Acta Physiol Plant (2017) 39:92

DOI 10.1007/s11738-017-2391-z

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Evaluation of malathion-induced cytogenetical effects

and oxidative stress in plants using Allium test
Divya Singh1 Bijoy Krishna Roy1

Received: 2 May 2016 / Revised: 2 March 2017 / Accepted: 5 March 2017

Franciszek Gorski Institute of Plant Physiology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow 2017

Abstract The present study emphasized to explore the malathion toxicity. According to the data on the malondi-
toxicity effect of malathion on plants using Allium test. aldehyde content show malathion to be capable of pro-
The experiments explored the mitotic inhibition, growth ducing superoxide radicals indirectly, and to result in
and activity of antioxidant enzymes in roots of Allium cepa membrane damage and oxidative stress.
at different concentrations (50, 125, 250 and 375 ppm) of
malathion under different exposure periods (3, 9 and 18 h). Keywords Malathion
Mitotic activities
Antioxidant
The results revealed that all concentrations of malathion enzymes
Allium cepa
were capable to decline the root growth. Malathion-in-
duced mitotic alterations varying from reduction in mitotic Abbreviations
index (MI), relative division rate (RDR) and phase distri- MI Mitotic index
bution along with large number of chromosomal aberra- RDR Relative division rate
tions. These changes were of varying degree depending on ROS Reactive oxygen species
the concentration and treatment period. The roots treated CB Chromosome break
with malathion (375 ppm) showed significant (p B 0.05) L Laggard
higher levels of superoxide dismutase and catalase than the NB Nuclear bud
control, while the activity of peroxidase was significantly BC Binucleated cell
(p B 0.05) low. At 375 ppm malathion, malondialdehyde MP Multipolarity
content was significantly high (p B 0.05) that was Dist Ana/Telo Disturbed anaphase/telophase
increased with the treatment period. Findings concluded FW Fresh weight
that variations in mitotic index, chromosomal aberrations, CAT Catalase
alterations in malondialdehyde content and activities of POX Peroxidase
antioxidant enzyme could serve as the useful indicators for SOD Superoxide dismutase
monitoring the effects of malathion exposures in the real
scenario. Superoxide dismutase and catalase enzyme play
vital roles in the antioxidant defence mechanisms under Introduction

Pesticides are widely used chemicals to protect crops

Communicated by E. Schleiff. against pests, which increases the agricultural yield. About
one third of the agricultural yields are produced using
& Bijoy Krishna Roy pesticides. In modern agricultural practices, pesticides have
bijoykrishnabotany12@gmail.com
so essential which continuous use for many years are
Divya Singh resulted in various environmental and health related prob-
divya.ds012@gmail.com
lems by interaction with biological systems that ends up
1
Laboratory of Cytogenetics, Department of Botany, Banaras with deleterious effects on plant growth, development and
Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India other metabolic activities (Sengupta et al. 1989; Pankratz

