the cement slurry or
the developing matrix, and severe gas influx
may be induced. Poor fluid-loss control in
07:12:00 front of a gas-bearing zone may accelerate
End displacement
Bump top plug the decrease in cement pore pressure. It is
Bleed off pressure equally important to have a cement slurry
hh:mm:ss 0 bar 300 0 sgu 3 0 m3 95 with low or zero free water, particularly in
0 L/min 950 deviated wells. As cement particles settle to
the low side, a continuous water channel
may be formed on the upper side of the
hole, creating a path for gas migration.

38 Oilfield Review
How Gas Gets into the Annulus
Understanding the mechanisms of gas
migration is complicated by the evolution of
the annular cement column with time. The
slurry begins as a dense, granular suspen-
sion that fully transmits hydrostatic pressure.
As the slurry gels, a two-phase material
comprised of a solid network with pore fluid
forms. Finally, the setting process reaches a
point where the cement is for all intents and
purposes an impermeable solid. After slurry
placement, gas may enter through different
mechanisms according to the evolution of
the cements state, the pressures it experi-
ences and other wellbore factors.
Cement state 1: Dense granular fluid
When pumping stops, the cement slurry in
the annulus is a dense, granular fluid that
transmits full hydrostatic pressure. If forma-
tion pore pressure is not greater than this
hydrostatic pressure, gas cannot invade.
However, almost immediately, pressure
within the annulus begins to fall because of
a combination of gelation, fluid loss and
bulk shrinkage.
This pressure reduction is best described
by the evolution of a wall shear stress (WSS)
that begins to support the annular column
as the cement slurry gels. In order for a
stress to evolve to counteract the hydrostatic
pressure, there must be a vertical or axial
strain at the annulus walls. This strain is
caused by the removal of material during
the hydration and setting processespri-
marily through fluid loss and shrinkage.
If it is assumed that WSS equals the static
gel strength (SGS) of the slurry and there is
sufficient axial strain, the following simplified
expression can be used to describe hydro-
static pressure reduction during gelation:
P = SGS 4L
Dh - Dc
where P = hydrostatic pressure change
across column length
SGS = static gel strength
Dh = hole diameter
Dc = casing outside diameter (OD)
L = cement column length.
As the cement sets, static gel strength con-
stantly increases, with the rate of increase
dependent on the nature of the slurry. There
is potential for gas invasion once pressure in
the annulus falls below the pressure in the
gas-bearing formation. Even with a mud fil-
ter cake between the formation and cement,
a differential pressure of less than 1 psi may
Spring 1996
Bubble flow Slug flow Interface flow
allow gas to invade. The resistance of an
external filter cake to gas flow is controlled
by the cakes strength and adhesion to the
rock face, which both have relatively low
values for drilling fluids and neat cements.
This explains the driving force of gas inva-
sion, however, there must also be space
within the cemented annulus for gas to
occupy. Space is provided by shrinkage,
which occurs because the volume of the
hydrated phase is generally less than that of
the initial reactants. This total shrinkage is
split between a bulk or external volumetric
shrinkage, less than 1%, and a matrix inter-
nal contraction representing 4 to 6% by vol-
ume of cement slurry.4
Permeability is a more complicated issue.
Once gelation begins, a cement slurry can
be considered as a pseudoporous medium
as long as the stress that it must withstand
from formation fluid is less than its intrinsic
strength. Thus, even though only a partial
structure has been formed and the cement
column is not yet fully self-supporting, with
regard to its flow capacities, it can be said to
have permeability.
Cement slurries display an evolving yield
stress that must be overcome before gas
entry and flow can occur. Depending on the
state of the slurry, gas can migrate by
micropercolation, bubbles or fractures.
Opportunity for gas entry decreases as the
cement cures. The rate and degree of yield
stress development at the time of invasion
will influence the form in which gas flows.
Gas may enter and flow through the poros-
ity of the gelling structure without disrupting
itmicropercolation. Gas may also move
Rising plume
n Gas migration in a
viscoelastic fluid.
Gas may flow
through cement in a
number of different
ways in addition to
bubble flow. It can
rise in the form of
an elongated slug
seen in experiments
carried out at
Schlumberger
Cambridge Research
in Englandas
channels along
cement-formation
and cement-casing
interfaces, or as a
rising plume
where a nearly
spherical chamber
is linked to the
formation by a
narrow umbilical
conduit.
by disrupting the gel structure in the form of
bubbles or elongated slugs, in channels
along the interfaces with the casing and for-
mation or as bubbles which adhere to one
of the surfaces of the annulus. If rising gas
remains connected to the influx source it
may form a plume as it moves through the
cement slurry (above ).
The size of gas bubbles entering the annu-
lus is governed by the size of the cement
pore throats and the surface tension
between the gas and the slurry. Once bub-
bles have invaded the annulus, their lower
density provides a driving forcebuoy-
ancyfor them to move up the annulus
through any available path. Bubble flow is
controlled by slurry gel strength, and is
restricted to early in slurry development.
When cement shear strength is greater than
about 25 Pa, bubble flow ceases.5
At higher yield stress values, slurry behav-
ior changes from that of a viscous fluid to a
viscoelastic fluid, and the possibility of flow
by viscous fingering or viscoelastic fractures
arises.6 The differential pressurebetween
4. Parcevaux PA and Sault PH: Cement Shrinkage and
Elasticity: A New Approach for a Good Zonal Isola-
tion, paper SPE 13176, presented at the 59th SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Hous-
ton, Texas, USA, September 16-19, 1984.
5. Beris AN, Tsamopoulos JA, Armstrong RC and Brown
RA: Creeping Motion of a Sphere Through a Bing-
ham Plastic, Journal of Fluid Mechanics 158
(September 1985): 219-244.
6. Geometry separates fingering and viscoelastic frac-
tures. A fracture has a sharp tip; a finger has a smooth
tip. This difference is determined by a fractal length
scale that is associated with the fracture or finger
geometry.
39
annulus and formationcombines with the
developing elasticity of the cement to deter-
mine the rates of deformation and internal
relaxation. The relative values of these
determine the transition from fingering to
fracture.7 The transition to fracture is exacer-
bated if the cemented annulus contains an
internal tensile stress caused by the strain of
shrinkage, fluid loss or pressure fluctuations
in the casing. Gas may then drive the propa-
gation of fractures and lead to a rapidly
extending gas channel. Hydrostatic pressure
will continue to decline as static gel
strengthand resultant wall shear
stressdevelop sufficiently to support the
weight of the cement column. The cement
has now reached its second state.
Cement state 2: A two-phase material
Once a cement column becomes fully self-
100
Fraction of connected pores, %
supporting, it may be considered to act as a
matrix of interconnected solid particles con-
taining a fluid phase. Setting continues and
hydration accelerates. Pressure, now a pore
pressure, decreases further as cement hydra-
tion consumes mix water. This leads to an
absolute volume reduction or shrinkage of
the internal cement matrix by up to 6%.
Furthermore, the majority of shrinkage
occurs at this stage, leading to tangential
tensile stresses in the annulus, which may
assist the initiation of fractures and disrupt
bonding between the cement and the casing
or formation.
Internal shrinkage creates a secondary
porosity in the cement composed mainly of
conductive pores. At the same time, the vol-
ume of water continuously decreases due to
hydration, and its ability to move within the
pores is reduced by chemical and capillary
forces. Shrinkage and water reduction
sharply decrease the hydrostatic pressure
that cement exerts on formations.
There are two essentially different mecha-
nisms for gas invasion at this stage, depend-
ing on the strength of the solid structure and
the ease with which pore fluid can be forced
through the cement pores by invading gas.
Early in the setting process, while the cement
still has a weak solid structure, the possibility
of creating fingers or viscoelastic fractures
remains. Later, the solid network becomes
sufficiently stiff and strong to withstand this
effect, and gas invasion and subsequent flow
are limited by the impermeability of the solid
network to pore fluids. Now, the flow of gas
through a channel of connected, fluid-filled
cement pores is limited by the flow of that
pore fluid as it is displaced through the
porous structure and by the connectivity of
the channel (left ).
Once gas has invaded the porous struc-

ture of the cement, it may rise due to buoy-

80 ancy forces. Alternatively, if the invading
gas remains connected through the cement
pore space to the gas-bearing formation, the
60
higher pressure in the formation may force
gas farther into the annulus. If gas pressure
40 is higher than the minimum compressive
stress in the cement and the permeability is
too low to allow significant flow, then the
20
cement may fracture. However, this is likely
to occur only where residual tensile stresses
0 in the annulus are sufficiently high to allow
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 cracks to open under the influence of the
Degree of hydration, % gas pressure.
n Connected pores versus hydration of a 0.45 water-to-
During the latter stages of this phase,
cement ratio slurry. From this curve, the degree of hydration there is a significant and rapid decrease in
needed to achieve capillary pore discontinuity for cement pore pressure as water is further consumed
paste can be calculated. In this case, it was found that a by hydration. If this occurs while the pore
solids fraction of about 82% was required for discontinuity.
A solids fraction of this level is typically not achieved until structure is still interconnected, gas may
well after the cement has solidified. Hence, at most stages invade and flow rapidly through this pore
of setting, some connected paths remain within the pore space (next page ). Gas flow may also dis-
space. [After Bentz PB and Garboczi EJ: Percolation of Phases in place fluid remaining in the pores and pre-
a Three-Dimensional Cement Microstructural Model, Cement
and Concrete Research 21 (1991):325-344.]
vent complete hydration that would eventu-
ally block pore spaces with reaction
products.
Cement state 3: An elastic solidOnce
hydration is complete, cement becomes an
elastic and brittle material that is isotropic,
homogeneous and essentially impermeable.8
In most cases, gas can no longer migrate
within the cement matrix and can flow only
through interfacial channels or where there
has been mechanical failure of the cement.

40 Oilfield Review
 10-2
Regardless of the cement system used, gas n Changes in slurry

can still migrate at the cement-formation or Slurry Permeability permeability, pore

cement-casing interfaces if a microannulus pressure and
10-3 temperature versus
develops, or along paths of weakness where hydration time.
the bond strength is reduced. Both shear These graphs show

Permeability, darcies
and hydraulic bond strengths vary as a func- 10-4 that cement pore
tion of the same external parameters. Bond structure is still inter-
strengths increase with effective mud connected when
10-5
pore pressure begins
removal, and with water-wet rather than oil- to decrease rapidly.
wet surfaces. In this Dykerhoff
Researchers at Schlumberger Cambridge class G plus 1% cal-
10-6 cium chloride slurry,
Research (SCR) have characterized the
pore pressure begins
nature of hydraulic bonding by measuring to drop after about 5
shear bond stress and interfacial permeabil- 10-7 hours, just before the
ity. This work showed that lower chemical peak temperature of
shrinkage and higher cement deformability hydration is reached.
promote better bonding.9 In addition, SCR 10-8 When cement pore
0 5 10 15 20 25 pressure drops below
researchers found that bonding is not influ- formation gas pres-
enced by the cements compressive sure, it is likely that
21 cement permeability
strength.10
Although cement shrinkage leaves par- Slurry Pore Pressure will still be in the
20 millidarcy range,
tially unbonded areas, it does not by itself potentially allowing
lead to the development of a microannulus. 19 significant gas flow
Development of a true microannulus more by micropercolation.
18
Pore pressure, bar

likely results from stress imbalances at the

interfaces due to: 17
thermal stressesfrom cement hydration,
steam or cold fluid injection 16
hydraulic pressure stressescaused by
15
fluid density changes in the casing,
communication tests, casing pressure 14
tests, squeeze pressure or stimulation
treatment pressures 13

mechanical stressescaused by drillpipe 12

and other tubulars banging in the casing.
The second potential conduit for gas in set 11
cement is the mechanical failure of the 0 5 10 15 20 25

cement sheath due to propagation of radial

fractures or cracks across the annulus. These 36
cracks may be due to shrinkage-induced
stresses, thermal expansion and contraction Slurry Temperature
35
of the casing, and pressure fluctuations
within the casing. 34
Slurry temperature, C

Radial expansion at the cement-casing

interface, due to increased pressure in the 33
casing, creates a stress that compresses the
cement radially and eventually induces ten- 32
sile tangential stress in the cement. When
31
7. Lemaire E, Levitz P, Daccord G and Van Damme H:
From Viscous Fingering to Viscoelastic Fracturing
in Colloidal Fluids, Physical Review Letters 67 30
(October 1991): 2009-2012.
8. A limited exception to this may occur in the case of
cement systems with high water-cement ratios, 29
resulting in fairly high innate permeabilities (0.5 to
5 md). However, these are exceptional and not con- 28
sidered significant among those cements generally 0 5 10 15 20 25
placed when a potential gas migration problem is Time, hr
thought to exist.
9. Deformability is the reciprocal of elastic modulus.
10. Parcevaux and Sault, reference 4.

Spring 1996 41
this tangential stress reaches the tensile
strength of the cementwhich may be
close to zero if shrinkage-induced cracks
already exista crack initiates at the casing-
cement interface (below ).
Cracks change the stress distribution in
the cement sheath. Once a crack is initi-
ated, tangential stress in the cracked section
is reduced to zero. Conversely, stress in
adjacent uncracked cement eventually
increases because of stress redistribution.
This process helps the crack propagate radi-
ally outward and eventually reach the
cement-formation interface. Stress is now
fully transferred to the cement-formation
interface. If this cracking occurs over a sig-
nificant axial distance, a channel is formed
through which gas can readily flow.
Long-term cement durability is important
if a well is to remain safe throughout its life-
time. During its active life, a cemented
annulus may be subjected to wide varia-
tions of temperature and stress from pres-
sure testing, workover operations and varia-
tions in producing conditions.
However, field surveys on gas storage
wellswhich endure some of the most
extreme swings in conditionsdetermined
that annular gas leakage occurs early, within
the first few cyclic fluctuations in tempera-
ture and pressure, rather than over a long
period. This implies that leakage occurs due
to failure induced by static loads rather than
long-term, low-cycle fatigue crack growth.
Deeper and higher-pressure wells showed
the greatest tendency to leak.11
The propensity of a particular cement to
crack and for that crack to propagate has
often been equated with compressive
strength. In fact, work carried out at SCR
shows that a property termed toughness
determines the extent to which a cement
slurry fractures under stress. Toughness is
generally described in terms of the ability of
a material to resist the initiation and subse-
quent propagation of a fracture. However,
the situation is somewhat more complicated,
since initiation and propagation of fractures
are controlled by physical phenomena that
differ, depending on the materials structure
(see Compressive Strength Versus Tough-
ness: A Brief Overview, next page ).
11. Marlow RS: Cement Bonding Characteristics in Gas
Wells, Journal of Petroleum Technology 41, no. 11
(November 1989): 1146-1153.
42
Using Theory to Define Best Practice
Over the years, a number of solutions to gas
migration have been proposed by the indus-
try. Theoretical understanding helps to
explain how these solutions workand
their limitations.
Physical techniquesA number of physi-
cal techniques are available to combat gas
entry. Annular pressure can be applied at
surface to keep formation gas from entering,
and external casing packers (ECPs) can be
employed to mechanically seal off the annu-
lus at intervals and prevent gas migration.
Each of these techniques may sometimes
be valid, but well conditions often limit their
application. Annular pressure may be
restricted by the risk of inducing lost circula-
tion in weak zones and, once the cement
starts to set, surface pressure is not transmit-
Rock
Cement
Displacement
P the only barrier to gas movement.
Tensile
stress
(Partially cracked)
Cement
Casing
(Fully cracked)
n Casing under pressure. Radial expan-
sion at the cement-casing interface due to
increased pressure (P) in the casing dis-
places the cement sheath creating stress.
This stress compresses the cement radi-
ally and eventually induces tensile tan-
gential stress in the cement (top). As soon
as the tangential stress reaches the tensile
strength of the cementwhich may be
close to zero if there are also shrinkage
cracksa crack initiates at the casing-
cement interface. This crack propagates
radially outwards and may eventually
reach the cement-formation interface
(bottom). If this occurs over a significant
axial distance, a channel is formed
through which gas can flow.
Annulus
Gas flows
around
ECP seal
because of External
incompetent casing
formation packer
ECP
More gas
Cement enters
because
ECP reduces
hydrostatic
pressure
n Mechanical barrier limitations. Exter-
nal casing packers (ECPs) may fail to seal
against some types of formation. Alterna-
tively, the reduction in hydrostatic pres-
sure due to the ECP may allow gas to
enter the annulus, leaving the packer as
ted to the formation. Alternatively, hole con-
ditions and type of formation may not allow
ECPs to seal the annulus. Furthermore,
reduction of hydrostatic pressure through
use of ECPs may enable more gas to imme-
diately enter the slurry than would have
been the case without ECPs (above ).
Impermeable cements Gas migration
may be prevented by reducing the matrix
permeability of cement systems during the
critical liquid-to-solid transition. There are
two approaches to achieving this: stop fluid
from moving through the pores or close off
the pores themselves.
The use of water-soluble polymers that
viscosify cement interstitial water and
reduce permeability within setting cement
falls into the first category. Since at least a
part of gas migration involves displacement
of cement pore fluid, this viscosification can
limit gas mobility. Unfortunately, the pro-
cess also tends to affect slurry rheology,
making it more viscous and raising the dis-
placement pressure. This method is also
usually limited to low-temperature applica-
tions because efficiency of viscosifiers
decreases with temperature.
The second strategy of reducing the
spaces in the cement matrix, preventing
bubble entry and locking the fluids within
the cement pore spaces, has proven more
fertile. As a solid structure develops in set-
ting cement, the smaller pore throats reduce
(continued on page 44)
Oilfield Review
 Compressive Strength Versus Toughness:
A Brief Overview

The compressive strength of a material describes Compressive load n Cement behavior

the stress at which a material fails when a com- under compression.
The load or stress at
pressive load is applied (top right). When a com- Failure which complete failure
pressive load is applied to a sample of brittle, occurs defines the ulti-
Cement
elastic material such as cement, stress generally mate compressive
strength of a material.
increases linearly with strain (displacement) until
Toughness, on the other
small microcracks and flaws in the sample begin Compressive Compressive
hand, is an indication of
strength strength
to grow. the ability of a material
to deform and absorb
This is a progressive mechanism and manifests
energy before fractures
itself on the stress-strain plot by the change from initiate and propagate.
X Y

Stress
linear proportionality between stress and strain to
Stress

a softening section of the curve near the failure

point. Once the cracks coalesce and reach a criti-
cal size, the sample will fracture via a complicated
AA

mechanism, which is determined by the boundary

stress conditions and geometry of the sample. Strain Strain

Compare this with a description of cement Area indicates toughness

toughness. Simplistically, toughness describes the

property of the material to resist the initiation and
propagation of a crack in a particular orientation.1
Fracture toughness is quantitatively defined as the
energy required to propagate a fracture of unit
width by unit length.
Without considering mathematical details, a
reasonable indication of toughness for similar
Microfractures
materials is given by the area (A) under the
develop under
stress-strain curve to the failure point. This area tensile stress and
varies according to the toughness of the material result in failure if
allowed to grow and Homogeneous Cement with
being tested. communicate cement (X) latex (Y)
For example, consider two materials X and Y
that have the same compressive strength. The Three-Point Bend Test Equipment
material X has a much smaller strain to failure n Three-point bend test.
This equipment is
than material Y, which contains latex. Therefore,
designed so that cement
material Y can deform further and absorb more samples always fail in
energy before it fractures. Material Y is tougher tension. Strain
than material X. Upper moving knife edge (displacement) and load
(stress) are recorded
Data like these were gathered at Schlumberger using computerized data
Sample
Cambridge Research using three-point bend test recording systems.
equipment (right). The cement sample is placed Static
knife
on two lower static knife edges and the upper edges
moveable knife edge is moved downward until the
cement fails. The equipment is designed so that Displacement transducer

the sample always fails in tension. Strain (dis-

placement) and load (stress) are recorded using
computerized data recording systems.