123
92 Page 2 of 10
et al. 2003). Some pesticides might undergo various
changes, and become more toxic. Mutagenic effect of some
pesticides has been reported in plants, animals and human
(Grigorenko and Larchenko 2000; Bolognesi 2003;
Amaroli et al. 2013).
Malathion [S-1,2-bis(ethoxycarbonyl)ethyl O,O-dime-
thyl phosphorodithioate] is one of the most used pesticides
in the world. In India, it accounts about 65% of all the
organophosphorus pesticides that is used to control mos-
quitoes, insects, flies and animal parasites. Malathion
affects the nervous system of insects and other living
organism by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase activity (Baj-
gar 2004; Bonner et al. 2007). Earlier reports show that
higher doses of malathion adversely affects physiology and
yield of Picea sitchensis (Straw et al. 1996). It also reduces
mitotic activity and induces chromosomal aberrations as
well as several other abnormalities such as irregular pro-
phase, micronuclei, chromatin material liquefaction
abnormalities, chromosome kinetic abnormalities and
structural aberrations in root-tips of Viccia faba (Adam
et al. 2014). However, continuous and injudicious use of
these pesticides may subject the living forms to their
chronic effects.
The pesticide induced oxidative stress attracted the
attention of researchers during the last decade. It is
reported that malathion metabolism produced reactive
oxygen species (ROS) that lead to oxidative stress (Mos-
tafalou et al. 2012). The ROS are byproduct of aerobic
metabolism and cause oxidative damage. The ROS damage
cellular processes by interacting with biomolecules, and
result in yield reduction along with plant growth, anoma-
lous developments, and ultimately the plant death. The
increased ROS level interacts with cell membrane causing
peroxidation of membrane lipids. Lipid peroxidation is
highly destructive process that alters the structure and
physiological function of cell membranes by oxidation of
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). PUFAs destruction
causes loss of fluidity and secretory functions of the cell
membrane. Further oxidation of PUFAs initiate new chain
by producing lipid hydroperoxides that disintegrate to form
new free radicals and a wide variety of compounds espe-
cially aldehydes (malondialdehyde, crotonaldehyde and
acrolein). Products of lipid peroxidation may also form
exocyclic DNA adducts (Tuteja et al. 2009). Malondi-
aldehyde (MDA) is a byproduct of PUFA oxidation widely
used as the important indicators to measure lipid peroxi-
dation (Sharma et al. 2012).
Plants have several mechanisms to alleviate detrimental
effects of ROS. The antioxidant defence system is one of
the protective mechanism of plants that constitutes non-
enzymatic and enzymatic components. The enzymatic
components include antioxidant enzymes, e.g., catalase
(CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidases
123
Acta Physiol Plant (2017) 39:92
(POX). Generally, SOD regulates intracellular concentra-
tions of superoxide radical (O
- 2 ) by converting it into
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The removal of H2O2 is
implicated by catalase and peroxidase. Catalase converts
H2O2 into oxygen (O2) and water, whereas the excessive
H2O2 is detoxified by peroxidases that generate hydroxyl
radical (OH
) from O
- 2 and H2O2 (Sharma et al. 2012).
Therefore, activities of antioxidant enzyme and lipid per-
oxidation serve as important indicator for exploring the
resistance potential of plants under stress conditions.
Allium cepa has been found to be excellent indicator
target for environmental monitoring with many privileges
such as short test time, low cost, ease of handling and large
size of the chromosomes for the study of chromosome
aberrations (Leme and Marin-Morales 2009). In the past,
Allium test lacked general acceptance because plant system
is characteristically different from animal system. How-
ever, the recent studies show that almost similar genetic
abnormalities are induced by specific chemicals in both
animal and plant systems (Teixeira et al. 2003).
The objective of the present work was to study the
effects of malathion on the mitotic activity, growth and
antioxidant system in A. cepa (L.) in order for elucidating
the roles of oxidative stress during malathion-induced
toxicity.
Materials and methods
Plant material and treatments
The bulbs of A. cepa L. (2n = 16) were procured from
local market. For morphological changes like growth,
bulbs were germinated primarily in a tank containing sand,
and 23 cm long seedlings were transferred in containers
having different concentrations (50, 125, 250 and
375 ppm) of malathion in Hoaglands nutrient solution
(Stephan and Prochazka 1989). Hoaglands nutrient solu-
tion without malathion was used as control. The roots of
twelve bulbs from each treatment were measured and
recorded after 72 h. A graph was plotted between root
length and concentrations by taking 100% root length in
control as standard. The point showing 50% growth was
interpreted as effective concentration (EC50).
For cytological and physiological studies, bulbs were
grown in sand for 4 days. Then, the seedlings were trans-
ferred into 50, 125, 250 and 375 ppm malathion solutions
for 3, 9 and 18 h. Cytological preparations were carried out
by fixation of roots in a mixture of glacial acetic acid and
ethanol (1:3). After hydrolysis in 1 N HCl (5 min), root
tips (1 mm) were washed and stained with 2% aceto-
carmine (Misk et al. 2014). Mitotic index was expressed in
percentage by counting cells of different mitotic phases in