1. The situation is somewhat more complicated, since initia-

tion and propagation of fractures are controlled by physical
phenomena that differ depending on a materials structure.
43

the size of bubbles that enter, slowing their
subsequent riseeven when the yield stress
of the cement is relatively low.
Polymer latex additives are effective in
resisting gas migration. A latex is an aque-
ous dispersion of solid polymer particles,
including surfactants and protective colloids
that impart stability to the dispersion. In the
past, the gas-blocking mechanism of latex
additives was attributed to a capability to
form filmswhen latex particles come in
contact with a gas or when their concentra-
tion exceeds a given threshold value, they
coalesce to form an impermeable polymer
barrier to gas.
However, new work has revealed that
latex particles are also able to block gas
when the cement slurry has developed
some structure or some compressive
strength. This demonstrates that the primary
effect of latex particles is matrix permeabil-
ity reduction by plugging spaces between
cement particles, rather than by the forma-
44
n Latex particles in
systems that show no progressive gelation
cement slurry.
After some struc- tendency, yet set rapidly. Before setting, RAS
ture or compressive systems maintain a full hydrostatic head on
strength develops, gas zones, developing a low-permeability
the primary latex matrix with sufficient speed to prevent sig-
gas-blocking
mechanism is nificant gas migration.
matrix permeabil- It is important to differentiate between
ity reduction by true RAS systems and cement slurries that
plugging of pore only build a gel strength. The high-gel-
spaces between strength systems quickly revert to a water
cement grains.
Because of its hydrostatic gradient and, since their gel
small size and strength development is not related to actual
lower density setting, permeability can remain high for a
compared to considerable time. This may allow gas to
cement particles,
latex reduces enter the cement matrix many hours before
cement slurry the cement sets. On the other hand, RAS
porosity, improves cement systems rapidly build consistency as
fluid-loss control, a direct result of the setting process.13
decreases relative SurfactantsSurfactants may be included
permeability to
water and limits in cement slurries and preflushes. Under the
gas migration. right circumstances, they entrain invading
gas downhole and create a stable foam. This
foam offers significant resistance to flow,
limiting upward gas migration.14
Compressible cements Compressible
cements are sometimes used in an attempt
to maintain the cement pore pressure above
formation gas pressure. These slurries fall
into two main categories: foamed cements
and in-situ gas generators.
Foamed cements work by expanding to
occupy the reduction in slurry volume due
to fluid loss or chemical contraction. This
(continued on page 46)
tion of an impermeable plastic film. Due to
12. Appleby S and Wilson A: Permeability and Suction
its smaller size and lower density compared in Setting Cement, Chemical Engineering Science
to cement particles, latex reduces cement 51, no. 2 (1996): 251-267.
slurry porosity, improves fluid-loss control, 13. Rang CL: Evaluation of Gas Flows in Cement,
paper SPE 16385, presented at the SPE California
reduces relative permeability to water and Regional Meeting, Ventura, California, USA, April 8-
limits gas migration (above ). Latex particles 10, 1987.
reduce slurry porosity by 10 to 15%, 14. Stewart RB and Schouten FC: Gas Invasion and
depending on slurry density and composi- Migration in Cemented Annuli: Causes and Cures,
paper SPE 14779, presented at the 1986 IADC/SPE
tion (see A Robust System to Cement Gas- Drilling Conference, Dallas, Texas, USA, February
Bearing Formations, next page ).12 Latex 10-12, 1986.
additives also affect the properties of the
cement when it is set (see Tough cements,
page 46 ).
The addition of other types of fine fillers
with particle size in the micron range may
decrease permeability throughout the rapid
hydration stage by quickly decreasing pore
continuity. For example, if 30% by weight
of these fine particles is added to a slurry
with a water-cement ratio of 0.45, the pores
become discontinuous about 30% more
quickly. In addition to latex additives, silica
fume and microsilica have been used suc-
cessfully in the field.
Right-angle-set cementsRight-angle-set
(RAS) cement slurries are well-dispersed
Oilfield Review

The ideal slurry properties required to success-
fully withstand gas invasion include:
favorable rheology to facilitate
efficient placement
no gel strength development to maintain
hydrostatic balance
rapid transition to set
low shrinkage to minimize gas entry
low fluid loss
low permeability as the slurry sets
toughness to absorb stress changes
good bonding to avoid microannuli.
The Dowell GASBLOK gas migration control
cement system combines specific additives and
strict adherence to good cementing practices,
including spacers and washes, and casing central-
ization. It has a wide range of applications and has
had excellent success. The system is based on
using a well-dispersed, thin, nongelling slurry
with fluid-loss control. The slurry is also imperme-
able to gas in the cement matrix due to plugging of
pore throats during the setting period (above).
In addition to reducing permeability in the pres-
ence of gas, GASBLOK slurries exhibit many other
desirable properties. The main advantages are
ease of design and consistent properties over a
wide range of temperatures.
The lubricating action of the aqueous dispersion
of the latex beads creates low-viscosity slurries.
These thin slurries are beneficial for effective mud
Spring 1996
A Robust System to Cement
Gas-Bearing Formations
10-2 mation of water channels or pockets (especially in
Neat Class G Cement slurry
deviated wells) is therefore greatly reduced and
10-4 slurry density variations, with resulting changes in
Permeability, darcies
slurry properties, are avoided.
Once set, a cement must also possess good
10-5
mechanical properties to withstand thermal and
mechanical stresses. Poor shear bond strength
10-6 may lead to formation of microannuli through
which gas can migrate. GASBLOK slurries display
GASBLOK slurry
increased tensile strength, reduced drying shrink-
10-7
20 30 40 50 age, increased fracture toughness and improved
Time from hydration peak, hr adhesion or bond strength. Dowell latex slurries
n Comparison of cement permeabilities. The GASBLOK demonstrate all of the necessary properties to
slurry retains lower permeability throughout the hydra- keep gas at bay. In certain cases, other cement
tion process. Compared to a neat cement slurry, after systems used together with proper placement
about 40 hours of hydration, it has permeability that is
techniques have been as successful as, or even
an order of magnitude lower.
better than, latex in achieving particular individual
removal, since the friction pressure during place- properties, but none demonstrate the same
ment is reduced and the critical rate for turbulent complete range of desirable properties as the
flow will be lower. If turbulent flow cannot be GASBLOK slurries.
achieved and an effective laminar regime is
chosen, it is necessary to increase the value of the
rheological parameters to satisfy WELLCLEAN
mud removal service criteria. Viscosification of a
GASBLOK slurry is easily achieved.
Fluid loss is minimal50 ml/30 min at the rec-
ommended latex concentrationdue to the plug-
ging of pore throats in the cement filter cake by
latex particles and improved dispersion of cement
grains. Setting and thickening times are straight-
forward and slurries exhibit rapid sets. There is
no premature gelation of the slurry when the
GASBLOK additive is well stabilized. The slurry
remains thin until final setting. The criterion
used is that the slurry should remain below
30 units of consistency for at least 70% of the
thickening time. Above 250F [121C] bottomhole
circulating temperature, a right-angle set should
be easily obtained.
The tendencies for free-water development and
settling of GASBLOK slurries are minimal. The for-
45
expansion maintains a higher pore pressure
in the slurry for longer than would have
been the case with incompressible slurries.
Foamed cement may be limited by depth
because in deeper, higher pressure wells
more gas is needed than is available in the
cement to compensate for the chemical
contraction.
In-situ gas generators are designed to
maintain cement pore pressure by chemical
reactions that produce gas downhole. The
gas produced may be hydrogen or nitrogen
depending upon the technique used.15
The principal criticism of these sys-
temsother than concerns about the safety
of those that generate hydrogenis the
inability of a gas at typical downhole pres-
sure to achieve the 4 to 6% volumetric
expansion necessary to maintain pore pres-
sure. The volume of gas required to offset
chemical shrinkage alone would be exces-
sive at high pressure. Also, in unstabilized
gas-generating systems, individual gas bub-
bles may coalesce and begin migrating, cre-
ating channels for formation gas to follow.
Expansive cementsFractures occur in
gelled cement according to the distribution
of stress in the annulus. Eliminating this
stressand avoiding fractureslimits gas
invasion. Tensile stresses build up in the gel
if annular volume increases or cement vol-
ume decreases. Thus, designing cement slur-
ries with low shrinkage and controlled fluid
loss during the gelation stage, and avoiding
excessive pressure fluctuations in the casing
are important in preventing fractures.
Designing cement slurries that expand as
they set takes this one step further. The two
principal techniques for inducing expansion
in oilwell cements are gas generation and
crystal growth. The gas-generating tech-
nique operates on the same principle as that
used for compressible cements, except that
the concentration of gas-generating material
is reduced. Also, expansion can occur only
before the cement develops significant
structural strength.
The most common way of inducing
expansion is to encourage the development
46
of ettringitea highly hydrated form of
calcium sulfoaluminateduring the
hydration reaction. This is often achieved by
adding gypsum or plaster of Paris to the
cement powder. Ettringite increases the
growth of certain expansive crystalline
species within the set cement matrix. Bulk
volumetric expansion is generally less than
one percent.
Alternatively, oxides of certain alkaline
earth metals may be added to achieve
expansion. An advantage of these is that the
expansion occurs above 170F [77C], a
temperature at which ettringite is unstable.
There is little doubt that controlled cement
expansion by crystalline growth can help
seal small gaps between the cement sheath
and the casing or formation, but it is unlikely
to be effective in sealing large channels cre-
ated by gas migration. Much of the expan-
sion takes place after gas flow has been initi-
ated and the size of the created channels is
simply too large. Also, these cements
undergo a bulk expansion, but still exhibit a
net chemical contraction and experience the
same hydrostatic and pore pressure
decreases as nonexpansive cements.
Thixotropic cements16During cement
state 1when cement is a liquid suspen- physical processes. Furthermore, it is a non-
siongas bubbles can move within a
cement column only if cement yield stress
remains below a critical value. Designing a
slurry with a rapid increase in gel strength
helps trap invading gas before it can rise in
the form of a bubble, preventing zonal com-
munication or gas flow to surface. Some
thixotropic slurries offer such a rapid
increase in gel strength.17
There are two ways to induce thixotropic
behavior in a cement slurry. The first
involves creation of a microcrystalline net-
work of mineral hydrates throughout the
slurry by adding a small amount of plaster,
bentonite or silicate materials. This friable
and temporary microstructure supports the
bulk of cement solids from an early stage in
the slurrys life. The second technique
employs polymers (dissolved or dispersed in
the interstitial water), which are crosslinked
to create a self-supporting viscous gel by
chemical reaction.
The transmitted hydrostatic pressure of
thixotropic systems should revert to the gra-
dient of the interstitial water and remain as
such until the setting period begins. How-
ever, at this point hydrostatic pressure may
begin to decrease and gas may enter by
some other mechanism.
Tough cementsProperties of set cement
may also be modified by inclusion of vari-
ous additives. Once again, attention has
turned to polymeric latex additives that
have had widespread use outside the oil
field, largely because of their ability to act
as tougheners. Latex-modified cements have
increased tensile strength, reduced shrink-
age during hydration, increased fracture
toughness and improved adhesion or bond-
ing (see Compressive Strength Versus
Toughness: A Brief Overview, page 43 ).18
Predicting Gas Migration and Designing
an Appropriate Solution
Armed with an understanding of the phe-
nomena, completions engineers face the
challenge of finding the right solutions (see
Gas Migration Mechanisms and Controlling
Factors, next page, bottom). Predicting like-
lihood of postplacement gas migration allows
the design of cost-effective remedies based
on the relative risk of gas migration.
Modeling gas migration is difficult
because it represents a series of complex
steady-state phenomenon involving varying
pressure fields, changing fluid saturation
and an evolving matrix structure. Hetero-
geneity within the cement paste or bound-
ary effects at the casing or formation can
induce events such as nonuniform gas
breakthrough which are, by definition,
unpredictable. Therefore, it is not possible
to predict gas migration with absolute relia-
bility. The following section describes how
one company, Dowell, has developed mod-
eling and software techniques to assess gas
migration risk.19
The Dowell methodology for predicting
potential gas migration began in 1989 with
the GASRULE gas migration predictive slide
rule. This simple slide-rule-based method
uses well data, gas-zone permeability and
height, gas pressure, hydrostatic conditions,
mud spacer and cement characteristics,
fluid volumes and mud-removal efficiency
to estimate four dimensionless factors: for-
mation factor, mud-removal factor, hydro-
Oilfield Review
 n Qualitative gas-

migration prediction.
The GASRULE slide-
rule-based method
of working out the
optimal cementing
solution has been
refined and incorpo-
rated into a quantita-
tive design approach.

Gas Migration Mechanisms and Controlling Factors

static factor and slurry-performance factor
Potential
State Mechanism Limiting parameters
gas flow rate
( above ). Each factor may be optimized
independently and combined into an index
Viscoelastic fluid Bubble flow Yield stress, gap width 10-9m3/sec that classifies the possibility of controlling
Tube flow Yield stress, gap width 10-6m3/sec gas migrationeither poor, moderate or
Viscous fingering Plastic viscosity, 10-7m3/sec excellent. While strictly qualitative, these
viscosity ratio
classifications do allow testing of different
Fracture Elasticity, 10-6m3/sec
stress in annulus, completion strategies against one another.
Relaxation Time Three developments have helped refine
Porous solid Fingering Fluid viscosity 10-6m3/sec the GASRULE approach. First, in 1990, the
Fracture Elasticity, darcy drag, 10-5m3/sec empirical mud-removal factor was replaced
stress in cement, with a more complete approach, based on
elasticity the Dowell WELLCLEAN mud removal
Permeation Permeability, 10-9m3/sec
technologywhich helps choose washes,
darcy drag,
capillary pressure spacers and slurry types, while indicating
Elastic solid Fracture Fracture toughness, 10-1m3/sec
whether a turbulent or laminar displace-
interfacial toughness, ment regime is the most favorable. Second,
stress state the hydrostatic factor used in the GASRULE
system has been replaced by a more rigor-
15. Fery JJ and Romieu J: Improved Gas Migration Con- 17. Sutton DL, Sabins F and Faul R: Annular Gas-Flow ous postplacement analysis.
trol in a New Oil Well Cement, paper SPE 17926, Theory and Prevention Methods Described, Oil The third development marks a major
presented at the Middle East Oil Technical Confer- and Gas Journal 82 (December 10, 1984): 84-92. advance. A quantitative design approach
ence and Exhibition, Manama, Bahrain, March 11- 18. Ohama Y: Polymer-Modified Mortars and Con-
14, 1989. cretes, in Ramachandran VS (ed): Concrete Admix-
has now been incorporated in the new
Richardson EA: Nitrogen Gas Stabilized Cement tures Handbook: Properties, Science & Technology. CemCADE cement job computer-aided
and a Process for Making and Using It, US Patent Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA: Noyes Publications
No. 4,333,764 (1982). (1984): 337-429.
Burkhalter JF, Childs JD and Sutton DL: Well 19. The prediction methodology outlined is based on
Cementing Process and Gasified Cements Useful experiment, engineering and statistical analysis. This
Therein, US Patent No. 4,450,010 (1984). approach assumes gas flow through the evolving
16. Thixotropic gels are viscous when static, but become cement matrix. The model cannot predict the
more fluid-like and less viscous when disturbed or appearance of gas flow weeks or months after the
moved by pumping. cement job.

Spring 1996 47
 n Designer cement
design and evaluation software (right ).20
jobs. CemCADE
Today, the CemCADE gas-migration mod- software improves
ule assists in design and assesses alternative the design and
solutions. This methodology is a consider- evaluation of
able improvement over the GASRULE cementing job
operations. In the
approach, but it does retain four similar first step of a
design factors: formation factor, mud- CemCADE session,
removal factor, postplacement factor and well geometry
slurry-performance factor. and casing config-
Formation factorAnalysis begins with uration to be
cemented are
characterizing all possible gas-bearing for- defined (top).
mations in terms of position, height, pres- The composition,
sure and permeability. An accurate descrip- sequence, volume
tion of pore pressure versus depth is and final positions
in the wellbore of
required to optimize hydrostatic parameters. the fluids that will
Good descriptions of the pore pressure of be pumped (mud,
other permeable layers and the fracture gra- wash, spacer,
dient are also required. The formation fac- and lead and tail
tor, indicating the risk of gas flow, is calcu- slurries) are then
defined, and
lated from these formation parameters. hydrostatic pres-
The more information about the formation sures are checked
that is available, the greater likelihood of a (middle). The
good design. Trying to understand the gas Placement Simula-
tor module is used
migration problem is quite difficult using to determine nec-
only an average pore-pressure gradient for essary centraliza-
the entire openhole section. tion and to select
Mud-removal factorAs mentioned, a the pump rate for
primary goal when cementing across a gas mud removal; fric-
tion pressures and
zone is optimum mud removal. The correct flow regimes are
application of WELLCLEAN technology is calculated (bot-
mandatory for gas-migration control. For tom). Finally, the
practical purposes, good zonal isolation job is simulated
using the U-Tube
over a 600-ft [180-m] section above the top Simulator module,
of a gas zone should be achieved. In the indicating the rates
gas-migration module, information about at which fluids
several factors is required to determine the must be pumped.
quality of mud removal, including:
Mud-circulation factoran estimate of
whether enough of the mud in the well is
in circulation prior to cement placement.
WELLCLEAN factorthe factor chosen is
either the turbulent or laminar flow result
for a given simulation, whichever is
appropriate for the well conditions and
delivers the required mud removal. Time
of turbulence across the zone is calcu-
lated, along with effective volume of
spacer to displace the mud in laminar
flow, and effective volume of cement to
displace the spacer in laminar flow, as
estimated from the U-tube simulation.

48 Oilfield Review
 Pipe-movement factorassigns a positive
value for pipe movement, which aids in
breaking the gel strength of the mud and
makes it easier to remove. This factor
depends on whether reciprocation, rota-
tion or both are used to enhance mud
mobilization.
Bottom-plug factordepends on the
number of bottom plugs used to reduce
the degree of contamination occurring as
fluids are circulated.
Fluids-compatibility factorrelates to
possible chemical interaction between
various fluids.
The final mud-removal factor is then com-
puted by summing these five factorsthe
greater the final value, the better the antici-
pated result.
Postplacement factor Postplacement
analysis is used to evaluate the severity of a
potential gas migration problem and to
quantify the influence of simple solutions
such as applying annular pressure. As previ-
ously discussed, gas migration is generally
caused by a loss of hydrostatic pressure.
First-level understanding of this may be
derived from gelation alone.
To characterize gelation, the notion of
wall shear stress (WSS) has been introduced
(see How Gas Gets into the Annulus, page
39 ). As WSS increases, annular hydrostatic
pressure falls. When hydrostatic pressure
equals formation gas pressure, WSS is
termed critical WSS (CWSS). Further
increase in WSS beyond this critical value
will allow gas to enter the annulus. WSS
depends on parameters such as formation
gas pressure, openhole diameter, and den-
sity and position of fluids. It is also sensitive
to any extra annular pressure, the presence
of external casing packers or techniques like
two-stage cementing that may sometimes be
employed to improve gas control.
CemCADE software calculates WSS and
assesses how use of hydrostatic modifiers
such as ECPsmay be adjusted to maxi-
mize the critical WSS, delaying gas entry
and allowing more time for cement to
harden uninvaded. However, the calcula-
tion does not take into account possible
fluid loss that may accelerate annular pres-
sure decrease.
Slurry-performance factorOnce gas
enters the cement column, it may migrate to
a point of lower pressure. Resistance to gas
Spring 1996
depends on slurry composition. For every Looking Forward to Further Change
slurry there is a minimum wall shear stress Every completions engineer knows that gas
(MWSS) above which gas can no longer migration is a complex problem. Successful
migrate. The MWSS depends mainly on the control requires systematically addressing
chemical composition of the slurry as well the gamut of factors that affect final job
as bottomhole static temperature. quality. Attempting to prevent gas migration
For every design there is a critical range by addressing a single factor chosen from
for WSS and, therefore, a critical time the list of possible chemical and mechanical
period during which gas can migrate in the events will inevitably result in failure.
slurry. This period extends from the time at This year, CemCADE design software will
which the slurry reaches critical WSS to the become available on a PC platform. The
time it becomes impermeable to gas. Opti- transition from rules-of-thumb governing
mizing a design consists of reducing this choice of solution through a slide-rule sys-
time period by increasing critical WSS, tem of assessing gas migration to a com-
decreasing MWSS or shortening the time to puter-based design system will be complete.
go from the CWSS to the MWSS. Some of the advances and technology that
The two parameters used by the Dowell have been described contribute not only to
CemCADE system to calculate the slurry- combating gas migration, but also to
performance factor are transition time and improving the quality of all critical cement
fluid loss. The faster the slurry develops operations. Mud removal, correct choice of
impermeability to gas, the lower the proba- slurry type and accurate mixing technology
bility that gas migration will occur. The are key elements in the evolving world of
measure of the evolution of the relative per- cementing design and execution. CF
meability of a cement slurry to gas during
the hydration period determines whether a 20. Catala G, de Montmollin V, Hayman A, Hutin R,
Rouault G, Guillot D, Jutten J, Qureshi U, Kelly B,
cement slurry can control gas. The rate of Piot B, Simien T and Toma I: Modernizing Well
cement-slurry permeability decline is diffi- Cementation Design and Evaluation, Oilfield
cult to measure. But it is possible to corre- Review 3, no. 2 (April 1991): 55-71.
late permeability decline to the rate of
change in consistency of a cement slurry
during an API thickening time testthat is,
the transition time.
During cement hydration, a major cause of
pore-pressure loss is the loss of fluid to sur-
rounding formations. The propensity for gas
to percolate may thus be related to the fluid-
loss potential of the slurry. Transition time
and fluid loss have been incorporated into a
single term, the slurry-performance factor.
Gas-migration factor The formation,
mud-removal, postplacement and slurry-per-
formance factors are then linearly combined
to give the final index or gas-migration factor.
Evaluation of the risk associated with a given
design is based on the gas-migration factor
compared to a scale ranging from very criti-
cal to very low risk of migration.
49
 Exploring the Subsalt

Paul Farmer Advances in seismic imaging have changed the way explorationists
Gatwick, England
view salt bodies. Once seen as impenetrable barriers to geophysical
Douglas Miller
Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA probing with some flanking pay zones, many salt structures are now

proving to be thin blankets shielding rich reserves. Geophysicists are

Andy Pieprzak
Jeff Rutledge developing new methods to see through salt, illuminating the reservoirs
Richard Woods
below. This new vision of subsalt is impacting E&P decisions from well
Houston, Texas, USA
planning and drilling to field delineation and development.