Acta Physiol Plant (2017) 39:92
total number of cells (*1000 cells per slide). Mitotic
phases were also expressed as percentage of total number
of cells. Chromosomal aberrations were recorded as
stickiness, fragments, c-mitosis, laggards, bridges, binu-
cleated cells, disturbed anaphase/telophase, multipolarity
and nuclear buds, and represented as percentage of dividing
cells. The relative division rate (RDR) was enumerated
using the method of Hoda et al. (1991).
Lipid peroxidation was determined by slightly modified
method of Dhindsa et al. (1981) and expressed as malon-
dialdehyde (MDA) content. About 0.6 g of roots were
homogenized in 3 mL reaction mixture (0.5% thiobarbi-
turic acid and 20% trichloroacetic acid). The homogenate
was placed in water bath at 95 C (30 min) and cooled it in
ice immediately. After centrifugation at 10,0009g for
10 min the absorbance was recorded at 532 and 600 nm.
The correction of turbidity was done by subtracting
absorbance at 600 nm. The MDA content was appraised
(e = 155 mM-1 cm-1) and expressed as nmol g-1 FW.
SOD activity was assessed by scanning the inhibition of
photochemical reduction of nitroblue tetrazolium chloride
(NBT) (Fridovich 1974). About 1 g roots were homoge-
nized in 2 mL 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.8)
containing 1% Triton X-100, 1% polyvinylpyrrolidone
(PVP), 3 mM ethylenediamine-tetra acetic acid (EDTA)
and centrifuged at 15,0009g for 20 min (4 C). The
supernatant was used for determination of enzyme activity.
The 3 mL reaction mixture was made of 1.5 M sodium
carbonate, 3 mM EDTA, 0.2 M methionine, 2.25 mM
NBT, 2 lM riboflavin, 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer (pH
7.8), 300 lL enzyme extract and deionized water. The
reaction was started by keeping tubes below 40 W fluo-
rescent mercury tube for 10 min at room temperature, and
terminated by placing tubes in dark. The absorbance was
recorded at 560 nm. One unit of SOD activity was defined
as the amount of enzyme that was required to inhibit 50%
NBT photoreduction. SOD activity was expressed as unit
g-1 FW.
POX activity was determined by the modified method of
Britton and Mehley (1955). Roots (1 g), ground in 2 mL
0.1 M phosphate buffer containing 5 mM cysteine (pH
6.8), was centrifuged at 15,0009g for 20 min (4 C). The
supernatant was used for the enzyme assay. The 5 mL
reaction mixture consisting of 50 mM H2O2, 50 mM
pyrogallol, 125 mM phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) and 1 mL
enzyme extract, was incubated at 25 C for 5 min. The
reaction was stopped by adding 5% H2SO4. The absor-
bance was observed at 420 nm. The enzyme activity was
expressed as lmol purpurogallin formed g-1 FW.
CAT activity was estimated by monitoring the initial
rate of degradation of H2O2 (Aebi 1984). About 1 g roots
were homogenized in 0.05 M TrisHCl buffer (pH 8.0)
containing 0.5 mM EDTA and 2% PVP. The homogenate
Page 3 of 10 92
was centrifuged at 15,0009g for 20 min (4 C) and
supernatant was used for assay. The 3 mL reaction mixture
was consisted of 0.05 M sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0),
0.01 M H2O2 (800 lL) and 200 lL enzyme extract. The
CAT activity was assayed by measuring the decrease in
absorbance at 240 nm for 60 s (e = 0.036 mM-1 cm-1)
and expressed in mM of H2O2 utilized min-1 g-1 FW.
Statistical analysis
All experiments were recited thrice and pooled data were
tabulated as averaged SD. The software (SPSS 16.0)
was used to test significance at p B 0.05 by one-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Dunnet t test.
Results
The retarded root growth serves as monitor for malathion
toxicity. Although, the increasing concentration decreased
the root length. The effective concentration (EC50) for root
growth was found at 250 ppm, whereas the stronger inhi-
bition of root growth was observed at 375 ppm (Fig. 1).
The malathion effect on mitotic index (MI) was varied
with concentration and treatment period. The results elu-
cidated that the increased malathion concentration along
with treatment periods decline the mitotic activity
(Table 1). The highest concentration (375 ppm) for 18 h
treatment induced lower MI (3.41%) than the control
(10.96%). The analysis of results showed great alterations
in the distribution of mitotic phases during malathion
treatment. The prophase frequency was significantly
(p B 0.05) decreased in malathion treated roots than the
control. It reached the minimum frequency (45.13%) at
375 ppm after 18 h treatment in comparison to control
(52.29%). On contrary, the frequency of metaphase
increased moderately and reached a maximum of 30.55%
at 375 ppm after 18 h treatment in comparison with control
(22.16%). However, the frequency of anaphase was
decreased with increasing concentration and treatment
time, and the minimum value (12.31%) was observed at
375 ppm after 18 h treatment. Whereas the frequency of
telophase increased moderately and reached the maximum
(12.01%) at 375 ppm after 18 h treatment in comparison
with control (8.33%) (Fig. 2).
The relative division rate (RDR) was used to determine
intensity of mitotic inhibition. The RDR values were negative
at each concentration and treatment period. The minimum
RDR value was observed at 375 ppm (after 18 h treatment),
while the maximum was recorded at 50 ppm after 3 h treat-
ment in comparison to the other concentrations.
Observations of cells under light microscope showed
various mitotic abnormalities in treated cells. The
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Fig. 1 Effect of malathion

concentrations on root length of
Allium cepa. The values are
statistically significant at
p B 0.05

Table 1 Chromosomal aberrations induced by different concentrations of malathion at different time periods
Concentration Total MI (%) SD RDR Chromosomal aberrations
(ppm) cell (%)
Bridge Stickiness CB NB BC c- MP Dist Mean
and L mitosis Ana/ aberration SD
Telo

Treatment period: 3 h
0 3059 11.57 0.87b* 0.21 0.21 0.32ac
50 3046 10.67 1.88bc -1.02 1.33 1.33 0.21 2.87 0.43d
125 3032 9.50 1.61cd -2.34 1.67 1.67 0.67 0.33 1.33 5.67 0.89c**
250 3095 7.24 1.30b -4.90 2.33 1.00 1.00 0.33 1.33 1.67 1.67 9.67 0.91bc
375 3061 4.31 1.25ac* -8.21 2.33 1.67 2.00 0.67 0.33 1.67 2.00 2.67 13.21 1.36a
Treatment period: 9 h
0 3096 11.21 1.07ab 0.33 0.33 0.18bc*
50 3036 9.81 1.23a** -1.58 2.00 2.33 0.33 0.21 0.67 6.21 1.04c
125 3049 9.03 0.92d -2.45 2.33 3.00 1.00 1.67 3.33 11.33 0.46bd
250 3012 6.94 1.06c -4.81 3.00 2.00 2.21 1.33 0.33 2.00 2.00 2.21 15.08 0.73c
375 3106 3.99 0.99bc* -8.13 3.33 2.21 3.00 1.67 1.00 1.67 2.21 3.67 18.76 0.38b
Treatment period: 18 h
0 3145 10.96 1.11a 0.21 0.21 0.12a
50 3057 9.54 0.81b -1.59 2.67 2.33 0.67 1.00 1.00 7.67 0.49ac
125 3032 8.97 1.21ab -2.22 3.00 3.21 1.21 2.00 3.67 13.09 0.52d
250 3076 7.24 2.27c -4.18 3.33 2.21 2.67 2.00 0.67 2.21 2.21 2.67 17.97 1.75c
375 3089 3.61 1.25bc** -8.25 3.33 2.67 2.67 1.67 1.33 2.33 2.33 3.67 20.00 1.19bd
The values were significant at p B 0.05, *p B 0.01 and **p B 0.001 as compared to control. Means with the same letters do not significantly
differ at 0.05 level (Dunnett t test)
SD standard deviation, CB chromosome break, L laggard, NB nuclear bud, BC binucleated cell, MP multipolarity, Dist Ana/Telo disturbed
anaphase/telophase

chromosomal abnormalities increased with increasing
malathion concentration and treatment period, and reached
maximum (20%) at 375 ppm after 18 h treatment. All the
malathion concentrations induced various types of chro-
mosomal abnormalities. Among them, bridges and sticki-
ness were the most frequently observed ones, although
binucleated cells and nuclear buds were not observed in all
the concentrations (Fig. 3).
The concentration of MDA in roots treated with
malathion (50375 ppm) increased significantly (p B
0.05) during 318 h treatment. The levels of MDA in
roots treated with 125375 ppm malathion were high
significantly (p B 0.05) in comparison to the group
exposed to 50 ppm malathion. The 1.3-fold of MDA
level was increased at 375 ppm after 18 h treatment in
comparison to control (Fig. 4).