From the earliest days of exploration,

prospectors associated salt with oil and
60
gasbut not always for the right reasons. In
the 1920s, so many successful wells were
drilled around salt domes that logging meth-
ods were tuned to identify the high-salinity 30
water in formations overlying pay zones.1 By
1923, gravity and seismic methods became
successful in spotting salt domes, and the
0
industry was on its way to understanding the
structural role played by salt. Today, inter-
preters can view and tour salt structures
with the help of powerful graphics worksta- 30
tions (next page, top).
Salt is one of the most effective agents in
nature for trapping oil and gas: as a ductile
material, it can move and deform surround- Distribution of offshore salt sheets. [Adapted from Ward RW, MacKay S, Greenlee SM
ing sediments, creating traps; salt is also and Dengo CA: Imaging Sediments Under Salt: Where are We? The Leading Edge 13,
impermeable to hydrocarbons and acts as a no. 8 (August 1994): 834.]

For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Mark
Bogaards, Cliff Kelly and Mark Puckett, Wireline & Test-
ing, Houston, Texas, USA; Bob Godfrey, Colin Hulme,
Tore Karlsson, Jane Lam, Dominique Pajot, John Ullo and
z Yilmaz, Geco-Prakla, Gatwick, England;
George Jamieson, Geco-Prakla, Houston, Texas; and
Ron Roberts, Amoco, Denver, Colorado, USA.
Charisma seismic interpretation system, KUDOS 3D
velocity modeling system, and SALTBOND cement sys-
tem are marks of Schlumberger. CM-5 is a mark of Think-
ing Machines Corporation. GeoDepth is a mark of
Paradigm Geophysical. InDepth is a mark of Western
Geophysical.
1. Allaud LA and Martin MH: Schlumberger The History
of a Technique. New York, New York, USA: John
Wiley & Sons (1977): 68-69.
2. Western PG and Ball GJ: 3D Prestack Depth Migra-
tion in the Gulf of Suez: A Case Study, Geophysical
Prospecting 40 (1992): 379-402.

50 Oilfield Review
nFlying through a seismic interpretation. The top of a salt feature (yellow surface) has been interpreted on a seismic workstation. Also
shown is a panel of seismic data (background), a reflector above the salt (brown surface), seismic velocities at vertical well locations
(multicolored vertical logs) and deviated well trajectories (blue lines).

seal. Most of the hydrocarbons in North PassiveNo Space Problem

America are trapped in salt-related struc- nStyles of salt intru-
tures, as are significant amounts in other oil sion. When the over-
lying sediments offer
provinces around the world (previous page ). little resistance (top),
Many reservoirs in the North Sea are below salt can rise, often
salt, as are large fields in the Gulf of Suez.2 dragging flanking
A product of seawater evaporation, salt layers up with it. If
the overburden does
accumulation can reach thousands of feet in
resist, salt pressured
thickness. Salt retains a low density of from below (middle)
2.1g/cm3 even after burial. However, the sur- Radial or can still push
rounding sediments compact and at some subparallel through, doming the
depth become denser than the saltan ActiveDiapir Creates Space faults overburden and cre-
ating radial faults in
unstable situation. If the overlying sediments the process. In the
offer little resistance, as is sometimes the case of regional
case in the Gulf of Mexico, the salt rises, cre- extension (bottom)
ating characteristic domes, pillows and faulting in the rigid
overburden can open
wedges that truncate upturned sedimentary
the way for salt to
layers (right ). If the overburden does resist, rise. [Adapted from
salt can still push through, creating faults in Jackson MPA, Vendev-
the process. If tectonic conditions are right, ille BC and Schultz-Ela
Thinning, DD: Salt-Related Struc-
extensional faulting in the rigid overburden arching tures in the Gulf of
can open the way for salt ascent. Much of Mexico: A Field Guide
the Zechstein salt pervasive in the North Sea ReactiveExtension Creates Space for Geophysicists, The
has been mobilized this way. Leading Edge 13, no. 8
In contrast to salts low density is its high (August 1994): 837.]
seismic wave velocity4400 m/sec (14,432
ft/sec)often more than twice that of sur-
rounding sediments. The strong velocity
contrast at the sediment-salt interface acts
like an irregularly shaped lens, refracting and
Fan of
normal
faults
Spring 1996 51
 Evolution of a Salt Wall Evolution of a Salt Diapir

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

nEvolution of salt intrusions. Salt walls and diapirs are initiated at instabilities on extensive salt layers. As the salt rises and then
flows horizontally, the walls and diapirs change shape. Eventually some salt features become completely detached from the parent
salt layer.

0 reflecting seismic energy. Early data process-

ing techniques treated this contrast like a
mirror, resulting in images that portrayed salt
features as bottomless diapirs extending to
the deepest level of seismic data (left ). In the
1.0 1980s, seismic processing began to correctly
image the steeply dipping and sometimes
overhanging faces of salt where hydrocar-
Two-way time, sec

bons could accumulate.

Two-way time

But in the last five years, a new image of

salt has emerged. In some areas, not only is
2.0
the top of salt clearly visible, but the bottom
also. Geologists hypothesize that in these
areas of allocthonous saltfound away
from its original depositional positioncon-
ditions allow the salt, having reached verti-
3.0 cal equilibrium, to begin flowing horizon-
tally (above ). In the Gulf of Mexico, this
occurs mainly in deep water beyond the
continental shelf, where sediment cover is
not as thick as it is near shore (bottom left ).
Distance Distance Wells drilled through thin salt sheets have
encountered oil-bearing sediments below.
nEarly imaging results around salt. Seismic data processing resulted in images of bot- However, knowledge of the existence of
tomless salt diapirs (left). Enhancements in processing began to correctly image the
steeply dipping and sometimes overhanging faces of salt (right). [Reprinted with permis- hydrocarbons below salt is insufficient rea-
sion from Ratcliff DW, Gray SH and Whitmore ND: Seismic Imaging of Salt Structures in the son to start drilling. Drilling salt is risky (see
Gulf of Mexico, The Leading Edge 11, no. 4 (April 1992): 15 and 22.] Drilling and Completions Through Salt,
page 54 ). The salt itself is weak and under-
goes continuous deformation. Below
intruded salt, sediment layers are often dis-
rupted and overpressured. And most impor-
Lake Charles tant, unless seismic data have been pro-
Houston cessed to image through the salt, the
New Orleans position of the target is unknown.

Mickey
Mouse
Teak Gemini

Mahogany

Enchilada Discovery
Plugged and abandoned
Salt sheets
nSalt sheets mapped in the Gulf of Mexico.
Recent exploration wells correspond to wells mentioned in table (next page).

52 Oilfield Review
 Subsalt Scorecard in January 1996
Prospect Operators/Partners Result Date
Mickey Mouse Exxon and Noncommercial 1991
Mississippi Conoco discovery
Canyon 211
Mahogany Phillips, Anadarko Commercial 1993
Ship Shoal 349 and Amoco discovery
Amoco 1 Amoco Dry hole 1993
South Marsh
Island 169
Mesquite Phillips Dry hole 1994 A few operators have announced signifi-
Vermillion 349 and Anadarko cant oil discoveries beneath salt in the Gulf
Teak Anadarko Potentially 1994 of Mexico, rekindling a spirit of exploration
South Timbalier (originally with commercial in the Gulf. Phillips Petroleum Company, in
Addition 260 Phillips) discovery partnership with Anadarko Petroleum Cor-
Ship Shoal 250 Japex and Vastar Dry hole 1994 poration and Amoco Production Company,
announced the first commercial Gulf of
Ship Shoal 360 Unocal Plugged 1994 Mexico subsalt discovery with the
and Conoco and abandoned
Mahogany prospect in 1993, and attributed
Ship Shoal 368 Amerada Hess Dry hole 1994 the success to the imaging technique called
and Shell prestack depth migration.3 Drilled in 375 ft
South Timbalier 289 Consolidated Natural Gas and Dry hole 1994 [114 m] of water to a depth of 16,500 ft
Louisiana Land & Exploration [5030 m], the well produces from sediment
layers beneath a salt sheet 3000 to 8000 ft
Enchilada Shell Offshore Inc., Commercial 1994
Garden Bank 128 Amerada Hess discovery [915 to 2439 m] thick.
and Pennzoil Since the Mahogany find, many more
wells have been drilled in the area, with
South Ana Amoco Dry hole 1994
Vermillion 308 and Vastar
other operators experiencing similar suc-
cess (left ). Before prestack depth migration,
Garden Banks 119 Oryx Dry hole 1995 the success ratio in the subsalt play was
Alexandrite Phillips, Anadarko Dry hole 1996 around 5%. The new technique is increas-
Ship Shoal 337 and Amoco ing that to 25%. Depth migration is also
Monazite Anadarko Drilling in 1996 bringing first-time details to light in some of
Vermillion 375 the many North Sea reservoirs that produce
Agate Phillips 1996
from below salt, and operators plan explo-
Commercial
Ship Shoal 361 and Anadarko discovery ration campaigns in the Red Sea using the
same method.4
South Timbalier 231 Louisiana Land & Exploration, Drilling in 1996 What is this imaging technique and how
Anadarko and Agip
does it help illuminate subsalt reservoirs? The
North Lobster Marathon Drilling started 1995 answers are found in a review of the family
South Timbalier 308 in 1995
of imaging methods, including prestack
Gemini Texaco Potentially 1995 depth migration, that are bringing subsalt
Mississippi and Chevron commercial and other complex structures to light.5
Canyon 292 discovery
(continued on page 56)
No Name Pennzoil, OXY Drilling in 1996 Spudded
South Marsh and Total in 1995 3. Westcott ME, Leach MC, Wyatt KD, Valasek PA and
Island 97 Branham KL: Mahogany: Seismic Technology Lead-
ing to the First Economic Subsalt Field, Expanded
Bald Pate Oryx and Development 1995 Abstracts, 65th SEG International Meeting and Exposi-
Garden Banks 260 Amerada under way tion, Houston, Texas, USA (October 8-13, 1995):
1161-1164.
Hydrocarbons present 4. Salpukas A: Anadarko Planning to Drill in Red Sea
Using Computers, New York Times, September 29,
1995.
nSubsalt drilling scorecard in the Gulf of Mexico. Since the successful well drilled by 5. For more on subsalt imaging topics: The Leading Edge
Phillips and partners in 1993, subsalt exploration in the Gulf of Mexico has blossomed. 13, no. 8 (August 1994).
[From Taylor G: Subsalt Returns to the Top, AAPG EXPLORER 17, no. 2 (February 1996): 8.]

Spring 1996 53
Potential Problems

a Salt
Radial stress relaxation

Salt creep ledges

impinge on drillstring

Borehole wall weakened

by leaching water, gas
and other minerals
out of salt

Wellbore enlargement
results from salt
dissolution

Accumulated cuttings
jam drillstring

meabilitythat make salt bodies effective hydro-

carbon traps also present unique challenges for oil
and gas operators (above). Special considerations,
from selecting drilling fluids and bits to imple-
menting casing programs and cementing proce-
dures, are required to produce long-lasting wells.
Methods developed on the US Gulf Coast and in
the Gulf of Suez, Egypt have improved the effi-
ciency and reliability of drilling and completion
operations in thick salt sections.1

54
Unlike typical sediment sequences in which hor-
izontal stresses are less than vertical stresses
Salt
aa
Drilling and Completions
Through Salt

Casing Strings Wellbore Displacement

Shear zone

Salt

movement can displace wellbore tubulars, possibly causing casing failure or restricted access (right).

Properties of saltpseudoplastic flow under sub-

surface temperatures and pressures, and low per-
from overburden, salt is like a fluid, with stresses
in all directions approximately equal to the over-
burden. Therefore, if borehole fluid pressure is
less than in-situ salt strength, stress relaxation
may significantly reduce openhole diameters. In
some cases, relaxation and salt creep can cause
borehole restrictions even before drilling and com-
pletion operations are finished. Undergauge bore-
holes can lead to stuck drillpipe, problems running
casing and ultimately casing failuresovaling,
bending or collapse.
To maintain near-gauge boreholes, drilling flu-
ids must minimize hole closure and washouts.
Water- and oil-base muds with saturated and
undersaturated salt concentrations, and synthetic
fluids have been used to drill salt, but no single
system works all the time. Water-base muds with
Caprock

Salt
flow

Unconsolidated
zone
Potential
overpressure
150F

200F

nSpectrum of challenges in subsalt drilling and completion. Drillers have to address factors that cause openhole instability and accompanying problems, including
borehole walls weakened by incompatible muds, restrictions and undergauge hole caused by salt creep, or enlargement due to dissolution (left). In rapidly moving salt,
liners cemented inside cemented casing reduce radial pipe deformation and so increase wellbore resistance to nonuniform loads (center). During the life of a well, salt

low salt concentrations try to balance salt erosion

and dissolution with creep rate to maintain hole
size. However, because salt creep and dissolution
change across thick salt sections, this can be
problematic and hole size may vary with depth.
High-salt-concentration, water-base muds dissolve
enough salt to offset creep, but can become under-
saturated at high temperatures and enlarge the
hole. Oil and synthetic muds prevent dissolution
and can be used effectively in salt, but are expen-
sive, can leach water, gas and other mineral inclu-
sions out of salt and may not offset creep.2 Eco-
nomic, easy to maintain and adaptable
salt-saturated, water-base muds are often used.

Oilfield Review
 Salt is weak and soft, so polycrystalline dia-
mond and other mill-tooth insert cutters, which
make hole by scraping, are used. Stronger inserts
may be needed to penetrate caprock formed on the
top of some salt layers by groundwater leaching of
minerals. Side-cutting, eccentric or bicentered
reamers above bits have been proposed to open up
hole diameters that are larger than the bit and
allow for some salt creep before the borehole
becomes undergauge.3
After drilling into salt, heavier than expected
mud weights may be needed to control salt flow.
Drilling speeds vary among operators, but reason-
ably fast penetration rates60 to 150 ft/hr [18 to
46 m/hr]are required, so wells can be cased
quickly. Good hole cleaning and periodic back-
reaming, however, should not be sacrificed just to
make hole faster. Circulating a small volume of
fresh water can remove salt restrictions and free
stuck pipe, but care must be used to prevent
washouts. Enlarged or undergauge holes make
directional control difficult.
Thick salt bodies can affect temperature and
pressure in surrounding formations. Salt thermal
conductivity is high compared to other sediments,
so overlying formations are heated and underlying
formations are cooled. Because salt is a barrier to
basin fluids, if outward flow is insufficient to
achieve normal compaction, high pressure may
develop below salt.4 As disrupted sediments
below salt are penetrated, fluid losses or flow
can occur, depending on mud weight and forma-
tion pressures, unless drillers proceed slowly
and carefully.
Washouts, restrictions, ledges and moving salt
exert nonuniform loads on casing.5 Increasing wall
thickness offers better resistance to these loads
than higher yield strength steels, so heavy-wall
casing can be used if salt creep rates are low and
good cement jobs can be obtained. In more
extreme cases of rapidly moving salt, liners
Spring 1996
cemented inside cemented casing increase
nonuniform load capacity by reducing casing
deformation. Collapse resistance of properly
cemented concentric strings can equal or exceed
the combined strengths of individual liners and
casings.6 Casing across salt zones is subjected to
tension, compression, burst and hydrostatic loads
combined with nonuniform forces, which must be
included in design calculations.7 Casing can be set
just below salt to save time or in deeper forma-
tions for better support, depending on the salt
interval.8 A diversion stage tool in the casing
string just below the salt may be needed to place
specialized cements across the salt, reduce hydro-
static pressure on weaker subsalt intervals or
ensure efficient slurry placement.
Effective cement fill in the annulus between the
outer casing and borehole minimizes nonuniform
load effects. Long slurry thickening times may
allow salt to encroach on casing before a complete
set occurs, and inadequate displacement across
washouts may cause unequal loading or localized
bending. Adequate fluid-loss control is needed to
prevent excessive loss of slurry mix water that can
dissolve or weaken salt, adversely affect cement
properties or cause annular bridging, loss of
hydrostatic pressure and gas migration (see Get-
ting to the Root of Gas Migration, page 36).
Salt-saturated cements prevent salt dissolution,
but are more difficult to mix on surface and extend
slurry set times (over-retardation). Freshwater and
low-salt concentration slurries avoid retardation
problems and are easier to handle, but long-term
exposure to salt may lead to cement failures.
Additives introduced in the late 1980s helped solve
over-retardation and strength development prob-
lems in salt-rich slurries.9 This led to development
of proprietary slurries for cementing across salt
zones like the Dowell SALTBOND cement system,
which provides controllable thickening times,
good early compressive strengths, effective place-
ment rheology, excellent fluid-loss control and
resistance to aggressive brine attack. MET
1. Barker JW, Feland KW and Tsao YH: Drilling Long Salt Sec-
tions Along the U.S. Gulf Coast, paper SPE 24605, pre-
sented at the 67th SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Washington, DC, USA, October 4-7, 1992.
Pattillo PD and Rankin TE: How Amoco Solved Casing
Design Problems in The Gulf of Suez, Petroleum Engineer
International 53, no. 11 (November 1981): 86-112.
2. Leyendecker EA and Murray SC: Properly Prepared Oil
Muds Aid Massive Salt Drilling, World Oil 180, no. 4
(April 1975): 93-95.
3. Warren TM, Sinor LA and Dykstra MW: Simultaneous
Drilling and Reaming with Fixed Blade Reamers, paper SPE
30474, presented at the 71st SPE Annual Technical Confer-
ence and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, October 22-25, 1996.
4. OBrien J and Lerche I: Understanding Subsalt
Overpressure May Reduce Drilling Risks, Oil & Gas Jour-
nal 2, no. 4 (January 24, 1994): 28-34.
5. Cheatham JB and McEver JW: Behavior of Casing Sub-
jected to Salt Loading, Journal of Petroleum Technology 16
(September 1964): 1069-1075.
6. Burkowsky M, Ott H and Schillinger H: Cemented Pipe-in-
Pipe Casing Strings Solve Field Problems, World Oil 193,
no. 5 (October 1981): 143-147.
El-Sayed AAH and Khalaf F: Resistance of Cemented Con-
centric Casing Strings Under Nonuniform Loading, SPE
Drilling Engineering 7, no. 1 (March 1992): 59-64.
7. Recent methods use common Von Mises calculations for
normal loads along with the addition of stresses to account
for nonuniform collapse. For more on these methods: Hack-
ney RM: A New Approach to Casing Design for Salt Forma-
tions, paper SPE/IADC 13431, presented at the 1985
SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana,
USA, March 6-8, 1985.
8. An article in three parts: LeBlanc L: Drilling, Completion,
Workover Challenges in Subsalt Formations, Offshore
(June 1994): 21-22, 49 (part I); (July 1994): 42-44, 59 (part
II); (August 1994): 38-40 (part III).
9. Yearwood J, Drecq P and Rae P: Cementing Across Mas-
sive Salt Formations, paper 88-39-104, presented at the
39th Annual Technical Meeting of the Petroleum Society of
CIM, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, June 12-16, 1988.
55
aa
aa Common midpoint
(CMP)
Offset 4
Offset 3
Offset 2
Offset 1
0 offset

the shifts defines the stacking velocity of that layer.

Imaging
Imaging describes the two seismic data pro-
cessing steps, stacking and migration, that
bring seismic reflections into focus. Stacking
attempts to increase signal-to-noise ratio by
summing records obtained from several
seismic shots reflecting at the same point
(above ). Energy arrives on each trace at a
different time, depending on the source-
receiver separation, or offset. For a uniform-
velocity layer overlying the reflector, seismic
rays are straight, and the arrival times define
a hyperbola. The set of traces is called a
common midpoint (CMP) gather. Before the
CMP gather can be stacked, the traces must
be shifted to align arrivals. The offset versus
time parameter that describes the shifts
defines the stacking velocity of that layer.
Shifting is performed for all reflections visi-
ble in the traces. The result of stacking is a
single trace, taken to represent the signal
that would have been recorded in a normal-
incidence experiment at the midpoint of the
source-receiver pairs. The basic assumption
in stacking is that velocity does not vary
horizontally over the extent of the gather.
The second component of imaging,
migration, redistributes reflected seismic
energy from its recorded position to its true
position using a velocity model ( right ).
There are many classes of migration, vary-
ing in environment of applicability from
simple structures and smooth velocity varia-
tions to complex structures and rapidly
varying velocities.6
The main distinctions, for the purpose of
this article, are the imaging domaineither

56
Two-way time

Migrated
trace

Salt
1

Source

MIG
2
Offset
3

Midpoint
trace

nRedistribution of reflected seismic energy

by migration. In this simple 2D rendition,
migration (MIG) repositions a reflected

multiple locations.

time or depthand the order of migration

in the work flowpoststack or prestack. To
process any one survey, combinations of
migration techniques may be used. The
trend today, as complex reservoirs come
under scrutiny, is to use depth rather than
time and prestack instead of poststack.
In time migration, the velocity model,
data

trace from its recorded position to its true

position using a velocity model. In more
complex and 3D cases, reflections may be
redistributed to positions outside the plane
containing the source and receivers.
Energy may also be distributed among

sometimes called the velocity field, may vary

only smoothly (next page, bottom ). Velocity
should increase with depth, and any varia-
tions in the horizontal direction should be
gradual. The output of the process is a seis-
4

Hyperbolic
curve

Receiver

Original
Stacking
velocity
=

nStacking to enhance and focus seismic signals by summing traces reflected midway between several source-receiver pairs. Energy
1

+
2
Offset

+
3

Corrected CMP gather

arrives on each seismic record at a different time, depending on the source-receiver separation, or offset. The arrival times define a
hyperbola. Before the traces can be stacked, they must be shifted to align arrivals. The offset versus time relationship that describes
+
4

mic volume with time as the vertical axis.