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Acta Physiol Plant (2017) 39:92 Page 5 of 10 92

Fig. 2 Index rates of mitotic

phases in root tip cells of Allium
cepa after 318 h exposure to
different concentrations of
malathion a prophase index,
b metaphase index, c anaphase
index, d telophase index. The
values are statistically
significant at p B 0.05

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92 Page 6 of 10 Acta Physiol Plant (2017) 39:92

Fig. 3 Different chromosomal aberrations induced by malathion in root tips of Allium cepa a bridges, b stickiness, c chromosome break,
d laggard, e nuclear bud, f binucleated cell, g c-mitosis, h multipolarity, i disturbed anaphase, j disturbed telophase

Fig. 4 Content of
malondialdehyde (MDA) in
roots of Allium cepa after
318 h exposure to different
concentrations of malathion.
The values are statistically
significant at p B 0.05

The levels of SOD in roots treated with 50375 ppm
malathion during the entire treatment were significantly
(p B 0.05) higher than the control. The SOD activities in roots
exposed to 125375 ppm malathion were high significantly
(p B 0.05) in comparison to the group treated with 50 ppm.
The level of SOD in the roots exposed to 375 ppm was 2.5-fold
higher than the control after 18 h of treatment (Fig. 5).
On contrary, the POX activity decreased significantly
(p B 0.05) and to be minimum in roots at 375 ppm mala-
thion during the entire treatment in comparison to the
control and group exposed to 50 ppm malathion. The
lowest POX activity was recorded in roots treated with
375 ppm malathion (after 18 h) that decreased by 1.4-fold
in comparison to control (Fig. 6).
A significant (p B 0.05) increase in the activity of CAT
was recorded in roots exposed to 50375 ppm malathion
compared with the control. The highest CAT activity was
observed in roots treated with 375 ppm malathion after
18 h treatment (Fig. 7).
Discussion
In the modern agriculture, higher plants are being used as
test system to determine the environmental pollution
resulting from the implementation of pesticides. The
bioassay tests for determination of cytotoxicity and geno-
toxicity of pesticides applied to Tradescantia paludosa, V.

123
Acta Physiol Plant (2017) 39:92 Page 7 of 10 92

Fig. 5 Superoxide dismutase

(SOD) activity in roots of
Allium cepa after 318 h
exposure to different
concentrations of malathion.
The values are statistically
significant at p B 0.05

Fig. 6 Peroxidase (POX)

activity in roots of Allium cepa
after 318 h exposure to
different concentrations of
malathion. The values are
statically statistically at
p B 0.05

Fig. 7 Catalase (CAT) activity

in roots of Allium cepa after
318 h exposure to different
concentrations of malathion.
The values are statistically
significant at p B 0.05

faba and A. cepa have established very good correlations
with the bacterial and mammalian system (Gopalan 1999;
O zkara et al. 2015). Roots are the most delicate and
accomplishable part to malathion toxicity and inhibition of
root growth has been used as one of the primitive mani-
festation of malathion toxicity. The present study revealed
significant (p B 0.05) inhibition of growth in A. cepa roots
exposed to malathion. This inhibition was usually associ-
ated with the apical meristem activity (Webster and
MacLeod 1996), and cell elongation (Fusconi et al. 2006).
Similar inhibitory effects on growth of Brassica chinensis
with other organochlorine insecticides were reported by
Chouychai (2012). It has been reported that malathion also
reduced the growth rate in the cyanobacterium Anabaena
variabilis (Ningthoujam et al. 2013).
The mitotic index is a predictable criterion to enumerate
the frequency of cellular division (Fernandes et al. 2007).
The concentration and time-dependent inhibition of MI
described cytotoxic potentiality of malathion. It has been
seem that the reduction in MI was effect of organophos-
phorous pesticides (Lamsal et al. 2010; O zkara et al. 2015).
The reduction in MI indicates the insecticide interference
in the regular process of cell division. However, the mitotic
inhibitions by the pesticide, are remarkably associated with
the inhibition of protein synthesis, DNA synthesis or
blocking of G1 or G2 phase (Majewska et al. 2003). In
addition, the disturbances of ROS homeostasis also altered
mitosis and cytokinesis in plants (Livanos et al. 2012).
Malathion application changes the frequencies in four
different mitotic phases. The decreasing prophase index