Time migration is most successful when
=

velocities are laterally invariant or smoothly

varying. It is often applicable and, hence
chosen in most parts of the world.
In depth migration, the velocity model
may have strong velocity contrasts vertically
or horizontally. Depth migration is suited for
environments in which velocities change
abruptly, often the case with complex struc-
tures such as steep dips, faults, folds, salt
intrusions and truncated layers. The output
volume has depth as the vertical axis. Depth
migration, though often appropriate, is still
rarely done because of the difficulty in con-
structing an accurate velocity model.
Poststack migration is migration applied
after the seismic traces have been stacked.
Stacking enhances the seismic signal, and
also reduces by an order of magnitude the
number of traces that comprise the stacked
seismic volume, so migration poststack is
roughly 100 times faster than prestack. For
poststack migration to be effective, the
assumptions made in stacking must be
valid. The amplitude of the stacked trace
must represent that of the normal-incidence
trace and reflected arrivals must be approxi-
mately hyperbolic (next page, top ). These
assumptions are valid only when the struc-
ture is simple. Otherwise prestack migration
is more suitable.
Prestack migration is run before stacking,
and can handle the most complex structures
Stacked
CMP

6. For a review: Farmer P, Gray S, Hodgkiss G, Pieprzak

A, Ratcliff D, Whitcombe D and Whitmore D: Struc-
tural Imaging: Toward a Sharper Subsurface View,
Oilfield Review 5, no. 1 (January 1993): 28-41.

Oilfield Review
 Snapshot Distance, ft Snapshot Distance, ft
1000 0 1000 2000 3000 1000 0 1000 2000 3000
0 0

500 500

Salt
Depth, ft

Depth, ft
wedge
1000 1000

1500 1500

Reservoir top Reservoir top

2000 2000

Shot Gather Distance, ft Shot Gather Distance, ft

1000 0 1000 2000 3000 1000 0 1000 2000 3000
0 0

100 100

200 200

Two-way time, msec

Two-way time, msec

Bottom salt
300 300 Snapshot
time
Snapshot Top salt
400
time 400

500 500 Reservoir

Reservoir

600 600

700 700

nThe effects of velocity variations on raytracing and common midpoint (CMP) assumptions. In a flat model with simple
structures and velocities (top left), raypaths are straight and wavefronts are spherical. Arrival times on seismic records can
be fit with a hyperbola (bottom left). In such a case, the CMP and reflection point would be coincident. Inserting a salt wedge
over the flat reflector (top right) gives rise to bent raypaths. The arrivals do not have a hyperbolic shape on seismic records
(bottom right). In this case, the CMP would not be coincident with the reflection point. Also visible in the salt case are multi-
plesarrivals from multiply reflected wavesthat present additional processing problems. These waveforms and traces
were created with 2D acoustic finite-difference modeling.

Simple velocities + simple Simple velocities + complex

structure = poststack time migration structure = prestack time migration
nVelocity models for four migration
classes: time, depth, poststack and
prestack. Poststack models are on the left,
prestack on the right. Time-based models
are on the top, depth-based on the bot-
tom. In time migration, the velocity
model may vary only smoothly or mono-
Increasing velocity

tonicallyalways increasing with depth.

Complex velocities + simple
structure = poststack depth migration
Complex velocities + complex
structure = prestack depth migration
Depth migration is required for more com-
plex velocity models. Poststack migration
works with models of low complexity,
while prestack migration can handle the
most complex models.

Spring 1996 57
 Inputs
and velocity fields. With the amount of data
in modern 3D surveys, the main constraints
on this method are the time and skill
3D stack
volume 3D CMP gathers needed to construct velocity models and the
computing power required for reasonable
processing turnaround time.
Interpretation of Imaging a seismic volume containing a
Velocity model salt body is unlike traditional processing, in
current layer
in depth
in time domain which thousands of tapes are sent off to a
processing group that sends back a finished
product, ready for interpretation. Subsalt
3D prestack travel-time imaging requires several iterations of migra-
inversion from ray-based tion and interpretation. The process is a
velocity analysis complex interplay of many steps ( left ). 7
Some of the steps, such as the migrations,
are run as batch input to mainframe or mas-
Compute and output sively parallel processor (MPP) computers.
velocity nodes Others, such as velocity modeling and layer
boundary interpretation, require interactive
workstations.
Model validation
Different operators and service companies
Update velocity
Prestack depth may have variants of these methods, but the
component of model
migration of general processing flow is the same. The
selected offsets first step is to build an initial model of the
velocity in the overburdenthe velocities of
Analyze layers overlying the salt. In the North Sea,
CIP gathers several major velocity contrasts may overlie
the salt. Velocity estimates can come from
3D poststack 3D poststack ray-tracing-based velocity analysis on CMP
depth migration depth migration gathers. If the common midpoint geometry
volume
is not suitable, such as when velocities vary
horizontally, a CMP gather cannot be used.
Delineate geometry
Instead, a common image point (CIP) gather
of base of layer is created using a prestack migration tech-
in depth domain nique to assemble all the traces that image
the depths below a given surface location.8
In the Gulf of Mexico, sediments are typi-
Current layer < maximum cally sand-shale sequences with small
Update depth
component of model
velocity contrasts between layers. Without
strong velocity contrast, CMP-based velocity
Current layer = maximum analysis is not necessary, so initial velocities
are taken from stacking velocities. In both
3D prestack cases, velocities are checked for trends with
depth migration well data such as sonic logs or borehole
seismic data.
The second step uses this early velocity
model to predict reflection arrival times on
CMP or CIP gathers at control points. The
3D prestack
depth migration shape of the arrival times of the shallowest
volume major reflector is analyzed for the velocity
that best flattens the times, and the velocity
model is updated. This is the most time-
nSubsalt prestack depth migration flow chart. intensive step, and requires the intervention
Some of the steps, such as velocity modeling and
layer boundary interpretation, require interactive of an expert and the versatility of an interac-
workstations. The migrations are run on powerful tive velocity modeling workstation. (For a
mainframe or MPP computers. tour of the Geco-Prakla KUDOS 3D veloc-
ity model building workstation, see Foun-
dations in Velocity, page 60.)

58 Oilfield Review
 Time Migration
Distance, m With the updated velocity model, post-
11,250 0 stack or prestack depth migration is applied,
1700 and the gathers are recomputed and
checked for arrival flatness. If necessary,
1800 these few steps are iterated to obtain an
1900
accurate velocity of the topmost layer. Then
the process is repeated for as many layers as
2000 are identified above the salt.
Two-way time, msec

2100
If the top of salt appears to be structurally
simple based on preliminary time migration,
2200 the velocities of the overburden can be used
in a poststack depth migration to image the
2300
top of salt with good precision. An example
2400 of this is the imaging of the Cavendish 3D
survey in the North Sea. The velocity model
2500
indicates a smooth top of the Zechstein salt
2600 (bottom left ). Encased within the Zechstein
is a thin, complexly folded dolomite, called
2700
Plattendolomit, that causes strong distortion
2800 of seismic ray paths before they reach the
Silverpit target. An important step in the
Depth Migration construction of an accurate depth-velocity
Distance, m
11,250 0
model was characterizing the shape of the
2500
Plattendolomit (below right ). The complex-
ity of the velocity modelhigh-velocity salt
2750
overlying lower-velocity sedimentssug-
gests that depth migration is better suited for
3000
imaging than is time migration. Applying
depth migration makes a dramatic differ-
3250
ence in subsalt structure: the dip of subsalt
layers, and so the locations of potential
Depth, m

3500
traps, changes significantly compared to the
time migration results (left ).
3750 (continued on page 63)

7. Modified from: Godfrey B, Pieprzak A, Berg K and

4000 Yilmaz : 3-D Salt and Sub-Salt Imaging Strategy:
A Case History from the Gulf of Mexico, Technical
4250
Program and Abstracts SEG Summer Research Work-
shop on 3-D Seismology: Integrated Comprehension
of Large Data Volumes, Rancho Mirage, California,
4500 USA, (August 1-6, 1993): 128-134.
8. Common image point gathers are assembled by a
nComparing poststack time (top) to poststack depth migration (bottom) on the method that has been likened to looking for a needle
Cavendish survey. The complex velocity model requires depth migration to in a haystack. Every possible source-receiver pair in
accurately image subsalt structures. Without depth migration, the dips on sub- the 3D volume of interest is checked to see whether it
contributes to the signal generated by the reflection at
salt layers may be incorrectly imaged.
a test point in the volume.