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92 Page 8 of 10
indicates that malathion was active in obstructing the onset
of mitosis by preventing the interphase cells to enter pro-
phase (Soliman and Ghoneam 2004). However, the
increase in metaphase index may be due to the action of the
pesticide on the spindle that resulted in the arrest of divi-
sion at this stage. This abnormal behaviour of spindle also
affected metaphase to anaphase transition that resulted in
the decreased anaphase index. The increasing telophase
index may be a result of delay in the completion of mitotic
cycle (Rangaswamy et al. 1981). Some studies demon-
strated that the ROS imbalance caused interruption in
prophase transition, affected movement of chromosome,
and nuclear envelop dynamics (Foreman et al. 2003; Singh
et al. 2016).
Various types of chromosomal abnormalities were
monitored in malathion treated roots. Chromosome break,
laggard, stickiness, bridges, and the disturbed anaphase
telophase are comprised the major chromosomal aberra-
tions. Other anomalies like multipolarity, c-mitosis, nuclear
buds and binucleated cells were also valuated in the current
study. Pesticide induced chromosomal aberrations and
inhibition of mitotic division have been reported in both
plants and animals (Sivikova and Dianovsky` 2006; Teer-
arak et al. 2011). Stickiness indicates toxic, usually irre-
versible effects on chromosomes (Fiskesjo and Levan
1993). The reason may be the depolymerization of DNA
and sub-chromatid linkage between chromosomes which
produce sticky chromosomes (Darlington and Mc-Leish
1951; Liman et al. 2010). Bridges intimate the clastogenic
effect caused by stickiness, unequal chromatid exchange,
fusion and breakage of chromosomes (El-Ghamery et al.
2000; Luo et al. 2004). The appearance of nuclear bud
indicates loss of genetic materials. Besides that nuclear
buds are joined with nucleus showing morphological
association with micronuclei (Ruan et al. 1992; Fenech
et al. 2011). Other chromosomal anomalies like c-mitosis,
binucleated cells and disturbed anaphase-telophase were
also recorded in this study. Binucleated cells may originate
during the prevention of cytokinesis in cell cycle (Ateeq
et al. 2002). Laggards, c-mitosis, and disturbed anaphase
telophase might be results of deformation of spindle
structure or disturbed microtubules (Haliem 1990; Fiskesjo
1993; Bhat et al. 2007). These findings are in agreement
with the reports of other pesticides/insecticides includ-
ing anilofos (O zkara et al. 2015), dichlorvos (Eroglu
2011), chlorpyrifos, alpha-thrin, springbok (Asita and
Makhalemele 2008), and cypermethrin (Saxena et al.
2005).
As the normal physiological respond, plants generate
oxidative stress instantly under stressful conditions that
leads to activate antioxidant defence system and the
expression of relevant enzymes (Allen 1995). The result
showed enhancement in SOD activity upon increasing
123
Acta Physiol Plant (2017) 39:92
concentration of malathion and treatment period. At low
doses of malathion, the increased SOD activity indicates
activation of enzymatic antioxidant. The POX activity was
decreased while CAT activity was increased as the mala-
thion treatment increased. It has been well known that
SOD, POX and CAT are key enzymatic antioxidants in
plants that play important role in impeding the oxidative
stress. The SOD catalyzes O
- 2 to generate H2O2 and O2. In
the meantime, CAT and POX are required to catalyze
reduction of H2O2 (Wang et al. 2014). The result suggests
that the decrease in POX activity in A. cepa roots pointed
towards the damage of plant capability to manage oxidative
stress under high levels of malathion. Consequently, SOD
and CAT enzymes are less sensitive to malathion than
POX. A similar response was observed under some her-
bicides treatment in wheat (Jiang et al. 2010), rice (Jung
et al. 2008), and soybean (Moldes et al. 2008).
MDA formation acts as an indicator of lipid peroxida-
tion resulting from ROS action. The results revealed that
the intensity of lipid peroxidation was not severe for roots
exposed to 50 ppm malathion, indicating that the ROS was
likely removed by the high levels of antioxidant enzymes
(SOD and CAT). The high MDA content in roots exposed
to 375 ppm malathion during treatments indicated a serious
imbalance between ROS production and antioxidative
protection that increased lipid peroxidation and oxidative
stress (O zdemir et al. 2004).
In conclusion, the present study revealed that the
malathion induces mitodepressive and genotoxic effects to
A. cepa roots that is indicated by reduction in MI and
induced chromosomal abnormalities. The initiation of
cytotoxic and genotoxic effects may be related with the
formation of MDA. At the early stage of high malathion
concentration, roots could swiftly activate antioxidant
defence system to combat the malathion-induced oxidative
stress. However, enzyme expression at the gene level and
degradation studies by detecting the intermediate com-
pounds in the metabolism, are the issues for future studies.
Author contribution statement BKR designed the
work. DS conducted experiments, analyzed the data and
wrote the paper. All the authors approved the manuscript in
its final form.
Acknowledgements We are thankful to University Grants Com-
mission for financial support. The authors also thank the Department
of Botany Banaras Hindu University, India for providing the neces-
sary facilities.
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