Amoco Survey Velocity Section Plattendolomit Surface

Plattendolomit
Top Zechstein

Base Zechstein Silverpit formation

nVelocity model for the North Sea

Cavendish survey. The Zechstein salt
1500 3250 5000 top is relatively smooth, allowing post- nSurface of the complexly folded Plattendolomit.
Velocity, m/sec stack migration. Within the salt layer
the lower-velocity Plattendolomit can
be seen. The target layer is the Silver-
pit formation.
Spring 1996 59
 Foundations in Velocity

Before the arrival of massively parallel processor
computers, migration was the stumbling block in
prestack depth imaging. Now that MPPs can han-
dle migration in reasonably short order, the con-
struction of an accurate 3D velocity model is the
most time-consuming task. The Geco-Prakla
KUDOS 3D velocity model building system allows
specialists in interpretive processing to construct
and visualize velocity models interactively.
Velocity modeling systems developed by other
service companies, such as InDepth by Western
Geophysical and GeoDepth by Paradigm Geo-
physical, contain similar features.
A velocity model is defined by two sets of
parameterslayer velocities and reflector
geometries. Such models can have either time or
depth as their vertical axis. Models with time as
the vertical axis are relatively easy to derive from
conventional time-domain processing, and are
generally smooth: rays can be traced through the
models with moderate bending at interfaces, so
processing steps such as computing travel times
through the model can be executed rapidly and
nearly automatically.
In contrast, earth models in depth usually have
strong horizontal and vertical velocity variations.
Rays can bend sharply at interfaces and so the
reflector geometry must be known very accu-
rately. Processing must take an interpretive pause
after each layer is built, precluding automation.
Efficient construction of depth-based models is
the aim of the KUDOS velocity modeler.
Traditional velocity modeling programs con-
strain models to be simpleunlike the real earth
with no abrupt terminations, pinchouts or multi-
ple vertical values. Layers must be continuous
and extend across the entire survey. The KUDOS
system, by contrast, allows models to be built
with any structural complexity. Graphic elements
are rendered on a high-performance workstation,
allowing immediate visualizationa key ability in
velocity model construction and validation.
In the KUDOS system, a modeling volume is
defined that has its vertical dimension in depth.
Surfaces corresponding to the main geological
horizons are inserted into this volume, subdivid-
ing it. Interval velocity fields are derived and
assigned to each subvolume, forming a spatially
variant velocity-depth model.
Layers are added to the model in an iterative
sequence. At each stage the model consists of a
series of layers, each with its own velocity field,
and a halfspace of unknown velocity below the
bottom layer. This halfspace contains the next
horizon to be imaged. The velocity that will cor-
rectly image the next horizon is derived through
ray-based velocity analysis (below). The velocity
of the layer is mapped by interpolating velocities
determined at control points (next page, bottom).
The halfspace is then flooded with the velocity
field derived for that next horizon.
The subvolume model is then exported from
the KUDOS workstation as either a tessellation or

nInteractive ray-based velocity analysis. For a chosen gather (lower left panel) traces can be shifted interactively to test different interval veloci-
ties. A plot of semblancethe coherence achieved between traces shifted with a given velocityshows the best choices for velocities (upper
left). The higher the semblance, the better that velocity flattens the traces. Velocities that are too high leave arrival times drooping at long offsets
(upper right). Velocities that are too low produce corrected gathers that swing up at long offsets (middle right). The correct velocities flatten
arrival times across the gather (lower right).

60 Oilfield Review
Layered Model Before Tessellation Layered Model After Tessellation

nLayered model before (left) and after (right) tessellation. Tessellation divides layer volumes into tetrahedra and assigns a velocity to each corner of every tetrahedron.

Tessellated Salt Body

a 3D grid, and sent with the seismic data to the
computer for post- or prestack depth migration.
Tessellation involves dividing the layered
velocity model into tetrahedra (above, left and
right). Interval velocities are stored at each cor-
ner of every tetrahedron, and the topographies of
the depth surfaces are represented by tetrahedral
facets. Tessellated volumes have special proper-
ties; they are especially efficient for modeling
arrival times by raytracingfor generating travel
times for prestack depth migrationand they can
represent realistic geologic models with struc-
tural complexity at all scales (left). The KUDOS

nTessellation of salt volume with structural complexity at many scales.

Velocity Control Points
nVelocity control points
for a chalk reflector
above the salt. Velocities
for the layer immediately
above the reflector are
interpolated between
control points (small
cubes) which are color
coded by interval veloc-
ityblue is faster than
green. The spatial posi-
tion of each control point
is dictated by rays traced
through the velocity
fields of the overlying
layers. A 2D slice
through the seismic vol-
ume is displayed with
rays contributing to
selected control points.

Spring 1996 61
system can also express the velocity model as an Correct Velocities
array of evenly spaced 3D grid points. This creates
a volume that may not look as complex as the tes-
sellated volume, but has a velocity representation
more suited for some migration algorithms.
Following migration, the seismic data are
loaded to the interpretation workstation, where
the newly imaged horizon is delineated in depth.
This surface is then incorporated into the KUDOS
model, forming a new base layer. The velocity
field below this layer now needs to be determined,
so the next iteration of velocity analysis begins.
In some areas, such as the Gulf of Mexico, the
background velocity is slowly varying and layer
boundaries are difficult to identify (next page, top).
Instead of proceeding in steps, layer by layer, the
background velocity model is built in just a few
steps, each handling several layers. At selected
locations, CIP gathers are analyzed for the overall
velocity function that best flattens all the arrivals
simultaneously. In the KUDOS system, this High Velocities
method is called image-based velocity analysis.
The velocity function can be modified interactively
and a corrected gather can be viewed (right).

nFinding the velocity function that flattens all arrivals simultaneously. Common image point (CIP) gathers
(top) obtained from prestack depth migration are converted from depth to time using the current velocity
model and displayed twice (left and center). The interval (green) and root mean square (RMS) velocity func-
tions (red) for this model are shown as a pair of curves on a semblance display (right). Interval velocities can
be modified interactively, automatically adjusting the corresponding RMS velocity function. A new gather is
then computed, and the arrival curvature can be compared to that on the reference gather (left) which remains
unchanged. Other velocities can be tested (bottom). In this example, velocities higher than the reference
model have been picked (green dots) and applied to the gather (center panel). The new velocities are too high,
causing downward curvature to the arrivals. The original velocities remain as black dots on the screen.

62 Oilfield Review
 nGulf of Mexico salt sheet with associated velocity functions at control
points. The background velocity increases gradually with depth (yellow to
1500 3250 5000 green) making layer boundaries above the salt difficult to pick. The strong
Velocity, m/sec contrast and constant velocity of the salt are depicted by the dark blue
band in the velocity functions.

If the top of salt is rough, prestack depth Overlapping Salt Bodies

migration must be applied (right ). Geolo-
gists surmise that such complex topogra-
phies indicate instabilities where the
upward movement of the salt, once halted,
has been reactivated.
Once the top of salt has been imaged, an
interpreter must delineate the top of salt on
an interactive seismic interpretation worksta-
tion. Then the velocity model is updated by
filling the volume below the top of salt with
salt velocity, assumed to be uniform. With
this new model, another prestackor post-
stack if overburden velocities are smooth
enoughdepth migration is performed, and
the bottom of salt comes into focus.
An interpreter then maps the bottom of
salt. Next, and similar to the first step, veloc-
ities of the sedimentary layers below the salt
are estimated. These are first approximated
by the velocities of layers at the same depth
but outside the canopy of salt. Then a
prestack depth migration is run and sets of
gathers are checked for flat arrivals. The
velocity model is updated at these control
points until all control points show flat
nA structurally
complex salt fea-
ture requiring
prestack depth
migration to image
its top and bottom.
The top surface is
white, the bottom
is gold. Imaging
overlapping salt
bodies, such as
those shown in this
figure, requires
additional itera-
tions in processing.
arrivals on CIP gathers. Then the velocities This set of techniques was used to image
are interpolated between control points and the salt and subsalt layers in a survey for
the full-volume velocity model is complete. Amoco in the southern North Sea gas basin.
The final step is to run a prestack depth Layers were interpreted on the Charisma
migration using the full-volume velocity seismic interpretation system, and their
model. Then individual cuts through the velocities were modeled on the KUDOS
migrated data volume can be displayed for workstation. The target layers were the
further interpretation. With the vertical axis Rotleigendes and Westphalian sands below
in depth, locations of interpreted features
can be communicated directly to engineers
to guide drilling and well location decisions.

Spring 1996 63
 Distance, m Distance, m
0 2250 4500 6750 0 2250 4500 6750
0

1200
Depth, m

2400

3600

Poststack Depth Migration Prestack Depth Migration

nComparison of poststack (left) and prestack (right) depth migration of the Amoco survey in the North Sea. Poststack migration
produces a broken image of the top and bottom of the Zechstein salt. Prestack migration better images reflections from the
salt boundaries, and brings subsalt layering into focus.

the Zechstein salt. Comparison of poststack
and prestack depth migration shows the
greater clarity of the prestack method in
focusing the top and bottom salt reflections
( above ). The prestack depth migration
shows a more sharply focused reflection off
the base of salt and more coherently imaged
subsalt strata than does the poststack migra-
tion, paving the way for more confident
interpretation of subsalt layers.
Algorithms for carrying out these classes
of migration have been known for some
time.9 But only in the past few years has
computer power grown sufficiently to allow
commercially acceptable turnaround for
prestack depth migration. Massively parallel
processors have brought the elapsed time
required to process a typical prestack
depth migration down to one montha ten-
fold improvement.10 In this case, typical
means an output volume of two to three off-
shore US blocks at 9 sq mile [23 km2] each.
Specialists estimate that creating an accu-
rate velocity model takes about a week for
each layer in the model. Velocities must be
accurate to within a couple percent to be
useful for guiding subsalt drilling.
Much work remains if subsalt reservoirs
are to be understood as fully as other, more
accessible fields. In general, even the most
carefully migrated subsalt images fail to
exhibit the same signal quality as sections
imaged in the absence of salt. Up to now,
nearly all subsalt features drilled and
labeled commercial successes have been
identified by structure rather than by ampli-
tude or other waveform attributes routinely
tracked by interpreters exploring above salt.
Another seismic technique, the borehole
seismic survey, offers subsalt information
unobtainable by other means.11 These sur-
veys, with receivers in the borehole, can
measure subsalt layer velocities with high
accuracy, map reflector locations and mea-
sure reflection amplitudes at the subsalt
reflectors. Some operators are using bore-
hole seismic survey results to update veloc-
ity models for reprocessing prestack depth
migrations.
An advance anticipated in the future is the
measurement of sonic velocities while
drilling, which can be related to seismic
layer velocities. Operators may be willing to
update seismic velocity models and repro-
cess 3D surveys to get a clearer image
before drilling deeper.
The future of subsalt exploration and
development promises as many technical
challenges as in the past. And beyond salt,
the same techniques hold the power to
image other complex features such as over-
thrust faults, reefs, recumbent folds and sed-
iments below high-velocity carbonates.
LS
9. Western PG and Ball GJ, reference 2.
10. The Geco-Prakla processing megacenter in Houston,
Texas, USA relies on a Connection Machine CM-5
with a 400-Gbyte disk and 512 processing nodes,
providing 64 Gigaflops of peak processing power.
11. For a review of borehole seismic applications:
Christie P, Dodds K, Ireson D, Johnston L, Rutherford
J, Schaffner J and Smith N: Borehole Seismic Data
Sharpen the Reservoir Image, Oilfield Review 7,
no. 4 (Winter 1995): 18-31.

64 Oilfield Review